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SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY 
TREASURY. 


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* THE 

SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY 

TREASURY. 

BY ' ‘ 

1 

SAMUEL M AtrNHEB 

AUTHOR OF 

TnE TREASURY OF KNOWLEDGE,’ ‘BIOGRAPHICAL TREASURY,’ ETC. ETO. 


THOROUGHLY REVISED AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, WITH 
UPWARDS OP ONE THOUSAND NEW ARTICLES 


rli 


BY 


JAMES YATE JOHNSON 

Cor. M.Z. S. 

NEW EDITION 

LONDON 

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO, 

1872 












+' 14 >5 rJ ' 




PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION 

* -K>«- 

The radical revision which the present edition of the Literary and Scientific 
Treasury has undergone, will be understood when it is stated that not only have 
all the important articles been rewritten, but upwards of a thousand new articles 
have been inserted. So large, in fact, have been the alterations that it may be con¬ 
sidered rather a new book than a new edition. 

An attempt has been made to impress upon the work a more exact and scientific 
character than preceding editions pretended to, whilst its utility as a dictionary 
for popular reference has been steadily kept in view. 

J. Y. J. 

London : 1866. 














tiie 


SCIENTIFIC AND 


LITERARY TREASURY. 


A ABACUS 


A Is the first letter, and the first vowel, of 
the alphabet in every known language, 
except the Amaric, a dialect of the Ethiopic, 
and the Runic; and is used either as a word, 
an abbreviation, or a sign. If pronounced 
open, as. in father, it is the simplest and 
easiest of all sounds; the first, in fact, 
uttered by human l^eings in their most in¬ 
fantile state, serving to express many and 
even opposite emotions, according to the 
mode in which it is uttered. A has there¬ 
fore, perhaps, had the first place in the 
alphabet assigned to it. In the English 
language, it has four different sounds 
the long slender English, as in fate ; the 
long Italian, as in far ; the broad German, 
as in fall ; and the short Italian, as in fat. 
Most other modern languages want the 
slender English sound. Among the Greeks 
and Romans, A was used as an arithmetical 
sign : by the former for 1; by the latter for 
500, or, with a stroke over it, for 5000. The 
Romans employed it very frequently as an 
abbreviation also, which practice we still 
retain: thus A.B. Artium Baccalaureus, Ba¬ 
chelor of Arts; A.C. Ante Christum, before 
Christ; A.D. Anno Domini, in the year of our 
Lord; A.H. Anno Hegira;, in the year of the 
Hegira; A.M. Anno Mundi, in the year of the 
world; Ante Meridiem, before noon; Artium 
Magister, Master of Arts; A.U. Anno Urbis, 
in the year of the City; A.U.C. Anno Urbis 
Conditce, in the year from the building of 
Rome; &c.-A, a, or aa, in Medical pre¬ 

scriptions, is put for ana, or equal parts of 

each.-A, in Music, is the sixth note in 

the diatonic scale ; in Algebraic notation it 
usually denotes, like the other early letters 
of the alphabet, a known quantity; in Logic, 
an universal affirmative proposition; in 
Heraldry, the dexter chief, or chief point in 
an escutcheon; and it is the first of the 
dominical letters in the calendar. 

AARD'VARK (earth-hog: Dut.), the Oryo 
teropus Capensis, an animal common in 
Southern Africa, which feeds entirely upon 
ants, and is remarkable for the facility with 
which it burrows deep in the earth to avoid 
its pursuers, and for the instinct it dis¬ 
plays in securing its insect prey. It bears 
a closer relation to the armadillos than the 
ant-eaters, with which it was formerly asso- 
ci^tedt 

AB, in the Hebrew calendar, the llth 


month of the civil year, and the 5th of the 
ecclesiastical. In the Syriac calendar, it is 
the last of the summer months. 

A'BACA, orManilla Hemp [see MusACEiE, 
Fibres]. 

ABACIS'CUS ( abakislcos, the dim. of 
abax, a slab: Gr.), in Ancient Architecture, 
one of the square compartments of Mosaic 
pavements. 

ABACK', in Nautical language, the posi¬ 
tion of the sails when they are flattened 
against the mast by a change of wind or 
alteration in the ship’s course. The sails 
are sometimes laid aback, for the purpose 
of avoiding a sudden danger. 

A'BACUS (abax, a slab: Gr.), a sort of cup 
board or buffet used by the Romans, and 
which in times of great luxury was plated 

with gold.- Abacus, in Architecture, the 

superior or crowning member of the capital 
of a column. It is intended to give breadth 
to the top of the shaft, and afford a larger 
surface for the reception of the architrave. 
In the Corinthian order, at least, it was at 
first intended to represent a square tile laid 
over a basket; and it still retains its ori¬ 
ginal form in the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic 
orders, but in the Corinthian and Compo¬ 
site, its four sides or faces are arched in¬ 
wards, having a rose or some other ornament 
in the middle of the curves, and its corners 

are cut off.- Abacus, in Arithmetic, an 

ancient instrument for facilitating ope¬ 
rations : still used in teaching. Its form is 
various : that employed by the Greeks was 
an oblong frame-, naving wires stretched 
across it, and perforated beads or ivory 
balls were strung on the wires. In that 
used by the Romans, counters were slid 
along grooves. But that most generally 
adopted in Europe, is made by drawing 
parallel lines or fixing wires, distant from 
each other at least twice the diameter of a 
counter or ball. The latter, placed on the 
lowest line, signifies 1; on the second, 10; 
on the third, 100; on the fourth, 1000; and so 
on. The Chinese abacus, termed a Swan-pan, 
has wires like that of the Greeks. The aba¬ 
cus was much used in Europe during the 
middle ages : but, instead of lines or wires, 
it had a covering of cloth chequered, that 
is, disposed in squares; and on these the 
counters were placed. The term Exchequer 
is derived from the use of this chequered 
B 


I V 













abaft] 


QL\)z mitt 


square in calculation. The very words 
employed in Greek and Latin to express 
calculation indicate the means anciently 
used in aid of that process. Psephizo, I calcu¬ 
late (Gr.), is derived from psephos, a pebble; 
and calculo, I calculate (Lat.), from calculus, 
a pebble. There were also other inventions 
similarly denominated: thus the Abacus 
Pythagoricus, a multiplication table in¬ 
vented by Pythagoras; and the abacus Lo- 
GiSTicus.arec.tangled triangle,whose sides, 
forming the right angle, contain all the 
numbers from 1 to 60, and its area the pro¬ 
ducts of each two of the opposite numbers. 
This is also called a canon of sexagesimals. 
• —Abacus (abak, sand : Phcen among 
ancient mathematicians,was a table strewed 
over with dust or sand, on which they drew 
their figures. 

ABAFT', or AFT, in Nautical language, 
towards the stern: thus, abaft the main 
mast means, between the mainmast and the 
stern. 

ABATE'MENT ( abatlre , to pull down: Fr.), 
in Law, a term variously applied. The 
abatement of a nuisance means its forcible 

removal.-A plea in abatement in an 

action at law, is a plea showing matter fox- 
quashing the declaration.-A suit in chan¬ 

cery is said to abate when, in consequence 
of some event subsequent to its institu¬ 
tion, such as the death of a party whose 
interest is not terminated by his death, 
there is no person before the court by 
whom or against whom the suit can be 
prosecuted.— Abatement, in Heraldry, 
something added to a coat of arms, in order 
to lessen its true dignity, and point out some 
imperfection or stain in the character of 
the person who bears it. The Baston, which 
indicates bastardy, is the only abatement 
now used. It consists of a line drawn from 
the left or sinister corner of the top of the 
shield, to the lower part of the opposite side, 
but not quite down to the circumference; 
it is therefore part of a Bend-sinister. 

A'BATIS (Fr.), trees cut down and laid 
with their branches turned towards the 
enemy, so as to form a defence for troops 
stationed behind them. 

ABAT'TOIlt (abattre, to knock down : Fr.), 
the name given by the French to the public 
slaughter-houses established in Paris by a 
decree of Napoleon, in order that the cattle 
should not be driven through the capital, to 
the annoyance and danger of the inhabi¬ 
tants. These large buildings consist of 
slauglitex-rooms, built of stone, with every 
arrangement for cleanliness, &c., and of ox 
and sheep pens. 

AB'BE' (an abbot: Fr.). Before the Fi-ench 
Hevolution, the term abbe designated a very 
numerous class, who, from their name, 
should be superiors of abbeys, but who had 
little or no connection with the church : 
they followed a course of theological study, 
in hopes that the king would confer on 
them part of the revenues of a monastery. 
When this was done, it was on condition of 
their takingorders within a year after their 
preferment : a clause not always observed. 
They were engaged in every kind of lite¬ 
rary occupation, and exerted an important 
Influence on the character of the country. 


There was scarcely a family of distinction 
in France in which an abbe was not found 
as a familiar friend and spiritual adviser. 

AB'BESS, the superior of a nunnery, or 
other i-eligious community of women. She 
has the same authority as an abbot, but can¬ 
not exercise any spiritual function. 

AB'BEY (abbaie: Fr.), a religious house 
governed by a superior, under the title of an 
abbot or abbess. The term was often applied, 
also, to the church attached to the estab¬ 
lishment. Many of the abbeys of England, 
after their dissolution under Henry VIII., 
were changed into cathedrals. Those dis¬ 
solved by that king had a yearly revenue, 
which has been estimated at 2,853,0001.; an 
almost incredible sum, considei-ing the 
value of money in those days. 

AB'BOT (abbas : Lat.; from abba, father : 
Ileb.) denotes the head of a monastery of 
men. From an early period abbots were in 
the habit of taking holy oi'ders, that they 
might be qualified to exercise the ministe¬ 
rial office for the monks. Strictly speaking, 
an abbot should be superior to a prior, the 
latter being in many cases appointed by the 
former to take charge of a lesser establish¬ 
ment. But the distinction is not always 
obseiwed. Abbots, though having supreme 
power in their monasteries, were originally 
subject to the bishops of the dioceses in 
which their convents were situated; but 
they gradually, to a great extent, threw off 
this subjection, assuming the authority and 
insignia of the episcopal office, and taking 
their seats in councils: hence the mitred 
and croziered abbots. Anciently the cere¬ 
mony of creating, an abbot consisted in 
clothing him with the habit called cuculla, 
or cowl, putting the pastoral staff into his 
hand, and the shoes called pedales on his 
feet; but at present it is only a simple be¬ 
nediction.-It was because certain ab¬ 

bots and priors in England, in right of 
their monasteries, held lands of the crown, 
for which they owed military sex-vice, that 
they obtained the title of lords, and were 
summoned, as barons, to parliament. 
Twenty-six mitred abbots and two priors 
sat in the House of Lords in the l-eign of 
Henry VI11. 

ABBREVIATION (abbreviatio, fi-om ab- 
brevio, I shorten: Lat.), a contracted man¬ 
ner of writing words so as to retain, in 
most cases, no more than the initial letters. 
Such abbreviations were in common use 
with the Homans, as they are with us, to 
save time and space. [For the most usual 
abbreviations, see the different letters.] 

-Abbreviation, in Music. One dash 

through the stem of a minim or crotchet, 
or under a semibreve, converts it into as 
many quavers as it is equal to in time; two 
dashes into semiquavers; three into demi- 
semiquavers; aud so on. When minims 
are connected together like quavers, semi¬ 
quavers, &c., they are to be repeated as 
many times as if they were reduced to such 
notes. An oblique dash through the 2nd, 
3x-d, and 4tli lines after an arpeggio, signi’ 
fies that it is to be i-epeated; for quavers, a 
single dash being used; for semiquavers, a 
double one; and so on. 

ABDIOA'TION (abdicatio, from abdico, I 









3 SLttararg 


abdicate: Lat.), strictly speaking, is the 
resignation of a dignity, particularly a regal 

one.-The abdication of the emperor 

Charles V., in 1556, and that of Napoleon at 
Fontainebleau, in 1814, are the two most re¬ 
markable instances of abdication in modern 
times. . 

ABDO'MEN (Lat, from abdo, I conceal: 
Lat.), that part of the body which is usually 
called the belly. It contains the viscera 
more or less immediately connected with 
digestion, and the kidneys which secrete 
the urine. By anatomists the abdomen is 
divided into three anterior regions, viz. the 
epigastric, or upper one; the umbilical, or 
middle one; and the hypogastric, or lower 
one: there is also one posterior region, 
called the regio lumbaris. 

ABDOMINA'LES ( abdomen, the belly: 
Lat.), a sub-order of malacopterygian fishes, 
so named from having the ventral fins 
placed on the abdomen at a distance from 
the pectoral fins. The salmon, trout, her¬ 
ring, pike, carp, and many other freshwater 
fishes, fall into this sub-order. 

ABDUC'TION ( abditco, I lead away: Lat.), 
the crime of unlawfully taking away, either 
by force, fraud, or persuasion, the person 
of another. The abduction of a child under 
ten years of age is felony; if she is older, 
but lias property, or is presumed to be en¬ 
titled to it, and is taken away for the purpose 
of marriage or defilement, it is also felony ; 
if she is under sixteen years of age, taking 
her from the protection of her parents is a 
misdemeanour. 

ABDUC'TOR (same deriv.), in Anatomy, 
a name given to several muscles, on ac¬ 
count of their serving to open or draw 
backwards the parts into which they are 

inserted. 

ABE'LIANS, or A'BELITES, a Christian 
sect, who, while they enjoined matrimony, 
prescribed perfect continence in that state, 
after the pretended example of Abel, 
whence the name. 

ABELMOS'CHUS, the seed of an Egyptian 
plant, nat. order Malvacece, which resembles 
musk in its perfume, and is used by the 
Arabians in their coffee. 

A'BER, a Celtic term, signifying the 
mouth of a river: as Aberdeen, the mouth 
of the Dee. 

ABERRA'TION ( aberratio, from aberro, I 
wander away: Lat.), in Astronomy, an ap¬ 
parent motion of the fixed stars occasioned 
by the progressive motion of light and the 
motion of theearth in its orbit. If the earth 
were at rest, or if light travelled instanta¬ 
neously from a star to tjie observer, the star 
would be seen in its true place. But neither 
is the case; for while the ray of light is 
passing to the observer, the earth is moving 
in its orbit. The effect of this is the same 
as if the ray obeyed two impulses making 
an angle with each other, one in a direction 
from the star to the observer, and the other 
in a direction opposite to the earth’s motion 
on its axis; in which case, according to 
the ordinary mechanical laws, the result 
would be the same as that of an impulse in 
the direction of neither of the original im¬ 
pulses, but compounded of both, and the ray 
would seem to come from a place different 


Crsatfurj). L AB0MASXJS 


from that really occupied by the star.- 

Aberration, in Optics, a deviation of the 
rays of light when refracted by a lens or 
reflected by a speculum, iu consequence of 
which they are prevented from meeting in 
the same point. Aberrations are of two 
kinds, one arising from the figure of the re¬ 
flecting or refracting body, the other from 
the unequal refrangibility of the different 
coloured rays which, united together, con¬ 
stitute white light, and which, being sepa¬ 
rated by the lens, give rise to the produc¬ 
tion of colours. 

ABET'TOR ( abedan, to incite. Sax., , in 
Law, a person who advises or encourages ! 
another to the commission of a crime. If 
present at its perpetration, he is treated as 
a principal; if absent, as an accessory before 
the fact. The abettors of almost all felonies, 
whether present or absent, are considered 
as guilty as the actual felon. [See Acces¬ 
sory.] 

ABE'YANCE ( beyer, to expect: Nona. 
Fr.), in Law, the expectancy of an estate or 
possession: thus, if lands be granted to oue 
person for life, with reversion to the heirs 
of another, the reversion remains in abey¬ 
ance until the death of that other, since a 
living person can have no heirs. A peerage 
descending to co-heiresses is in abeyance. 

It is a fixed principle of law, that the fee- 
simple of all lands is in somebody, or else 
in abeyance. 

AB'IB (an ear of corn : Ileb.), the first 
month of the Hebrew ecclesiastical year. 

It contains parts of our March and April. 
The Chaldee name of Nisan is now usually 
given to this month. 

A'BIES (a fir-tree: Lat), in Botany, a 
genus of coniferous trees, including several 
species of fir. 

ABJURA'TION ( abjuro , I deny on oath : 
Lat.), a forswearing or renouncing by oath. 
In old law, it signified a sworn banishment, 
or an oath taken to forsake the realm for 
ever: in its modern and now more usual 
signification, it applies to persons and doc¬ 
trines only. 

ABLACTA'TION ( ablacto, I wean : Lat.), 
a sort of ingrafting of trees, in which the 
graft is left on its proper stock until it 
is fully incorporated with the new stock ; 
when cut off, it is, as it were, weaned from 
tlio tree. 

AB'LUENTS ( abluo,l wash away: Lat), 
diluting medicines, or such as dissolve, and 
carry off impurities from any part of the 
body. 

ABLU'TION (same deriv.), a religious 
washing of the body, still used by the Turks 
and Mahomedans. It originated in the 
obvious necessity of practising cleanliness 
for the prevention of diseases in hot 
countries, for which purpose it was con¬ 
stituted a sacred rite; and by an easy tran¬ 
sition, the purity of the body was made to 
typify the purity of the soul. 

"ABNOR'MAL (ab, from norma, a rule: 
La(.),that which is irregular, or a deviation 
from the usual plan. 

ABOARD', in Nautical language, within 
a ship. Also, when a vessel gets entangled 
in another, it is said to be aboard of it 

ABOMA'SUS, the fourth stomach of 

























a-borigenes] £>ctcnttftc nutf 4 

ruminating animals, in which the process 
of digestion is effected. 

ABORI'GENES (ab origive, from the Be¬ 
ginning : Lat.), a name given to the original 
inhabitants of any country, or those oc¬ 
cupying it when it first became known, and 
of whose origin nothing certain has been 
ascertained. 

ABORTION ( abortio , from aborior, I pe¬ 
rish : Lat.), in a figurative sense, any pro¬ 
duction that does not come to maturity, or 
any design or project which fails before it 

is properly completed.-In Medicine, the 

unnatural expulsion of the foetus after the 
sixth week and before the sixth month of 
pregnancy. Before the sixth week it is 
termed a miscarriage, and after the sixth 
month a premature labour. 

ABOUT', in Nautical language, the situa¬ 
tion of a ship immediately after she has 

tacked.- About ship, an order to the 

crew to prepare for tacking. 

AB'RAOADAB'RA, a term of incantation 
formerly used as a spell, and worn about 
the neck as a charm against several diseases, 
particularly fever. 

ABRA'SION ( abrado, I scrape off: Lat.), 
in Medicine, the corroding or wearing, by 
sharp and acrimonious humours or medi- 
cines. 

ABRA'XAS, or ABRASAX', the name of 
the angelic Prince whom Basilides of Alex¬ 
andria, the chief of the Egyptian Gnostics, 
supposed to have been set over 365 heavens, 
each peopled with its own order of angels. 
The word was probably Egyptian, and em¬ 
ployed by Basilides when he found that if 
written in Greek the letters made up the 

number 365.- Abraxas or Abrasax 

Stones are gems, sometimes called Gemmae 
Basilidiance, found in Egypt, upon which 
are represented the human body with the 
head of a cat and the feet of a reptile. The 
name of Abrasax stone is, in modern times, 
applied to a variety of gems that exhibit 
enigmatical compositions. 

ABREAST', in Nautical language, a term 
applied to two or more ships, when ranged 
side by side. A ship is said to be abreast of 
a place when opposite to it. 

ABREU'VOIR ( Fr.), a watering-place, or 
any place dug for retaining water, as in 
camps. 

ABRIDG'MENT (abreger, to abridge: 
Fr.), a contraction which brings the con¬ 
tents of a book within a short compass. 
The art of abridging well consists in taking 
only what is material and substantial, and 
rejecting all superfluities, whether of sen¬ 
timent or style. In this light, abridgments 
arc eminently serviceable to all whose occu¬ 
pations prevent them from devoting much 
time to literary pursuits. To abridge well 
requires a thorough knowledge of the sub¬ 
ject. Montesquieu says, ‘ Tacitus abridged 
all, because he knew all.’ 

AB'SCESS ( abscedo , I go away from : 
Lat.), in Medicine, an inflammatory tumour 
containing purulent matter. 

ABSCIS'SA ( abscindo , I cut off : Lat.), in 
Geometry, one of two lines, by which is 
measured the distance of a point, whose 
position is required to be ascertained, from 
two given intersecting lines, the other of 

the two first mentioned lines being called 
the ordinate. The point and the two given 
lines, which to facili tate the nvcstigation 
are usually assumed to be at right angles 
to each other, must be on the same plane. 
The abscissa and the ordinate form the 
coordinates, which being known, the po¬ 
sition of the point is known. The point of 
intersection of the two given lines is called 
the origin. 

ABSOIS'SION ( abscissio, from same de- 
riv.), in Rhetoric, a figure of speech by 
which the speaker stops short, leaving his 
hearers to draw their own inferences from 

the facts he has stated.-In Astronomy, 

the cutting off the light of a planet, by an¬ 
other outstripping it and reaching a third 
planet before it. 

ABSENTEE' ( absens, absent: Lat.), a 
word of modern times applied to land- 
owners and capitalists who expend their 
incomes in another country. 

ABSIN'THINE ( absinthium , wormwood : 
Lat.), the bitter principle of wormwood. 

ABSOLUTION (absolutio, from absolutus, 
freed from : Lat.), a religious ceremony of 
the church of Rome, in which the priest 
uses the formula * Ego te absolvo a peccatis 
tuis.’ I absolve thee from thy sins. The 
Council of Trent asserted that the priest 
has power of himself to absolve from sin. 
But this, it is said, is subject to the repent¬ 
ance of the individual and his submission 
to the requisite penance. The fathers of 
the Protestant church maintain that God 
alone can forgive and deliver from sin ; and 
thata judicial power over the souls of Chris¬ 
tians is conferred neither on priests nor on 
teachers 

AB'SOLUTISM, in Theology, a doctrine 
ascribed to the Calvinists, according to 
which God is supposed to act from mere 
pleasure in regard to the salvation of man¬ 
kind. Absolutism is the grand obstacle to 
an union between the Lutherans and Cal¬ 
vinists.-In Politics, a power in the su¬ 

preme head of the state above the control 
of law, to act according to his own will in 
the government of the people. 

ABSOR'BENTS ( absorbeo, I swallow up: 
Lat.), in Medicine, calcareous earths, or 
other substances which remove acids from 
the stomach. 

ABSOR'BENT VESSELS, or ABSORB¬ 
ENTS, in Anatomy, extremely minute and 
numerous vessels opening on various parts 
of the body. Those on the under surface of 
the smaller intestines are termed lacteal 
absorbents, or lacteals, their office being to 
absorb the digested elements or chyle, 
that it may be mixed with the blood. The 
lymphatic absorbents, or lymphatics, take up 
a transparent substance, lymph, and are 
found in great abundance opening on the 
skin. Every part of the body has lympha¬ 
tics, by which waste particles are absorbed 

and removed.-In Botany, the fibres of 

theroots of plants, which draw nourishment 
from the surrounding earth, are sometimes 
termed absorbents. 

ABSORPTION ( absorptio, from same 
deriv.), in Physiology, the conveyance to 
the circulating organs of a due supply of 
materials for the growth and support of the 

















5 ilttcravi) dTrcarfurju [acanthurus 


system ; and removal, by the same means, 
of decayed and useless portions. 

ABSTER'GENTS (abstergeo, I wipe away: 
Lat.), in Medicine, substances used to 
cleanse the body from those impurities 
which are not to be removed by simple 
abluents. 

AB'STINENCE (abstinentia, from ab- 
stineo, I abstain : Lat.), in the Roman Ca¬ 
tholic Church, the refraining from the use 
of certain kinds of food, such as meat, eggs, 
milk, &c., which are forbidden to members 
of that church on particular days. It dif¬ 
fers from fasting, which is a refraining 
from all kinds of food during a certain 
period. 

AB'STRACT ( abstractus , from abstraho, I 
withdraw from : Lat.), a concise but gene¬ 
ral view, or analysis, of some large work; 
in which sense it differs from an abridgment 
only by its being shorter, and by its entering 
less minutely into particulars; and from an 
extract, as this last is some part or passage 
of the work. 

ABSTRACTION (abstractio, from same), 
in Logic, that operation of the mind by 
which, in contemplating an object, it at¬ 
tends to some circumstances or qualities 
belonging to it, to the exclusion of all 
others. This faculty enables us to gene¬ 
ralize, and is directly opposed to composi¬ 
tion. By the latter, we consider those things 
together, which, in reality, are not joined 
in any one existence: by abstraction, we 
consider those things separately and apart, 

which, in reality, do not exist apart.- 

Abstraction, in its passive sense, implies 
occupation with one’s own thoughts, to the 
exclusion of external objects. 

ABSUR'DUM, REDUC'TIO AD ("reduction 
to an absurdity: Lat.), a mode of demon¬ 
stration in which tlietruth of a proposition 
is established, not by direct proof, but by 
showing that the contrary is absurd, or 
i itip ossible. 

ABUT'MENTS (aboutir, to abut: Fr.), the 
extremities of any body adjoining another, 
as the extremities of a bridge resting on 
the banks or sides of a river. Also the 
junctions or meetings of two pieces of 
timber. 

ABYSS' ( abussos, bottomless: Gr.), any 
very deep place. 

ACA'CIA (akalda: Gr.), in Botany, a genus 
of leguminous trees, or shrubby plants, of 
which several hundred species are known 
to botanists. They bear white, red, or yel¬ 
low flowers, and their leaves are frequently 
elegantly pinnate. Some of them yield 
Gum Arabic, Gum Senegal and Catechu; and 
the bark of others affords a large quantity 
of tannin. They abound in Australia and 
in Africa. Most of the Australian species 
do not bear true leaves (except when very 
young), but have in their place flattened 
leaf-stalks, termed by botanists phyllodia, 

which are green and simulate leaves.- 

Acacia, in the Materia Medica, is the 
inspissated juice of the pods of the Mimosa 
Nilotica of Linnaeus. 

ACADEM'ICS (academicus, relating to the 
Academy : Lat.), certain philosophers who 
followed the doctrine of Socrates and Plato, 
os to the uncertainty of knowledge and the 

incomprehensibility of truth. Socrates is 
said by some to have declared that ‘all he 
knew was, that he knew nothing; ’ and it is 
certain that, in giving instruction, he com¬ 
menced by professing the limited amount 
of human knowledge. Those among the 
ancients who embraced the system of Plato, 
were called Academici, and were divided 
into a number of sects. Those who have 
done so since the restoration of learning, 
have called themselves Platonists. 

ACAD'EMY (Akademia, a public gymna¬ 
sium at Athens : Gr.), in Grecian Antiquity, 
a place in one of the suburbs of Athens, 
where there was a school for gymnastic 
exercises. It took itsnamefrom Academus, 
an Athenian, who is said to have resided 
there. Cimon, the Athenian general, became 
its owner about 450 b.c., and adorned the 
place with fountains and statues. He be¬ 
queathed the garden to the public, and it 
then became the resort of the lovers of 
philosophy. Socrates was wont to repair 
thither, but its greatest celebrity arose 
from its being the place in which Plato 
taught.- Academy, in the modern accep¬ 

tation, is a society of persons united for the 
pursuit of some objects of study and appli¬ 
cation, as the Royal Academy of Arts of 
London, the French Academy, the Royal 
Academy of Sciences of Berlin, &c. The 
first institution resembling an Academy, 
of which there is any account, was a society 
formed at Alexandria ~by Ptolemy Soter. 
The first academy of science, in modern 
times, was established at Naples, by Bap- 
tista Porta, in 1560; but it was abolished by 
papal interdict. Prom the beginning of the 
17th century, academies became very nu¬ 
merous in Italy; and, after some time,they 
spread into other countries. 

ACALE'PHiE (akalephe, a nettle: Gr.), in 
Zoology, a class in the sub-kingdom Jiadiata, 
composed of animals which have the power 
of stinging the skin when applied to it; 
whence the name. The jelly-fishes, the sea- 
nettles, and the Portuguese man-of-war 
belong to this class. Some of the jelly¬ 
fishes move by contractions of the disk; 
others by means of bands of cilia. The tribe 
to which the Portuguese man-of-war be¬ 
longs are simply driven about by the wind. 

ACANTHA'CE.E ( akantha, a thorn : Gr.), 
a natural order of plants growing chiefly 
within the tropics, and including several 
beautiful species cultivated in our hot¬ 
houses. The genera, Thunbcrgia, Justicia, 
Ruellia, Aphelandra, &c., as well as the 
European Acanthus, belong to the order. 

ACAN'THOPHIS ( akantha, a thorn ; and 
ophis, a serpent: Gr.), a genus of small veno¬ 
mous serpents, distinguished by a horny 
spine at the end of the tail. One species is 
Australian, and considered the most veno¬ 
mous serpent in the country. 

ACANTHOPTERY'GII ( akantha, a thorn; 
and pterux, a wing : Gr.), an order of fishes 
characterized by having spines in some of 
the fins, and the pharyngeal bones separate. 
The perch, red mullet, gurnard, mackerel, 
and other well-known fishes belong to this 
order. 

ACAN'THU'RTTS (akantha, a thorn ; and 
oura, a tail: Gr.), a genus of herbivorous 



, * - - - - - - -, 














&f)z &c(eutific antf 


acanthus] 


fishes found in tropical seas, the species of 
which have a strong movable spine on 
each side of the tail. 

ACAN'THUS ( akantlios, the acanthus : 
Gr.), in Architecture, an ornament repre- 
senting the leaves of the acanthus, or herb 
bear’s foot; principally employed in the 
Corinthian and Composite capitals, 
j A'CARUS C akari , a mite: Gr.), in Zoology, 
a genus of insects allied to the spiders and 
! included in the order Arachnida. The 
cheese mite is an Acarus. 

ACAT'ALEPSY ( akatalepsia , incompre¬ 
hensibleness : Gr.), among ancient Philoso¬ 
phers, the impossibility of comprehending 
something; uncertainty in science. 

ACATIIOL'ICl (a, not; and katholikos, ca¬ 
tholic : Gr.), the name by which Protestants 
are distinguished by some Roman Catholic 
writers. 

ACAU'LOSE or ACAU'LOUS (akaulos: 
from a, not; and lcaulos, a stem: Gr.), among 
Botanists, a term used for such plants as 
have no stem. 

ACCELERATION ( accderatio , from ac- 
celero, I hasten : Lat.), in Mechanics, the in- 
crease of velocity in a moving body. Ac- 
i celerated motion is that which continually 
! receives fresh accessions of velocity, and is 
! either uniformly or variably accelerated. 
It is produced by some force which con¬ 
tinues to act. When it is uniformly acce¬ 
lerated, the increments of velocity produced 
in equal times are equal. Gravity furnishes 
i us with an example of a uniformly accele- 
i rating force. If, under the influence of such 
j a force, a body moves through a certain 
| distance in the first second, it will move 
j through three times that distance in the 
*hext second, through five times that dis¬ 
tance in the third second, and so on ; and, 
during any number of seconds, it will move 
through the distance traversed in the first 
second, multiplied by the square of that 

number.- Acceleration, in Astronomy, 

is applied to express the increase of the 
mean angular velocity of the moon, which 
causes the time of her mean periodic revo¬ 
lution to be a little shorter than it was 
many centuries ago; also to the increase 
of the velocity of a planet in moving from 
the apogee to the perigee of its orbit: and 
to the apparent greater diurnal motion of 
the fixed stars than of the sun, whose ap- 
! parent motion round the earth each day is 
j retarded by his apparent motion in the op¬ 
posite direction, due to his apparent annual 
revolution in the heavens. 

AC'CENT ( accentus: from ad, to; and 
cantus, a tone: Lat.), a modification of the 
voice in pronouncing certain words or syl¬ 
lables ; also, the marks on the words or syl 
lables. The grammatical accents are the 
acute, marked thus ('); the grave, marked 
thus('); and the circumflex, marked thus 
A ). Accents are used abundantly in the 
ancient Greek language; but we totally 
neglect them, and attend only to quantity. 
The modern Greeks, on the contrary, neg¬ 
lect quantity, and lay great stress on the 
accented syllables. The French use accents 
to mark a difference of pronunciation, or 
to distinguish words which are spelt in the 
same way, but have a different meaning. 


j-- Rhetorical Accent, or emphasis, is 

designed to give distinctness and clearness 
to language. In a sentence, therefore, the 
stress is laid on the most important word, 
and in a word on the most important sylla¬ 
ble. When the accent falls on a vowel, that 
vowel has its long sound, as in po'rous ; but 
when it falls on a consonant, the preceding 
vowel is short, as in pot'ter. Accents also 
not only give a pleasing variety and beauty 
to the modulation of the voice, but often 
enable us to ascertain the true meaning of. 

the word.- Accent, in Music, is a stress, 

or forced expression, which is laid on cer¬ 
tain parts of a bar or measure, and is in¬ 
tended to indicate the passions, either 
naturally by the voice, or artificially by 
instruments. Every bar or measure is di¬ 
vided into the accented and unaccented 
parts; the former being those on which 
the spirit of the music depends.- Ac¬ 

cents, in Mathematics, are employed to 
distinguish different quantities, which are 
expressed by the same letter, used more 
than once, to avoid the inconvenience of 
too many letters. Thus, one velocity being 
represented by V, another may be indicated 
by V', another by V". &c. 

ACCEPTANCE ( accipio, I accept: Lat.), 
in Commerce, is the act by which a person 
makes himself a debtor for a sum con¬ 
tained in a bill of exchange or other ob¬ 
ligation drawn upon or addressed to him, 
which is done by his writing the word 
‘Accepted’ on it, and signing his name. 

ACCEPTOR (Lat., from same deriv.), the 
person who accepts a bill of exchange in 
the manner just mentioned. 

AC'CESS ( accessus, from accedo, I ap¬ 
proach : Lat.), in Medicine, the beginning 
of a paroxysm : or a fit of some periodical 
disease. 

AC'CESSOR.Y ( accedo , I approach : Lat.), 
in Law, a person who aids in the commis¬ 
sion of some felonious action. There are 
two kinds of accessories, viz. before the 
fact, and after it. The first is he who com¬ 
mands or procures another to commit an 
offence ; who, though he be absent when it 
is committed, is now regarded as much a 
principal as the actual offender. One who 
stands by and witnesses the commission of 
a crime, without attempting to prevent its 
commission, i3 also an accessory before the 
fact. The accessory" after the fact is one 
who receives, comforts, O’* assists the 
offender, knowing him to be such. 

AC'CIDENS, of Per Accidens (happen¬ 
ing by chance : Lat.), a term formerly used 
by Philosophers to indicate a something 
not following from the nature of things, 
but from some accidental quality. It is 
opposed to per se; thus fire was said to 
burn per se, but a heated iron per accidens. 

AC'CIDENT ( accido, I happen: Lat.), 
amongst Logicians signifies that which 
may be either absent or present, without 
affecting the essence of the species. Thus, 
a man may be swimming, or he may be a 
negro. The former is what is termed a se¬ 
parable accident, because it may be sepa¬ 
rated from the individual, who would not 
cease to be the same person when he issued 
from the water; the other is an inseparable 














mteravj) CreaSurj). 


accident, not being separable from the in¬ 
dividual, for being once a negro he could 
never cease to be one. 

ACCIDENTAL (accident*, happening by 
chance: Lat.), in Heraldry, an additional 
mark in a coat of arms, -which may be 
either omitted or retained without altering 

its character.- -Accidental Colours, 

those colours which depend on affections of 
the eye, and not on light itself. Thus, if 
we look for a short time steadily at a red 
wafer placed on a white sheet of paper, on 
removing' the eye from the wafer, a num- 
! her of spots equal in size to the wafer, and 
| of the complementary colour (green), will 
| appear on the paper as the eye moves over 

it.- Accidental Point, in Perspective, 

that roint where all the lines parallel 
among themselves meet the perspective 
plane. 

ACCIP'ITRES ( accipiter , a hawk : Lat.), 
an order of birds of prey, called also Rap- 
tatores and Rapaces. It includes the eagles, 
vultures, secretary birds, and owls, and all 
its members' are characterized by having 
powerful hooked beaks and talons, coupled 
with great strength of wing. 

ACCLAMATION ( acclamatio , from ac- 
clamo, I cry out: Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, 
a shout raised by the people to testify 
their approbation or disapprobation of 
their rrinces, generals, &c. In the early 
times of Christianity, the bishops were 
elected by acclamation. The first German 
emperors were elected in the same way. 

ACCLIMATIZATION (Fr.), the coloniza¬ 
tion of one country by the natural produc¬ 
tions, whether animal or vegetable, of an¬ 
other, with the view of rendering them 
subservient to the necessities or pleasures 
of mankind. There is an Acclimatization 
Society in London, and another in Paris. 
Amongst birds, several species of phea¬ 
sants, the capercailzie, and two geese, have 
been acclimatized in our island; and 
amongst quadrupeds, the fallow deer, wa¬ 
piti, and eland. The common carp is an- 
• other instance of an acclimatized animal. 

ACCOLA'DE (Fr.: from ad, to ; and col- 
tum, the neck : Lat.), the slight blow given 
to the neck or shoulder of him who is 
being knighted. 

ACCOMMODATION. ( accommodatio, an 
adapting: Lat.), a term applied by oculists 
to the power of adjustment which every 
normal eye possesses, whereby it is enabled 
almost imperceptibly and unconsciously so 
to alter its focus as to receive in rapid suc¬ 
cession the correct image of objects situate 

at different distances. -Accommodation 

Bill, in Commerce, a bill of exchange 
which has been accepted for the accommo¬ 
dation Of the drawer without any consi¬ 
deration or value for the acceptance. 

ACCOM'PANIMENT (accompagnare, to 
accompany: Ital), an instrumental part 
added to a musical composition by way of 
embellishment, and in order to support 
the principal melody. When the piece may 
be performed with or -without the accom¬ 
paniment at pleasure, it is said to be ad 
libitum, but -when it is indispensable, ob¬ 
ligato. 

ACCOM'PLTCE (ad, to; and ccmplcxus, 


[acetic acid 


comprised: Lat.), in Law, a person who is 
privy to, or aiding in, the perpetration of 
some crime. 

ACCORDATU'RA, an Italian word signi¬ 
fying agreement in time. 

ACCOR'DION (accordo, harmony: Ital.), 
a musical instrument, of German inven¬ 
tion, but now made in this country also. 
It consists of a double series of vibrating 
tongues, acted on by a current of air from 
a sort of bellows. 

ACCOUNT'ANT-GEN'ERAL, an officer of 
the Court of Chancery, whose duty it is to 
take account of all the moneys paid into 
that court, and to pay money out under the 
order of the court. 

ACCOUTREMENTS (accoutrer, to equip : 
Fr.), the necessaries of a soldier, as belts, 
pouches, cartridge-boxes, &c. 

ACCRES'CIMENTO (accrescere, to in¬ 
crease : Ital.), in Music, the increase, by one 
half its duration, given to a note by a dot. 

ACCRETION (accretio, from accresco, I 
increase : Lat.), the increase or growth of 
a body by an external addition of new 
parts; shells and various other substances 
are thus formed. 

ACCUBA'TION (accnbatio, from accubo, I 
recline : Lat.), the posture used among the 
Greeks and Romans at their meals, which 
was with the body extended on a couch, 
and the head resting on a pillow, or on the 
elbow supported by a pillow. 

ACEPH'ALA (akephalos: from a, with¬ 
out ; and kephale, a head : Gr.), a sub-class 
of molluscs, comprising those that are 
destitute of ahead such as the snails pos¬ 
sess. Those with bivalve shells, the oyster, 
cockle, &c., belong to this sub-class. 

ACEPH'ALI (same deriv.),& sect of Chris¬ 
tians, so called because they admitted no 
head or superior, either lay or ecclesiastical. 

ACETA'BULUM (originally a vessel for 
vinegar, hence any small vessel: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, a round cavity in a bone, which 
receives the convex head of another, and 
thus forms that species of articulation 
termed enartlirosis. Also, the hip-bone. 

ACETAL ( acetum, vinegar: Lat.), a co¬ 
lourless inflammable liquid, the result of 
the slow oxidation of alcohol-vapour. It 
is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy¬ 
gen. Further oxidation converts it into 

clCOtI C 

ACETA'RIOUS PLANTS ( acetaria, a sa¬ 
lad : Lat.), those used in making salads, 
such as lettuces, cress, &c. 

A'CETATES, certain neutral salts formed 
by the combination of acetic acid with a 
salifiable base, as the acetate of potash. 

ACET'IC ACID (acettim, vinegar: Lat.), 
in Chemistry, an acid which is found ready 
formed only in the organic kingdom It 
may be produced by the oxidation of or¬ 
ganic substances, such as alcohol: or their 
destructive distillation, in which way it is 
obtained from wood. It may also be pro¬ 
cured from its compounds, which are termed 
acetates. Ordinary vinegar is a weak, and 
generally an impure, acetic acid. The 
strong acid is extremely volatile and in¬ 
flammable, corrodes and cauterises the skin, 
and, when heated in contact with air, ta,ke3 
fire. The anhydrous acid is a heavy oil, and 























acktometerJ ^rtcnttfic antt 8 

Is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy¬ 
gen. Sugar of lead is an acetate of lead. 

ACETOM'ETER ( acetum , vinegar: Lett. 
and metron, a measure : Gr.), an apparatus 
for determining the strength of vinegar 
and other forms of acetic acid. 

ACETONE ( acetum , vinegar: Lat.), a vo¬ 
latile and highly inflammable liquid, ob¬ 
tained by subjecting acetate of lime, baryta, 
or lead, to dry distillation. It is a colour¬ 
less limpid fluid, with a peculiar smell. It 
is one of the numerous combinations of 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxgen. 

ACHHS'NIUM (a, privative, cliaino, I open : 
Gr.), in Botany, a dry one-seeded fruit, of 
which the skin or pericarp adheres closely 
to the seed, but can be separated from it. 
For instance, the seeds of the ranunculus 
and the rose are achcenia. In the straw¬ 
berry, the part which we eat is a succulent 
receptacle, bearing achcenia upon its sur¬ 
face. 

ACHER'NAR (.Arab.), a star of the first 
magnitude in the constellation Eridanus; 
it is the « Eridani of astronomers. 

ACHIEVE'MENT (achever, to finish : Fr.), 
in Heraldry, a shield of armorial bearings; 
but, more usually, a funeral shield or hatch¬ 
ment, fixed to the dwelling of a person 
recently deceased. 

ACHLAMY'DEOUS (a, without; chla- 
mxis, a garment: Gr.), a botanical term for 
flowers which have neither calyx nor co¬ 
rolla. 

ACHROMATIC (a, without; and chroma, 
colour: Gr.), in Optics, colourless. 

ACHRO'MATISM (same deriv.), freedom 
from colour. It has been stated [see Aber¬ 
ration] that a ray of white light is decom¬ 
posed into coloured rays, in passing through 
an ordinary lens, by reason of the unequal 
refrangibility of those rays. This was a 
serious objection in optical instruments; 
but the difficulty has been overcome by 
employing, instead of simple lenses, com¬ 
pound lenses with the parts made of glass 
having different dispersive power, which 
parts correct each other’s aberrations. Te¬ 
lescopes and microscopes are thus rendered 
achromatic. 

ACI'CULAR(acfcufa :Lat.), needle-shaped. 
A'CID (acidus, sour: Lat.), in a general 
sense, denotes such things as affect the pa¬ 
late with a sour, sharp, and tart taste ; but 
in Chemistry, it includes all those sub¬ 
stances which change vegetable blues to 
red, and combine with the alkalis, metallic 
oxides and earths, so as to form the com¬ 
pounds called salts. Acids are distinguished, 
according to the proportion of oxygen 
which they contain, by the terminations ic 
and ous: as nitric acid and nitrous acid, 
sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid; the for¬ 
mer termination denotes the larger dose 
or portion of oxygen, and the latter the 
smaller. When the prefix hypo is put to 
either of these, it denotes a degree below 
it in point of oxidizement; ashyposulphuric 
acid, an intermediate between the sulphu¬ 
ric and the sulphurous acid. When the 
prefix hyper, or per, is used, it indicates a 
higher degree of oxidation : asliyperchlorift 
or perchloric acid, a compound containing ! 
more oxygen than chloric acid. Some of 

the metals form acids when combined with 
oxygen, manganese for example. Although 
oxygen is a constituent of the great majo¬ 
rity of acids, this is not invariably the 
case; for instance, hydrochloric acid is a 
combination of chlorine and hydrogen, and 
hydrofluoric acid is a combination of fluo¬ 
rine and hydrogen. 

ACIDIFI'ABLE (acidus, acid; and flo, I 
become: Lat.), capable of being converted 
into an acid by an acidifying principle, such 
as oxygen, chlorine, iodine, bromine, sul¬ 
phur, fluorine, &c. 

ACID'ULOUS (aciduhts, a dim. of acidus, 
meaning subacid: Lat.), in Chemistry, a 
term expressing a slight degree of acidity. 

ACINE'SIA (akinesia: from a, not; and 
ldneo, I move: Gr.), that interval of rest 
which takes place between the contraction 
and dilatation of the pulse. 

ACOLLE' (collared, from col, the neck: 
Fr.), in Heraldry, a term used sometimes to 
denote two things joined together; at 
others, animals with collars or crowns about 
their necks; and at others, batons, or 
swords, placed saltier-wise behind the 
shield. 

A'COLYTE ( akolouthos, a follower: Gr.), 
a cleric belonging to one of the four infe¬ 
rior or minor orders of the Roman Catholic 
church. His office is to attend on those in 
superior or holy orders, to carry a light at 
mass, and in other solemnities, &c. 

ACONI'TA (next), a poisonous alkaloid 
extracted from aconite, employed as an 
anodyne in neuralgic affections. 

A'CONITE (from Acone, in the Crimea, 
famous for poisonous herbs), the plant 
wolf’s-bane or monkshood (the Aconitum 
napellus of botanists: nat. ord. Ranuncu- 
lacece), the flower of which resembles the 
hood of a monk; it is a violent poison. 

ACON'TIAS (Gr., from akon, a dart), in 
Zoology, a harmless serpent, otherwise 
called the Anguis jaculus, or dart-snake, 
from its vibrating its body in the manner 
of a dart. 

ACOTYLE'DONS (a, without; and kotu- 
ledOn, a cavity: Gr.), in Botany, a class of 
plants whose seeds are destitute of cotyle¬ 
dons or seed lobes, such as sea-weeds, 
mosses, ferns, and lichens. 

ACOUSMAT'ICI (akousmatikoi, from a- 
kouo, I hear: Gr.), in Grecian Antiquity, 
such disciples of Pythagoras as had not 
finished their five years’ probation. The 
Acousmatici were instructed by bare posi¬ 
tive precepts and rules, without reasons or 
demonstrations; and these precepts they 
called acousmata. 

ACOUSTICS (akouo, I hear: Gr.), that 
branch of science which treats of the laws 
of sound. It is usually divided into two 
parts, viz. diacoustics, which explains the 
properties of those sounds that come di¬ 
rectly from the sonorous body to the ear; 
and catacoustics, which treats of reflected 
sounds. Almost all sounds that affect us 
are conveyed to the ear by means of the 
air; but water is a good conductor of 
sound; so also is timber. It must be ob¬ 
served, that a body, while in the act of 
sounding, is in a state of vibration, which 
it communicates to the surrounding air, 










9 jlttcntry CrcHgurj}. 


and that the undulations of the air affect 
the ear, and excite in us the sense of 
sound. 

ACQTTIT'TAL ( acquitter , to discharge: 
Fr.), in Law, a discharge, deliverance, or 
setting free of a person from a criminal 
charge. Acquittal is of two kinds; in law, 
and in fact. When two are indicted and 
tried for a felony, one as principal, the 
other as accessory, the principal being dis¬ 
charged, the accessory also is, by conse¬ 
quence, freed: in which case, as the acces¬ 
sory is acquitted by law, so is the principal 
in fact. 

ACQUIT'TANCE (same deriv.), a discharge 
in writing for a sum of money, witnessing 
that the party is paid the same. 

A'CRE, a measure of land, very general 
in name, but varying in different places as 
to the extent which it is intended to de¬ 
note. The English statute acre contains 
4 square roods, or ICO square poles of 51 
yards, or 4,840 square yards. 121 Irish 
acres are equal to 196 English ; 48 Scotch to 
61 English ; and 1,000 English acres to 
40‘466 French ares. 

ACROAMAT'IC ( akroamatikos , from akro- 
aomai, I hear: Gr.), in the Aristotelian 
schools, a denomination given to such lec¬ 
tures as were calculated only for the inti¬ 
mate friends and disciples of that philoso¬ 
pher, being chiefly employed in demonstra¬ 
ting some speculative or abstruse part of 
philosophy. The acroamatic lectures, called 
also esoteric, stood contradistinguished from 
the exoteric, which were adapted to a com¬ 
mon auditory. 

ACROCERAU'NIAN ( dkron, a summit; 
and keraunos, a thunderbolt: Gr.), an epi¬ 
thet applied to certain mountains of Epirus, 
which project into the Adriatic, and obtain 
their name from being often struck with 
lightning. 

ACRO'GENS ( acrov, an extremity ; geno, 
I spring from: Gr.), a class of flower¬ 
less plants, having the stems and leaves 
distinguishable, forming one division of 
the Acotyledones of Jussieu, and the Crypto- 
game® of others. They grow only at the 
ends, whence the name. They consist of 
mosses, lycopodia, and ferns. 

ACRON'YCAL (akronukos: from akron, 
an extremity; and mix, the night: Gr.), in 
Astronomy, an appellation given to the 
rising of a star above the horizon, at sun¬ 
set ; or to its setting, when the sun rises. 
Acronycal is one of the three terms for 
the rising of a star, used by the Greek 
poets to indicate the position of the sun 
in the ecliptic, or the season of the year ; 
the other two being called cosmical and he¬ 
liacal. 

ACROP'OLIS (Gr.: from akron, a summit; 
and polis, a city), the citadel of a Grecian 
city, and particularly that of Athens. 

ACROS'TIC (akrostichon: from akron, an 
extremity ; and sticlios, a line : Gr.), a poem 
so contrived that the first or last letter of 
each line, or word, taken together, will make 
a proper name, or some other word. Such , 
trifles were formerly much more in fashion 
than at present. Sir John Davdes, who wrote 
philosophical poems, composed 26 acrostics 
in honour of Queen Elizabeth, the first let¬ 


|_ACTS 


ters of the lines making the words Elizaletha 
Regina. 

ACROSTO'LIUM (akrostclion: from akron, 
an extremity ; and stolos, equipment: Gr.), 
in the Naval Architecture of the ancients, 
the extreme part of the ornament fixed on 
the prows of their ships, and sometimes 
used for striking the ship of an enemy. It 
was the custom to tear the acrostolia from 
the prows of the vanquished, as a token of 
victory. 

ACROTE'RIA ( akrotes, the end: Gr.), in 
Architecture, small pedestals, upon which 
globes, vases, or statues stand at the ends 
or middle of pediments. It also sometimes 
denotes the figures themselves placed in 
such situations. 

ACT (actus, from ago, I perform : Lat.), 
in a general sense, denotes the exertion, or 
effectual application, of some power or 
faculty. Act is distinguished from power, 
as the effect from the cause, or as a thing 

produced from that which produces it.- 

Act, amon£ Logicians, more particularly 
indicates an operation of the human mind : 
in which sense, comprehending, judging, 

willing, &c., are called acts.- Act is also 

used for the final resolution or decree of 

an assembly, senate, council, &c.- Acts 

of parliament are called statutes ; acts of the 
Royal Society, transactions; those of the 
French Academyof Sciences, memoirs; those 
of the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, 
commentaries, and latterly acts; those of 
Leipsic, acta eruditorum; the decrees of the 
Lords of Session, at Edinburgh, acta sede¬ 
runt, &c.- Act, in a Dramatic sense, is the 

name given to a division of a drama, at the 
end of which there is a pause to afford rest 
to actors and spectators. In the ancient 
Greek drama, there were certain interrup¬ 
tions of the performance, during which the 
stage was left to the sole ofcupation of the 
chorus. Yet this division of the piece is 
not noticed, in express terms, by ancient 
writers; nor do we know on what authority 
Horace requires that there should be five 
acts in every dramatic composition. In what 
is termed the regular drama, the rule laid 
down by him is still observed, the acts 
being divided into smaller portions, called 
scenes. 

ACT of Faith, or Attto-da-fe, a public 
solemnity, held in Spain and Portugal, and 
the countries subject to them, in which the 
sentences pronounced by the judges on 
heretics and infidels were read. It is, how¬ 
ever, generally considered to include the 
cruel execution of those who were con¬ 
demned to be burned. Everything was 
done to render the processions, &c., appal¬ 
ling : that all might be deterred from 
resisting the authority of the church, or 
hesitating to believe whatever had been 
declared an article of faith. 

ACT of Grace, an act at the beginning 
of a new reign, or on other great occasions, 
by which sometimes a free pardon has been 
granted to criminals. 

ACTS of the Aposti.es, a canonical 
book of the New Testament, which contains 
great part of the lives of St. Peter and 
St. Paul; commencing at the Ascension 
and continued down to St. Paul’s arrival 














J?aentcftc mts 


10 


acta] 

at Rome, after liis appeal to Caesar; com- 
j preliending in all about thirty years. St. 
Luke has been generally considered its 
author. 

AC'TA DIUR'NA (daily proceedings: Lat), 
in Roman History, a journal containing the 
important occurrences of the time. It was 
first regularly published by direction of 
Julius Caesar. 

ACTA SENA'TUS (acts of the Senate: 
Lat.), minutes of the proceedings of the 
Senate; also first regularly published by 
order of Julius Caesar. 

ACT'IAN GAMES, games celebrated at 
Actium in honour of Apollo, thence called 
Actius, and revived with increased splen¬ 
dour by Augustus, in commemoration of 
i the victory he obtained over Antony at Ac¬ 
tium. They were celebrated every fifth year: 
consisted of shows of gladiators, wrestling, 
and other exercises: and were kept gene¬ 
rally at Nicopolis, a city built by Augustus, 
near Actium. 

ACTI'NIA (aktis, a ray: Gr.), a genus of 
Sea Anemones. 

ACTINISM (same cleriv.), a name recently 
given to that property of the sun’s rays 
which effects chemical combinations and de¬ 
compositions, as shown in all the processes 
of photography, in contradistinction to their 
powers of heating and illuminating. 

ACTIN'OLITE (aktis, a ray; and kith os, a 
stone: Gr.), a green mineral which gene¬ 
rally occurs in fascicular crystals. It is a 
variety of hoimblcnde, and occurs in meta- 
morphic rocks. 

ACTIN'OMETER (aktis, a ray ; metron, a 
measure: Gr.), an instrument for measuring 
the force of the solar radiation. Various 
forms of apparatus have been invented. 

ACTION (actio, from ago, I act: Lat.), 
In Mechanics and Physics, is the pressure 
or percussion of one body against another. 
It is one of the laws of nature, that action 
and re-action are equal: that is, the resist¬ 
ance of the body moved is always equal to 
the force communicated to it; or, which is 
the same thing, the moving body loses as 
mucliof its force as it communicates to the 

body moved- Action, in the Military 

art, is an engagement between two armies, 
or between different bodies of troops be¬ 
longing to them.- Action, in Rhetoric, 

may be defined, the accommodation of the 
orator’s voice, but more especially of his 
gesture, to the subject on which he speaks. 
Cicero tells us, ‘ that it does not so much 
matter what an orator says, as how he says 
it.’ Horace, in his Art of Poetry, is no less 
explicit in setting forth its vast influence 

on mankind_ Action, in a Theatrical 

sense, is nearly the same with action among 
oi-ators ; but the actor adapts his gesture, 
&c., to an assumed character, whereas the 
orator is supposed to be in reality what liis 

action expresses.- Action, in Painting 

and Sculpture, denotes the posture of a 
statue or picture, serving to express some 
passion, &c- Actions, certain proceed¬ 

ings in the courts of common law for the 
recovery of rights: they are divided into 
real, personal, and mixed. The only re¬ 
maining real and mixed actions are writ 
of dower and quare impedit, and, per¬ 


haps, ejectment. Recent legislation has 
altered the method of bringing these ac¬ 
tions, but has not abolished them. They 
can only be brought in the Court of Com¬ 
mon Pleas. Personal actions arc those in 
which recovery of a debt is sought, or satis¬ 
faction for injury to person or property. 

ACTIONARY, in Commerce, a term used 
among foreigners for the proprietor of an 
action or share of a public company’s stock. 

ACTIVE (activxis: Lat.), in a general sense, 
denotes something that communicates mo¬ 
tion or action to another: in which sense 

it stands opposed to passive. - Active, 

among Grammarians, an appellation given 
to words expressing some action, as I write, 
I read, &c. 

ACTOR (Lat.), in a Dramatic sense, is a 
man who enacts some part or character in a 
play. Actors were treated very differently, 
at different times, among the ancients. As 
long as the drama retained in Greece any 
degree of religious solemnity, they were 
treated with respect, and persons of rank 
did not hesitate to appear among them, 
but when acting became a profession, they 
were no longer considered to hold a re¬ 
spectable position. In Rome the first ac¬ 
tors were buffoons, and during: the Re¬ 
public they continued to be despised ; but, 
under the emperors, they gradually ob¬ 
tained some degree of consideration. In 
England the flrstactors were the servants of 
the great: whence the custom of companies 
belonging to the principal theatres calling 
themselves ‘ His Majesty’s servants.’ 

ACTRESS (actrice: Fr.), a female drama¬ 
tic performer. Actresses were unknown to 
the ancients, among whom men always took 
the parts of women. Nor were they intro¬ 
duced on the English stage till after the 
Restoration. 

ACTUARY (actuarius: Lat., an official 
who wrote down the proceedings of a 
court), the chief clerk, or person, who 
compiles minutes of the proceedings of a 

company in business.-Also, the clerk 

who registers the acts and constitutions of 

convocations.-One who calculates the 

value of life interests and annuities. 

ACU'LEATE (aculeatus, from aculeus, a 
prickle: Lat.), an appellation given to any¬ 
thing that has aculei, or prickles. 

ACU'MINATE (acumen, a point: Lat.), 
anything very much tapered to a point; if 
it is pointed, but without tapering, it is 
merely acute. 

ACUPUNCTURA'TION, an oriental prac¬ 
tice of puncturing diseased parts of the 
body with fine needles. In China and 
Japan, it has long been a part of surgery ; 
and of late years it has obtained some re¬ 
pute in England, as a cure for chronic 
rheumatism. 

ACUTE (acutus, sharp : Lat.), an appella¬ 
tion given to such things as terminate in a 
sharp point or edge : thus we say an acute 
angle, acute-angled triangle, &c.: it is op¬ 
posite to obtuse.- -Acute, in Music, an 

epithet given to sharp or shrill sounds, in 

opposition to those called grave. - Acute 

Diseases, in Medicine, are distinguished 
from chronic, by being attended with violent 
symptoms, and requiring immediate aid • 























il 


Etterarp Creatfunn 


[administration 


clironic diseases are those which usually 
last long. 

AD IIOM'INEM, see Argument. 

AD INFINI'TUM (Lcil.), indefinitely, or 
to infinity. 

I AD LIB'ITUM (Lat.), at pleasure, 
i AD TON'DUS OM'NIUM (equal to the 
weight of all: Lat.), among Physicians, de¬ 
notes, that the last-mentioned ingredient 
ought to weigh as much as all the before- 
mentioned ingredients, taken together. 

\ AD VALO'REM (Lat.), in Commerce, ac- 
1 cording to the value. 

ADA'GIO (slowly : Ital.), in Music, a de- 
j gree quicker than grave time, hut with 
graceful and elegant execution. 

AD'AMANT (adamas: from a, not; and 
damao, I conquer: Gr., on account of its 
hardness), a name for the diamond. 

AD'AMITES, in Church History, an an¬ 
cient sect, which is said to have professed 
, an exact imitation of the life of Adam and 
! Eve in Paradise. It reappeared in Bohemia 
, ill the fifteenth century. 

AD'DER, or common viper (Vipera denis), 
1 a native of England, where it grows about 
two feet in length. It is of a brownish 
colour, with a row of black spots along the 
back. Its bite is venomous, and the remedy 
for it is to rub the part with olive oil over 
a chafing dish of coals. It prefers dry places, 
and during winter lies torpid in a place of 
concealment. This reptile is viviparous. 

ADDI'TION (additio, from addo, I add: 
Lat.), in a general sense, is the uniting or 
joining several things together; or it de¬ 
notes something added to another.-In 

Arithmetic, the first of the four fundamen¬ 
tal rules ; that by which we collect several 
quantities into one total, or sum. When 
the numbers to be added consist of but one 
denomination, it is simple addition ; when 
they consist of more than one, it is com- 
i pound. - Addition, in Algebra, the unit¬ 

ing of two or more quantities, so as to form 

a more simple expression.- Addition, in 

Law, denotes all kinds of designations given 
: to a man, over and above his proper name 
! and surname, to show his estate, degree, 
profession, place of abode, &c. 

ADDORS'ED (ad, to; and dorsum, the 
back: Lat), a term in Heraldry, signifying 
back to back. 

ADENOG'RAPHY, or ADENOL'OGY 
(aden, a gland ; and grapho, I write; or 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), that part of Ana¬ 
tomy which treats of the glands. 

AD EUNDEM (to the same degree under¬ 
stood : Lat.), a University phrase, employed 
when a graduate of one university is, as a 
matter of favour, admitted to the same 
degree in another. 

ADHE'SION (adheereo, I cling to: Lat.), 

\ the phenomenon by which the particles of 
I bodies continue together. Adhesion denotes 
union between two bodies of different 
kinds; cohesion,union between two bodies 

of the same kind.- Adhesion in Botany, 

the growing together of parts, a common 
phenomenon in plants. The adhesion of 
the margins of petals produces a monopeta- 
lous corolla. The adhesion of the filaments 
of stamens makes them monodelplmus, dia- 
delphous, &c.- Adhesion, in Medicine, 


the junction of parts which ought to be 
separate. 

ADIAN’TUM (adiantos, unwetted, hence, 
dry : Gr.), in Botany, a genus of thin-leaved 
ferns, having the fructification at the ends 
of the lobes of the fronds, covered by the 
reflexed margin. Adiantum Capillus Veneris, 
Maiden’s Hair, is an example. 

AD'IPOCE'RE (adeps, fat; and cera, wax : 
Lat.), a substance, in some of its properties, 
resembling a mixture of fat and wax. It is 
produced by the decomposition of the flesh 
of animals in moist situations, or under 
water. 

AD'IPOSE (adeps, solid fat: Lat.), in a 
general sense, denotes something belongin g 
to the fat of the body. The term adipose is 
chiefly used by physicians and anatomists. 
-Adipose Membrane, the cellular mem¬ 
brane, in which the fat is deposited.- 

Adipose Fin, the small rudimentary fin 
on the back of the salmon, trout, and fishes 
of the same family. It is usually placed 
over the anal fin, at a distance from the 
first dorsal. 

AD'IT, op A Mine (aditus, from adeo, I 
approach : Lat..), the horizontal aperture by 
which it is entered: it is distinguished from 
a shaft, which is vertical. 

AD'JECTIVE (adjectivus, from adjicio, I 
place near: Lat.), in Grammar, a word ex¬ 
pressing some quality, or other accident, of 
the substantive with which it is joined. 

ADJOURN'MENT (adjournement: from a, 
to ; and jour, a day : Fr.), the putting off a 
court or other meeting till another day. 
In parliament, adjournment differs from 
prorogation : the former is not only for a 
shorter time, but is also an act of the house 
itself, whereas the latter is an act of royal 
authority. 

AD'JUNCT (adjunctus, from adjungn, I 
join to : Lat.), something joined to another. 

AD'JUTANT (adjuto, 1 assist: Lat.), a mi¬ 
litary officer, who assists the commanding 
officer. When detachments are to be made, 
he gives the number to be furnished by 
each company or troop, and assigns the 
hour and place of rendezvous. He also 
places the guards, receives and distributes 
ammunition to'the companies, &c. 

AD'JUTANT-GEN'ERAL, a staff officer, 
who holds the same position with reference 
to the army as the adjutant to the regiment. 
He assists the commander-in-chief, and dis¬ 
tributes his orders. 

ADMINISTRATION (administratio, from 
administro, I manage: Lat.), the executive 
government of a country.- Administra¬ 

tion, in Law, power granted by the Court 
of Probate to the person pointed out by the 
statutes as the manager of the personalty 
of one who dies intestate, which he is bound 
to distribute amongst the persons entitled 
under the statutes of distribution, except 
in the case of a husband administrator, who 
is entitled as of right to the administration 
and enjoyment of his deceased wife’s estate. 
After debts are paid, one-third goes to the 
widow, and the rest, in equal portions, to 
the children; or, if they are dead, to their 
lineal descendants. If there be none of 
these, the widow receives a half, and the 
next of kin in an equal degree, and their 















^ctrnttfic antf 


12 


administrator] 

representatives theremainder.or the whole, 
if there is no widow. Among collaterals, 
none more remote than the children of the 
intestate’s brothers and sisters are admitted. 
Letters of administration are to be granted 
to the husband or his representatives, to 
the widow or next of kin; of persons re¬ 
lated in an equal degree, the court may take 
its choice. The order of kindred is, with 
reference to the distribution of property, 
children, parents, brothers, grandfathers, 
uncles or nephews (and the females of each 
class respective]}!), cousins. Letters of ad¬ 
ministration, de bonis non administratis, are 
granted, when a previous administrator dies 
without completing the business. When 
a person makes a will without naming an 
executor, or names executors who refuse to 
act, the Court of Probate will grant admi¬ 
nistration cum testamento annexo, the duty 
of the administrator in this case being to 
carry out the will. The Court of Probate is 
governed by the same rules as the Ecclesi¬ 
astical Court, which it superseded. 

ADMINISTRATOR (Lat., from same 
deriv.), in Law, the person to whom the 
estate and effects of an intestate are com¬ 
mitted, for which he is to be accountable 
when required. 

AD'MIRAL ( amiral: Fr.), the commander 
of a fleet of ships of war, having two sub¬ 
ordinate commanders, as vice-admiral and 
rear-admiral. Admirals are distinguished 
into three classes by the colour of their flags, 
as red, white, and blue. The admiral carries 
his flag at the main-top-mast head; the vice- 
admiral at the fore-top-mast head ; and the 
rear-admiral at the mizen-top-mast head. 
The admiral has the same power over the 
maritime forces as the general over land 

forces.-The Lord High Admiral had 

the management of all maritime affairs, 
and the government of the royal navy. He 
was always a person of high rank. For a 
short time the office was filled by William 
IV. when duke of Clarence, after having 
been in abeyance just a century; during 
which period, as at present, the office was 
executed by a certain number of commis¬ 
sioners, called lords of the admiralty. 

AD'MIRALTY, Court of, is a sovereign 
court, instituted by Edward III., and held 
by the judge of the admiralty; from whom 
there is an appeal to the sovereign in coun¬ 
cil. His office is to determine all manner 
of injuries upon the seas, or in parts out of 
the reach of common law. Murders, rob¬ 
beries, &c., committed at sea, are tried by 
the ordinary judges. The Court of Admi¬ 
ralty decides regarding prizes, &c. Vice- 

Admiralty Courts, courts established in 
all the dependencies of Great Britain; they 
have cognizance of all cases of captured 
vessels, misdemeanours in merchant ships, 
&c. 

ADMITTEN'DO IN SO'CIUM (admission 
of an associate: Lat.), a writ associating 
certain persons to the justices of assize 
already appointed. 

ADNATA ( adnascor , I grow upon : Lat.), 
in Anatomy, one of the tunics or coats of 
the eye, otherwise called conjunctiva and 
albuginea: it is the same with the white of 

the eye. 


AD'NATE (same deriv.), in Botany, a term 
applied to an organ which is attached to 
another. 

ADO'NIA, solemn feasts in honour of 
Venus, instituted in memory of her beloved 
Adonis, and observed with great solemnity 
by the Greeks, Phoenicians, Lycians, Sy¬ 
rians, Egyptians, &c. They lasted two days : 
on the first of these the women laid in the 
streets the images of Venus and Adonis, 
as if they were corpses, weeping, tearing 
their hair, beating their breasts, and using 
every token of grief; on the second, they 
sang his praises, and made rejoicings, as if 
Adonis had been raised to life again. 

ADOPTION ( acloptio: Lat.), among the 
Greeks and Romans, the making a person 
one’s heir, and investing him with all the 
rights and privileges of a son. In Rome, 
before adoption could take place, the natu 1 
ral father was obliged to renounce all au¬ 
thority over his son, and with great for¬ 
mality consent that he should be translated 
into the family of the adopter. The adop¬ 
tion of a person already free was called 
adrogation. 

ADORATION (adoratio, from adoro, Iwo r- 
ship : Lat .),-a mode of reverence or worship 
anciently shown to the gods, by raising the 
right hand to the mouth, and gently apply¬ 
ing it to the lips; also, in general, any out¬ 
ward sign of worship, by kissing the hand 
or feet, walking barefoot, or the like. 
Among the Jews, adoration consisted in 
kissing the hands, bowing, kneeling, and 
even prostration. But the posture of adora¬ 
tion most common in all ages and countries 

is kneeling.- Adoration, a mode by 

which the cardinals, in conclave, sometimes 
elect the Roman pontiff. In adoration, un¬ 
like sending, the cardinals rush hastily, as 
if by an internal impulse, to proclaim some 
one pope. 

ADOSSE'E (adosser, to put back to back: 
Fr.), in Heraldry, two animals placed back to 
back. It also denotes any other figures, as 
axes, keys, &c., placed with their heads fac¬ 
ing different ways. 

ADULTERA'TION ( adulteratio , from 
adultero, I corrupt: Lat.), in a general sense, 
denotes the act of debasing, by an impro¬ 
per mixture, something that was pure and 
genuine. Thus, adulteration of coin is the 
casting or making it of a metal inferior in 
goodness to the standard, by using too 
great a proportion of alloy. Putting inferior 
ingredients into bread, beer, wine, &c., by 
bakers, brewers, and other traders, for the 
purpose of imposing on the public, is also 
called adulteration, and cannot be too se¬ 
verely reprehended or punished: the con¬ 
sequences often proving fatal to the health, 
and always greatly abridging the comforts, 
of those who are the victims of such nefa¬ 
rious practices. An act of parliament au¬ 
thorizes the appointment of official analysts 
whose duty it is to examine articles of food 
or drink supposed to be adulterated. 

ADULTERY (adulterium: Lat.), a viola¬ 
tion of the nuptial bed; an offence which has 
been regarded by all civilized nations with 
abhorrence, and in ancient times was pu¬ 
nished as a great crime. By the Jewish law 
the penalty was death, which was inflicted 














13 Utearji CmuStirg. [2 eneid 

by stoning; though this mode of punish¬ 
ment has not been assigned to it in Deu¬ 
teronomy. The Romans did not visit it 
with death until the reign of Constantine. 
The various countries of Europe have, at 
different times, punished it in different 
ways, and sometimes with great severity. 
In this country it is, at present, subject only 
to the cognizance of the Court of Probate 
and Divorce: which may grant a divorce on 
account of it, if the offending party be the 
wife. If the offender be the husband, the 
adultery must be accompanied with deser¬ 
tion for two years, cruelty, bigamy, or some 
infamous crime, before the wife has a right 
to a divorce. The court may also award 
damages, and appropriate all, or a part of 
them, to maintain the children or the wife. 

ADVA'NCED-GUARD, or VAN'GUARD, 
in the Military art, the first line or division 
of an army, ranged or marching in order of 
battle. 

ADVEN'TURE, Bill of ( adventurus, 
about to happen: Lat.), in Commerce, a 
writing signed by a merchant, to testify 
that the goods shipped on board a certain 
vessel belong to another person, he himself 
being answerable only for the produce. 

AD'VERB (adverbium: from ad, to; and 
verbum, a verb: Lat.), a word so called from 
its connection with verbs; though it is 
also frequently joined with adjectives and 
other parts of speech, to modify their mean¬ 
ing. 

AD'VOCATE ( advocatus , from advoco, I 
summon: Lat.), a barrister; a pleader in 
civil or ecclesiastical causes. Advocates 
were held in great honour during the first 
ages of the Roman commonwealth, being 
patricians who defended their clients gra¬ 
tuitously; whence has arisen the custom 
among ourselves of regarding fees as ho- 
noi-ary, and not recoverable by law. But, 
even before the subversion of the republic, 
the class had become a profession, though 
an honourable one. In the time of Cicero, 
an advocate did not mean the patronus, or 
him who made the speech ; it did, however, 
in the time of the emperors. In almost 
every civilized country, men of the first 

talents are found among its advocates.- 

Lord Advocate, the chief crown lawyer 
in Scotland, analogous to the attorney- 
general in England, and the public prose¬ 
cutor. He exercises a superintending 
power over the general administration of 
criminal justice, and is, in point of fact, 
the secretary of state for Scotland. His 
powers are very extensive. 

ADVOW'SON ( advocatio, a calling to : 
Lot.), in Law, a right of presentation to a 
vacant church or benefice, and capable of 
being sold, like any other species of pro¬ 
perty, except during a vacancy. He who 
possesses this right is called the patron of 
the living. This right was first allowed to 
such as were founders, benefactors, or main- 
tainers of the church. Advowsons are 
either presentative, as when the patron pre¬ 
sents or offers his clerk to the bishop to be 
instituted; collativc, as where the benefice 
is given by the bishop, as the original pa- 
ti'on, or by means of the right he has ac¬ 
quired by lapse; or donative, as where the 

king, or other patron, by a simple donation 
in writing, puts the clerk into possession, 
without presentation, institution, or induc¬ 
tion. If the patron (except in the case of 
an advowson donative) docs not present a 
clerk within six months after the benefice 
becomes vacant, the presentation lapses to 
the bishop. In the case of benefices south 
of the Trent, the patronage of advowsons 
belonging to Roman Catholics is vested in 
the University of Oxford, and the Univer¬ 
sity of Cambridge presents to those on the 
north of that river. 

A'DY, the palm-tree of the island of St. 
Thome, on the coast of Malabar; the fruit 
of which is of the size and shape of a lemon, 
and contains an aromatic kernel,from which 
an oil, answering the purpose of butter, is 
prepared. 

AD'YTUM ( adutos, not to be entered : 
Gr.), the most retired and secret place of 
the heathen temples, into which none but 
the priests were allowed to enter. 

ATDES (a temple: Lat,; in the plural, 
JEdes signified a private residence), in Ro¬ 
man Antiquity, an inferior kind of temple, 
consecrated indeed to some deity, but not 
by the augurs. There were a number of 
these in ancient Rome: thus the JEdes For- 
twice, JEdes Pads, JEdes Ilerculis, &c. The 
distinction between aides and temple was 
ultimately lost. 

.ZEDl'LES (fcdcs, a temple : Lat.), four Ro¬ 
man magistrates, whose chief business was 
to superintend buildings of all kinds, but 
more especially public ones, as temples, 
aqueducts, bridges, &c.; and to take care of 
the highways, weights and measures, &c. 
The A5diles were distinguished into the 
JEdiles plebeii, who were chosen from the 
plebeians, as assistants to the tribunes; 
and the JEdiles curules, who were originally 
elected only from the patricians, to take 
charge of certain public games. Julius Caesar 
added two plebeian aediles, termed cereales, 
to inspect public stores of provisions. 

iE'GILOPS ( aigilops: from aix, a goat; 
and ups, an eye : Gr.), an abscess in the can- 
thus, or corner of the eye near the nose. 
Goats were supposed to be subject to a simi¬ 
lar disease In Botany, a genus of grasses, 

of which several species grow in Europe. 

.ZEGIN'ETAN MA'RBLES, a collection of 
ancient sculptures preserved in the Glypto- 
tliek at Munich. They -were originally 
placed on the pediments of a temple in the 
Grecian island iEgina, and represent the 
heroic actions of Hercules, Ajax, and others 
against the Trojans. They are anterior to 
the time of Phidias, and the style is ar¬ 
chaic. 

yE'GIS ( aigis , a shield : Gr.), the shield of 
Jupiter. It had the Medusa’s head fixed 
upon it. The word is sometimes used to 
express the breastplate of a god. Artists, 
in representing the aegis, seem to have con¬ 
sidered it as a goat’s skin, and derived from 
aix, a goat. 

HSNE'ID, the title of Yirgil’s epic poem, 
in which he celebrates the adventures of 
iEneas, one of the bravest among the Tro¬ 
jan heroes, and who was feigned to be the 
son of Venus by Anchises. The author in¬ 
troduces him as sailing from Troy,after its 













2E0LIAN] 


©4)£ Scientific antf 


14 




destruction, in search of the shores of 
Italy, on which it had been promised by tho 
gods that he should found an empire des¬ 
tined to be immortal. He is shipwrecked 
upon the coast of Africa, where he is hos¬ 
pitably received by Dido, queen of Carthage, 
to whom lie relates his adventures, begin¬ 
ning with his escape from Troy, when it was 
taken by the Greeks. Dido falls in love 
with him, but he is bent on leaving Car¬ 
thage, and she dies on a funeral pile. A 
storm drives him to Sicily, but at length he 
reaches the Italian coast. The Sybil of 
Cum* then guides him down to the infernal 
regions, where he has an interview with 
his father, who informs him of the destiny 
reserved for his descendants. Returning 
to the upper world, HSneas is promised the 
daughter of king Latinus in marriage, but 
he has a rival in Turnus, king of the Rutuli, 
and war is carried on between-them. In 
the end iEneas slays Turnus in single com¬ 
bat, and this terminates the poem. Elegance 
of language and good taste, not invention 
or soaring power, are the characteristics of 
the JEneid, to which Virgil, who died b.c. 
19, did not live to put the finishing touches 
he intended. 

.EO'LJAN HARP (JEolus, God of the 
winds), a stringed instrument which is 
placed in a window, and played upon by 
the wind. It produces the effect of a dis¬ 
tant choir of music in the air, sweetly min¬ 
gling all the harmonic notes, and swelling 
or diminishing its sounds according to the 
strength or weakness of the blast. 

iEOL'IPILE (CEolipilce: from JEolus , god 
of the winds; and pila, a ball: Lat.), a hollow 
metal ball, in which is inserted a slender 
neck or pipe, front whence, after the vessel 
has been partly filled with water and heated, 
issues a powerful stream of vapour. It 
serves to show the convertibility of water 
into steam, and was known to the ancients. 

-E'RA, or E'RA ( Lat .), a fixed historical 
period whence years are reckoned : as the 
‘ building of Rome,’ or the ‘ birth of Christ.’ 
Era and epoch are to be distinguished. An 


Era 


Year of the World— 
I Constantinopoli- 
tan account. . 
■j Alexandrian ac¬ 
count . . . 

V Jewish account 
Era of Nabonassar 
Olympiads . . . 
Year of Rome . 
Julian Era. . . 
Christian Era. . 
Era of Sulwanah 
Era of Diocletian 
The Hegira . . 
Era of Yezdegird 


Com¬ 

menced 

Abbre¬ 

viation 

n.c. 

5509 

a.m. Const. 

ft 

5492 

a.m. Alex. 


3700 

A.M. 

tf 

747 

Era Nab. 

>> 

776 

Olymp. 


753 

A.U.O. 

ff 

45 

Jul. Era. 



A.D. 

A.D 

78 

Saca. 

ff 

2S4 

Era Dios. 


622 

A.ir. 

If 

632 

A.Pers. 


epoch is the point of time at which an era 
commences. Differentnationskaveadopted 
different eras ; but Christians always reckon 
from the birth of Christ, which is generally 


thought to have taken place in the middle 
of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, and 
in the 753rd year of the building of Rome. 
Above are the principal eras. 

yERA'RIUM (a treasury, from ces, money: 
Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, the treasury, or 
place where the public money was deposi ted. 
The ceranum sanctius, or more sacred trea¬ 
sury, was intended to provide only for 
cases of extreme urgency. 

AE'RIAL ROOTS. These are roots which 
some plants are in the habit of emitting 
above the ground. The processes by which 
the ivy clings to a wall are aerial roots. 
The lower part of the trunk of the Screw 
Pine sends out a great number of such roots, 
which enter the ground and prop it all 
round. In India living bridges are formed 
across streams by taking advantage of the. 
property possessed by some kinds of fig 
trees of sending out aerial roots, which are 
made to grow together and form natural 
grafts. 

AERODYNAM'ICS (air, the air; and du- 
naviis, power: Gr.), that branch of aerology 
which treats of the motion of the air, and 
its mechanical effects when in motion; also 
its resistance to bodies moving in it. 

AE'ROLITES ( aer , the air; and lithos, a 
stone: Gr.), meteoric stones, which fall in a 
state of ignition from the atmosphere. Mauy 
different opinions have been held regard¬ 
ing the origin of these remarkable produc¬ 
tions. Some have supposed them projected 
from volcanos in the moon: which is quite 
possible, since they would require, for this 
purpose, an initial velocity of only 7770feet 
Per second, or four times that of a ball when 
first thrown from a cannon with an ordinary 
charge of powder. Others have believed 
them ejected from terrestrial volcanos, with 
a force sufficient to carry them far above the 
atmosphere. They are now usually regarded 
as fragments thrown off from shooting 
stars and fire balls when, in moving with 
planetary velocities in space and revolving 
in conic sections round the sun, they ap¬ 
proach the earth in their paths, and enter 
our atmosphere, becoming luminous therein. 
They are thrown with such force that they 
sometimes enter the soil to the depth of 15 
or 20 feet. The largest stone that has been 
measured is 7J feet long. These stones bear 
a general resemblance to each other in ex¬ 
ternal form, in the nature of their crust, 
and in the chemical composition of their 
principal constituents. In all, 18 elementary 
substances have been found in them, includ¬ 
ing metallic iron, a metal which has never 
been found in this state in our globe. Much 
interest was attached in ancient times to an 
aerolite which fell in the 78th Olympiad, 
about the time of the birth of Socrates at 
iEgospotamos on the Hellespont. It is 
mentioned by several Greek and Latin 
writers. 

. AEROL'OGY (aer, the air; and logos, a 
discourse : Gr.), the doctrine or science of 
air. [See Ain, Atmosphere, and Gas.] 

AEROM'ETRY (aer, the air; and metreo, 

I measure: Gr.), the art of measuring the 
air, so as to ascertain its pressure or weight 
its elasticity, rarefaction, &c. ’ 

A'ERONAUT (aer, the air; and nautee, a 

























15 Httcvary (Stoadurg* [affinity 


Bailor: Gr.), one who sails in the air in a 
balloon. 

AERONAU'TICS (last), or AEROSTA'- 
TION ( aer, the air; and istemi, I stand : Gr.), 
the art of navigating the air, by employing 
air-balloons, or [sillcen globes, filled with a 
gas lighter than atmospheric air, usually 
carburetted hydrogen, from its being easily 
procurable in large quantity. 

^ERU'GO (rust: Lat.), the rust of copper. 
The Romans considered that cerugo added 
greatly to the appearance of their bronze 
statues. 

iESTHETTCS ( aistlieticos, fitted to per¬ 
ception : Gr.), that branch of philosophy 
which investigates all questions relating to 
the beautiful in poetry and the fine arts. 

iESTIVA'TION (cestivus, belonging to 
summer: Lat.), in Botany, the manner in 
which the parts of a flower are arranged 
before they unfold. 

EE'THER ( aither , pure air: Gr.), a hypo¬ 
thetical subtle fluid, supposed by some to 
fill all space, and to be that substance the 
vibrations of which constitute light and 
heat, as the vibrations of the air constitute 
sound. Some astronomers think that certain 
irregularities in the motions of the planets 
are to be accounted for by the retarding 
property of an afflier, aud one of the expla¬ 
nations of the phenomena of terrestrial 
magnetism is founded upon the hypothesis 
of tether. 

iE'THOGEN (aithbn, glittering; and gi- 
nomai, I become : Gr.), a compound of boron 
and nitrogen, which yields a brilliant phos¬ 
phorescent light, when heated before the 
blow-pipe. 

EETIOL'OGY (aitia, a cause; and logos, a 
discourse : Gr.), the doctrine of the causes 
of disease. 

AETI'TES ( aetites, from aetos, an eagle: 
Gr.), or Eagle Stones, a name given to 
pebbles or stones of any kind, which have a 
loose nucleus rattling within them. Eagle 
stones are frequently found in our gravel 
pits. They obtained their name from being 
supposed to be used by the eagle in build¬ 
ing its nest. 

AFFETUO'SO (affetto, affection : Ital.), in 
Music, a term prefixed to a movement, to 
show that it is to be performed in a smooth, 
tender, and affecting manner, and somewhat 
slowly. 

AFFI'ANCE ( flancer, to betroth : Fr.) 
denotes the mutual plighting of troth be¬ 
tween a man and woman, to; bind them¬ 
selves to the performance of a marriage 
contract. It has no other effect in law 
than that, if a party who was of age at the 
time of making it violates it, there is a right 
to an action for damages. 

AFFIDA'VIT (offido, I confirm by oath : 
Lat.), in Law, a written statement made on 
oath before one who is legally authorized to 
receive it. Voluntary affidavits are abo¬ 
lished, declarations being substituted, as 
also in many cases in which affidavits were 
formerly required. 

AFFILIATION (ad, to ; and filius, a son: 
Lat.), in Law, proof of paternity in the case 
of an illegitimate child, with the view of 
obliging the father to contribute to its 
support. Application must be made to a 


justice of peace within a year after the 
birth of the child, unless the father have al¬ 
ready contributed to its support; and a 
summons will then be issued. The mother’s 
oath must be corroborated by other evi¬ 
dence ; and there is a right of appeal given 
to the reputed father. 

AFFIN'ITY ( afjinitas, from affinis, re¬ 
lated by marriage: Lat.), in Civil Law, the 
relationship in which each of the parties 
married stands to the kindred of the other. 
Affinity is distinguished into three kinds: 
\. Direct Affinity, or that subsisting between 
the husband and his wife’s relations by 
blood, or between the wife and her hus¬ 
band’s relations by blood. 2. Secondary af¬ 
finity, or that which subsists between the 
husband and his wife’s relations by mar¬ 
riage. 3. Collateral affinity, or that which 
subsists between the husband and the rela¬ 
tions of his wife’s relations. It should, 
however, be observed, that a person cannot, 
by legal succession, receive an inheritance 
from a relation by affinity; neither does it 
extend to the nearest relations of husband 
and wife, so as to create a mutual relation 
between them.- Affinity, in Compara¬ 

tive Anatomy, the similarity between ani¬ 
mals, arising from a resemblance between 

their organizations. [See Homology.]- 

Affinity, in Chemistry, that attractive 
force which is assumed to exist when dif¬ 
ferent substances combine, so as to form a 
compound having qualities very different 
from those of its elements. To enable sub¬ 
stances to unite chemically, they must be 
placed in favourable circumstances:— two 
solids rarely unite; and even two fluids 
sometimes require heat, to overcome the 
cohesion of their particles. The solar rays 
frequently aid affinity. Substances unite 
more readily in their nascent state ; that is, 
at the moment they are liberated from 
some compound. Bodies under the influence 
of chemical affinity never unite in all pro¬ 
portions. Some definite relative quantity 
of one, or some multiple of it, always com¬ 
bines with some definite relative quantity 
of any other with which it has an affinity, or 
some multiple of it; and the least known 
definite combining proportion of an ele¬ 
ment is termed its chemical equivalent, or 
atomic weight. Thus 6 is the equivalent of 
carbon, and 8 that of oxygen: — hence 0 
grs., for example, of carbon, and 8 grs. of 
oxygen, form a compound (carbonic oxide); 
6 grs. of carbon, and 16 grs. of oxygen, form 
another compound (carbonic acid); 12 grs. 
of carbon, and 24 grs. of oxygen, form an¬ 
other compound (oxalic acid). These three 
compounds, consisting of different quan¬ 
tities of the same elements, are extremely 
unlike in properties:—the first is a com¬ 
bustible; the second is harmless in the 
stomach; the third is a most violent 
poison. Again, 8, 16, 24, 32, and 40 lbs., 
grs., &c., of oxygen, unite with 14 lbs., grs., 
&c„ of nitrogen : forming five totally dif¬ 
ferent compounds. Thus we have enume¬ 
rated several compounds containing oxy¬ 
gen ; but all of them contain it, as some 
multiple of 8, its atomic weight, or chemical 
equivalent. And whatever substance we 
select for examination, wo shall always find 














affirmation] ^ctenttuc anti 16 


some multiple of its atomic weight in 
combination. The exceptions to this rule 
discovered in the organic kingdom are, un¬ 
doubtedly,only apparent. The number which 
expresses how often the atomic weight 
is found in a compound is generally small. 
This is exemplified by the compounds of ni¬ 
trogen mentioned above ; the weights of the 
oxygen being, respectively, l, 2, 3, 4, and 5 
times its atomic weight. Lastly, gases com¬ 
bine in volumes; and the volume of the 
result bears a very simple relation to 
the volumes of the elements combined to 
form it. 

AFFIRMA'TION {afflrmatio, from afflrmo, 
I assert positively: Lat.), a simple assevera¬ 
tion, which, according to a set form of 
words, is allowed to persons who have con¬ 
scientious scruples to oaths. Under a spe¬ 
cial act of parliament declarations have in 
many cases been substituted for affidavits, 
without reference to individual opinion. A 
false affirmation, or a false declaration, is 
subject to the same penalties as perjury. 

AFFIR'MATIYE {afflnnativus: Lat., same 
deriv.), an epithet applied by Logicians to 
propositions in which the copula is affirm¬ 
ative. 

AF'FIX (afflxus, joined to: Lat), in Gram¬ 
mar, a particle added to the close of a word, 
to alter its signification; when placed at 
the beginning, it is a prefix. 

AFFL A'TU S (an inspiration: Lat.) , among 
heathen mythologists and poets, the actual 
inspiration of some divinity. Cicero, how¬ 
ever, extends the meaning of the word 
farther, by attributing all great actions to 
a divine afflatus. 

AFFRONTE'E ( affronter , to face : Fr.), in 
Heraldry, an appellation given to animals 
facing each other. 

AFLOAT', a term used to denote that a 
ship is in water sufficiently deep to buoy 
her up. 

A FORTIO'RT (for a stronger reason : 
Lat.), a term implying that what follows is 
a more powerful argument than what has 
been before adduced. 

AF'TERMATH, the grass which springs 
up after mowing. 

A'GA (a commander: Turk.), a term 
applied, in courtesy, to a gentleman or 
wealthy landholder; or given on account of 
post or rank. The chief officers under the 
khan of Tartary are also called Agas. 

AGALMAT'OLITE ( agalma, an image ; 
and lithos, a stone: Gr.), a soft mineral sub¬ 
stance chiefly found in China, where it is 
wrought into various ornaments. 

A'GAMOUS (a, not; and gamos, nuptials: 
Gr.), in Botany, a term sometimes applied 
to cryptogamic plants, on account of the 
supposed absence of bodies like stamens 
and pistils. 

AG'AILE {agape, brotherly love: Gr.), 
love-feasts kept by the ancient Christians 
as a token of brotherly charity and mutual 
benevolence. In course of time abuses 
crept in, and rendered their abolition ne¬ 
cessary. 

AGAPE'T.E {agapetos, beloved : Gr.), a 
society of unmarried women among the 
primitive Christians, who attended on and 
served the clergy. At first there was no¬ 


thing improper in these societies: but they 
were afterwards charged with gross immo¬ 
ralities, and were wholly abolished by the 
council of Lateran, in 1139. 

AGAR/ICUS {agarikon, a mushroom : Gr.), 
a large genus of fungi, including the com¬ 
mon mushroom (A. campestris) and other 
species that are poisonous. 

A'GATE {achates: Gr.), a stone much 
used, when cut and polished, for orna¬ 
mental purposes. It is chiefly found in 
trap rocks, and consists of silex with a 
little oxide of iron. Chalcedony, onyx, cor¬ 
nelian, bloodstone, and jasper, are varieties 
of agate. Also a stone of the agate kind 
engraven by art, which constitutes, among 
antiquarians, a species of gem. 

A'GAVE AMERICANA, the American 
Aloe does not belong to the same natural 
order as the true aloes, but to th oAmarylli- 
dacece. Several species inhabit America, 
some of which yield the pita fibre, or aloe 
thread; others a juice which, when fer¬ 
mented, forms a beverage called pulque by 
the Spaniards. The Agave presents a hand¬ 
some appearance when in flower. A tall 
stem, like a flag-pole, rises from the middle 
of the plant, and the flowers are arranged 
candelabrum-fashion at the upper part. 
The plant dies after flowering. It is a mere 
fable that the Agave only flowers once in a 
hundred years. 

AGE {Fr.), a certain period or limit of 
time, marked for the convenience of chro¬ 
nology and history by some remarkable 

events.-Among ancient historians, the 

duration of the world was subdivided into 
three periods, or ages: the first, reaching 
from the creation to the deluge which hap¬ 
pened in Greece during the reign of Ogygcs, 
is called the obscure or uncertain age; the 
second, called the fabulous or heroic, ter¬ 
minates at the first Olympiad, the com¬ 
mencement of the third, or historical age. 
The poets also distinguished the period of 
the world into four ages; the golden age, or 
that of simplicity and happiness; the silver 
age, which was less pure than the golden 
age, and in which men began to till the 
ground for their sustenance; the brazen age, 
when strife and.contentions commenced; 
and the iron age, when justice and honour 

had left the earth.- Age, in Law, signifies 

certain periods of life, when persons of both 
sexes are considered competent to perforin 
certain acts, which, for want of years and 
discretion, they were incapable of before: 
thus a man may take the oath of allegiance 
at twelve; at fourteen he is capable of con¬ 
tracting matrimony, and may be punished 
capitally for a crime; at twenty-one he can 
make valid contracts. A woman, at twelve, 
may contract marriage; and at twenty-one 
may enter into contracts which may be en¬ 
forced against her. Both sexes are said to 
be of age, or to attain their majority, at 
twenty-one. Infants, under seven years 
old, are considered incapable of committing 
felony; between seven and fourteen they 
are acquitted, unless malitiasapplet evtatem, 
that is, unless a propensity to crime makes 
up for want of age. In England persons 
are not admitted to deacon’s orders until 
they are twenty-three years of age, nor to 

















17 Etfcnui) 


priest’s orders until they are twenty-four. 

-Among ancient Physiologists, the life 

of man was divided into six ages: pueritia, 
or childhood, extending from birth to five 
years old; adolescentia, or boyhood, to eight; 
inventus, or youth, to thirty; virilis cetas, 
or manhood, to fifty; senectus, or old age, 
to sixty; and decrepita cetas, or decrepitude, 
to death.—By the Roman law, different 
ages were required for different purposes. 
Thus the consular age, or that at which a 
person might hold the consulship, was 
forty-three; the judiciary was between 
thirty and sixty; the military age was 

seventeen ; the praetorian, forty.- Age, 

in Literature, some period in which learn¬ 
ing flourished to an unusual extent. It 
generally takes its name from a celebrated 
monarch, or some other illustrious person. 
The most remarkable ages are those of 
Pericles, the Augustan age, the age of Leo 

X., the age of Louis XIV., &c_ Age, in 

Chronology, a century or a generation. The 
middle ages are generally considered to 
have begun with the reign of Constantine, 
and ended about the commencement of the 
sixteenth century. They ought to be con¬ 
sidered as having ended with the invention 
of printing. 

AGEN'DA (things to be done: Lat.), 
among Divines, sometimes signifies things 
which a man is bound to perform, in oppo¬ 
sition to credenda, or those which he is 
bound to believe. It also denotes the ser¬ 
vice or offices of the church. 

A'GENT ( agens , doing : Lat), in a general 
sense, denotes anything which acts, or pro¬ 
duces an effect. Agent, free or voluntary, 

in Metaphysics, is he who may equally do 
anything, or its opposite, as acting not from 

any predetermination, but from choice.- 

Agent is also used to denote a person en¬ 
trusted with the management of an affair, 
whether belonging to a society, company, 
or private person. Thus there are army 
agents, through whom every regimental 
concern of a pecuniary nature is transacted; 
and navy agents, who are employed by naval 
officers and seamen to manage their con¬ 
cerns with regard to pay, prize-money, &c. 

-Agent, in Law, he who acts for and in 

the place of a pi'incipal. As long as he keeps 
within the scope of his authority, and de¬ 
clares that he is acting only as agent, he is 
not personally bound. A large body of law 
has grown up with reference to the rela¬ 
tions of principal and agent. 

AGGREGATE ( aggrego, I gather toge¬ 
ther: Lat.), in a general sense, the sum of 
several things added together, or the col¬ 
lection of them into one whole. 

AGGREGA'TION (same deriv.), in Physics, 
a species of union, by which several things, 
which have no natural dependence or con¬ 
nection with each other, are collected toge¬ 
ther ; thus, a heap of sand, or a mass of 
ruins, are bodies by aggregation.-In Che¬ 

mistry, it means the adhesion of parts of 
the same kind; as pieces of sulphur united 
by fusion form an aggregate. 

A'GIO (conveniency: Ital.), in Commerce, 
a term chiefly used in Holland and at 
Venice, to signify the difference between 
the value of standard and current money; 


Crcasitrji. [agrarian 


also, the premium given when a payment is 
made in one metal instead of another—thus 
in gold instead of silver, where gold is 
scarce. 

AGIST', AGIST'MENT, AGIST'AGE, or 
AGISTA'TION ( agister, permission to re¬ 
ceive cattle on land: Old Fr.), in Law, the 
taking in other people’s cattle to graze, at 
so much per week. The term is applied also 
to the profits thence arising. 

AG'MEN (Lat., from ago, I set in motion), 
in the Roman art of war, an army, or rather 
a part of it, in march : thus the Primum 
cigmen, or van-guard; the Medium agmen, 
or main body; and the Postremum agmen, 
or rear-guard. 

AGNA'TION ( agnatio, relationship on the 
father’s side; from agnascor, I am born in 
addition to : Lat.), in Roman Law, the rela¬ 
tionship subsisting between the descend¬ 
ants of the same man in the male line ; in 
opposition to relationship through either 
males or females, termed cognation. 

AGNOE'TiE ( agnoeo, I do not know: Gr.), 
in Church History, a sect of heretics, in the 
sixth century, who maintained that Christ, 
with respect to his human nature, was ig¬ 
norant of many things, and particularly of 
the day of judgment. 

AGNO'MEX (ad, to; and gnomen, the old 
form of nomen, a name: Lat.), in Roman 
Antiquity, the fourth or honorary name be¬ 
stowed on account of some extraordinary 
action, virtue, or accomplishment. Thus 
the agnomen Africanus was given to Pub¬ 
lius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his ex¬ 
ploits in Africa. 

AG'NUS DE'I (Lamb of God: Lat), a 
prayer of the Roman Catholic liturgy, be¬ 
ginning with those words. Also, the figure 
of a lamb as symbolical of Christ. It is 
usually represented as bearing a staff 
headed with a Greek cross, or carrying a 
banner. This name is also given to a round 
piece of wax, on which is impressed the 
figure of the sacred Lamb, and which is 
consecrated by the pope with great solem¬ 
nity. Such pieces of wax are consecrated 
every seven years, and distributed amongst 
the people. 

AGO'NIA (agunia, a contest: Gr.), among 
Physicians, a struggle between life and 
death. 

AGONIS'TICUM (agonistikos, from ago- 
nizomai, I contend with : Gr.), in Medicine, 
an application of excessively cold water, in 
cases of fever. 

AGOU'TI, the local name of the Cavia 
Patagonica, a rodent animal, which abounds 
on the wild plains of Patagonia. It weighs 
from 20 to 25 lbs. It hops like the hare and 
rabbit, to which it is allied, and like the 
latter it forms a burrow in the ground. 

AGRA'RIAN LAWS (agrarius, belonging 
to land: Lat), in Roman History, several 
measures regarding the distribution of the 
lands obtained by conquest, and which were 
at first leased out to the patricians at a very 
small rent, the plebeians gaining nothing 
by them. It is probable, says Michelet, that 
under the vague title of Agrarian law, two 
very different propositions have been 
confounded; first, that of permitting the 
plebeians to share the sacred territory of 
C 




















- ..■ ■ 1 

agreement] £TI)c ilricnttftc ruief 18 

primitive Rome, to the possession of which 
nil the rights of the city belonged. Second, 
that of'sharing equally the lands conquered 
by the people and usurped by the patricians. 
An agrarian law was first heard of in con¬ 
nection with a half-mythical person, one 
Spurius Cassius, 484 b.c. The agrarian laws 
brought forward by Tiberius Gracchus cost 
him his life in 133 B.c. 

AGREE'MENT ( agrSment , agreeableness: 
Fr.), in Law, the consent of two or more 

1 persons to anything done or to be done ; a 
contract. 

AG'RICULTTTRE ( agri cultura, tillage of 
land: Lat.), the art of cultivating the 
| ground for the purpose of obtaining vege¬ 
table produce therefrom. The system 

adopted at any given place should have re¬ 
ference to the soil and climate. The for¬ 
mer, if of a tenacious nature, will require 
i the application of surface draining for the 
purpose of withdrawing the water, which, 
if allowed to remain, might injure the 
crops ; and subsoil draining, which has in 
i view the carrying to the roots of the plants 
a supply of substances in solution such as 
are required for their support and growth, 
i For the latter purpose artificial irrigation 
may be needed. A stiff soil ought to be 
: lightened by the admixture of vegetable 
matter, road scrapings, &c.; a porous soil 
should be strengthened with stiffer mate¬ 
rials, such as marl. All kinds of soil in¬ 
tended to receive seed require to be pre¬ 
pared by the operations of ploughing, 
harrowing, &c., and food ought to be sup¬ 
plied to the crops in the shape of some of 
the different kinds of manure. Some of 
these are yielded by the farm itself, such as 
the manure of cattle,and green crops which 
are ploughed into the soil. Others are pre¬ 
pared from bones, fish, &c.; others are clie- 
| mical preparations from minerals, such as 
coprolites, and certain salts ; whilst others, 
such as guano, are imported from foreign 
parts. The choice of a manure will depend 
upon the nature of the soil to which it is 
intended to be applied, and the crops in¬ 
tended to be grown. The mechanical ope¬ 
rations of sowing and planting, of cutting, 
getting in, and storing the crops, are be- 
i coming daily.more and more performed by 
machinery actuated on large farms by steam 
power. The breeding and feeding of cattle 
with a view to the market, or to the pro- 
| 1 duotion of milk, butter and cheese, the 
breeding and feeding of sheep, either for 
food or for the sake of the wool, are usually 
j but not necessarily, parts of an agricultu¬ 
rist's duties. Of late years agriculture has 
been much more succesful in its results 
. than formerly, because it has been pursued 
with the assistance of scientific men. Its 
various operations are rapidly becoming 
less empirical, and more uniformly con- 
, ducted under the guidance of the truths of 
science. 

AGROUND', a term applied to a ship, 
i when any part of it rests on the ground, so 
as to render it immovable. 

AGRYP'NIA ( agrupnia: from agr, for a, 
not; and hupnos, sleep: Gr.), among Phy¬ 
sicians, a privation of sleep, a troublesome 
symptom of nervous and febrile diseases. | 

A'GUE, a general name for all periodical 
fevers, which, according to the different 
times of the return of the feverish pa¬ 
roxysm or fit, are denominated quotidian, 
tertian, or quartan agues. They occur 
chiefly in situations where there are shallow, < 
stagnant waters. 

AHEAD', in Naval language, signifies 
farther on than the ship, in opposition to 
cistern, or behind it. 

A-HULI/, a term for a ship when all her ; 
sails are furled, and she lies with her helm 
lashed on the lee-side. 

AID ( aide: Fr.), in feudal times, a subsidy 
paid by vassals to their lords, on certain 
occasions. 

AID'E-DE-CAMP (assistant in camp :Fr.), 
an officer who attends on a general officer 
in the field, winter quarters, &c. A field- 
marshal is entitled to four; a lieutenant- 
general, to two; and a major-general, to 
one. The king appoints as many as he 
pleases, and the appointment gives the 
rank of colonel. 

AIGUFLLE (a needle: Fr.), an instru¬ 
ment used by engineers to pierce a rock for 
the lodgment of powder, as in a mine. 
The pointed rocks in Alpine mountains are 
termed Aiguilles. 

AIL'ANTHUS, a deciduous tree, with 
pinnate leaves, introduced into England 
from China. It grows in the open air with 
us ; and as its leaves afford food to a silk¬ 
worm, the Bombyx Cynthia, it has been 
proposed to plant it extensively in our 
island, for the purpose of silk cultivation. 

It belongs to the natural order Simaruba- 
cecc, and is, therefore, allied to the bitter 
Quassia. 

AIR (aer: Gr.) [see Atmosphere], in 
Grecian Mythology, was personified under 
the names of Jupiter and Juno. Jupiter 
was said to reign in the upper atmosphere, 

and Juno in the lower.- Air, in Music, 

is properly the tune which is adapted 
to the words of a song, or piece of poetry 
intended to be sung; and, by the extension 
of the term, the song itself is called an air. 

In Operas, the name of air is given to all 
measured music, to distinguish it from the 
recitative; and, generally, to every piece 
of music, whether vodtl or instrumental, 
which has its beginning and end. Arietta 
signifies a short, less elaborate air, designed 
to express a more simple and transient 
emotion. 

AIPiZ-BLADDER, or the Swim-B LADDER, 
an organ found in the abdomen of many 
fishes. It is considered to be homologous 
with the lungs of higher vertebrata, but its 
use seems to have relation to the equili¬ 
brium of the fish, and to lighten or increase 
its relative weight by its compression or 
dilatation. It is said that if the air-bladder 
is burst, or if it is pierced artificially, the 
fish remains at the bottom of the water, 
turning belly upwards. In fresh-water fishes 
the contents of the sac have been found to 
be chiefly nitrogen. 

AIR'-CELLS, in birds, membranous re¬ 
ceptacles, communicating with the lungs, 
occupying the interspaces of the thoracic 
and abdominal viscera, extending round the 
principal joints, penetrating the substance 































19 


ilttcrarn treasury. 


[ALB ATI? OSS 


of the hones, insinuating themselves be¬ 
tween the skin and subjacent muscles, 
and entering the quills. The whole body 
being thus permeated by air, its specific 
i gravity is diminished, and the organs of 
' respiration are extended: an arrangement 
| admirably calculated to adapt birds for 

flight.- Air-Cells, in plants, are cavities 

containing air, which in aquatic plants arc 
■ large, and serve to float them. 

AIR-'ENGINE, a machine somewhat ana¬ 
logous to the steam-engine, in which heated 
air is the motive power, instead of the 
vapour of water. Air is pumped into a 
cylinder, having been previously heated to 
450°, by transmission through a series of 
wire nets, placed parallel and very close, 
in a vessel called a regenerator: when in 
the cylinder it is raised to 480° ; and this in¬ 
crease of temperature doubles its volume. 
After having moved the piston, it leaves the 
cylinder, by means of valves ; and passing 
through the regenerator, it gives back to it 
nearly all the heat it received. It escapes 
from the regenerator by that extremity at 
which the cold air is pumped in, and which 
therefore is cold, the other extremity being 
hot. The power of such an engine would 
be, the difference between that produced 
by increasing the elasticity of the air with 
heat, and that expended in working the 
pump which forces the air through. Its 
advantages would be, freedom from the 
danger of explosion, absence of a boiler 
and the necessity for water, and — theo¬ 
retically at least—a more economical ex¬ 
penditure of heat. But, in practice, it is 
complicated, and has not been found to 
answer, particularly on a large scale. 

AIR'-GUN, a gun constructed so as to pro¬ 
pel bullets solely by means of condensed 
air, some of which is liberated at each dis¬ 
charge of the trigger. 

AIR'-JACIvET, a sort of jacket made of 
leather, in which are several bags or blad- 
] ders, containing air. By the help of these 
| bladders, which are placed near the breast, 

! a person is supported in the water, without 
making the efforts used in swimming. 

AIR'-PLANTS, or Epiphytes, are plants 
which are able to grow without attachment 
to the ground, deriving all the materials 
required for their growth from the atmo¬ 
sphere; the orchids of warm climates are 
examples. 

AIR'-PUMP, a machine for exhausting 
the air out of vessels, in the same manner 
as water is drawn away by a pump. The 
operation of this machine depends on the 
elasticity of the air: for, by working the 
pump, the air in the receiver will expand 
itself; by which means part of it will be 
forced into the barrel of the pump, and be 
carried off. By thus continuing to work 
the pump, the air in the receiver will be 
gradually exhausted; but can never be 
wholly drawn out, so as to leave a perfect 
vacuum within the vessel; for it must be 
considered, that the air which is exhausted, 
is only pushed out by the spring of that 
which remains behind. In practice the 
machine will cease to act, when the air is 
so rarefied as to be unable by its elasticity 
to open the valves; though they are of ex¬ 


treme lightness, being generally formed of 

oiled silk.- Air-Pump, in steam-engines, 

is a pump worked by the engine for re¬ 
moving the air disengaged from the cold 
water in the condenser, and the water that 
collects at the bottom of that vessel. 

AIR'-SHAETS, in Mining, holes or shafts 
let down from the open air, to discharge the 
foul air or gases. 

AIR'-THREADS, in Natural history, the 
long filaments seen floating in the air at the 
autumnal season of the year. [See Gossa¬ 
mer.] 

AIR,'-VESSELS; in insects, air-vessels, or 
tracheaj, scattered through all parts of their 
bodies, convey the air wherever it is re¬ 
quired for renovating the fluids. They are 
frequently mounted as objects for the mi¬ 
croscope. 

AISLE (did, a wing: Lat.), in Architecture, 
the side subdivisions of a church, generally 
separated from the nave by pillars or 
piers. 

A'JUTAGE, or AD'JUTAGE (adjuto, I 
help : Lat.), in Hydraulics, a short pipe 
placed in a vessel to assist the discharge of 
a fluid. 

AL, an Arabian particle, answering to the 
English the, as ‘ Alcoran,’ the book. 

A'LA, or A'LiE {Lat.), in Ancient Military 
affairs, the wings of an army, or the horse 

on each side flankingthefoot.-In Grecian 

Architecture, the colonnade surrounding 
the cella of a temple.-In Modern Archi¬ 

tecture, the lateral buildings, subordinate 

to the centre or principal one.- Ala, in 

Ornithology, the wing of a bird. 

AL'ABASTER {alahastros: Gr.), a well- 
known mineral composed of sulphate of 
lime, forming a soft, granular, imperfectly 
transparent marble; used for ornaments in 
houses, and by statuaries. It is found in 
Germany, France, Italy, &c. 

ALA'BASTRHS (rose-bud: Lat.), a name 
occasionally given by botanists to the flower 
bud. 

ALA'RAF {arafa, to distinguish: Arab.), 
according to the Mahometan creed, the 
party-wall which separates heaven from 
hell. 

ALA'RES (belonging to a wing, from ala, 
a wing: Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, an epi¬ 
thet given to the cavalry, on account of 
their being placed in the two wings, or aim, 
of the army. 

ALAR,'CM ( alarme, fear: Fr.), any contri¬ 
vance for the purpose of calling assistance 
in cases of sudden danger, generally a bell. 

ALB, or ALBE ( albus, white: Lat.), in 
the Roman Catholic Church, a vestment of 
white linen, hanging down to the feet. In 
the ancient church, it was usual with those 
newly baptized, to wear an alb, or white 
vestment; and hence the Sunday after Eas¬ 
ter was called dominica in albis, on account 
of the albs worn by those baptized on 
Easter-day. 

AL'BANIAN, a language of the Indo- 
European family, supposed to be the last 
surviving representative of the tongues 
which were spoken by the barbarous races 
living near and coexistent with the ancient 
Greeks. 

AL'BATROSS, or Man-of-War Bird. This 



































ALBIGENSES] 


belongs to the genus Diomedea of natural¬ 
ists, of which there are several species, all 
possessing a strong hard and thick beak 
with a curve at the end, webbed feet, and 
very long wings. The common albatross 
(D. exulans) is the largest known sea-bird, 
and is often met with in the neighbourhood 
of South Africa. Its plumage is white with 
black bands. It feeds on fish and is very 
voracious. 

ALBIGEN'SES (from Albigesium, in the 
twelfth century the name of a place in 
France, now called Albi), a designation com¬ 
mon to several sects who agreed in opposing 
the dominion of the Romish hierarchy, and 
endeavouring to restore the simplicity of 
primitive Christianity. They endured the 
severest persecutions, and after the middle 
of the thirteenth century, the name ofAlbi- 
genses altogether disappeared; but fugitives 
of their party f_<ined, in the mountains of 
Piedmont and in Lombardy, what is called 
the French Church, which not only existed 
till the era of the Reformation, but conti¬ 
nues still to flourish. 

ALBI'NO ( albus , white: Lat.), or Leucue- 
thiops ( leukos , white; and Aithiops, an Ethi¬ 
opian ; Or.), a variety of the human species 
that frequently occurs in Africa. The Por¬ 
tuguese first gave the name of Albino 
to the white negro, whom they formerly 
described as belonging to a distinct race : 
but modern naturalists have discovered 
Albinos in various countries of Europe, viz. 
in Switzerland, among the Savoyards in the 
valley of Cbamouni; in France, in the tract 
of the Rhine; in Tyrol, &c. Their charac¬ 
teristics are now said to be owing to a mor¬ 
bid state of the rete mucosum, which may 
attack men in every climate, and to which 
even certain animals are subject. Their 
skin has a dull white or cadaverous appeai- 
ance; the iris of the eye is of a bright red ; 
and the hair is either white and silky, or of 
a very flaxen colour. When this variety is 
found among the negroes, the woolly cover¬ 
ing of their heads is white. 

ALBU'GO (albus, white : Lot.), a disease 
of the eye, which consists of a white speck ; 
and is called the pearl, &c. 

AL'BUM (same deriv.), a white table or 
register, on which the Roman praetors had 
their decrees written. There were many 
others in use, and they received their appel¬ 
lations from the various magistrates whose 
names were entered in them; as the album 
judicum, the album decurionum, &c.-—The 
Albums of the present day are derived 
from the practice adopted in many foreign 
countries of having a white paper book, in 
which strangers of distinction or literary 
eminence were invited to insert their 
names, or any observation in prose or verse, 
as a memorial of their visit. 

ALBU'MEN (the white of an egg: Lai.), a 
white or transparent viscous fluid, without 
taste or smell, which is a constituent of 
the nerves, the serous part of the blood, the 
white of eggs, milk, &c. The essential part 
is albumin, which is chiefly composed of 
carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, with which 
a little hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus 
are combined. It is the sulphur which 
blackens a silver spoon when put into a 


20 


boiled egg. Albumin coagulates with heat, 
and thus changed is insoluble in water, and 

frequently consisting of starch.-Also, a 

substance found in many seeds; it con¬ 
stitutes the flour of corn, &c. However 
poisonous a plant may be, its albumen i3 
never deleterious. 

ALBUR'NUM (sap-wood : Lat.), the soft 
white substance between the inner bark 
and the wood of exogenous trees. 

ALCA'ICS, a term given to certain kinds 
of verse, from their inventor, the poet 
AI emus. Of these verses Horace has given 
several examples of two 1. Consisting of 
an iambus or spondee, an iambus, a long 
syllable, and two dactyls; 2. Two dactyls, 
and two trochees. 

AL'CAIDE, or AL'CALDE, a Spanish or 
Portuguese magistrate, or officer of justice, 
answering nearly to the British justice 'df 
peace. Both the name and office are of 
Moorish origin. 

AL'CHEMY, or AL'CHYMY (al, the: 
Arab.; and chemia, which is remotely de¬ 
rived from cheo, I pour: Gr.), that obsolete 
branch of Chemistry which had for its ob¬ 
ject the transmutation of metals into gold; 
and the finding of the elixir vitce, or univer¬ 
sal remedy. Though designing men have 
often used alchymy as a means of defraud¬ 
ing the credulous of their money, many 
have laboured in the fruitless search with 
indefatigable patience and purity of heart; 
and various discoveries of real value to 
science have been the accidental results of 
their labours. 

AL'COHOL, a term of Arabic origin, sig¬ 
nifying a spirit or essence, and originally 
applied to several chemical preparations. 
The word, at present, is used for a highly 
rectified spirit, the product of vinous fer¬ 
mentation. This is extremely light and in¬ 
flammable : it is colourless and transparent, 
appearing to the eye like pure water. To 
the palate it is exceedingly hot and burning, 
but without any peculiar taste. When per¬ 
fectly pure and free from water it is termed 
absolute alcohol, and it is then composed 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The 
proof spirit of commerce has a specific 
gravity of CT9198 at 60°F., and contains 49} 
per cent, of real alcohol. Under various 
forms it is largely employed in the arts, in 
the preparation of varnishes, &c. Its an¬ 
tiseptic power makes it also useful in pre¬ 
serving anatomical preparations. It lias 
never been frozen. 

AL'CORAN, or the Koran (al, the ; and 
Koran, a book: Arab.), the name of the 
volume containing the pretended revela¬ 
tions, doctrines, and precepts of Mahomet, 
in which his followers place implicit confi¬ 
dence. The general aim of theAlcoran was 
to unite the professors of tho three dif¬ 
ferent religions then followed in Arabia, 
Idolaters, Jews, and Christians, in the 
knowledge and worship of one God, under 
tho sanction of certain laws, and by the 
use of ceremonies, partly of ancient, and 
partly of novel institution, enforced by 
the consideration of rewards and punish¬ 
ments, both temporal and eternal, and to 
bring all to the obedience of Mahomet, a 3 
the prophet and ambassador of God, who 


El)? Jj'itcuttfic anU 









j 






















21 Jitterary Crras'ury. L ALG ^ 



was to establish the true religion on earth. 
It was not until after Mahomet’s death, 
which took place in 632 of our era, that his 
revelations were collected into a volume. 
They had been originally written on palm 
leaves and scraps of parchment. [See Maho¬ 
metanism], 

ALCO'YE ( alcoba: Span.; from elcaut, a 
sleeping chamber : Arab.), in Architecture, 
a recess intended for a bed, and often sepa¬ 
rated from the chamber by a balustrade. It 
was used sometimes by the Romans, at least 
as early as the Emperor Adrian. 

ALCYO'NIUM, the scientific name of a 
genus of marine polypes to which the one 
popularly-known as ‘Cow paps’ or ‘Dead 
man’s fingers ’ belongs. 

ALDEBA'RAN, a star of the first mag¬ 
nitude, vulgarly called the Bull’s Eye, as 
making the eye of the constellation Taurus. 
It is the a Tauri of astronomers. 

ALDE'HYDE ( alcohol dehydratus, alcohol 
deprived of water : Lat), a limpid colourless 
liquid, with a suffocating odour, obtained 
by passing the vapour of ether or alcohol 
through a red-hot tube, and by other 
methods. It is a compound of carbon, hy¬ 
drogen, and oxygen. 

AL'DER ( ellarn , in Ang.-Sax.), a tree 
growing in damp places, the Alnus gluti- 
nosa of botanists, nat. order, Betulacece. 
The wood is of little value, except for char¬ 
coal. 

AL'DERMAN ( ealderman , older man : 
Sax.), a municipal officer, in a city or borough 
(see Borough). In London their number 
is twenty-five, not including the lord 
mayor; each being elected by the freemen 
of a ward of the city, and having that ward 
committed to his more peculiar care, but 
serving by rotation as sitting magistrate 

for the whole.- Alderman, among our 

Saxon ancestors, was a name of dignity, at 
first unconnected with any office. It was 
afterwards the designation of him who was 
subsequently termed Eorl or Bari, and hence 
counties were sometimes called Alderman- 
sli ives. 

AL'DINE EDITIONS, those editions 
of the Greek and Roman classics which 
were printed by the family of Aldus 
Manutius, first established at Venice about 
1490. 

ALE ( celaw , to inflame: Sax.), a fermented 
liquor, obtained from an infusion of malt 
and hops. Pale ale is brewed from slightly 
dried malt, and broom from malt highly 
dried. 

A'LEA (a die : Lat.), in Antiquity, all kinds 
of games of chance ; but used particularly 
for a game played with dice. 

A-LEE', a sea-term, used when the wind, 
crossing or flanking the line of a ship's 
course, presses upon the masts and sails so 
as to make her incline to one side, which is 
called the lee-side : hence, when the helm 
is moved over to this side, it is said to be 
a-lee. 

ALEM'BIC (al, the ; and ambecq, cor¬ 
rupted from the Greek ambix, a cup : Arab.), 
a vessel formerly used for distilling, in the 
place of which retorts and stills are now 
most generally employed. 

ALEXAN'DEIAN, or ALEXAN'DRTEE, 

in Poetry, a kind of verse, consisting of 
twelve syllables, or six iambic feet, ft is 
so called from a poem on the life of Alex¬ 
ander, written in this way, by some French 
poet, and is exemplified by Pope in the fol¬ 
lowing lines 

‘ A needless Alexandrine ends the song. 

Which, like a wounded snake, drags its 
slow length along.’ 

ALEXAN'DRIAN LIBRARY. This cele¬ 
brated library was founded by Ptolemy 
Soter, for the use of an academy that he 
instituted in Alexandria; and,by continual 
additions under his successors, became at 
last the finest library in the world, con¬ 
taining no fewer than 700,000 volumes. To 
collect books for this library, all those 
which were brought into Egypt by Greeks 
or other foreigners were seized, and tran¬ 
scribed by persons appointed for that pur¬ 
pose : the copies were then delivered to the 
proprietors, and the originals laid up in the 
library. It was eventually burnt by order 
of the caliph Omar, a.d. 640. Omar argued 
thus : if these books agree with the Koran 
they are superfluous, and need not be pre¬ 
served ; if they disagree, they are per¬ 
nicious, and ought to be destroyed. 

ALEXAN'DRIAN MANUSCRIPT, or 
Codex Alexandrinus, a famous copy of 
the Scriptures, consisting of four volumes, 
in a large quarto size ; which contains the 
whole Bible in Greek, including the Old 
and New Testaments, with the Apocrypha, 
and some smaller pieces, but not quite com¬ 
plete. This manuscript is now preserved 
in the British Museum. It was sent as a 
present to king Charles I., by Cyrillus Ln- 
caris, patriarch of Constantinople, through 
Sir Thomas Rowe, ambassador from Eng¬ 
land to the grand seignior, about the year 
1628. Its age and value have been the 
subject of much controversy. It was evi¬ 
dently not all written by the same hand. 

ALEXI'PHARMICS ( alexo, I repel ; phar- 
makon, poison : C7r.), antidotes to poisons. 

AL'GzE (seaweed : Lat.), in Botany, a 
class of cellular flowerless plants with leaves 
and stems undistinguishable from each 
other, without proper roots and living en¬ 
tirely in water. They imbibe nutriment 
by their whole surface from the medium by 
which they are surrounded. Seaweeds, 
Diatoms, and Conferva, belong to this 
class. A very curious fact connected with 
algae is that some species produce particles 
which appear to have a voluntary motion as 
if they were minute animals. These are 
called spermatozoids. The motion is be¬ 
lieved to be efEected by means of vibratile 
cilia. As to the economical uses of the 
class, some gelatinous species contain a 
substance identical in its chemical formula 
with starch, and are employed as food (see 
Nostoc). Iodine is obtained from seaweed, 
but soda is now otherwise procured. Some 
algae have their tissues so stiffened with 
carbonate of lime that it was supposed they 
were corals, and one of the genera still 
bears the name of Corallina. Algae are 
frequently of microscopic minuteness, oc¬ 
casionally they are of great size. Captain 
Cook says he met with seaweed that was 















ALGAROTIl] 


&fje Jj>ct?nttftc antr 


22 


quite 360 feet long. Beds of seaweed swarm 
with animal life to an extraordinary degree. 
[See Sargasso Sea.] 

AL'GAROTH (from Algarodi, an Italian, 
Its discoverer), Powder of, a precipitate 
obtained by pouring water into the acidu¬ 
lous chloride of antimony. 

AL'GEBRA ( al, the; and gebr, resolution : 
Arab.), is a science the object of which is 
to abridge and generalize the resolution of 
all questions relating to quantities. Letters 
of the alphabet are employed to represent 
the quantities under investigation, and 
several of the signs of common operations 
are borrowed from arithmetic. Algebra, 
arithmetical and symbolical (says Mr. 
Cockle), is capable of division into three 
parts. The subject of identity might be 
made to constitute the first of these divi¬ 
sions; that of equality the second; and 
that of incongruity or absurdity the third. 
These divisions are of a purely theoretical 
character; practically speaking the subjects 
of them are treated indiscriminately as 
occasion requires. The assertion that one 
is equal to one is an identity; that xis equal 
to one is an equation ; that two is equal to 
one an absurdity or contradiction. 'Whether 
they indicate identity, equality, or contra¬ 
diction, these three species of proposition 
are all exhibited in algebra under the form 
of equations: thus 

1 = 1 ; 3 = 1 ; 2 = 1 ; 

but it is often a very difficult matter to de¬ 
termine whether what purports to be an 
equation, in the strict sense of the term, be 
really so, or whether it be not an identity 
or a contradiction. In one point of view, 
then, the whole of algebraic science may 
be said to be contained in the theory of 
equations. We may also regard the vast 
and illimitable field comprehended under 
this phrase as consisting of two great parts: 
the theory of algebraic equations, and the 
theory of numerical equations. In the for¬ 
mer, accurate results are exclusively aimed 
at; and the algebraic theory may be defined 
as that which treats of the rigorous solu¬ 
tion and transformation of equations, and 
the number and properties of their roots 
symbolically considered. The aim of the 
numerical theory is to ascertain the nature 
and limits of the roots of equations, and to 
arrive at values which shall enable us to 
satisfy equations either accurately or to 
any required degree of approximation. A 
literal equation (that is, one in which let¬ 
ters are made use of) may be treated either 
as an algebraic or a numerical one. In the 
latter case the letters stand for generalized 
numbers, and the processes applied to them 
are but universal types or examples of those 
which are to be employed when concrete 
are substituted for abstract numbers. It is 
only in their possible application to parti¬ 
cular numerical instances that such pro¬ 
cesses are of any value whatever. On the 
other hand, a numerical equation (as we 
may call an equation with numerical coeffi¬ 
cients) may be treated as an algebraical 
one, that is to say, by the algebraical theory. 
We may obtain rigorous expressions for 
its roots, ascertain their number, discuss 
their relations to the coefficients, or trans¬ 


form the equation itself by rigorous pro- ! 
cesses, and under exact forms as well when 
the coefficients are numbers as when they 
are symbols. [See Mathematics.] 

AL'GOL, a star in the constellation Per¬ 
seus, the /? Persei of astronomers, which, 
during a period of 2d. 20h. and 48m., changes 
from the second to the fourth magnitude, 
and then back to the second. 

ALGORITHM (an Arabic term), the art 
of computation, with reference to some I 
particular subject, or in some peculiar way. | 
Thus we say, ‘the algorithm of numbers,’ | 
‘ the algorithm of the differential calculus.’ 

AL'G GAZIL, the title of one of the lower 
orders of Spanish officers of justice,whose 
business is to execute the commands of the 
magistrate. 

A'LIAS (otherwise: Lat.), in Law, a word 
often used in describing the accused, who 
lias assumed other names besides his real 
one. 

AL'IBI (elsewhere : Lat.), an expression 
employed when an accused person attempts 
to prove his innocence by showing that ho 
was in another place when the act was com¬ 
mitted. 

A'LIEN (< alienus: Lat.), in Law, a person 
born in aforeign country, unless bis father, 
or grandfather on the father’s side, were a 
natural born subject; in which case, though 
born abroad, he is considered a denizen; 
the term is used in opposition to natural 
subject. Analien is incapable of inheriting, 
or purchasing, or holding lands in England. 
But a child born out of the British do 
minions of a mother being a natural born 
subject, may inherit, purchase, or hold 
land; and all aliens subject of a friendly 
state may take a lease of houses or land for 
the purpose of residence or trade for a term 
not exceeding twenty-one years. No alien 
can become a member of parliament, of the 
privy council, or of any municipal corpora¬ 
tion. An alien, guilty of a felony or mis¬ 
demeanour, may elect to be tried by a jury 
composed of an equal number of denizens 
and aliens. [See Naturalization]. 

ALIENA'TION ( alienatio , from alieno, I 
make over to another: Lat.), in Law, the 
act of transferring the property and pos¬ 
session of lands, tenements, or other things, 
from one man to another: it is termed also 
conveyance. To alienate in fee, is to sell the 
fee simple of any land, or other incorporeal 
right. 

ALI'GNMENT (Fr.: from ad, to ; and li¬ 
nen, a line : Lat), in Warfare, the state of 
being formed into a line, and the line so 
formed. 

AL'IMENT (alimentum, from alo, I nou¬ 
rish : Lat.), whatever serves as nutriment 
to animal life. 

ALIMEN'TARY ( alimentarius, from same 
deriv.), in a general sense, is a term applied 
to whatever belongs to aliment or food. 

•- Alimentary Duct, or Canal, a name 

given to the stomach and intestines, on ac¬ 
count of the food passing through them. 
Sometimes it is a simple cavity, with but 
one opening; sometimes a canal with a 
vent distinct from the mouth ; sometimes 
it is divided into four bags, as in the rumi¬ 
nants, or into seven, as in the bottle-nosed 































' 23 Ilttctavn EveasuvR. [allodial 

•whale. - Alimentary Law, among the 

Romans, that law hy which children were 
j obliged to maintain their aged parents. 

AL'IMONY ( alimonia , from same deriv.), 
in Law, an allowance which the English 
Court of Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 
directs to be paid to a wife when cohabita- 
i tion has ceased. Alimony may be awarded 
either during the progress of a suit for di¬ 
vorce or judicial separation (alimony pen- 
i derate, lite), or it may be given after a decree 
for judicial separation has been pronounced. 

AL'IQUANT PARTS ( aliquanto , in some 
degree: Lat.), such parts of a number as 
will not divide or measure it exactly: as 7, 
the aliquant part of 16. 

AL'IQUOT PARTS ( aliquot , a certain num¬ 
ber of : Lat.), such parts of a number as will 
divide or measure it exactly: as 2, the 
aliquot part of 4, 3 of 9, and 4 of 16. Prime 
aliquot parts are those which are prime 
numbers: composite aliquot parts, those 
formed by multiplying the prime together. 

AL'KAHEST (Arab.), a universal men¬ 
struum possessing, according to the Alche¬ 
mists, the virtue of pervading every sub¬ 
stance, and capable of resolving all bodies 
into their ens primum, or first matter. 

AL'KALI (al, the; and kali, the name of 
a plant: Arab.), in Chemistry, a term ori¬ 
ginally applied to the ashes of plants, but 
now used to designate potash, soda, and 

1 ammonia. The alkalis neutralize aud form 
salts with acids, redden some vegetable 
yellows, and change some vegetable blues 
to green. 

ALKALIM'ETER (alkali; and matron, a 
measure: Gr.), in Chemistry,an instrument 
for measuring the quantity of alkali, or 
alkaline carbonates, contained in the potash 
or soda of commerce. 

AL'KALOIDS (alkali; and eidos, form : 
Or.), substances analogous to alkaline bases, 
of vegetable origin, and possessed of great 
medicinal activity. Their ultimate elements 
are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro¬ 
gen. Quinine, obtained from various spe¬ 
cies of cinchona, conine from hemlock, aud 
morphia from opium, are examples. 

AL'KANET, the 'Anchusa tinctoria of bo¬ 
tanists (nat. order, Boraginacece), a plant of 
which the root affords a reddish brown 
substance used by dyers. It is chiefly im¬ 
ported from the Levant. 

AL'LAH, the Arabian name of God, as op¬ 
posed to the deities of the idolators. 

ALLE'GLANCE (alligo, I bind to : Lat.), 
in Law, the faithful obedience which every 
subject owes to his prince; being the tie or 
bond of fidelity which binds the governed 
to the governor. Every official person is re¬ 
quired to take an oath of allegiance before 
he enters on his duties. 

AL'LEGORY (allegoria: from alio, another 
thing; and agoreuo, I declare : Gr.), in Lite¬ 
rature, a figurative representation, which 
signifies something beyond the ordinary or 
apparent meaning. It may be addressed to 
either the eye or the ear. An allegorical tale, 
or allegory, is one in which abstract ideas are 
personified: thus, in many fables. A whole 
poem may be an allegory, as Spenser’s ‘Faery 
Queen or an entire narrative, a3 Bunyan’s 
Pilgrim’s Progress.’ A parable is a short 

allegory. Allegorical interpretation be¬ 
comes necessary when there is some difll- 
culty or absurdity in the literal and obvious 

sense. 

ALLE'GRO (merry: Ital.), in Music, de¬ 
notes that the part is to be played in a brisk 
and sprightly manner. The usual distinc¬ 
tions succeed each other in the following 
order: grave, adagio, largo, vivace, allegro, 
presto. Allegro time may be heightened, as 
allegro assai and allegrissimo, very lively; 
or lessened, as allegretto or poco allegro, a 
little lively. Piil allegro is a direction to 
play or sing a little quicker. 

ALL-HAL'LOWS, an old English name 
for All-Saints, a festival in commemoration 
of the saints in general. It is kept on 
the 1st of November, Boniface IV. having 
in 835 appointed that day for its celebra¬ 
tion: the saints having become so nume¬ 
rous that a day could not be allotted to each. 

ALLIANCE (allicr, to unite with : Fr.), 
in the Civil and Canon law, the relation 
contracted between two persons or two 

families by marriage.- Alliance is also 

used for a treaty entered into by sovereign 
princes and states, for their mutual safety 
cincL defence 

ALLIGA'TION (alligatio, from alligo, I 
bind to: Lat.), a rule in Arithmetic, teaching 
how to compound several ingredients for 
any design proposed. It is either medial or 
alternate. The former shows the rate or 
price of any mixture, when its several quan¬ 
tities and their rates are known ; the latter 
is the method of finding the quantities of 
ingredients necessary to form a compound 
of a given rate. 

AL'LIGATOR (from a North American 
Indian word), a crocodilian genus inhabit¬ 
ing America. Their feet are not webbed like 
those of the true crocodiles. The alligator 
Indus haunts the Mississippi, and some¬ 
times grows to the length of eighteen feet: 
it is protected by a dense covering of horny 
scales, impenetrable, in most parts, to a j 
musket-ball. 

ALLITERA'TION (ad, to; and liter a, a i 
letter: Lat.), a figure or embellishment of I 
speech, which consists in the repetition of 
the same consonants, or syllables of the 
same sound, in one sentence. The Greek 
and Roman literature afford many instances 
of this; and in English poetry there are 
also many beautiful specimens of allitera¬ 
tion; though it must be confessed that it , 
is too often used without the requisite : 
skill, and carried too far. In burlesque 
poetry it is frequently used with excellent 
effect 

ALLOCU'TION (allocutio: Lat), in Roman 
Antiquity, an harangue made by generals to 
their armies, in order to rouse their courage 
before a battle.-Also, in the Roman Ca¬ 

tholic Church, an address made by the 
pope, on important occasions, to the cardi¬ 
nals and others. 

ALLO'DIAL LANDS are those which, 
under the feudal system, were free. Their 
owners owed no service to a superior lord. 
‘Allodial lands,’ saysHallam, ‘arecommonly 
opposed to beneficiary or feudal; the former 
being strictly proprietary, while the latter 
depended upon a superior. In this sense 

-J| 































allopathy] CIjc Jsricuttftc rmtf 24 


the word is of continual recurrence in 
ancient histories, laws, and instruments. 
It sometimes, however, bears the sense of 
inheritance.’ 

ALLO'PATHY {allopatheia: from alios, 
another; and pathos, suffering : Gr.), a term 
recently introduced to describe the ordi¬ 
nary course of medical practice in contra¬ 
distinction to Homoeopathy. The difference 
consists in the allopathists prescribing sub¬ 
stances which, of their own nature, are cal¬ 
culated to remove symptoms like those of the 
disease to be cured; while the homoeopath- 
ists employ medicines which, in the normal 
state of the patient, are calculated to produce 
these symptoms. 

ALLO'PHANE (allophancs, appearing 
otherwise: Gr.), a luminous earth, of a 
blue, and sometimes of a green or brown 
colour, which occurs massive, or crystalline. 

ALLO'TROPIC {alios, another; tropos, 
mode or position: Gr.), a term applied by 
chemists to bodies when possessing a form, 
different from their ordinary one, with 
the same essential chemical qualities. Thus, 
ordinary white phosphorus may, by the 
application of heat, be converted into a 
hard red amorphous substance, which is 
its allotropie form. It is theoretically as¬ 
sumed that the particles of the body are in 
different states of molecular equilibrium in 
the two forms. 

ALLOY' {alloyer, to mix one metal with 
another: Fr.), a compound of any two or 
more metals (mercury not being one): thus, 
bronze is an alloy of copper and tin; brass, 
an alloy of copper and zinc, &c. The alloys 
are not mere mixtures, but true chemical 
compounds. 

ALL'SPICE, so called from its compound 
flavour, is the dried immature berry of 
several species of Eugenia (nat. ord. Myrta- 
cea>' i, particularly E. acris and E. pimento, or 
Jamaica pepper. 

ALLU'VION ( alluvius, from alluo, I wash 
against: Lat.), in Law, a gradual increase 
of land along the sea-sliore, or on the banks 
of rivers. This, when slow and impercep¬ 
tible, is deemed a lawful means of acquisi¬ 
tion ; but tvhen a considerable portion of 
land is torn away at once, by the violence 
of the current, and joined to a neighbour¬ 
ing estate, it may be claimed again by the 
former owner. 

ALLTJ'VIUM (same dcriv.), in Geology, 
deposits of gravel, sand, and mud, resem¬ 
bling those of a river’s bed, or those left 
upon low lands by a flood, which are fre¬ 
quently found upon the surface of the earth 
under the vegetable mould. Alluvium is 
to be met with in all latitudes, from the 
equator to the polar regions. The greater 
part of it consists of transported materials. 
Rivers, or the sea, have been the means of 
removal. That form of it which has been 
called diluvium, or drift, or the boulder 
formation, is thought to have been trans¬ 
ported by glaciers or floating ice. 

ALMACAN'TAR {almocantharat: Arab.), 
a term used by the old astronomers, to in¬ 
dicate a small circle of the sphere parallel 

to the horizon.- Almacantar’s Staff is 

an instrument for observing, at sea, the 
sun’s amplitude rising and setting. 


AL'MAGEST (the greatest work: Arab.), 
the name of a celebrated book, composed by 
Ptolemy; being a collection of many of the 
observations and problems of the ancients, 
relating both to Geometry and Astronomy. 

AL'MA MA'TER (kind mother: Eat.), a 
title given to a university by those who 
are, or have been, members thereof. 

AL'MANAC (Arab.), a calendar or table, 
containing a list of the months, weeks, and 
days of the year, with an account of the 
rising und setting of the sun, the moon’s 
age, the solar and lunar eclipses, the eccle¬ 
siastical feasts and fasts, the most remark¬ 
able phenomena of the heavenly bodies, and 
other incidental matters. The first printed 
almanac appeared in 1474; it was drawn up 
by Regiomontanus, in nearly the form now 

used.-The Nautical Almanac, a most 

valuable work for mariners, is published'ih 
England two or three years in advance. It 
was commenced in 1767, by Dr. Maskelyne, 
the astronomer-royal, and has been regu¬ 
larly continued ever since. 

AL'MONER (aumonier: Fr.), a function¬ 
ary, usually an ecclesiastic, appointed by 
the crown, with the title of Lord High 
Almoner, for the distribution of the royal j 
alms twice a year to as many poor men and 
women as the sovereign’s age amounts to in 
years. Silver pennies are specially coined 
for distribution on Maunday Thursday, 
each person receiving a number equal to 
the years of the sovereign’s age. 

ALMS ( aumone: Fr.), a general term for 
what is given out of charity to the poor. 
In the early ages of Christianity the alms 
of the charitable were divided into four 
parts, one of which was allotted to the 
bishop, another to the priests, and a third 
to the deacons and sub-deacons, which 
made their whole subsistence; the fourth 
part was employed in relieving the poor, 
and in repairing the churches. 

AL'OE {aloe: Gr.; alloch: Arab.), a genus 
of liliaceous plants, several species of which 
yield the well-known drug so useful as a 
purgative. The aloes have fleshy leaves, 
with a juice of intense bitterness. Speci¬ 
mens are to be seen in every hothouse. 
The plants called Yucca, or Adam’s Needle, 
and Phormium tenax, or New Zealand Flax, 
belong to allied genera.—The American aloe 
is an Agave, and falls into another order. 

AL'OES-WOOD, or Eagle-Wood, is the 
produce of trees belonging to the genus 
Aquilaria (nat. ord. Aquilariacece), growing 
in the tropical parts of Asia. A fragrant 
oily or resinous substance, called in India 
uggur oil, is extracted from the wood which 
is sometimes used in medicine. 

ALOE'TICS, a general term for all medi¬ 
cines, the basis or principal ingredient of 
which is aloes. The latter stimulates the 
larger intestines. 

ALOGOTROPn'IA (alogos, out of propor¬ 
tion ; and trophe, nourishment: Gr.), in Me¬ 
dicine, unequal growth or nutrition in dif¬ 
ferent parts of the body. 

ALOPE'CIA ( alopekia, a shedding of the 
hair—literally, the mange in foxes : Gr.), in 
Medicine, a falling off of the hair, occa¬ 
sioned either by a defect of nourishment, 
or by a bad state of the body. 

















25 


3Ltt entry Cvnctfury. [altitude 


AL'PACA, tlie Auchenia alpaca of natu¬ 
ralists, is a ruminant animal of the camel 
tribe, but distinguished from the true 
camels by having disjoined movable toes. It 
inhabits the mountain districts of Peru and 
Bolivia. Its long silky hair wool has been of 
late years extensively imported for manu¬ 
facturing purposes. The Llama, the Gua- 
naco, and the Vicuna are three other species 
of the same genus, natives of South Ame¬ 
rica. The wool of the two former is coarse, 
that of the last downy. 

AL'PHABET (alpha, beta, the two first 
Greek letters), the natural or customary 
series of the several letters of a language. 
The earliest kind of writing was, undoubt¬ 
edly, the representation of what was to be 
told, by a kind of painting; the Greek word 
graphein means either to paint or to write. 
This mode of writing was used very early in 
Egypt, and gave rise, no doubt, to the in¬ 
vention of hieroglyphics : being probably 
adopted by other ancient natious also. It 
was employed by the Mexicans to convey to 
Montezuma information of the landing of 
the Spaniards. Syllabic writing must next 
have been devised, in which the different 
sounds, or syllables, were expressed; a word 
by this method would have as many cha¬ 
racters as syllables. Such writing, though 
a great improvement, was still very incon¬ 
venient. At length, syllables were decom¬ 
posed into their elements, a few simple 
sounds; and the representation of these 
constituted an alphabet. It is now supposed 
that the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, 
which originally denoted objects, were ulti¬ 
mately employed to express sounds; and, 
from being ideographic, became not merely 
syllabic, but alphabetical. The Greeks be¬ 
lieved that the Phoenicians were the inven¬ 
tors of letters ; but there is reason to sup¬ 
pose that the Hebrew characters are older 
than the Phoenician, and were known in the 
time of Moses. The most ancientGreek, like 
the oriental languages, was written from 
left to right: it was afterwards written in 
alternate lines, from left to right and from 
right to left. It has been proposed to adopt 
a universal alphabet, which might contain 
a smaller number of elementary sounds 
than any used at present. 

ALPHON'SINE TABLES, asti-onomical 
tables made in the reign of Alphonsus X., 
king of Arragon, who was a great lover of 
science, and a prince of rare attainments; 
but though these tables bear his name, 
they were chiefly drawn up by Isaac Kazan, 
a learned Jewish rabbi. 

ALT (altus, high : Lat.), in Music, the high 
notes of the scale. 

AL'TAIIt, a star of the first magnitude in 
the constellation of the Eagle; it is the 
a A quite of astronomers. 

AL'TAR (according to some, from alia 
ara, high altar: Lat. according to others, 
from Al, God ; and tar, appointed: Heb.), a 
place upon which sacrifices were anciently 
offered to the deity. There was probably a 
difference between the ara and altare, the 
latter being raised on a substruction ; and 
they may have been employed in different 
circumstances. Before temples were in 
use, altars were erected sometimes in 


groves, sometimes in the highways, and 
sometimes on the tops of mountains ; and 
it was a custom to engrave upon them the 
name, proper ensign, or character of the 
deity to whom they were consecrated. In 
the great temples of ancient Home, there 
were ordinarily three altars ; the first was 
placed iu the sanctuary, at the foot of the 
statue of the divinity, upon which incense 
was burnt and libations offered; the second 
was before the gate of the temple, and 
upon it they sacrificed the victims ; and 
the third was a portable altar, upon which 
were placed the offerings and the sacred 
vessels. These altars were of various 
heights, sizes, and materials; some yet 
remaining are beautifully decorated with 
bassi relievi. The principal altars of the 
Jews were those of incense, of burnt- 
offerings, and the altar, or table, for the 
shew-bread. 

ALTERATIVES (alter, tlie other: Lat.), 
such medicines as induce a favourable 
change in the system, without any manifest 
operation or evacuation. 

ALTERNATION OP GENERATION, a 
mode of reproduction amongst some of 
the lower animals, in which the perfect 
animal produces a different form, which 
may be termed larval, and this will for 
some generations produce similar or again 
different forms, the last of them producing 
the perfect form. Thus a Medusa will 
produce a larva which grows into the form 
of a sea-anemone, and this will go on for 
some time, throwing off similar animals by 
budding, until at length one of them 
will produce a Medusa of the original 
form. 

ALTn.E'A (althaia, marsh mallow : Gr.), 
marsh mallow, the Althcea officinalis of 
botanists, nat. order Malvaceae., a plant, the 
root of which abounds with a mild muci¬ 
lage, and is of great efficacy in medicine as 
an emollient. The hollyhock belongs to the 
same genus. 

ALTIM'ETRY (altus, high: Lat.; and 
metreo, I measure : Gr.), the art of taking 
heights by means of insti-uments: and 
founded on the principle that the corre¬ 
sponding sides of triangles, having equal 
angles, are in exact proportion to one an¬ 
other. 

ALTITUDE (altitudo, .height: Lat.), the 
height of an object, or its elevation above 
that plane to which the base is referred; 
thus, inMathematics,t,healtitude of a figure 
is the perpendicular or nearest distance of 
its vertex from the base. The altitude of 
an object is the elevation of an object above 
the plane of the horizon ; or the length of 

a perpendicular let fall to. that plane.- 

Accessible Altitude of an object is that 
to whose base there is access, to measure 
the nearest distance to it on the ground 
from any place.- Inaccessible Alti¬ 

tude of an object is that to whose base 
there is not free access, by which a distance 
may be measured to it, on account of some 
impediment, such as water, wood, or the 
like. The instruments most generally used 
in measuring altitudes are the quadrant, 

sextant, theodolite, &c.- Altitude op 

the Eye, in Perspective, the perpendicular 















ALTO] 


CIjc J^ctcnltfic Hiitf 


26 


height of the eye above the geometrical 
plane.- Altitude of a Star, &c., in As¬ 

tronomy, the height of any star, &c., above 
the horizon, or an arc of a vertical circle, 
intercepted between the star and the hori¬ 
zon. This altitude is either true or apparent, 
according as it is reckoned from the rational 
or sensible horizon : and the difference be¬ 
tween these two is termed by astronomers 

the Parallax of Altitude. - Altitudes of 

Mountains. [See Hypsometry.] 

AL'TO (Ital), in Music, the counter-tenor 
part, or that immediately below the treble. 
It also indicates the tenor violin. 

AL'TO ItELIE'VO (high relief: Ital.), in 
Sculpture, a. representation of figures and 
other objects against a flat surface ; it dif¬ 
fers from mezzo relievo, and basso relievo, 
only by the greater projection, or higher 
relief, of the figures. 

AL'UM (fllumen: Lat .), a salt consisting 
of alumina, potash, and sulphuric acid, with, 
in its ordinary form, water of crystalliza¬ 
tion. Its solution has a sweet and astrin¬ 
gent taste. It is consumed largely in the 
arts, being employed by the dyer as a mor¬ 
dant, also by the tanner. Sulphate of 
alumina also combines with the sulphates of 
soda and ammonia, and these are also 
termed alums. There are several processes 
for the manufacture of alums. The old pro¬ 
cess of roasting alum shale is employed at 
Whitby and in Scotland. The shale of the 
coal measures is used at other places. Sul¬ 
phate of alumina, obtained by boiling clay 
in sulphuric acid; and aluminate of soda, 
have also been employed for several of the 
purposes for which common alum is used. 

-Aluji Stone, a mineral, of a greyish 

or yellowish-wliite colour. It is found at 
Tolfa, in Italy, and in Bohemia; and yields 
a very pure alum, by simply subjecting it to 
roasting and lixiviation. 

ALU'MINA (same deriv.), the oxide of 
aluminium, an earth which is the basis of 
alum, clay, basalt, slate, &c. It is of the 
greatest importance to mankind, for it en¬ 
ters largely into the composition of the 
best arable land, and is the chief constituent 
of all earthenware and porcelain. 

ALU'MINITE (same deriv.), a mineral of 
a snow-white colour, dull, and opaque ; the 
native sulphate of alumina. 

ALU'MINIUM (same deriv.), a metal of 
which the earth alumina, the chief consti¬ 
tuent of clay, is an oxide. It is only of late 
years that chemists have succeeded in in¬ 
venting a process for extracting it in 
sufficient quantities and sufficiently cheap 
to enable it to be used for manufacturing 
purposes. It has a white colour somewhat 
resembling tin; its specific gravity' is only 
2'6 (about that of common glass), and 
hence it is frequently used in the construc¬ 
tion of articles where lightness is an object. 
The melting point is much below that of 
silver. When heated in oxygen it burns 
with brilliancy and produces alumina. It 
is not affected by sulphuretted hydrogen 
like silver. From its sonorousness it will 
probably be employed in the construction 
of musical instruments. With from 92J to 
95 per cent, of copper it forms an alloy 
named aluminium-bronze, which is scarcely 


distinguishable by the eye from gold,whilst 
it is nearly as hard as iron. This alloy is 
coming into use in the manufacture of 
ornamental articles. 

ALYEA'RIUM ( alveus , a hollow place: 
Lat.), among Anatomists, the hollow of the 
auricle, or outer ear. 

AL'VEOLATE ( alveolatus , holloued : i 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet applied to the j 
receptacle of composite plants (the disk 
upon which the florets are placed), when j 
it is divided into cells like a honey¬ 
comb. 

ALVE'OLUS (a diminutive of alveus, a 
small cavity), in Natural History, properly 
denotes one of those waxen cells of which 
the combs in beehives consist.- Alveo¬ 

lus, in Anatomy, the socket-like cavity in 
the jaws, in which each of the teeth is 
fixed. 1 

AMA'DIS BE GAUL, the most celebrated 
of the romances of chivalry, written in 
Spanish by a Portuguese named Vasco Lo- 
beira, who died in 1325. It relates the fa¬ 
bulous adventures of Amadis and other 
knights; the fairy mythology of the east 
is introduced, with monsters and marvels 
of every kind. 

A'MADOU, or German Tinder, a fungus 
(a species of Polyporus ) found chiefly on old 
oaks and ash trees. It is boiled in water, 
dried, beaten, soaked in a solution of nitre, 
and again dried for use. 

AMAL'GAM, the combination of mercury 
with some other metal. Amalgams are used 
either to render a metal fit to be spread 
out, as in gilding, or else to reduce it to 
powder. Two methods are generally em¬ 
ployed in making amalgams. The first is 
merely trituration in a mortar, and with¬ 
out heat: the second is fusing the metal 
which is to be amalgamated, and adding 
to it, when fused, the intended quantity of 
mercury. An amalgam of tin and mercury j 
is used for looking-glasses. Medallists j 
consider any soft alloy as an amalgam. The i 
extraction of particles of gold from sand 1 
orstamped rock isusually effected by means I 
of mercury. The mercury is afterwards 
vaporised by heat, and then condensed for 
future use. 

A'MAltANTH (amaravtos: from a, not; 
and maraino, I wither: Or.), a plant of fable 
and poetry, feigned to have flowers that 
never withered, and therefore made into 
garlands by the blessed. Botanists have 
given the name of Amaranthus to a genus 
of plants, nat. oi*d. Amaranthacece, which 
includes the well-known prince’s feather, 
coclc’s-comb, and love-lies-bleeding. 

AMAR.YL'L1S (amarusso, I sparkle: Or.), 
a genus of bulbous rooted plants, with 
handsome flowers, belonging to the nat. 
ord. Amaryllidacece. They are natives of 
America, the West Indies, and the Cape of 
Good Hope, but most of our hothouse 
plants are hybrids. Snowdrops belong to 
the same order. 

A'MATE UR (o.mator, a lover: Lat.), a 
person having a taste for a particular art, 
yet not professing nor being dependent 
on it. 

AMAURO'SIS (amauros, dark : Or.), among 
Physicians, a disease of the eye, called also 






























27 


Httcrafij Cms'itrj). 


tlie gutta eerena. It arises, not from any 
external injury, hut from a defective action 
of the nerve. 

A'MAZONS (usually derived from a, with¬ 
out : and mazos, a breast: Gr.), a nation of 
female warriors, who are said to have 
founded an empire in Asia Minor. Accord¬ 
ing to tradition, they permitted no males to 
reside among them, but had intercourse 
with the men of the neighbouring nations 
merely for the sake of preserving their 
community. Their male children they ei¬ 
ther killed or sent back to their fathers, 
but they brought rip the females to war. 
They are said to have destroyed the right 
breast, that this part of the body might 
not impede them in the use of the bow: 
and it was from this supposed practice that 
they obtained tne name of Amazons. The 
last account we have of them dates about 
j 330 years before Christ, wdien it is related 
that their queen, Thalestris, made a visit to 
Alexander of Macedon, at the head of 300 

of her Amazons.-The old geographers 

gave the name of Amazonia to a large 
| tract of country in the interior of South 
I America, because Orellana, the first disco- 
I verer of the country, asserts, that as he 
sailed up the stupendous river Maranon, or 
Amazon, he found on its banks a nation of 
armed women, who made war on the neigh¬ 
bouring people. 

AMBAS'SADOR ( ambasciare , to solicit: 

; Ital.,— perhaps because originally sent to 
; ask favours), the representative of one 
sovereign power to another, to which he is 
sent properly accredited. Ambassadors are 
! the highest order of foreign ministers, and 
are either ordinary or extraordinary. An 
ordinary ambassador resides permanently 
at the foreign court to which he is accre¬ 
dited, and his duties consist in acting as 
the medium of intercourse between his 
own court and that to which he is accre¬ 
dited, and in transmitting such intelligence 
as is likely to interest his own court. Am¬ 
bassadors extraordinary are sent on some 
1 important occasion, and are generally sur¬ 
rounded with great pomp and splendour; 
but they leave the country as soon as the 
affair is despatched. The persons of am¬ 
bassadors are sacred, both in peace and 
! war; so that, according to the law of na¬ 
tions, if hostilities break out between two 
I nations, the respective ambassadors are 
permitted to depart without molestation. 

I By the law's of England, an ambassador is 
amenable only for crimes which are con¬ 
trary to the laws of all nations: when guilty 
of these, he is punishable as an alien. He 
is protected from arrest, and his goods can¬ 
not be seized in distress. Prussia is the 
only great European power that does not 
send this class of ministers. Envoys, or 
ministers, form the second class of diplo¬ 
matists, resident ministers the third class, 
and charges d’affaires the fourth. 

AM'BER ( ambre: Fr.), a hard brittle 
tasteless substance, generally semitranspa¬ 
rent, or opaque, of a glossy surface and 
conchoidal fracture. It is susceptible of a 
good polish, and is worked up into orna¬ 
ments. It is inflammable, and, when heated, 
yields a strong and bituminous odour. After 


[AMEN 


it has been exposed to a slight friction, it 
attracts straws and other light bodies, and 
produces sparks, visible in the dark. The 
Greeks called it electron, from its resem¬ 
blance in point of colour to an alloy of gold 
and silver of the same name. Whence 
comes our word electricity. The Romans, 
supposing it to be a vegetable juice, named 
it succinum, by the Arabs it is denominated 
ambra, whence the French write it ambre, 
and the English amber. It is believed to be 
of vegetable origin : the leaves and stalks 
of vegetables are found in it; and wasps, 
flies, gnats, &c., which it contains, have 
evidently been entangled in it while it 
was in the soft state. It occurs as a fossil, 
which is procured i a large quantities on the i 
Prussian coast of the Baltic. 

AMBERGRIS {ambre, amber; and gris, 
grey: Fr.), a solid opaque asli-coloured 
inflammable substance, variegated like mar¬ 
ble, remarkably light, and, when heated, 
emitting a fragrant odour. It is found 
floating in the sea near the coast of various 
tropical countries, and is a morbid secre¬ 
tion from the liver of the spermaceti whale. 

It is very much prized in Asia and Africa, 
where it is made use of to flavour luxurious 
dishes: in Europe, it is highly valued as an 
article of perfumery. 

AM'BIDEXTER {ambo, both ; and dexter, 
a right hand : Lat.), a person who can use 
both hands with equal facility, and for the 
same purposes that the generality of people 
do their right hands. 

AM'BIENT (umbio, I encompass: Lat.), 
a term used for such bodies, especially 
fluids, as encompass others on all sides: 
thus, the air is frequently called an ambient 
flu id, in consequence of being diffused round 
all terrestrial bodies. 

AM'BIT op a Figure (same dcriv.), in 
Mathematics, the Perimeter, or the sum of 
the lines by udiich a figure is bounded. 

AMBLYO'PIA {ambluOpia, from amblus, 
dull; and ops, the sight: Gr.), in Medicine, a 
term for dimness of sight. 

AMBRO'SIA {Gr., from ambrosios, im¬ 
mortal), in heathen Antiquity, the food of 
the gods. Hence, whatever is very gratify¬ 
ing to the taste or smell has been termed 
ambrosial. 

AM'BRY, in Ecclesiastical Architecture, 
a place in which were deposited charters, 

&c., and, when it was inside the church, the 
vessels of the altar. In ancient abbeys 
and priories, there was an office under this 
denomination, in which were laid up all the 
charities for the poor. 

AMBUR'BIUM {amb, about; and urbs, a 
city: Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, a solemn 
procession round the city, made annually, 
or to avert some calamity which suddenly 
threatened : the victim accompanied it, 
and was afterwards sacrificed. 

AMBUSCA'DE, or AM'BTTSn {embdche, 
ambush: Fr.), in the Military art, a place 
where soldiers may lie concealed, till 
they find an opportunity to surprise the 
enemy. 

AMEN' (truly: Ueb.), in Scripture lan¬ 
guage, a solemn conclusion to prayer, em¬ 
ployed by the Hebrews, signifying verily, 
or so be it. 









































amende] 


CIjc ^ctrnttftc antr 


23 


AMEND'D HONORA'BLE ( amende, a pe¬ 
nalty: Fr.), in French Law, an infamous 
kind of punishment formerly inflicted in 
France on traitors, parricides, or sacrile¬ 
gious persons. It was of two kinds: one 
consisted in the mere acknowledgment of 
the offence, in open court, hareheaded, and 
kneeling: which was called the simple or 
clry amende. In the other, the offender was 
obliged to kneel in his shirt, with a torch in 
his hand, and a rope about his neck, being 
conducted by the executioner: which was 
called the amende honorable in flguris. It 
was, and still is sometimes, joined with 
capital punishment.-The common accep¬ 

tation of the term indicates that an open 
apology is made for an offence or injury 
done. 

AMENTA'CEAH ( amentum , a thong: Lat.), 
a natural order of trees and shrubs, distin¬ 
guished by their unisexual flowers, the 
staminiferous ones being in catkins. The 
order includes the birch, alder, willow, 
poplar, plane, liasel, beech, Spanish chest¬ 
nut, and oak. 

AMEltC'EMENT (d merer, at the mercy : 
Fr.), a pecuniary punishment im posed on of¬ 
fenders, at the mercy of the court. Amerce¬ 
ments differ from fines, inasmuch as the 
latter are defined, and the former are pro¬ 
portioned to the fault, or more properly at 
the discretion of the court. The statute of 
Magna Charta ordains, that a freeman is 
not to be amerced for a small fault, but in 
proportion to the offence, by his peers and 
equals. 

AMER'ICANISM, any word or phrase in 
general use among the inhabitants of the 
United States, which deviates from the 
English standard. Of these, a great pro¬ 
portion are words of local character, ori¬ 
ginally taken from different counties in 
England, by the first emigrants. Others are 
words formerly used by English writers, 
but which have become obsolete. 

A'METHYST ( ametlmstos, a remedy 
against drunkenness: Gr.), the oriental 
amethyst is a variety of Corundum, and 
is composed almost entirely of alumina. 
The common amethyst is a variety of quartz, 
consisting chiefly of silica, coloured in 
various shades of violet, by the oxides of 
iron and manganese. It is usually found 
crystallised in six-sided prisms, with a six- 
sided pyramid at the end. It occurs in 
Europe and India. The Persians believed 
that wine drunk out of an amethystine cup 
would not intoxicate : hence the name. 

AMIANTHUS, or ASBESTOS ( amiantos, 
undefiled; asbestos, inextinguishable : Gr.), 
names applied to different minerals which 
agree in the possession of a fibrous struc¬ 
ture, arising from the parallel position of 
long capillary crystals. They are varieties 
of amphibole. In that form called amian¬ 
thus, the threads are easily separated, are 
very flexible, and have a silky lustre. They 
may be made to serve as the wick of a lamp, 
and can even be woven into a flre-proof 
cloth. It occurs in Corsica, Savoy, Corn¬ 
wall, and elsewhere. Common asbestos is 
of a dull green colour, and has little flexi¬ 
bility. 

AMIC'TUS (Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, 


any upper garment worn over the tunic. 

-A part of the dress worn by a Roman 

Catholic priest, &c., under all the ecclesias¬ 
tical costume, at mass, &c. It is a square 
piece of linen drawn over the shoulders. 

AMID'-SHIPS, a Naval term, signifying 
in the middle of the ship, applied either to 
length or breadth. 

AM'MON ( Amun: Egypt.), the name of 
an Egyptian deity, whom the Romans 
termed Jupiter Ammon. He was usually 
represented with a ram’s head. There was 
a magnificent temple erected to him in a 
sacred grove of trees in the oasis now called 
the Oasis of Siwah, with an oracle famous 
through many ages. It was so renowned, 
that Alexander the Great crossed the desert 
to consult it, and the priests telling him 
that he was the son of the god, he 'eYer 
afterwards claimed divine origin. Cam- 
byses sent an army of 50,000 men to de¬ 
stroy the temple, but the tradition runs 
that they never reached it, and never re¬ 
turned. Some ruins of the temple still 
exist. 

AMMO'NIA, a colourless gas, with a 
strongly pungent odour, exhibiting an al¬ 
kaline reaction with test paper. By pres¬ 
sure it may be condensed into a liquid. It 
is soluble in water to the extent of 700 
times its volume. It is a combination of three 
volumes of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, 
but it cannot be formed directly from these 
gases. It must be obtained from some of 
its compounds; it is found in large quan¬ 
tities during the manufacture of coal-gas, 
and is a product of the decomposition of 
animal matters containing nitrogen. When 
a solution of ammonia is treated with acids, 
a series of salts is obtained, resembling 
completely the corresponding salts of pot¬ 
ash and soda. If sal-ammoniac, which is a 
hydrochlorate of ammonia, is properly 
brought into connection with mercury, an 
amalgam is formed, similar to theamalgams 
formed by mercury, potassium, and so¬ 
dium. Hence it is supposed there is a 
metal which has received the name of am¬ 
monium, but all attempts to obtain it as a 
separate substance have hitherto failed. 
Ammonia received its name from having 
been found in old times in the ordure of 
camels, near the temple of Ammon. 

AMMO'NIAC, or GUM AMMO'NIAO, a 
resinous substance brought from the East 
Indies in drops or granules. The best kind 
is of a yellowish colour without, and white 
within. It is the produce of some umbelli¬ 
ferous plant not yet accurately determined. 

AMMONITES. [See Cornu Ammonis.] 

AMMUNITION (munitio: Lat.), all war¬ 
like stores, and especially powder, ball, 
bombs, guns, and other weapons necessary 
for warfare. 

AM'NESTY (amnestia: from a, not; and 
mnaomai, I remember: Gr.), an act by 
which two parties at variance promise to 
pardon and bury in oblivion all that is past. 
It is more especially used for a pardon 
granted by a prince to his rebellious sub¬ 
jects. 

AMO'MUM ( kham&ma: Arab.; amSmon: 
Gr.), one of the aromatic herbs formerly 
used for the preservation of dead bodies; 


i 






























29 


Httcrarn Creasfurj). 


whence is derived tlie word mummy. Its 
aromatic seeds are much used, under the 
name of cardamoms, grains of paradise, &e. 
It belongs to the same nat. ord. as the ginger 
and turmeric, and is allied to the arrow- 
root ( Maranta ). 

AMOR'PHOUS (a, without; morplic, 
form: Gr.), destitute of regular figure. 
Thus felspar is found both crystallised and 
amorphous. 

AMORTIZATION (mors, death : Lat.), in 
Law, an alienation of lands or tenements 
in mortmain, which see. 

AMPHIARTHRO'SIS (amphi, round¬ 
about ; and arthroo, I fasten by joints : Gr.), 
in Anatomy, a term for such junctures of 
bones as have motion similar to that of the 
articulation of the ribs with the vertebra. 

AMPHIB'IA (amphibios, living a double 
life: from amphi, on both sides; and bia, 
bodily strength : Gr.), a class of vertebrate 
animals, in which the Batraclda (frogs, 
toads, salamanders, and tritons'), the Siren 
and Proteus are placed. In strictness it is 
only those animals which are equally adapt¬ 
ed by the possession both of lungs and 
branchiae for living in air and water that 
can be called amphibious, and this is only 
the case with five genera, viz. Siren, Lepido- 
siren, Proteus, Axolotl, and Menobranchus. 

AMPHI'BOLE (amphibolos, equivocal: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, one of the forms of 
hornblende, taking its name from its re¬ 
semblance to augite. 

AMPBIBO'LIA, or AMPHIBOL'OGY 
(amphibolos, equivocal; and logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), in Rhetoric, ambiguity of ex¬ 
pression, when a sentence conveys a double 
meaning. It is distinguished from an equi¬ 
vocation, which lies in a single word. 

AMPHIC'TYONS (according to the an¬ 
cients, from Amphictyon, near whose tem¬ 
ple the council was held; but probably from 
amphictiones, dwellers around : Gr.), in Gre¬ 
cian Antiquity, assemblies composed of de¬ 
puties from different states of Greece. 
That which obtained the name, by pre¬ 
eminence, met twice a year, in the spring 
at Delphi, and in the autumn at Thermo- 
pylse; and decided all differences, especially 
in matters of religion, between any of the 
Grecian states : their determinations being 
held sacred and inviolable. 

AMP1IISBAYN A (amphisbaina: from am¬ 
pin, on both sides ; and baino, I go: Gr.), a 
genus of harmless serpents, which are sup¬ 
posed capable of moving backwards or 
forwards, with equal facility. This belief 
has arisen from the two extremities, being 
equally obtuse, and the scales of the head 
being the same as those on the back. They 
are natives of South America, andlive upon 
ants. 

AMPHITHE'ATRE (amphitheatron: from 
amphi, on both sides; and theatron, a 
theatre : Gr.), in Antiquity, a spacious edi¬ 
fice, built either round or oval, like a double 
theatre, with a number of rising seats, upon 
which the people used to sit and behold the 
combats of gladiators, or of wild beasts, and 
other sports. Some of them, as the Coli¬ 
seum at Rome, were capable of containing 
from 50,000 to 80,000 spectators. The prin¬ 
cipal parts of the amphitheatre were the 


[am USETTE 


I arena, or place were the gladiators fought; 
the cavea, or hollow place where the beasts 
were kept; the podium, or projection at the 
top of the wall which surrounded the arena, 
and assigned to the senators; the gradus, 
or benches, rising all round above the 
podium ; the aditus, or entrances; and the 
vomitoria, or gates which terminated the 
aditus. 

AM'PHITRITE (Amphitrite, a goddess of 
the sea), in Zoology, a genus of marine 
worms, living in tubes composed of grains 
of sand. They have short golden-coloured 
bristles, arranged in one or two rows, on 
the anterior part of the head. 

AM'PIIORA (amphoreus, having two han¬ 
dles : Gr.), in Antiquity, a liquid measure in 
use among the Greeks and Romans. It had 
two handles, and was sometimes used as an 
architectural ornament. 

AMPLIFICATION (amplijicatio, a mag¬ 
nifying: Lat.), in Rhetoric, part of a 
discourse or speech, in which a crime is ag¬ 
gravated, a praise or commendation height¬ 
ened, or a narration enlarged, by such an 
enumeration of circumstances as will ex¬ 
cite strong emotions in the minds of 
the auditors. It differs from exaggeration 
in which circumstances and facts are 
heightened in colouring, so as to exceed 
the reality. 

AM'PLITUDE (amplitudo, size : Lat.), in 
Astronomy, an arc of the horizon, inter¬ 
cepted between the east or west point and 
the centre of the sun, or of a planet, at its 

rising or setting.-The word is sometimes 

used to express the horizontal distance to 
which a projectile is thrown, or the range. 

-Amplitude, Magnetical, is an arc of 

the horizon, contained between the centre 
of the celestial body, when rising or set¬ 
ting, and the east or .west point of the 
compass. 

AMPUL'LA (Lat.), an ancient drinking 
cup; but among ecclesiastical writers, 
one of the sacred vessels used at the altar. 
The ampulla still holds a distinguished 
place in the coronation of the kings of 
England and France. That which is used 
in England is of the purest chased gold, 
and represents an eagle with expanded 
wings standing on a pedestal near seven 
inches in height, and iveighing about ten 
ounces. It was deposited in the Tower by 
the Black Prince, and is still preserved 
there with the other regalia. 

AM'ULET (amuletum; Lat.: from hama- 
let: Arab.), a superstitious charm or preser¬ 
vative against mischief, witchcraft, or dis¬ 
eases. Amulets were made of stone, metal, 
animals, and, in fact, of everything which 
fancy or caprice suggested. Sometimes 
they consisted of words, characters, and 
sentences, ranged in a particular order, and 
engraved upon wood, &c., and were worn 
about the neck or some other part of the 
body. At other times they were neither 
written nor engraved, but prepared with 
many superstitious ceremonies, great re¬ 
gard being usually paid to the influence of 
t/liB stars 

AMUSETT'E (a toy: Fr.), a small one- 
pound cannon, formerly employed in war 
in mountainous regions : and which, for 
















AMYGDALOID] djc J^CtCUttflC null 


lightness and facility of movement, was 
found to possess great advantages. 

AMYG'DALOID ( amygdale , an almond ; 
and eidos, form : Gr.), a term applied to 
rocks in which minerals are imbedded, like 
almonds in a cake. 

A'MYL ( amulon, starch: Gr.), in Chemistry 
a hypothetical compound radical,consisting 
of ten atoms of carbon, and eleven of hy¬ 
drogen. It forms with other substances a 
series of ethers and compounds, which cor¬ 
respond to those formed by ordinary 
alcohol. I*otato oil and fusel oil, matters 
obtained on the distillation of potatoes and 
grain, are examples of these compounds. 

A'NA, the Latin neuter plural termination, 
given to thenames of amusingmiscellanies, 
consisting of anecdotes, traits of character, 
and incidents relating to any person or sub¬ 
ject. It is used in English, French, and 
Latin works, and was first adopted in the 
* Valesiana,’ which were detached observa¬ 
tions on passages of classical antiquity by 
the celebrated Valois, and published at 

Paris in 1695..- Ana (ana, each: Gr.), 

among Physicians, denotes an equal quan¬ 
tity of the ingredients which immediately 
precede it in prescriptions: as syrup and 
water, ana, aa, or a gii.; that is, of syrup 
and water each two ounces. 

ANABAP'TISTS (ana, signifying repeti¬ 
tion ; and baptizo, I dip under : Gr.), a name 
given to a Christian sect because they ob¬ 
jected to infant baptism, and baptized again 
those who joined them. They were known 
in the early ages of Christianity as Cata- 
phrygians and Novatians, &c. But they are 
to be distinguished from the sects which 
appeared in Germany in 1521, immediately 
after the rise of Lutheranism. These latter 
at first preached up an entire freedom from 
all subjection to the civil as well as eccle¬ 
siastical power, and committed frightful 
excesses ; but the tenet from whence they 
took their name, was their reLaptizing all 
new converts to their sect. They were 
put down with some difficulty and great 
slaughter, their leader, Muncer,being killed. 
The struggle they made was a political as 
well as a religious one: it was a contest 
between the lower and upper classes. The 
Baptists of England form a distinct sect, 
without any connection with the Anabap¬ 
tists here spoken of. 

ANA'BASIS (a going up: Gr.), the title 
of Xenophon’s description 'of the younger 
Cyrus’s expedition against his brother Artax- 
erxes. King of Persia, n.c. 401. A body of 
Greek mercenaries formed part of Cyrus’ 
army, and Xenophon accompanied them, 
ultimately obtaining military command. 
“When Cyrus lost his life on the plains of 
Cunaxa, the retreat of the ‘ Ten Thousand’ 

commenced.-Arrian also gave the name 

of Anabasis to a work In which he described 

the campaigns of Alexander the Great.- 

Anabasis, among Physicians, denotes 
either the increase or augmentation of a 
fever in general, or of any particular pa¬ 
roxysm. 

ANABRO'SIS (Gr.: from ana, through; 
and brosis, an eating out), in Medicine, a 
corrosion of the sol’d parts by acrid hu¬ 
mours. 


30 


ANACAR'DIUM (a, without; and lcardia, 
a heart: Gr., because the seeds are not 
within the fruit), the botanical name of the 
genus of the tree producing the Cashew 
Nut, which sec. 

ANACATflAR'STS (ffr.,from anaJeathairo, 
I cleanse thoroughly), in Medicine, a cleans¬ 
ing of the lungs, by expectoration.-This 

term is likewise applied by divines to the 
clearing up of obscure passages of Scripture, 
by a spiritual interpretation. 

ANACH'RONISM (ana, backwards; and 
chronos, time : Gr.), in Literature, an error 
with respect to chronology, by which an 
event is placed earlier than it really hap¬ 
pened ; in which sense it stands opposite to 
parachronism. 

ANACOLU'TIION (anakoloutlion, wanting 
sequence: Gr.), in Grammar or Rhetoric, a 
want of coherency, generally arising from 
inattention on the part of the writer or 
orator. 

ANACREONTIC Verse, a term applied 
to lyrical pieces with a convivial or amatory 
turn, such as the Greek poet Anacreon com¬ 
posed. The verses of that poet have an 
elegant simplicity which has never been 
equalled by his numerous imitators. 

ANADIPLO'SIS (Gr., from anadiploo, I 
make double), a figure in Rhetoric and 
Poetry, in which the last word or words of 
a sentence are repeated at the beginning of 
the next. 

AN.ESTIIETTCS (a, prlv.; and aistheti- 
cos, fitted for perception : Gr.), substances 
which produce insensibility, apparently by 
suspending certain of the functions of the 
nervous system : among these, the vapour 
of ether and of chloroform are the most 
manageable, and have lately attracted 
much notice in reference to the per¬ 
forming of surgical operations under their 
influence. 

AN'AGRAM (anagramma, a transposition 
of letters: from ana, up and down; and 
gramma, a letter: Gr.), the change of one 
word or phrase into another, by reading the 
letters backwards, or by transposing them. 
Anagrams were very common among the 
ancients, and occasionally contained some 
happy allusion; but perhaps none were 
more appropriate than the anagram made 
by Dr. Burney on the name of the hero of 
the Nile, just after that important victory 
took place: Horatio Nelson, ‘ Honor est 
a Hilo: 

ANALEC'TA (analego, I pick up: Gr.), 
a collection of extracts from different 
works. 

ANALEM'MA (analambano, I take up: 
Gr.), in Geometry, an orthographic projec¬ 
tion of the sphere, on the plane of the me¬ 
ridian. 

ANALEP'TICS (same word, in the sense of 
I recover), in Medicine, restoratives which 
serve to repair the strength, and to raise the 
depressed spirits. 

AN'ALOGUE (analogos, according to due 
proportion: Gr.), in Comparative Anatomy, 
an organ which resembles another in its 
functional relations; thus, the wing of a 
bird is analogous to the wing of the flying 
lizard, and to the wing of an insect, though 
it be not in its structural relations the cor- 























oi Htterarj) [anchor 


responding organ of the body. [See HOMO¬ 
LOGY.] 

j ANAL'OGY (same deriv.), originally sig¬ 
nified resemblance of relations; but it is 
now usually understood to mean any sort 
of resemblance affording a ground for ar¬ 
guments which do not amount to a com- 
j plete induction. If A and B resemble each 
other in certain respects, and if a proposi¬ 
tion is true of A, it is argued that it is also 
true of B. The force of this argument will 
depend on the degree of relationship that 

| exists between A and B.-In Geometry, 

it is the same as proportion. -In Gram- 

; mar, it is a conformity to the principles of 
| organization of the different words or col- 

| lections of words.-As to its meaning in 

Natural History, see Homology. 

ANAL'YSIS (analusis, from analuo, I un- 
■ loose: Gr.), in Chemistry, the separation of 
any substance into its constituent parts. 
It is either qualitative or quantitative. 
Qualitative analysis ascertains the nature of 
the elements: quantitative, their relative 

amounts. - Volumetrical Analysis, or 

the quantitative estimation of chemical 
substances by measure, is an easy method 
of ascertaining the quantity of a given 
substance which a certain solution or com¬ 
pound contains. Chemists are continually 
needing to determine such a question, for 
many purposes, especially for ascertaining 
the commercial value of alkalis, manga¬ 
nese, chloride of lime, indigo, and many 
j other substances. Suppose, for example, 
we wish to know how much potash a cer¬ 
tain solution contains. Wo measure off a 
given quantity, and ascertain how much 
acid of a known strength is required to sa¬ 
turate it. This being done, a simple calcu¬ 
lation completes the operation, and this 
calculation may be spared by the inspection 
of a previously prepared table.-- Ana¬ 

lysis, among Grammarians, is the explain¬ 
ing the etymology, construction, and other 

[ properties of words.- Analysis is fre- 

j quently employed to signify the algebraical 
branches of pure mathematics.- Ana¬ 

lysis is likewise used for a brief, but 
! methodical, illustration of the principles 
| of a science; in which sense it is nearly 
synonymous with what is termed a Sy- 
! nopsis. 

ANAMORPHOSIS ( anamorphosis , from 
anamorphoo, I renovate: Gr.), in Perspec- 
I tive and Painting, the representation of 
I some image, either on a plane or curved 
surface, deformed, or distorted ; which in 
a certain point of view appears regular and 
in just proportion. 

ANAHLEST, a foot in Greek and Latin 
metre, consisting of two short syllables 
and a long one. The French language is 
( much more abundant in anapmsts than the 
English, which is richer in dactyls. We 
, have, however, several poems in an ana- 
pirstic measure, composed of couplets, each 
line having four anapaests: thus. 

They are true to the last of their blood 
and their breath, 

And like reapers descend to the har¬ 
vest of death. 

ANAPH'ORA (a raising up: Gr.), the re¬ 
petition of the same word or phrase at the 


beginning of several successive sentences. 

-Anaphora, in Astronomy, an ascension 

or rising of the twelve signs of the zodiac, 
from the east to the west, by the daily 
course of the heavens. 

ANAPLEROT'ICS ( anapleroo, I fill up : 
Gr.), medicines which promote the growth 
of flesh in wounds and ulcers. 

A'NARCHY (anarchia, want of govern¬ 
ment : Gr.), a disorderly society without a 
government. 

ANASAR'CA (ana, throughout; and sarx, 
the flesh : Gr.), a diffusion of water through 
the cellular membrane of the limbs, as 
in dropsy. 

ANASTAL'TICS ( anastaltikos, fit for put¬ 
ting back : Gr.), in Pharmacy, astringent or 
styptic medicines. 

ANASTAT'IC PRINTING (anastasis, a 
setting up again: Gr.), a process by which 
the productions of typography, lithography, 
or engraving, may be transferred from the 
originals without injury to them, and after¬ 
wards fixed on metal or wood, so as to be 
printed from again. 

ANASTOMO'SIS (Gr., from anastomoo, I 
furnish with a mouth), Inosculation: ap¬ 
plied to the opening of one vessel into 
another. It occurs with arteries, veins, 
and lymphatics, in the animal body. 

ANAS'TROPHE (Gr., from anastrepho, I 
turn upside down), in Rhetoric, the inver¬ 
sion of words in a sentence, or the placing 
them out of their natural order. 

ANATH'EMA (a person exposed to public 
reprobation: Gr.), among Ecclesiastical 
writers, the word is usually intended to 
express the cutting off a person from the 
privileges of society, and from communion 
with the faithful. The anathema differs 
from simple excommunication, inasmuch 
as the former is attended with curses and 
execrations. 

ANA'TOMY (anatome, from anatemno, I 
cut up: Gr.), in its widest sense, signifies 
the dissection of organized bodies, with a 
view to discover their structure, and the J 
connection of the parts. Anatomy is the j 
basis of Physiology, the object of which is 1 
the discovery of function ; and both form j 
the indispensable basis of Medicine. The 
object of Comparative Anatomy is the dis¬ 
covery of the differences in structure and 
organization which obtain throughout the 
animal kingdom, from the simplest forms 
to the most complex, and from the earliest 
dawn of life on the planet to the present 
epoch. Descriptive Anatomy is concerned 
with healthy structure, and is the necessary 
basis of Pathological Anatomy, which is 
concerned with diseased structures. 

ANCESTORS (ancetres : Fr.), those from 
whom a person is descended in a direct 
line, the father and mother not included. 
Both law and custom make a difference 
between ancestors and predecessors, the 
first being applied to a natural person, as 
a man and his ancestors, and the latter to 
a body politic, as a bishop and his prede¬ 
cessors. 

AN'CHOR (ankura: Gr.), a heavy, strong, 
crooked instrument of iron, cast or dropped 
from a ship into the water, to retain her in 
a convenient station in a harbour, road, or 












































tlTTje ^ctcnttftf autf 


32 


anchorage] 


river. Anchors were at first mere weights : 
afterwards, as at present, they were in¬ 
tended to fasten in the ground. They are 
so contrived as to sink into the earth the 
moment they reach it, and to hear a great 
strain before they can be loosened or dis¬ 
lodged. Every ship has, or ought to have, 
three principal anchors, with a cable to 
each, viz. the sheet, the best bower, and the 
small bower, so called from their usual situa- 
tion on the ship’s bows. There ai - e besides 
small anchors for moving a ship from place 
to place in a harbour or river, where there 
may not be room or wind for sailing; these 
are the stream-anchor, the hedge, and the 
grapnel. The last, however, is chiefly de¬ 
signed for boats. 

AN'CHORAGE (same deriv.), ground fit 
for holding the anchor ; also the duty paid 
by ships for the use of the haven where 
they cast anchor. 

AN'CHORET, AN'CHORITE, or AN- 
ACH'ORET ( anaclwretes, from anachureo, I 
withdraw: Or.), in a general sense, means 
a hermit, or one who voluntarily lives apart 
from the world. Retirement from all 
society has, by vast numbers, been con¬ 
sidered as facilitating the attainment of a 
virtuous life. In Egypt and Syria, where 
Christianity became strongly tinged with 
the peculiar notions of the East, the 
anchorets were most numerous ; and from 
those who lived in cells in the vicinity of a 
church, sprang the convents of a later 
period, which were filled with inmates 
anxious to escape from the tumult and 
bloodshed that marked the beginning of 
the middle ages. 

ANCHO'VY ( ancioe: Jtal.), a small sea- 
fish belonging to the genus Engraulis of 
Naturalists. It is allied to the herring, and 
is taken in lai-ge quantities in the Mediter¬ 
ranean by night-fishing. It is also taken on 
the British coasts. 

ANCHYLO'SIS ( ankulosis, from ankuloo, 
I crook: Gr.}, in Medicine, a stiffness or im¬ 
mobility of the joints, arising from various 
causes, and often connected with defor¬ 
mities of the limbs. For the most part it is 
the result of inflammation in the membrane 
lining the joints. 

ANCO'NES (ankbn, the bent arm: Gr.), 
in Architecture, the consoles, or ornaments 
on the key stones of arches or sides of 
doors. 

ANCY'LE or ANCI'LE (Eat.), in Anti¬ 
quity, a small brazen shield belonging to 
Mars, which fell, as was pretended, from 
heaven in the reign of Numa Pompilius: 
when a voice was heard, declaring that 
Rome should be mistress of the world 
as long as she should preserve this holy 
buckler. 

ANCYLOBLEPH'ARON (Gr. .-from anku- 
los, crooked; and blepharon, the eyelid: Gr.), 
in Medicine, a disease of the eye which 
closes the eyelids. 

ANCY'LOGLOS'STTM (ankulos, crooked; 
and glussa, the tongue : Gr. j, in Medicine, a 
contraction of the ligaments of the tongue, 
so as to hinder speech. 

ANDAN'TE (going: Ital.), in Music, an 
indication that the notes arc to be distinct 
from each other. -Andante largo sig¬ 


nifies that the music must be slow, the 
time exactly observed, and each note dis¬ 
tinct. 

ANDANTI'NO (Ital.), in Music, gentle, 
tender; somewhat slower than andante. 

ANDROG'YNOUS (andro-gunos, herma¬ 
phrodite : Gr.), in Botany, an epithet for 
plants bearing separate male and female 
flowers on the same root, without any 

mixture of hermaphrodites.-In Physio- I 

logy, the possession of organs, of both 
sexes, in each individual, as in the snail. 

ANDROPDES (andros, of a man; and 
eidos, the form ; Gr.), in Mechanics, a term 
used to denote an automaton in the figure 
of a man, which, by means of certain 
springs and other mechanical contrivances, 
is enabled to walk, and perform other ac¬ 
tions of a man. 

ANEMOM'ETER (anemos, the wind-; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), apparatus for in¬ 
dicating, measuring, and recording, the 
direction, force, and velocity, of the wind. 
Various contrivances have been invented 
for these purposes, and some one of them 
is to be found in every meteorological 
observatory. Various contrivances have 
been invented for this purpose ; the first of 
which is attributed to Wolfius, who des¬ 
cribed it in 1709; but considerable im¬ 
provements have been since made in its 
construction. During the experiments 
made by Dr. Lind with his anemometer, 
he found, in one instance, that the force 
of the wind was such as to be equal 
to upwards of 34 lbs. on a square foot, 
answering to a velocity of 93 miles per 
hour! 

ANEM'ONE (anemos, the wind : Gr.) , a 
beautiful flower, originally brought from 
the East, but now much cultivated in our 
gardens, nat. order, ranunculacece. Some 
species are wild in Britain. The word 
signifies properly wind-flower, because it 
was supposed that it opened only when the 
wind blew. 

ANEM'OSCOPE (anemos, the wind ; and 
scopeo, I examine : Gr.), any contrivance for 
showing from what point of the compass 
the wind blows. 

ANE'PIGRAPHOUS (a, ■without, epi¬ 
graphs, an inscription : Gr.), in Numisma¬ 
tics, an epithet applied to coins which bear 
no inscription. 

A'NEROID BAROM'ETER (a, without; 
neros, humid; and eidos, form : Gr., on ac¬ 
count of no fluid being used), an instru¬ 
ment for indicating the variations of at¬ 
mospheric pressure, and differing from 
the ordinary barometer in this, that while, 
in the latter, the pressure of the atmo- 
sphereds measured by the height of the 
column of mercury which it supports; 
in the former, the differences of pressure 
are measured by the effect produced on a 
partially exhausted metallic vessel, the 
opposite sides of which are more or less 
brought together, according as the pressure 
of the atmosphere is greater or less. A 
spiral spring resists the compression of the 
sides: the motion is magnified by levers, 
and is communicated to an index which 
moves round a dial-plate. 

AN'EURISM (aneuruno, I widen: Gr.), 




















33 Ettcrarj) Creatfurj). [aniline 


In Surgery, a diseased swelling of an artery, 
attended with a continued pulsation. 

AN'GEL ( angelos , a messenger : Gr.), the 
name given to those spiritual, intelligent 
beings, who are supposed to execute the 
will of God, in the government of the 

world.- Angel, the name of an ancient 

gold coin in England, so called from hav¬ 
ing the figure of an angel upon one side. It 
was introduced from France in the time 
of Edward IV., and was used till the reign 
of Charles I.; varying in value from 6s. 8 d. 
to 10s. 

ANGEL'ICA, in Botany, a genus of plants 
of the natural order Umbellifcrce. All the 
parts of angelica, especially the root, have 
a fragrant aromatic smell, and a pleasant 
bitterish taste. It is useful in medicine. 

AN'GELUS DOMI'NI (angel of the Lord : 
Lat.), a prayer of the Roman Catholic 
Church, embodying a passage in scripture 
I beginning with these words. It was ordered 
by pope John XXII., in 1326, to be repeated 
t three times a day, morning, noon, and night, 

I when the church bell gives the people 
warning. This prayer is also termed Ave 
Maria (Hail Mary), from this invocation 
being repeatedly employed in it. 

ANGI'NA ( ancho , I strangle: Gr.), the 
j Quinsy, an inflammatory disease of the 
throat. Also, a consequence of organic dis¬ 
ease of the heart, which causes diftlculty of 
respiration, and is hence called angina pec¬ 
toris. Angina is accompanied by anxiety, 
and a sense of suffocation. 

ANGIOSPER'MOUS (aygeion, a vessel; 
and spenna, seed: Gr.), a term applied by 
botanists to such plants as have their seeds 
enclosed in a seed-vessel. [See Seed.] 
AN'GLE (angulus, a corner: Lat.), the 
opening, or mutual inclination, of two 
lines, or of two or more planes, meeting 
in a point called the vertex, or angular point. 
-Angle of Direction, that compre¬ 
hended between the lines of direction of 
two conspiring forces.- Angle of Ele¬ 

vation, in Astronomy, the angular height 

of a celestial object above the horizon.-- 

Facial Angle, the angle made by the in¬ 
tersection of two lines, the one drawn from 
the most prominent part of the frontal bone 
over the anterior margin of the upper jaw, 
the other from the external orifice of the 
ear-passage along the floor of the nasal 

cavity.- Angle, in Fortification, that 

formed by the lines used in fortifying, or 

making a place defensible.- Angle, in 

Geometry. When the lines forming it 
meet perpendicularly, it is called a right 
angle, and is of 90 degrees; when it is 
less than a right angle, it is called 
an acute angle; and when larger than a 
right angle, an obtuse angle. When two 
circles cross each other, their planes form 
what is called a spherical angle. The angles 

made by solids are called solid angles.- 

Angle of Incidence, in Optics, the angle 
which a ray of light, falling upon a reflecting 
surface, makes with a perpendicular erected 
on that surface from the point where the 
ray impinges. The angle of incidence is 
invariably equal to the angle of reflection. 

-Angle of Longitude, in Astronomy, 

the angle which is made at the pole of the 


ecliptic by two circles, one passing through 
the celestial object, the other through the 

vernal equinox.- Angle of Parallax, 

the angle made by two lines, the one sup¬ 
posed to be drawn from a celestial object to 
the observer as he actually stands, and the 
other to the centre to which its motion is 
referred—the centre of the earth, or the 

centre of the earth’s orbit.- Visual 

Angle, that formed by two rays of light, 
drawn from the extreme points of an object 
to the centre of the eye. 

AN'GLER, or Fishing Frog, a marine 
fish of singular form, called by Ichthyolo¬ 
gists Lophius piscatorius. It has a large 
broad head, a very wide mouth, and three 
long detached bony rays projecting from its 
head. It is very voracious, and has been 
taken from Norway to Madeira. 

AN'GLICISM ( anglus, English : Lat.), an 
idiom of speech, or manner, peculiar to the 
English. 

AN'GLING, the art of ensnaring fish with 
a hook, which has been previously baited 
with a small fish, a worm, or a fly, &c. The 
best season for angling is from April to Oc¬ 
tober : the cooler the weather, in the hot¬ 
test months, the better; but in winter, on 
the contrary, the warmest day is the most 
promising. A cloudy day, after a moonlight 
night, is in all cases favourable; as the fish 
avoid feeding by moonlight, and are there¬ 
fore hungry. Warm, lowering days are 
always coveted by anglers. 

ANGLO-SAX'ON, the name of the English 
people, when the Saxons and some other 
German tribes had settled in England, after 
it was abandoned by the Romans in the fifth 
century, and had introduced their language, 

government, and customs.- Anglo- 

Saxon Language, that which was used 
after the conquest of England by the 
Saxons, and Saxon had become the preva¬ 
lent tongue of that country. It is the 
basis of our present English. 

ANGUI'NEAL (next) denotes something 
belonging to or resembling a snake. Hence 
we say, anguineal curve, hyperbola, verse, 
&c. 

AN'GTTIS {Lat.), in Zoology, a genus of 
harmless reptiles, to which our blind-worm 
belongs. 

ANGUSTU'RA Cortex, a bark which 
comes from the Spanish main, and is a 
powerful bitter. A poisonous bark is 
sometimes found m commerce under the 
name of Spurious Angustura. 

ANHT'DROUS (a, without, udor, water: 
Gr.), in Chemistry, a term applied to acids, 
salts, &c., when they are entirely free from 
water. A salt, for example, may appear 
perfectly dry to the eye and to the touch, 
at the very time that water is present. It 
is not until this is driven off that the salt 
is rendered anhydrous. Some acids have 
so strong an affinity for water that it is 
with the utmost difficulty they can be pro¬ 
cured anhydrous. 

ANIL'INE {anil, indigo: Portuguese), a 
pale, brownish, oily liquid, obtained in pro¬ 
portionally minute quantity from coal tar, 
but now manufactured on a large scale for 
dyeing purposes. It is a compound of car¬ 
bon, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; its specific 
D 














‘g'ucnttftc antf 


anima'J 


gravity is slightly heavier than water. 
When aniline or its salts are treated with 
suitable oxidizing agents a number of bril¬ 
liant dyes are produced, which have come 
into extensive use. The first of these 
made commercially available was Perkins’s 
mauve-purple, obtained by treating sulphate 
of aniline with bichromate of potassium. 
By the use of this and other salts every 
shade of purple may be obtained from it, 
from the deepest royal to faint lilac; every 
variety of blue from a pale sky tint to the 
deepest ultramarine; all the. gradations of 
scai'let and crimson, including roseine, ma¬ 
genta, &c.; besides many shades of yellow 
and green. The dyes thus produced are 
very intense, a few pounds weight of the 
dye being capable of colouring some miles 
of fabric. A pound of it will impart a per¬ 
ceptible tint to a large pond of water. 

AN'IMA (the soul: Lat .), the soul, or 

principle of life in animals.- Anima 

Mundi, a phrase formerly used to denote a 
certain pure ethereal substance or spirit, 
supposed to be diffused through the mass 
of the world, organizing and actuating the 
whole and the different parts. 

AN'IMAL (a living creature: Lat.), a liv¬ 
ing body endued with sensation and spon¬ 
taneous motion. The difficulty of drawing 
the line of demarcation between the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms is acknowledged 
by all naturalists. The lowest forms of 
each are well-nigh undistinguishable, and 
have been attributed by turns, first to one 
and then to the other domain of organized 
existence. It is, however, said that the 
best distinction hitherto ascertained is 
drawn from the fact that the food of 
plants consists of inorganic compounds, 
whilst animals require organized matter for 
their support, coupled with the facts that 
the alimentary matter of plants is absorbed 
through their external surface, no solid 
particles being taken in, whilst that of 
animals goes direct into their substance. 
As to the arrangement of animals, see 
Animal Kingdom. 

AN'IMAL FUNCTIONS are those by 
which the materials that constitute and 
support the bodies of animals are prepared 
and supplied. The principal of these func¬ 
tions are the following: circulation, diges¬ 
tion, nutrition or assimilation, respiration, 
and secretion: which are employed in pro¬ 
ducing animal matter from the substances 
that compose it, repairing waste, and get¬ 
ting rid of what is superfluous. But, besides 
these, there are others, which, though they 
do not act like the foregoing, are, in many 
animals, subservient to various important 
purposes. 

AN'IMAL HEAT is that property of all 
animals by which they preserve a certain 
temperature, quite independent of that of 
the medium by which they are surrounded, 
and is essentially necessary to life. That 
of a man in health is from about 94° to 100° 
Fahrenheit. Birds maintain a temperature 
of about 108° F. This heat appears to de¬ 
pend upon the absorption of oxygen in the 
lungs, and throughout the body : carbonic 
acid beingformed in the lungs by tlieunion 
of oxygen with carbon, and water through¬ 


out the body by the union of oxygen witl 
hydrogen—heat and vital energy being ii 
both cases the result. Hence this genera 
slow combustion, which is constantly goinf 
on in the body, is most intimately connectec ! 
with the state of the nervous system. The 
heat of the human body remains nearly the 
same, when exposed to extreme degrees of 
temperature. Fishes, reptiles, and most in- r 
vertebrate animals, are cold-blooded. They 
have not the power of maintaining a uni- j 
form temperature, and their heat depends 
upon that of the surrounding medium. 

AN'IMAL KING'DOM, The, is divided by 
naturalists into five provinces or sub-king¬ 
doms : viz. 1. Vertebrata (animals with 
a jointed back-bone). 2. Mollusca (shell¬ 
fish and their allies). 3. Artioulata (crabs, I 
spiders, insects, worms). 4. Radiata (sea- 
urchins and star-fishes). 5. Protozoa ; 
(sponges, foraminifera, &c.). 

ANIMAL'CULA (plur. of animalaulum, a 
dim. of animal: Lat), a term popularly ap¬ 
plied to very small organisms requiring tlie : 
aid of lenses for their detection. [See 
Infusoria.] 

ANIMATION ( animatio , a bestowal of 
life : Lat.), inPainting, the expression given 
to a figure when representing activity. A 
figure well executed is said to be animated. 
- Suspended Animation. Life may suf¬ 
fer considerable diminution of its powers, 
and even a total suspension, without being 
absolutely destroyed. The action of the 
lungs, and consequently all the functions of 
the body, depend upon the free use of air. 
The want of this great principle of life 
causes faintings in crowded assemblies; ; 
and it is from the same privation of air 
that drowning and suffocation produce 
suspended animation and then death. 

AN'IME', or Gum Anime', a resinous 
substance, imported from New Spain and 1 
the Brazils, which is obtained from a legu¬ 
minous tree, the Hymenaa Courbaril of 
Botanists. It is now known to be inert, 
and therefore of little value as a remedy. 

-Anime', in Heraldry, a term used when 

the eyes of any rapacious creature are borne 
of a different tincture from the creature 
itself. 

AN'IMUS (the mind:Lat.), in Metaphysics, 
the mind or reasoning faculty, in distinc¬ 
tion from anima, the being in which the 

faculty exists.- Animus, in Law, signifies 

intention, for example, he went animo re- 
vertendi, with the intention of returning. 

AN'ISS-SEED (anison, the anise or dill: 
Gr.), the product of an umbelliferous plant 
( Pimpinella Anisum ) which grows wild in 
Egypt, Syria, and other countries of the 
East. Anise-seeds are imported from Spain 
and Italy, where they are cultivated to a 
considerable extent. They are chiefly used 
in the manufacture of liqueurs, and as a 
remedy against flatulency. 

AN'NALS ( annales, chronicles of things 
done year by year: Lat.), a species of his¬ 
tory in which events are related in the 
exact order of chronology. They differ from 
perfect history in this, that annals are a bare 
relation of what passes every year, as a jour¬ 
nal is of what passes every day ; whereas 
history relates not only the transactions 




































35 


Ettfrarg Crca^unt. 


[anorexia 


themselves, but also their causes, motives, 
and springs. 

ANNA'TES (Fr., from annus, a year : Lat.), 
in Ecclesiastical Lav, first-fruits paid out 
of spiritual benefices to the pope,being the 

value of one year’s profit.-Also a fine 

i paid to the king, as head of the church, by 
’ one promoted to an ecclesiastical benefice. 
It is supposed to amount to one year’s value 
of it: but it is less, as it is founded on a 
valuation made in 1535. 

ANNEA'LING ( anhelan , to anneal: Sax.), 
the process of heating steel and other 
. bodies, and then suffering them to cool 
i again gradually. Without-this, many sub- 
I stances are extremely brittle, and liable 
a even to break simply under slight changes 
of temperature—for instance, glass. 

ANNE'LIDA (annulus, a little ring: Lat.), 
in Zoology, the class of worms, forming 
an extensive section of invertebrate ani¬ 
mals with bodies marked off into rings. This 
class has hitherto received little attention 
from naturalists, and many thousands re¬ 
main to be described and classified. They 
i abound far more in the sea than on land. 
; They have been divided into those with 
ij and those without bristles. The former 
I section has been again divided into Mcmer- 
I tint ,worms without a sucker, and Jlirudinei, 
such as leeches, which possess a sucker. 
; The worms possessing bristles may be di- 
j! vided into three sections. 1. Lumbridni, 

\ the earth-worms. 2. Capiti branchiati, those 
having the blood-aerating organs attached 
to the head, such as the Serpulte ; many of 
these live in tubes constructed by them¬ 
selves. 3. Dorsi branchiati, those having 
the blood-aerating organs attached to the 
rings of the body, such as the lob-worms. 

AN'NO DOM'INI (in the year of our 
I Lord: Lat.), abbreviated A.D., a term em- 
f ployed in the computation of time. The 
1 era commencing with the birth of Christ 
is used in dating all public deeds and writ- 
I ings, in Christian countries, on which 
j! account it is called the ‘ Vulgar Era.’ 

ANNO'NiE PRzEFEC'TUS (overseer of 
theannona: Lat.), in Antiquity, an extra¬ 
ordinary magistrate, whose business was 
I to prevent a scarcity of provisions, and to 
i regulate the weight and fineness of bread. 

ANNOTA'TION ( annotatio, from annoto, 
I write down: Lat.), a brief commentary, or 
remark upon a book or writing, in order to 
clear up some passage, or draw some con- 

I elusion from it.- Annotation, in Medi- 

| cine, the beginning of a febrile paroxysm, 
when the patient grows chilly, yawns, 
shudders, or the like. 

ANNOT'TO, an orange-red substance 
I obtained from the waxen pulp or pellicle 
f) surrounding the seeds of Bixa orellana, a 
I South American tree. It is used in dyeing, 

I for varnishes and for colouring cheese. 

ANNUTTV (annus, a year: Lat.), a perio- 
| dical payment of money for a lengthened 
E period. If it is to begin on the occurrence of 
|| some uncertain event, it is a contingent 
pi annuity. If it is not to be enjoyed imme- 
I diately, it is a deferred annuity; if not until 
li the death of some one now living, it is a rc- 
i 1 ; versionary annuity. As the probability of 
the duration of life at every age is known. 


annuities may be purchased for fixed sums 
during a life or lives in being. 

AN'NTTLAR (annularis, from annulus, a 
ring: Lat.), anything in the form of, or re¬ 
sembling, a ring. Hence, Annular, in 
Anatomy, is an appellation given to several 
parts of the body : thus, the annular carti¬ 
lage is the second cartilage of the larynx; 
the annular ligament is a strong ligament 
encompassing the wrist, after the manner 
of a bracelet; and annular process is that 
which surrounds the medulla oblongata. 

-In Astronomy, an eclipse is said to be 

annular when a ring of light is left on the 
body eclipsed. 

AN'NULATA (same deriv.), a large class 
of soft-bodied animals marked with rings, 
inrludingtheleeches, the earth-worms, and 
many marine worms, some of which live 
in tubes. This class is sometimes styled 
Annelida, which see. 

AN'NCLET (annulus, a ring: Lot.), in 
Architecture, a small square moulding, 
which crowns or accompanies a larger. 
Also, though improperly, the fillet which 
separates the ilutings of a column. Also, in 
Heraldry, a small ring. 

ANNUNCIA'TION (annunciatio, from an- 
nuncio, I make known : Lat.), the delivery 
of a message, particularly the angel’s mes¬ 
sage to the Virgin Mary, concerning the 
birth of our Saviour. The festival in com¬ 
memoration of that event is called Lady- 
day, and falls on the 25tli of March. 

AN'ODE (ana, up; and odos, a way: Gr.), 
the way by which electricity enters a body 
through which it passes. It is opposed to 
Cathode. 

AN'ODYNES (anodunos, free from pain: 
Gr.), medicines so called because they re¬ 
lieve pain and procure sleep, such as the 
preparations of the poppy. They are di¬ 
vided into three classes: Paregorics, or 
such as assuage pain ; Soporifics, or such as 
procure sleep; and Narcotics, or such as 
ease the patient by stupefying him. 

ANOMALIS'TICAL YEAR (anomalos, ir¬ 
regular : Gr.), in Astronomy, the time that 
the earth takes to pass from any point in 
the ecliptic round to the same point. 

ANO'MALY (andmalia: Gr., from samo 
deriv.), any irregularity or exception to a 
rule. -Anomaly, in Astronomy, the an¬ 

gular distance of a planet from its peri¬ 
helion, as seen from the sun. It is of three 
kinds, the true, the mean, and the excentric- 

-In Grammar, an exception from the 

general rule. 

ANO'MI A ( anomios, unequal: Gr.), a genus 
of bivalve shell-fish allied to the oyster. 
The valves areunequal,and one is perforated 
near the hinge. A plug passes through the 
hole and attaches the animal to a submerged 
rock. 

ANO'PLTJRA (anoplos, unarmed; oura, a 
tail: <?r.),an orderof insects with suctorial 
mouths, including the louse and its allies, 
which live parasitically on other animals. 
Almost every species of bird and quadruped 
lias apeculiar species of this order attached 
to it. They do not undergo any metamor¬ 
phosis. 

ANOREX’IA (Gr.: from a, without; and 
orexis, a desire for a thing), in Medicine 
























anosmia] &l)c S'ctcnttfic autf 36 

tlie loathing of food. It is either original, 
or symptomatic of some disorder. 

ANOS'MIA (a, without; and osme, smell: 
Gr.), in Medicine, a disease attended with a 
diminution or loss of smell. 

AN'SER (anser, a goose : Lett), a genus of 
swimming birds with webbed feet, of which 
the common goose may be taken as an ex¬ 
ample. 

ANT, in Entomology, well-known insects, 
much celebrated for industry and economy. 
They belong to the Hymenoptera, an order 
of insects with membranaceous wings, and 
distinguished by not being armed with a 
sting, or any instrument for piercing the 
bodies of animals, or plants, for the purpose 
of depositing their eggs. Ants are social 
insects, and are divided, like the bees and 
wasps, into males, females, and neuters, 
which last constitute the great mass of this 
tribe, and appear to conduct the business 
of the nest. The neuters are unproductive 
females, their ovaria being undeveloped. 
Their heads are very large, and the mouth 
is armed with strong mandibles. The males 
die, or are killed by the neuters, before the 
eggs they have impregnated are excluded. 
The productive females die soon after the 
eggs are matured and excluded. They, like 
the males, have four well developed wings, 
by means of which they can fly. The eggs 
which the queen ant deposits and the larvae 
when hatched, are teuded with the most 
careful solicitude by the workers. The 
pup® are as well looked after, and when 
the time has arrived for the perfect insect 
to emerge from its cocoon, the workers are 
at hand to aid in its release. At a particular 
period some of the pup® produce perfect 
males and females, which after a while take 
flight and pair. The impregnated females 
denude themselves of their wings, and in 
many cases are seized by a colony of work¬ 
ers, carried into a nest, and tended on until 
they have deposited their eggs. Naturalists 
have divided the ants they have examined 
into many genera. Several of our British 
forms fall into the genus Formica, They 
feed on both animal and vegetable sub¬ 
stances. White ants belong to a different 
order of insects. [See Termites.] 

ANTANACLA'SIS (Gr., from antanaclao, I 
reflect sound), in Rhetoric, a figure which 
repeats the same word, but in a different 
sense; as ‘ dum vivimus, vivamus.’ 

ANTARCTIC ( antarktikos: from anti, 
against; and Arlctos, the Bear: Gr.), in a 
general sense, denotes something opposite 
to the Arctic, or northern pole. The Ant¬ 
arctic circle, in Geography and Astronomy, 
is one of the lesser circles of the sphere, 
and is distant only 23]° from the Antarctic., 
or south pole. The stars near the Antarctic 
pole never appear above our horizon. 

ANTARES, a star of the first magnitude 
in the Scorpion; it is the <* Scorpii of As¬ 
tronomers. 

ANT'-EATERS, a genus ( Myrmecophagc) 
of toothless quadrupeds, allied to the 
sloths, inhabiting South America. There 
are several species: one as small as a squir¬ 
rel, another as large as a calf. One is ter¬ 
restrial, the others arboreal. Again, some 
are diurnal, others nocturnal in their ha- 

bits. They feed on termites, or white ants, 
which they lick up with their long flexible 
tongues. The great ant-eater, remarkable 
for its long slender muzzle, is a harmless 
animal, but it has been known to kill a dog 
with its claws when attacked. Its flesh is 
eaten in some parts of South America. 

ANTECE'DENCE ( antecedo, I go before : 
Lat.), in Astronomy, an apparent motion of 
a planet towards the west, or contrary to 
the order of the signs, viz. from Taurus to¬ 
wards Aries, &c. 

ANTECEDENT (antecedent, going before: 
Lat.), in Grammar, the word to which a re¬ 
lative refers : thus, in ‘ God whom we adore,’ 
the word God is the antecedent to the rela¬ 
tive whom. -Antecedent, in Logic, the 

first of the two propositions in an entity* 

meme.- Antecedent, in Mathematics, 

the first of two terms of a ratio, or_that 
which is compared with the other : thus, in 
the ratio of 2 to 3, or a to b, 2 and a are 

each antecedents.- Antecedent Signs, 

in Medicine, such as are observed before a 
distemper is so formed as to be reducible to 
any particular class, or proper denomina¬ 
tion. 

ANTELOPES (anthos, an ornament; and 
Ops, the eye : Gr., from the beautiful eye of 
the gazelle), are ruminating animals, form¬ 
ing a division of the family of Bovidce. In 
form they resemble the deer, but have 
unbranchod hollow horns, frequently very 
large. In shape they are elegant animals, 
timid in disposition, and rapid in flight. 
The gazelle is an antelope, and in South 
Africa there are several other species, in¬ 
cluding the springbok andtlieharte-beeste. 

ANTEM'BASIS (Gr., from antembaino, I 
enter instead), in Anatomy, a mutual inser¬ 
tion of the bones. 

ANTE MERIDIEM (before noon : Lat.), 
abbreviated A.M., in Astronomy, the time 
before noon. 

ANTENCLE'MA (Gr.: fron anti, in return 
for; and enclema, an accusation), in Oratory, 
a defence in which the accused replies to 
the charge by criminating the accuser. 

AN TEN'NzE (antenna, a sail-yard: Lat.), 
in Zoology, jointed processes with which 
the heads of some animals, such as crusta¬ 
ceans and insects, are furnished. They are 
of various shapes; they are commonly 
called horns or feelers. 

ANTEPENULTIMATE (ante, before; 
pene, almost; and ultima, the last: Lat.), 
the last but two. 

ANTEPOSI'TION (antepono, I place be¬ 
fore : Lat.), a Grammatical figure, by which 
a word, that by the ordinary rules of syntax 
ought to follow another, comes before it. 

ANTHELMINTICS (anti, against; and 
helmins, a worm : Gr.), medicines proper to 
destroy worms. 

ANTHER (antlieros, blooming : Gr.), that 
part of the stamen of a flower which is 
at the top of the filament; it is usually di¬ 
vided into two cavities, which are filled 
with pollen, minute grains that are dis¬ 
charged when ripe, and these falling upon 
the pistil impregnate the ovary. Anthers 
are generally yellow, that being the usual 
colour of the pollen. 

AN'TIIESIS (bloom, from anthos, a flower 













37 


2Lttcrarg Crsatfttrjn 


Or.), in Botany, the period at which the 
flower-hud opens. 

ANTHO'LOGY ( antliologia, a gathering of 
flowers : Gr.), a name given to a collection 
of short pieces of poetry, which are fre¬ 
quently called epigrams. The first collec¬ 
tion of this kind was made by Meleager, a 
Syrian Greek poet, who lived about a cen¬ 
tury before the birth of Christ. 

AN'THRACITE ( anthrax , a coal : Gr.), a 
species of coal containing more carbon and 
less bituminous matter than the ordinary 
kind. Inferior anthracite and the smaller 
kinds of good coal constitute culm. Some 
are of opinion that anthracite was origin¬ 
ally bituminous coal, and that the altera¬ 
tion has been caused by subterranean heat. 
In North Wales, the two kinds are some¬ 
times found as portions of the same bed. 
There is a coal, known as steam coal,which 
is intermediate between the two. Anthra¬ 
cite is inflammable with some difficulty, 
and burns without smell or smoke, leaving 
a more or less earthy residue. It has no 
special value of its own, aud is only used 
when it can be obtained cheaper than other 
kinds. It is scarce in Europe, and conse¬ 
quently but little used ; but in the United 
States of America, where it abounds, it 
has lately acquired a high degree of import¬ 
ance. 

ANTHRO'POID ( anthropos , a man ; eidos, 
shape : Gr.), a term applied to certain apes, 
such as the gorilla, orang-outang, chimpan¬ 
zee, and gibbon, on account of a certain 
amount of resemblance to the human spe¬ 
cies which they possess. 

ANTHROPO'LOGY ( anthropos, a man ; 
logos, a discourse : Gr.), the science which 
has man for its object. It undertakes to 
describe and classify the races of men, to 
point out their similarities and differences, 
to study their manners and capabilities, and 
to determine their relationship. Since the 
races of men, notwithstanding their differ¬ 
ences, form an entire group, anthropolo¬ 
gists examine that group as a whole, and 
endeavour to ascertain its position in the 
scale of organic nature, its relations to 
other groups, and its common characters, 
whether under an anatomical, a physiolo¬ 
gical, or an intellectual point of view. The 
laws which govern the maintenance or 
change of these characters, the influence of 
external conditions, the phenomena of he¬ 
reditary transmission, and the effect on the 
offspring of intermarriage of nearly related 
persons, or of persons of different races, 
are studied, as well as the grand subject of 
the history of humanity through the stages 
of its development. There arc Anthropo¬ 
logical Societies in London and Paris. 

ANTHROPOMOR'PHITE ( anthropos , a 
man; morphe, shape: Gr.), one who ascribes 
a human figure and a bodily form to God. 

A N T H It O P O'P H A GI ( anthropophagoi : 
from anthropos, a man ; and phago, I eat: 
Gr.), or Cannibals, persons who eat the 
flesh of men. 

AN'TI, a Greek particle which enters 
into the composition of several words, in 
Latin, P-ench, English, &c., and signifies 
opposite or contrary to; a3 in antiscor¬ 
butics. 


[ANTIPATHY 


ANTICAR'DIUM ( antikardion: from anti, 
opposite to; and kardia, the heart: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, that hollow opposite the heart 
called the pit of the stomach. 

ANTI-CLI'MAX {anti, opposite to; and 
klimax, a gradation: Gr.), in Literary Com¬ 
position and Oratory, a descent from the 
great to the little. 

ANTI'CLINAL {anti, against; and clino, 

I incline : Gr.), in Geology, a term applied 
to an axis, the strata of which slope in 
opposite directions; in opposition to syn¬ 
clinal {sun, together : Gr.), where the strata 
dip towards each other. 

AN'TIDOTE {antidotos: from anti, 
against; and didumi, I give : Gr.), a coun¬ 
ter-poison, or any medicine generally that 
counteracts the effects of what has been 
swallowed. 

ANTTL'OGY {antilogia, a contradiction : 
from anti, opposite to; and logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.),an inconsistency between two 
or more passages of the same book. 

ANTIMETA'BOLE (Gr.: a transforma¬ 
tion : from nati, against; ar.d metaballo, I 
change), in Rhetoric, a setting of two 
things in opposition to each other. 

ANTIMETA'THESIS {anti, against; and 
metatithemi, I transpose : Gr.), in Rhetoric, ! 
an inversion of the parts or members of an 
antithesis. 

AN'TIMONY, a metal of a bluish white 
colour. It is so brittle that it is easily re¬ 
duced to powder. Its spec. grav. is 67; 
and it fuses, at 810°, just below redness. 
Its principal ore is the sulphuret, known 
in commerce as crude antimony, and the 
metal is obtained by fusing the sulphuret 
with scrap iron, when the iron unites with 
the sulphur and turns out the antimony. 
Glass of antimony is an impure oxide. 
Tartar-emetic is a tartrate of antimony 
and potash. Type metal is an alloy of anti¬ 
mony and lead; on account of its expand¬ 
ing at the moment of solidifying (a property 
possessed by neither metal separately) it 
takes a very sharp impression of the 
mould. 

ANTINO'MIANS {anti, against ; and no¬ 
mas, a law : Gr.), in Church History, a sect 
who reject the moral law as a rule of con¬ 
duct to believers. They consider good works 
as unnecessary, and faith alone as sufficient 
for salvation; and hence are sometimes 
called Solfidians {solafides, faith alone : Lat.). 

ANTIPA'THES {anti, against; pathe, suf¬ 
fering or misfortune: Gr.), a genus of 
flexible corals, of a dark brown colour, 
which are usually branched into delicate 
twigs, the whole looking like a small leaf¬ 
less shrub. The substance is horny and 
very similar to that composing the axis of 
the Gorgonias, but it is destitute of a 
calcareous bark. When fresh from the sea 
they are covered with gelatinous matter, 
formed of dead polypes. The stems are 
sometimes thick, and so hard that they 
will take a polish. They are frequently 
called Black Coral. 

ANTI'PATHY {antipatheia: from anti, 
against; and pathos, a violent feeling: Gr.), 
in Physiology, a natural aversion of one 
body to another, in contradistinction to 
sympathy. In a more restricted sense, it 










Cfje £ct?uttftc antr 


38 


ANTIPHON] 


Is an involuntary aversion which is felt 
towards some object perceived either in 
reality or by the imagination, although the 
person who feels this abhorrence is entirely 
ignorant, of its cause, and can by no means 
account for it. 

AN'TIPHON (antiphoneo, I sing against: 
Gr.), in Church Music, the short verse sung 
Defore the Psalms and other portions of the 
Roman Catholic service. 

ANTI'PHRASIS (Or.; from anti, opposite 
to; and phrasis, a phrase: Gr.), in Rhetoric, 
a kind of irony, in which we use words in a 
sense opposite to that which belongs to 
them: as when we say, ‘ you are very 
clever,’ when we mean, ‘you are very 
stupid.’ 

ANTI'PODES (Gr.: from anti, against; 
and pous, a foot), the name given to those 
inhabitants of the earth who are diametri¬ 
cally opposite to each other, as it were feet 
to feet. They have the same or equal lati¬ 
tudes—the one north, and the other south ; 
but opposite longitudes. Consequently, 
i when it is day to the one, it is night to the 
other. 

ANTIQUARY ( antiquarius, from anti- 
qnus, ancient: Lat), a person who searches 
after and studies the monuments and re¬ 
mains of antiquity.-The monks who were 

employed in making new copies of old books 
were formerly called antiquarii. 

ANTPQUITIES (antiquitas, antiquity: 
Lat.), the remains of ancient historical 
times; genealogies, inscriptions, monu¬ 
ments, coins, names, archives, mechanical 
instruments, fragments of history, &c. An¬ 
tiquities form a very extensive branch of 
learning, referring to ancient edifices, ma¬ 
gistrates, habiliments, manners, customs, 
ceremonies, religious worship, and other 
objects worthy of curiosity, of all the prin¬ 
cipal nations of the earth. There is a 
Society of Antiquaries in London, which 
received its charter of incorporation in 
1751. 

ANTISABBATA'RIANS (anti, against; 
and sabbaton, the Sabbath : Gr ), those who 
deny the necessity of observing the Sab¬ 
bath. 

ANTIS'CII, or ANTIS'CIANS (anti, oppo¬ 
site to; and ski a, shadow: Gr.), an old term 
in Geography, signifying the people who 
live on different sides of the equator, and 
whose shadows at noou fall in opposite 
directions. 

ANTISEPTICS (anti, against; and sepo, 
I make rotten : Or.), things which prevent 
putrefaction, such as creosote, alcohol, and 
ice. 

ANTISPASMO'DICS (anti, opposite to ; 
and spasmos, a spasm : Gr.), medicines pro¬ 
per for the prevention or cure of spasms or 
cramps. 

ANTIS'TROPIIE (antistrophe, from anti- 
etrepho, I turn about: Gr.), the alternate 
yersei n ancient poetry, which was divided 
into the strophe and antistrophe. In reciting 
odes the chorus turned from the left to the 
right at the strophe, and from the right to 
the left at the antistrophe. 

ANTITHESIS (Gr., from antitithemi, I 
set one thing against another),in Rhetoric, 
a figure of speech, by which two things are 


made more striking by being set in op¬ 
position to each other. ‘ Antitheses, well 
managed,’says Bohours, ‘ give infinite plea¬ 
sure in the perusal of works of genius; 
they have nearly the same effect in lan¬ 
guage as lights and shadows in painting, 
which a good artist distributes with pro¬ 
priety : or the flats and sharps in music, 
which arc mingled by a skilful master.’ 
The beautiful antithesis of Cicero, in his 
second oration against Catiline, may serve 
as an example: ‘ On the one side stands 
modesty, on the other impudence; on the 
one fidelity, on the other deceit; here 
piety, there sacrilege,’ &c. It is imputed 
as a fault to some writers that they have 
carried the use of antithesis to exces-s, fre¬ 
quently employing an antithetical form of 
words, when there is no antithesis in the 
thought. 

ANTITRTNITA'RIANS (anti, against : 
Gr.; and Trinitas, the Trinity: Lat.), all 
those who deny the doctrine of the Trinity. 

ANTITYPE (anti-tupos, a copy: Gr.), 
among Ecclesiastical writers, that which 
was foreshadowed by the type- or figure. In 
the Greek church it is also an appellation 
given to the symbols of bread and wine in 
the sacrament. 

ANTCE'CI (antoikoi: from anti, opposite 
to ; and oilcos, a house: Gr.), in Geography, 
those inhabitants of the earth who live 
under the same meridian, but on different 
sides of the equator, and at equal distances 
from it. 

ANTONOMA'SIA (Gr. • from anti, instead 
of; and onoma, a name), a mode of speaking 
in which a proper name is put for an ap¬ 
pellative, as when a patron of learned men 
is called a Maecenas, or when a person is 
addressed or described by some appropriate 
or official designation, but not by his sur¬ 
name ; as, in the House of Lords, ‘ the 
noble lord.’ 

A'NUS, in Anatomy, the excrementary 
orifice of the alimentary canal, or termina¬ 
tion of the intestinum rectum. In ovipa¬ 
rous vertebrates, it opens into a cavity 
common to it and the urinary organs, called 
the cloaca. In many of the lower classes of 
invertebrate animals, one orifice performs 
the functions of a mouth and anus. 

AORIS'TIA (Gr.: from aoristos, indefi¬ 
nite), in the Sceptic philosophy, that state 
of the mind in which we neither assert nor 
deny anything positively, but only speak of 
things as seeming or appearing to us in 
such a manner. 

AORTA (usually derived from aer, the 
air; and tereo, I keep: Gr. ; being found 
empty after death.it was supposed by the 
older anatomists to be intended to convey 
air), in Anatomy, the great artery issuing 
from the left ventricle of the heart. All 
the other arteries proceed mediately or im¬ 
mediately from the aorta. It is distin¬ 
guished into the descending and ascending 
aorta, according to the direction it takes. 

AP'ATHY (apatheia, insensibility : Gr.), a 
term expressive of an utter privation of 
passion, and an insensibility to pain. Thus 
the Stoics affected an entire apathy, so as 
to be unconscious of pleasure or pain, and 
incapable of being moved by anything. 







































— 


Ettcrarj? Crcatfurg. [apocalypse 


39 


AP'ATITE, a mineral found in Canada, 
Norway, and Spain; composed chiefly of 
phosphate of lime, and hence useful as a 
manure. It has the advantage over copro- 
j lites in containing less siliceous matter and 
carbonate of lime. 

APAU'.ME'(paime, the palm of the hand : 
Fr.), in Heraldry, a hand opened, so that the 
full palm appears, with the thumb and fin¬ 
gers extended, as may be seen in the arms 
of a baronet. 

APEAK, perpendicular. A ship is said to 
be apeak, when the cable is drawn so tight 
as to bring her directly over the anchor. 

APEP'SIA («, without; and pepsis, di¬ 
gestion : Gr.), in Medicine, a bad diges¬ 
tion ; the more usual term for which is 
| Dyspepsia. 

APES, qitadrumanous mammalian ani¬ 
mals, which have their teeth of the same 
number and form as in man, and have 
neither tails nor cheek pouches. Apes ap¬ 
proach nearer to man in organization than 
do any other animals. All of them have the 
power of walking in an erect position [See 
Chimpanzee, Gibbon, Gobilla, Orang¬ 
outang.] 

APET'ALOTTS (apetalos: from a, with¬ 
out ; and petalon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, 
a term for plants whose flowers have no 
I corolla. 

A'PEX {Lat), in its general sense, the 
top, summit, or highest degree of anything. 

-In Antiquity, a little woollen tuft on 

the cap of the flamen, or high-priest.- 

In Mathematics, the point of a cone. 

AI’H.E'RESIS ( apliairesis , from aphairco, 
I take away: Gr.), in Grammar, the removal 
of a letter or syllable from the beginning 

of a word.-In Surgery, an operation by 

which something that is superfluous is taken 
away. 

APHE'LION {apo, from; and lielios, the 
sun: Gr.), in Astronomy, that point of 
its orbit at which the earth, or any 
planet, is at the greatest distance from the 
sun. 

A'PHIDES, in Entomology, the plural of 
Aphis, the genus to which Plant Lice belong. 
These are homopterous insects, which are 
sometimes wingless and sometimes fur¬ 
nished with four wings, feeding upon the 
juices of plants, especially those of young 
I shoots. Some species are remarkable for 
secreting on the leaves of trees a sweet 
fluid, known as honey-dew, which is eagerly 
sought for Iwants. The Aphis Jlumuli, or 
Hop Fly, is m some years very destructive 
to the crop ; and it is to this cause that the 
variations of the hop crop from year to year 
are mainly due. Not long ago an aphis 
made its appearance all at once on the 
grain fields of New England, and in the 
State of New York, in such astonishing 
numbers, that in old time it would have 
been looked upon as a miraculous occur¬ 
rence. -In many fields the insect swarmed 
to an extent that the crop seemed smoth¬ 
ered. It was found that the insect com¬ 
menced bearing when it was only three 
I days old, and produced four young ones 
I daily. Thus the descendants of a single 
aphis will in twenty days amount to more 
than two millions. The Aphides are also very 


remarkable in regard to the phenomena 
attending their reproduction. The eggs 
produce females which will for many gene¬ 
rations (as many as eleven have been 
counted) produce living young ones without 
the presence of a male insect amongst them. 
This is a striking instance of what has 
been called Parthenogenesis. 

APHLOGIS'TIC ( aplilogistos: from a, not; 
and phlogistos, burnt: Gr.), not inflammable. 
An aplilogistic lamp is one in which a coil 
of platinum wire is kept in a state of igni¬ 
tion by vapour of alcohol or ether, without 
flame. 

APHO'NIA {Gr.: from a, without: and 
phone, a voice), in Medicine, a depriva¬ 
tion of voice, arising from palsy of the 
tongue. 

APH'ORISM ( aphorismos, from aplionzo, 
I define : Gr.), a maxim or principle of a 
science ; or a sentence which comprehends 
a weighty truth in a few words. 

APHRI'TE ( aphros, foam : Gr.), a mineral 
substance, so called from its frothy ap¬ 
pearance. It is a soft friable carbonate of 
lime. 

APH'TIIiE ( aphthai: Gr.), in Medicine, 
the thrush; small, round, and superficial 
ulcers arising in the mouth. The principal 
seat of this disease is the extremity of ex¬ 
cretory vessels, salivary glands, &c. 

APHYL'LOUS ( aphullos: from a, with¬ 
out; and phullon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, 
an epithet applied to plants which have no 
leaves, their place being taken by scales. 
Many species of cactU3 are aphyllous. 

A'PIARY (from next), a place where bees 
are kept. It should be selected with great 
care ; should be sheltered from the wet as 
well as from the extremes of heat and cold ; 
should face the south, be defended from 
high winds, and not be within the sphere 
of offensive smells, or liable to the attacks 
of any hostile vermin. 

A'PIS {Lat.), in Entomology, a genus of 
bees, including the liive-bee, Apis melli- 

Jica . [See Bee.] -In Mythology, Apis was 

the name of a bull to which divine honours 
w T ere paid by the Egyptians, chiefly at Mem¬ 
phis. 

APLANA'TIC {aplanetos, not gone astray: 
Gr.), in Optics, a term applied to that kind 
of refraction which causes rays to converge 
exactly to the true focus, and without the 
production of colour. It differs therefore 
from achromatic, in which colour has been 
corrected. 

APO'CALYPSE ( apokalupto , I disclose: 
Gr.), the Greek name of the last book of 
the New Testament, termed in English the 
Revelations. It was at one time generally 
attributed to the Apostle John, and sup¬ 
posed to have been written in the isle of 
Patmos, whither he had been banished by 
the emperor Domitian. Other authors 
have been named, and some wholly reject it 
as spurious. On account of its metapho¬ 
rical language, the Apocalypse has been 
explained differently by almost every 
writer who has ventured to interpret it; 
and for the same reason it is one of those 
parts of the Bible which have furnished all 
sects with quotations to support their 
creeds or opinions. Bishop South’s opinion 




































r -~-—.——.... ■ - — ■—--——--- ■ <. -—-—---- - -■ ■ ■ • . ' -- - ■ -—• 

Apocope] ^CtClUtftC HUtf 40 

of it was that it either found a man mad or 
left him so. 

APO'COPE (Gr., from apolcopto, I cut off), 
in Grammar, a figure by which the last 
letter or syllable of a word is cut off. 

APO'CRYPHA (apokruptos, hidden : Gr.), 
in Theology, certain books of doubtful au¬ 
thority which are not received into the ca¬ 
non of Holy Writ by the Reformed Churches, 
being considered as either spurious or not 
acknowledged as of divine origin; but nearly 
all of them are received by the Roman Ca¬ 
tholic church, as of equal authority with 
the books of Scripture. They were never, 
however, on the canon of the Jews; they are 
not quoted by the authors of the New 
Testament; they contain manifest incon¬ 
sistencies ; and some of them even counte¬ 
nance tenets at variance with orthodox 
religion. 

APO'CYNACEiE, a nat. order of plants, of 
which many have a poisonous juice. They 
have monopetalous flowers, and a remark¬ 
able stigma, forming at the base a sort of 
ring. To this order belong our common 
periwinkle, the oleander, and some tropical 
plants with showy flowers, some of which 
are cultivated in our hothouses, such as the 
Allamanda, Dipladenia, Plumieria, and 
Echites. 

A'PODAL (a, without; and pous, a foot: 
Gr.), a term applied by naturalists to fishes 
which have no ventral fins, like many eels. 

APODIC'TICA \(apodeikti.kos, demonstra¬ 
tive : Gr.), in Rhetoric, an epithet for argu¬ 
ments which are fitted for proving the 
truth of any point. 

APODIOX'IS (Gr., from apodiOko, I drive 
away), in Rhetoric, a figure by which we 
either pass over a thing slightly, or reject 
it as unworthy of notice. 

APODIX'IS (Gr., from apodeiknumi, I 
point out), in Rhetoric, an evident demon¬ 
stration. 

APOD'OSIS (Gr., from apodidomi, I ex¬ 
plain), in Rhetoric, the latter part of a 
complete exordium, or the application of a 
simile. 

AP'OGEE (apo, from ; and ge, the earth : 
Gr.), in Astronomy, when the earth is at its 
greatest distance from the sun, the latter 
is said to be in apogee, and the earth in its 
aphelion', when at its least distance from 
the sun, that body is said to be in perigee, 
and the earth in its perihelion. Apogee and 
perigee are terms derived from that ex¬ 
ploded system which considered the earth 
to be the centre round which the sun and 
planetary bodies circulated. 

AP'OGRAPH (apo, from; and grapho, I 
write: Gr.), a copy or transcript of some 
book or writing. 

APOLLINA'RIANS (from Apollinarius, 
Bishop of Laodicea, their founder), in 
Church History, a sect who maintained 
that Jesus Christ had a sensitive, but not a 
rational human soul, the divine nature sup¬ 
plying its place. 

APOL'LO BEL'VIDERE, a famous mar¬ 
ble statue of Apollo, which was found 
amongst the ruins of Antium, twelve 
leagues from Rome. It was purchased by 
pope Julius II. when a cardinal, and re¬ 
moved by him when pope to the Belvidere 

at the Vatican, whence its name. The left 
hand and the right fore-arm are modern 
restorations. The name of the sculptor is 
unknown, but it is thought to have been 
carved in the time of the emperor Nero. 

AP'OLOGUE (apologos: Gr.), a poetica-’ 
fiction, the purpose of which is the im¬ 
provement of morals. Some writers are of 
opinion that this term ought to be confined 
to that species of fable in which brutes or 
inanimate things—-as beasts or flowers— 
are made to speak. 

APONEURO'SIS (apo, from ; and neuron, 
a nerve: Gr.), in Anatomy, a tendinous 
membrane, expanded over the muscles of 
the limbs. The older anatomists gave it 
this name, because they believed tendons to 
be derived from nerves. 

APOPH'ASIS (a denial: Gr.), a figure ,of 
speech, in which the orator briefly alludes 
to, or seems to decline stating, that which 
he wishes to insinuate. 

AP'OPHTHEGM, or AP'OTHEGM (apo- 
plitliegma: Gr.), a short sententious and in¬ 
structive remark, especially if pronounced 
by a person of distinguished character. 

APOPH'YGE (apophuge, a flight: Gr.), in 
Architecture, the part of a column where 
it springs out of its base. 

APOPH'YLLITE (ape, from ; and phullon, 
a leaf: Gr.), a mineral belonging to the 
Zeolite family, of foliated structure and a 
peculiar pearly lustre. When a fragment is 
forcibly rubbed against a hard body, it sepa¬ 
rates into thin laminae. 

APO'PHYSIS (a sprout: Gr.),in Anatomy, 
a projecting part or process of a bone. The 
various processes of the joints of the ver¬ 
tebra are thus named, with the addition of 
prefixes to distinguish them. [See Ver- 

TEBRiE.] 

AP'OPLEXY (apoplexia, from apoplesso, I 
strike down : Gr.), a disorder in which, while 
the patient is suddenly deprived of the ex¬ 
ercise of all the senses, and of voluntary 
motion, a strong pulse remains with a deep 
respiration, attended with a stertor, and 
the appearance of a profound sleep. Com¬ 
plete apoplexy is produced by the pressure 
of blood (whether extravasated or not) 
upon the brain; and it is most usually 
found to accompany persons of a full habit 
of body, who have a short neck and a sys¬ 
tem disposed to a too copious sanguification. 

APOS'TASY (apostasia, from aphistamai, 

I stand apart: Gr.), the quitting any system 
of thinking or acting, good or bad; but 
the word is generally used in a reproachful 
sense of one who has changed his religious 
opinions. 

APOSTAX'IS (a trickling down : Gr.), in 
Medicine, any defluxion, but particularly of 
blood from the nose. 

A POSTERIO'RI (from the latter: Lat.). 
[See A priori.] 

APOS'TLE (apostolos, one sent: Gr.), pro¬ 
perly a person delegated or sent by another 
upon some business ; and hence, by way of 
eminence, one of the twelve disciples com¬ 
missioned by Jesus Christ to preach the 
gospel. 

APOSTROPHE (Gr., from apostrepho, I 
turn aside), a figure of speech by which the 
orator turns from his subject to address a 










41 


Eftcrarw Crragitrg. 


person either absent or dead, as if he were 

present.- Apostrophe, in Grammar, a 

mark of contraction in a word ; thus, lov'd 
for loved. 

APOTHEO'SIS (Or., from apotheSo , I dei¬ 
fy), deification, or the ceremony of placing 
men among the gods. The ancients deified 
all those who had invented things useful to 
mankind, or who had done any important 
service to the commonwealth. This honour 
was also conferred on several of the Roman 
emperors at their decease. 

APOTH'ESIS ( Gr., from apotithemi, I put 
away), in Surgery, the placing of a fractured 
limb in the position in which it ought to 
remain. 

AP'OTOME (Gr., from apotemno, I cut 
off), in Music, the difference between the 
greater and the less semitone ; also, the dif¬ 
ference between the whole tone and the 
major semitone..-In Geometry, the differ¬ 

ence between two lines or quantities, com¬ 
mensurable only in power. Thus, the di¬ 
agonal of a square minus, one of the sides 
is the apotome, and is equal to V 2 — 1. 

AP'PANAGE (Fr.), lands appropriated by 
the sovereign to the younger sons of the 
family as their patrimony; the reversion 
being reserved to the crown, on failure of 
male heirs. 

APPARATUS (Lat.), the component parts 
of machinery; or a set of instruments or 
utensils necessary for practising any art. 

APPA'RENT (appareo, I appear : Lat.'), in 
a general sense, something that is visible to 
the eyes, or obvious to the understanding. 
-—Apparent, among Mathematicians and 
Astronomers, denotes things as they appear 
to us, in contradistinction from what they 
really are: thus we say, the apparent dia¬ 
meter, distance, magnitude, place, figure, 
&c., of bodies. In Astronomy, the apparent 
altitude of a star is the angle made by the 
line of vision with the horizon, while the 
real altitude requires the effect of parallax, 
&c., to be taken into account. The apparent 
diameter of a planet is measured by the angle 
made by two lines from the eye to opposite 
points of its disk : the real is a line joining 
these points. The apparent or sensible ho¬ 
rizon is a plane tangential to the earth’s 
surface at the place of the observer; the 
true horizon is a plane parallel to this, pass¬ 
ing through the centre of the earth, &c.- 

Apparent, in Law, is an epithet for an heir 
whose right of inheritance is indefeasible, 
as the heir apparent ; or the immediate heir 
to the crown, in distinction from the heir 
presumptive. 

APPARITION (apparitio, from same 
deriv.), in Astronomy, signifies a star or 
other luminary becoming visible, which be¬ 
fore was hid: it is opposed to occultation. 
The circle of apparition is an imaginary 
line, within which the stars are always vi¬ 
sible in any given latitude. 

APPA'RITOR (Lat.), among the Romans, 
a general term to comprehend all attendants 
of judges and magistrates, appointed to re¬ 
ceive and execute their orders.- Appa¬ 

ritor, in English Law, a messenger that 
serves the process of a spiritual court. 

APPEAL' (appello, I call upon: Lat.), in 
Law, the removal of a cause from an inferior 


[APPRENTICE 


to a superior court or judge, when a person 
thinks himself aggrieved by the sentence of 
the inferior judge. Appeals from the Eng¬ 
lish and Irish Courts of Chancery and Com¬ 
mon Law, from the Scotch Court of Session, 
and from the Probate and Divorce Courts, 
lie to the House of Lords. Appeals from 
the Indian and Colonial Courts, the Eccle¬ 
siastical Courts, and the Court of Admi¬ 
ralty, lie to the Sovereign in Council, and 
are heard by the Judicial Committee of the 
Privy Council. 

APPEAR'ANCE ( appareo, I appear: Lat.), 
in Perspective, the projection of a figure or 
body on the perspective plane.-In Astro¬ 
nomy, the same as phenomenon or phasis. - 

In Law, it signifies, in strictness, a party 
presenting himself in a court of law per¬ 
sonally ; but in some cases it may be effected 
through another. 

APPEL'LANT, or APPEL'LOR ( appello, 
I call upon : Lat.), in Law, he who makes or 
brings an appeal. 

APPEL'LATIVE (same deriv .), in Gram¬ 
mar, a noun or name applicable to a whole 
species or kind, as, a man, a horse. 

APPEN'DANT (appendo, I hang to : Lat.), 
in Law, anything that is inheritable, be¬ 
longing to some more worthy inheritance; 
thus, an advowson, common, or court, may 
be appendant to a manor, land to an office, 
&c. 

APPENDIC'ULATE (same deriv.), In Bo¬ 
tany, having appendages. 

APPEN'DIX (Lat.), in Literature, a trea¬ 
tise or supplement added at the end of a 
work, to render it more complete. 

APPLICATION (applicatio, from applico, 
I put one thing to another: Lat.), in Geo¬ 
metry, is either the applying one quantity 
to another, or the transferring a given 
line into a circle or other figure, so that 
its end shall be in the perimeter of the 

figure, &c_The application of one science 

to another is the use made of the principles 
of the one in perfecting the other: as in 
the application of algebra and geometry to 
mechanics; of mechanics to geometry; of 
geometry and astronomy to geography; of 
geometry and algebra to natural philoso¬ 
phy, &c.- Application, in Medicine, any¬ 

thing administered, externally or inter¬ 
nally, by way of a remedy. 

APPOGI ATU'RA (appogiare, to lean upon : 
Ital), in Music, a small note placed before 
another, from which it borrows half or a 
quarter of its value. 

APPOSITION ( appositio, from appono, I 
put to : Lat.), in Grammar, the placing two 
or more substantives together, referring 
to the same person or thing, without any 
copulative between them, as, ‘Wellington, 
the conqueror.’ 

APPRAIS'ING (apprecier, to set a price 
upon: Fr.), the valuation of goods by com¬ 
petent persons. They are in some cases 
sworn to make a true return. 

APPREIIEN'SION (apprehensio, from op- 
prehendo, I lay hold of: Lat.), in Logic, the 
first or most simple act of the mind, by which 
it perceives or is conscious of some idea: 
it is more usually called perception. 

APPRENTICE (apprendre, to learn : Fr.) 
a young person bound by indentures or 













APPRO ACHES] 


Cfje Jrctnittfic antt 


42 


articles of agreement to a tradesman or 
artificer, to learn his trade. 

APPROACHES ( approcher, to approach : 
Fr.), in Fortification, the works thrown up 
by the besiegers, in order to get nearer 
a fortress without being exposed to the 
enemy’s fire. 

APPROPRIATION ( Fr., from proprius, 
peculiar: Lat.), in Ecclesiastical Law, the 
annexing a benefice to the proper and per¬ 
petual use of a religious house, bishopric, 
college, &c.; in the same way as impropria¬ 
tion is the grant of a benefice to a lay per¬ 
son or corporation ; that which is an appro- 
1 priation in the hands of religious persons, 
being usually called an impropriation in the 
hands of the laity. 

APPRO'VER ( approbo , I prove : Lat.), in 
Law, one who, confessing that lie has com- 
■ mitted a felony, is admitted to give evi- 
i deuce against his accomplices. 

APPROXIMATION (approximo, I ap- 
! proach: Lat.), in a general sense, the get¬ 
ting near to an object.-In Mathematics, 

a continual approach to a root or quantity 
sought, but not expected to be found. 

APPUI' (a support: Fr.) , in the Manage, 
the sense of the action of the bridle in the 
horseman’s hand. Thus, a horse has no 
appui when he cannot suffer the bit to bear 
even slightly upon the parts of the mouth ; 
or too much appui when lie throws himself 

too much upon the bit, &c.- Point 

d’Appui, in the Military art, is a term for 
any particular given point or body upon 
which troops are formed, or by which they 
are marched into line or column. 

AP'PULSE (a ppulsus, an arrival: Lat.), in 
Astronomy, the approach of a planet towards 
a conjunction with the sun or any of the 
fixed stars. 

A'PRIL (probably contracted from apcri- 
lis, from apcrio, I open : Lat.; because the 
earth, in this month,begins to open for the 
growth of plants), the fourth month of 
I the year, according to European computa- 
| tion. 

A PRIO'RT, A POSTERIO'RI (from 
something before, from something after: 
Lat.), logical terms, which aro loosely era- 
! ployed to distinguish two lines of reason¬ 
ing. An a priori argument is one derived 
I from axioms, or admitted data, or previous 
facts, rendering the examination of the case 
before us unnecessary, in order to arrive at 
a conclusion respecting it: an a posteriori 
argument is one derived from the facts of 
the case itself. To show how vaguely the 
terms are applied, thi3 instance may be 
given. From certain facts ascertained by 
astronomers, it was argued that there must 
I be another planet attached to our system, 

| which had not then been discovered. Now, 
i as tins conclusion was arrived at previous 
to the actual discovery of the planet Nep¬ 
tune, the reasoning might be called a priori. 
Rut it may also be styled a posteriori rea¬ 
soning, since the existence of an unknown 
planet was inferred from the disturbances 
of the motions of the known planets, by the 
unknown planet itself. 

APSE {apsis, a curved form: Or.), in 
Ancient Architecture, the arched roof of 
R room, the canopy of a throne, &c.-In 


Ecclesiastical Architecture, the curved end 
of a church where the altar was placed. 

AP'SIDES, or AP'SES {apsis, awheel, or 
any curved form : Gr.), in Astronomy, the 
two points of a planet’s orbit in which it is 
at its greatest and least distance from the 
sun. The lino which joins them is called 
the line of apsides. 

APTEROUS ( apteros, wingless : from a, 
without; and pteron, a wing: Gr.), a term 
applied by naturalists to insects destitute 
of wings. 

APTERYX (a, without; pterur, awing: 
Gr.), the scientific name of the bird Kiwi- 
kiwi, which see. 

APYREX'IA {apurexia: from a, without; 
and puretos, a fever: Gr.), in Medicine, the 
abatement of a fever. 

A'QUA {Lat.), water. 

AQUAFORTIS (strong water : Lat.), the 
common name of nitric acid. 

AQUA RE'GIA (royal water : Lat.), a com¬ 
bination of nitric and hydrochloric acid3 : 
so called because it dissolves gold, the king 
of metals. It is the chlorine of the latter 
acid which chiefly attacks the metal, and a 
chloride of gold is the product. 

AQUARI'UM {aqita, water: Lat.), or 
AQUAVIV'ARIUM {vivarium, a preserve: 
Lat.), a small tank, usually of glass, for the 
maintenance of water-plants and animals 
in a living state. Both marine and fresh¬ 
water objects may be thus preserved for 
the study of their habits, mode of growth, 
&c. 

AQUA'RIUS (the water-bearer: Lat.), in 
Astronomy, a constellation which makes 
the eleventh sign in the zodiac. It is said 
to have been called Aquarius, or the water- 
bearer, because the sun moves through it 
in parts of January and February, when the 
weather is usually rainy. 

AQUATIN'TA {aqua, water; and tincta, 
dyed : Lat.), a style of engraving, or rather 
etching, by which an effect is produced 
similar to that of a drawing in Indian ink. 

AQUA VITAS (water of life : Lat.), a 
name applied to ardent spirits, answering 
to the eau de vie, or brandy of the French, 
and the usquebaugh of the Irish. 

AQ'UEDUCT ( aquw-ductus, a channel for 
conveying water: Lat.), a construction of 
stone, &c., built to preserve the level of 
water, and convey it, by a canal, from one 
place to another. There are aqueducts 
under the ground, and others above it, j 
supported by arches. The Roman aque¬ 
ducts were noble works: remains of them 
are found not only in Italy, but in other 
parts of Europe. In the time of the em¬ 
peror Nerva nine aqueducts supplied Rome, 
and delivered 27,743,100 cubic feet daily. 
At a later period there were twenty, which 
are estimated to have afforded 50,000,000 
cubic feet. Near Nismes in the south of 
France there is an aqueduct 873 feet long 
and 188 feet high, built by the Romans, to 
convey water to the town from springs 
which are 14 miles distant. Aqueducts 
have been erected in modern times: that 
constructed by Louis XIV. for conveying 
the waters of the Eure to Versailles is 
about 4,400 feet long, and upwards of 200 
high. It contains 242 arcades, forming 72f 





























43 ECterary Creztfurg. [a rci < 


arches of 50 feet span. A supply of water 
is brought to Lisbon by an aqueduct which 
lias a length of 56,380 feet. The work at 
the valley of Alcantara is 2,873 feet loug, 
with a height at the middle of 226 feet. 

A'QUILA (an eagle: Lat.), the eagle. It 
was reckoned by the ancients not only the 
king of birds, but the minister of Jupiter, 
who is said to have carried Ganymede up 
into heaven in the form of an eagle. It 
was also chosen as the symbol of empire, 
first by the Persians, and afterwards by the 
Romans; in consequence of which the eagle 
is seen on coins in a variety of forms. But 
the most frequent use of the eagle was on 
the Roman standards, upon which it was 
represented in gold or silver, with expanded 
wings. 

AQUILA'RIA, see Aloes Wood. 

Al^UI LE'GIA (same deriv.), columbine., nat. 
order, Ranunculacece, a plant so called be¬ 
cause of the resemblance its nectaries are 
supposed to bear to the eagle’s claws. 

ARABES'QUE, or Moresque, a style of 
decoration, in which flowers, fruits, curved 
lines, &c., were whimsically painted or 
sculptured in combination. The Moors and 
Arabians rejected the representations of 
human and animal forms, but in modern 
arabesques, these are usually introduced. 
Raffaelle painted some beautiful arabesques 
In the Vatican. 

A It'A BIO FI'GURES, the numeral cha¬ 
racters now used in Arithmetic. They were 
borrowed from the Arabians, and intro¬ 
duced into England about the eleventh 
century. 

ARABO-TEDES'CO ( arcibo , Arabic; and 
tedesco, German : Ital.), a style of Architec¬ 
ture, in which are combined the Moorish, 
Roman, and German Gothic. 

ARACHNI'DA (arachne,a spider: Gr.), in 
Zoology, a class of articulate animals con¬ 
sidered distinct from the true Insecta. 
They are wingless, have a head which is 
not usually distinct from the thorax, pos¬ 
sess four pairs of legs, and the antennas 
are modified into a prehensile or mandi- 
buliform apparatus. To this class belong 
the Scorpions, which have an articulated 
abdomen, the Spiders, the Mites and their 
allies, and some minute parasites, such as 
the Mange-mite and the Itch-mite. 

ARACHNOI'DES ( arachne , a spider ; and 
eidos, form : Gr.), in Anatomy, an appella¬ 
tion given to several different membranes, 
as the tunic of the crystalline humour of 
the eye, the external lamina of the pia 
mater, and one of the coverings of the 
spinal marrow. 

AR'ACHNOLO'GT ( arachne , a spider; lo¬ 
gos, a discourse : Gr.), that branch of science 
which is concerned with Spiders and their 
aUieS . 

AR/EOM'ETER ( araios , thin; and metron, 
a measure; Gr.), an instrument for mea¬ 
suring the density or gravity of fluids, and 
usually made of glass. It consists of a 
round hollow ball, which terminates above 
in a long slender stem hermetically sealed, 
and below in a shorter stem ending with a 
smaller ball, in which is_ placed as much 
mercury as will keep the instrument float¬ 
ing iu an erect position. The longer stem 


is divided into degrees or parts, which are 
numbered, to show the depth of its descent 
into any liquor; for that fluid is heaviest in 
which it sinks least, and lightest in which 
it sinks deepest. [See Hydrometer.] 

ARiE'OSTYLE (ariostulos: from arios, 
thin; and stulos, a column : Gr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a sort of intercolumniation in 
which the columns are at a considerable 
distance from each other. 

AR'BITER (Lat.), in Civil Law, a person 
appointed by the magistrate, or chosen 
by the parties, to decide any point of dif¬ 
ference ; an umpire. 

ARBITRATION, or ARBIT'REMENT 
(arbitratio, from arbitror, I award : Lat), a 
power given by two or more contending 
parties to some person or persons to deter¬ 
mine the dispute between them. Their de¬ 
cision is called an aivard. 

AR'BOR (a tree: Lat.), in Mechanics, the 
principal spindle or axis, which communi¬ 
cates motion to the rest of the machine. 

AR'BOR DTA'N/E (the tree of Diana: 
Lat.), the figure of a tree formed by an 
amalgam of silver and mercury, which ap¬ 
pears to vegetate in a very beautiful man¬ 
ner. The experiment is thus performed. 
One part of silver being dissolved in a suffi¬ 
cient quantity of nitric acid, the solution is 
diluted with 20 parts of clean water, and 
poured upon 2 parts of mercury. After a 
short time a crystallization will take place 
in the shape of a tree, with its branches, 
&c. It obtained its name from silver hav¬ 
ing been called Diana by the old chem¬ 
ists. 

AR'BOR SCIENTI2E (the tree of know¬ 
ledge : Lat.), a general distribution or 
scheme of science or knowledge. 

AR'BOR VI'T-E (the tree of life: Lat.), 
evergreen shrubs belonging to the genus 
Tlmja, nat. ord., Coniferce. 

ARBORES'CENT ( arboresco, I become 
like a tree : Lat-.), a term applied to all such 
things as resemble trees ; thus we say arbo¬ 
rescent shrubs. 

ARBU'TUS (Lat.), the strawberry-tree; a 
beautiful evergreen shrub, bearing a fruit | 
not unlike the strawberry. It belongs to ! 
the nat. ord. Ericacece, an order in which 
the heaths are placed. 

ARC (arcus, a bow: Lat), any part of a 
regular curve, such as a circle and ellipse. I 

ARCA'NUM (a secret: Lat.), among the 
old philosophers, any remedy, the prepara¬ 
tion of which was industriously concealed, 
in order to enhance its value. 

ARCH (arcus: Lat.), a building in form of 
a curve. Arches are either circular, ellip¬ 
tical, or straight.— Pointed arches are usually 
described by two segments on the sides of 
a supposed triangle. When this triangle is 
equilateral, it is an equilateral arch; when 
acute, a lancet arch; and when obtuse, a drop 
arch. Elliptical arches consist of a semi¬ 
ellipsis, and have commonly a key-stone and 
imposts; they are usually described by 
workmen on three centres. Straight arches 
(as they are improperly called) are used 
over doors and windows. They have, both 
above and below, plain straight edges, 
which are parallel: but the ends and joints 
point towards a centre. The term arch is 































archaeology] 


QN)t ^ttenttftc antr 


44 


peculiarly used for the space between the 
two piers of a bridge, for the passage of 
water, vessels, &c. It is not known in 
what country the arch was first invented : 
it is not found in any certainly ancient 
Egyptian building ; nor was it used in the 
early Greek temples, &c. Its value was 
soon perceived by the Romans; for we 
find it in the Cloaca Maxima, the great com¬ 
mon sewer of ancient Rome, constructed, 
most probably, in the time of the Tar- 
quins. The pointed arch was introduced in 

the Middle Ages.- Diurnal Arch, in 

Astronomy, that part of a circle described 
by the heavenly body between its rising and 
setting. The nocturnal arch is that which is 
described between its setting and rising. 
-Triumphal Arch, in Ancient Archi¬ 
tecture, a stately gate adorned with sculp¬ 
ture, inscriptions, &c., generally consisting 
of three arches, that in ttie centre being 
higher than the others; and erected in 
honour of those who had deserved a tri¬ 
umph.- Arch ( archos , chief: Gr.), as a 

syllable prefixed to another word, denotes 
the highest degree of its kind, whether good 
or bad; as archangel, archduke, archbishop, 
archfiend, &c. Many of the highest offices 
in different empires have this syllable pre¬ 
fixed to them. 

ARCIIAEOLO 'G Y (archaios, ancient; and 
logos, a discourse : Gr.), the study of Anti¬ 
quities. 

AR'OHAISM (archaios, ancient: Gr.), any 
antiquated word or phrase. The use of ar¬ 
chaisms, though generally objectionable, 
occasionally adds to the beauty and force 
of a sentence. 

ARCHBISII'OP, a metropolitan prelate, 
having several suffragan bishops under 
him. In England there are two archbishops 
— the archbishop of Canterbury, who is pri¬ 
mate of all England; and the archbishop 
of York, who is styled primate of England. 
The first establishment of archbishops in 
England, according to Bede, was in the 
time of Lucius, said to be the first Chris¬ 
tian king in Britain; but the first arch¬ 
bishop of Canterbury was Augustine, ap¬ 
pointed a.d. 598, after the conversion of 
Ethelbert. 

ARCHDEA'CON (archos, chief; and diako- 
nos, minister: Gr.), an ecclesiastical officer 
next below a bishop in rank. Every diocese 
lias one, and the majority more. Arch¬ 
deacons are usually appointed by their 
diocesans; but their authority is indepen¬ 
dent. They visit the clergy, and have courts 
for the punishment of offenders by spirit¬ 
ual censures, and for hearing some other 
causes that fall within ecclesiastical cog¬ 
nizance. 

ARCH'DUKE (crz, chief : Germ.), a title 
borne by the sons of the emperors of Russia 
and Austria. 

ARCH'ERY (arc-tirrerie, the drawing of 
the bow: Fr.), the art of shooting with the 
bow and arrow. Since the introduction of 
gunpowder, the arrow has ceased to be em¬ 
ployed as an offensive weapon ; but in for¬ 
mer times it was reckoned of the utmost 
importance to the military strength of this 
kingdom. The practice of archery was fol¬ 
lowed both as a recreation and a duty, and 


Edward III. prohibited all useless games 
that interfered with it on holidays and 
other intervals of leisure. By an act of 
Edward IV. every man was to have a 
bow of his own height, to be made of yew, 
hazel, or ash, &c.; and mounds of earth 
were to be raised in every township for 
the use of the inhabitants. Indeed, it ap¬ 
pears from the use made of the bow by the 
English at the battles of Cressy, Agin- 
court, and Poictiers, that their claim to be 
considered the best of modern archers can 
scarcely be disputed. Artillery was origi¬ 
nally a French term, signifying archery; 
and the London Artillery Company was a 
fraternity of bowmen. 

AltCH'ES, or Court of Arches, the 
supreme court belonging to the archbishop 
of Canterbury, to which appeals lie from all 
the inferior courts within his province. 
The Dean of the Arches, who sits as the 
Archbishop’s deputy, is the judge of this 
court. The name originated from the 
court having been held in the church of 
St. Mary-le-Bow (Bow Church), London, 
which was built on arches. 

AR'CIIETYPE (archetupos: from arche, 
an origin; and tupos, a type: Gr.), the first 
model of a work, which is copied when 

the work is executed.-In Comparative 

Anatomy, the plan or scheme of structure 
to which, in the opinion of some, organic 
beings existing and extinct variously ap¬ 
proximate. Thus an archetype vertebrate 
skeleton has been described, which the 
skeletons of all known vertebrata shadow 
forth without being completely possessed 
by any. The archetypal world, among Pla- 
tonists, means the world as it existed in 
the idea of God before the visible creation. 

AR/CHIL, a violet-red paste used in 
dyeing : prepared, by the aid of air, mois¬ 
ture, and an ammoniacal liquor, from se¬ 
veral species of lichen, but principally from 
those belonging to the genus Itoccella. 

AR'CHITECT (arcliitekton : from archos, 
the chief ; and tecton, a builder; Gr.), one 
who is skilled in architecture. The archi¬ 
tect forms plans and designs for edifices, 
conducts the work, and directs the artifi¬ 
cers employed in it. 

AR'CHITECTURE (architectura : Lot.'), 
the art of inventing and drawing designs for 
buildings, or the science which teaches tin' 
method of constructing any edifice for use 
or ornament. It is divided into civil, mili¬ 
tary, and naval, according as the erections 
are for civil, military, or naval purposes; 
and, for the sake of convenience, other di¬ 
visions are sometimes introduced. Civil Ar¬ 
chitecture appears to have been among the 
earliest inventions, and its works have been 
commonly regulated by some principle of 
hereditary imitation. Whatever rude struc¬ 
ture the climate and materials of any coun¬ 
try have obliged its early inhabitants to 
adopt for their temporary shelter, the same 
structure, with all its prominent features, 
has been afterwards in some measure kept 
in view by their refined and opulent pos¬ 
terity. To Greece we are indebted for the 
three principal orders of architecture, the 
Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian ; Rome 
added the Tuscan and the Composite, both 













45 EtteiTU'J) 


formed out of the former. Each of these 
orders has a particular expression; so that 
a building may be rude, solid, neat, delicate, 
or gay, according as the Tuscan, the Doric, 
the Ionic, the Corinthian, or the Composite 
is employed. The columns of the several 
orders are easily distinguishable by the or¬ 
naments that are peculiar to their capitals; 
but the scientific difference consists in their 
proportions. The Tuscan order is charac¬ 
terized by its simplicity and strength. It 
is devoid of all ornament. The Doric is 
enlivened with ornaments in the frieze and 
capital, and the shaft is often fluted. The 
Ionic is ornamented with the volute scroll, 
or spiral: its ornaments are in a style be¬ 
tween the plainness of the Doric and the 
richness of the Corinthian. The Corin¬ 
thian is known by its capital being adorned 
with two sorts of leaves, between which 
rise little stalks, of which the volutes that 
support the highest part of the capital are 
formed. The Composite is nearly the same 
as the Corinthian, with an addition of the 
Ionic volute. In their private buildings 
the Roman architects followed the Greeks ; 
but in their public edifices they far sur¬ 
passed them in gorgeous magnificence. 
During the dark ages which followed the 
destruction of the Roman empire, the clas¬ 
sic architecture of Greece and Rome was 
lost sight of, or most unskilfully copied; 
but was again revived by the Italians at the 
time of the restoration of letters. All the 
debased styles, which sprang from vain at¬ 
tempts to imitate the ancients, and which 
flourished from the destruction of the Ro¬ 
man power till the introduction of the 
Gothic, have been united under one term, 
the Romanesque. The origin of the Gothic 
style is a matter of great uncertainty. At 
flrst it was rude; but it ultimately exhibited 
grandeur and splendour, with the most 
accurate execution. The Saxon and Norman 
styles were so called because they'were res¬ 
pectively used by the Saxons, in this coun¬ 
try, before the Conquest, and by the Nor¬ 
mans after it in the building of churches. 
The Saxon employed the semicircular arch, 
which seems to have been borrowed from 
the Romans. It was generally plain, but 
sometimes ornamented with rude and mas¬ 
sive mouldings. The heads of small open¬ 
ings were often formed of two straight 
stones laid against each other. The quoins 
were usually of hewn stones, placed alter¬ 
nately flat and on end, a mode commonly 
termed ‘long and short.’ The walls were 
often decorated externally with flat ver¬ 
tical strips of stone, slightly projecting, and 
somewhat resembling pilasters. There is 
scarcely any one example containing all 
the peculiarities of this style; nor, indeed, 
is there a certainty that any building now 
remaining decidedly belongs to it. The 
Norman was at flrst very rude and heavy ; 
its walls were very thick and generally 
without buttresses. The arches, both 
within and without, were semicircular, 
and supported by very plain and massive 
columns. The windows had no mullions, 
but were generally arranged in pairs, 
sometimes under a larger arch. But¬ 
tresses, when used, were broad, of small 


Crcatfurjf. [archiyolt 


projection, often without breaks ; and ter¬ 
minated under the cornice; neither spires 
nor pinnacles were employed. The imposts 
of the doors, &c., were massive and rudely 
carved: and external walls were frequently 
ornamented with interlaced arches. The 
Chapel of the White Tower, in London, is 
a fine specimen of this style. The Saxon 
and Norman, particularly the latter, con¬ 
tinued to be the prevailing modes of build¬ 
ing in England until the reign of Henry II., 
when a new mode was introduced, which 
was (ailed Modern Gothic, or the Pointed 
Style. Whether this was purely a deviation 
from the other two modes, or was de¬ 
rived from any foreign source, is not known. 
It is, however, supposed by some to be of 
Saracenic origin, and to have been in¬ 
troduced by the Crusaders. This style may 
be divided into : 1. Early Complete Gothic, 
with its subdivisions of Lancet, and Geo¬ 
metrical Decorated; and 2. Late Complete 
Gothic, with its subdivisions, the Flowing, 
Flamboyant or Curvilinear Style, and the 
Perpendicular Continuous Style. The em¬ 
ployment of the ogive in place of circular 
forms in the windows first marks the tran¬ 
sition from one of these subdivisions to the 
other. The perpendicular style is confined 
to Great Britain; on the continent, ‘ the 
Flamboyant Style’ w r as contemporaneous. 
During the latter part of the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury, the pointed style assumed the form 
termed ‘the Elizabethan,’ or ‘Tudor;’ in 
the latter examples of which the Italian is 
much mingled. The pointed style is dis¬ 
tinguished by its numerous buttresses, 
lofty spires and pinnacles, large and ramified 
windows with a profusion of ornaments 
throughout. In the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries the taste for Greek and Roman 
architecture revived, and brought the five 
orders again into use : although for sacred 
edifices the Saxon and Gothic styles still 
maintain the pre-eminence. Besides those 
we have mentioned, other styles have been 
used: thus the Chinese, remarkable for its 
lightness; the Egyptian, for its vastness. 
This, as well as the Indian, was most pro¬ 
bably' derived from the excavations pro¬ 
vided by nature as a protection against the 
sultry heat. Mexican architecture, not¬ 
withstanding the enthusiastic praises be¬ 
stowed by some writers upon it, seems to 
have been of the rudest character; its tem¬ 
ples were little more than vast mounds 
of earth, sometimes partially faced with 
stone. 

AR'CHITRAVE (archos, the chief; and 
trapex, a beam : Gr.), in Architecture, that 
part of an order which lies immediately 
upon the capital of the column, being the 
lowest member of the entablature. It is 
sometimes called the epistylium (epi, upon ; 
and stulos, a column : Gr.). 

AR'CHIVES (probably from archeia: Gr., 
used by Josephus to signify public regis¬ 
ters), ancient records, or charters which 
contain the titles, pretensions, privileges, 
and prerogatives of a community, family, 
city, or kingdom. 

AR'CHIVOLT ( arcus volutus, a turned 
arch : Lat.), in Architecture, the inner con¬ 
tour of an arch, or a frame set off with 











&\)t Jr>ct'mttftc autf 


46 


ARCHON} 


mouldings, running over the faces of the 
arch stones, and bearing upon the im¬ 
posts. 

AR'CHON C archtin , a ruler: Or.), one of 
the chief magistrates of the city and com¬ 
monwealth of Athens. At first the archons 
succeeded to the kings, and had regal power. 
Their authority was then divided among 
nine, and was made annual. In the time 
of the Romans, the archonship was merely 
titular and honorary. 

ARC'TiC ( arktikns , near the Bear, north¬ 
ern : Gr.), lying under the polar Bear. In 
Astronomy, the Arctic or North Pole is that 
which is raised above our horizon, and is 
nearly pointed out by the stars in the tail 
of Ursa Minor. The Arctic circle is a lesser 
circle of the sphere, parallel to the equator, 
and distant 23J° from the north pole. This 
and the Antarctic are often called polar 
circles. 

ARC'TOS, or ARC'TUS ( arktos , the Bear : 
Gr.), in Astronomy, the Greek name for the 
Ursa major and minor, or the great and 
little Bear. 

ARCTU'RUS ( arktos , the Bear; and ouros, 
a guard: Gr.), a fixed star of the first mag¬ 
nitude, the a BoOtis of astronomers. 

AROUA'TION (arcuatus, bent like a bow; 
Lat.), in Horticulture, the raising of trees 
by layers.- Arcuation, in Surgery, a dis¬ 

tortion or incurvation of the bones. 

ARCUBALIS'TA (amts, a bow : Lat.; and 
hallo, I hurl: Gr.), a cross-bow; a term which 
lias been contracted both into Balista and 
Arhajist. 

ARDAS'SINES, a very fine sort of Per¬ 
sian silk, the finest used in the looms of 
France. 

A'REA (Lat.), in Geometry, the super¬ 
ficial contents of any triangle, quadrangle, 

or other figure.- Area, in Mineralogy, 

the mass dug from the mines, or the place 
where it is dug. 

ARE'CA (arec: Malab.), an Indian palm, 
bearing a nut, of which slices are rolled up 
in a betel leaf with a little lime, and chewed 
by the natives. [See Betel.] 

ARE'NA (Led.), in Roman Antiquity, that 
part of the amphitheatre where the gladia¬ 
tors fought: so called from its being al¬ 
ways strewn with sand, to conceal from 
i the" view of the people the blood spilt in 
the combat. 

ARENA'TIO (arena, sand: Lat.), a kind 
of dry bath, in which the patient sat with 
his bare feet on hot sand. 

ARE'OLA (a dim. of area; a little space : 
Lat.), one of the small divisions into which 
a space may be marked out by lines. 

AREOP'AGUS (Areiopagos: from Ares, 
Mars ; and pagos, a hill: Gr.), a rocky emi¬ 
nence at Athens, near the Acropolis, upon 
which a sovereign criminal court held its 
sittings. The judges were called Areo- 
pagites, and through a long period they 
were greatly respected. 

AR'GAND LAMP, so called from the in¬ 
ventor, a Frenchman, is a lamp with a 
hollow cylindrical wick, supplied with air 
both inside and outside. 

AR/GENT (silver: Fr.), in Heraldry, the 
white colour in the coats of arms of ba¬ 
ronets, knights, and gentlemen. 


AR'GIL (argilla, potter’s earth : Lat.), in 
Mineralogy, white clay: an unctuous kind 
of earth, of which earthenware is made. 

ARGILLA'CEOUS EARTH, any earth 
consisting wholly or in great part of 
clay. 

Alt'GOL, a crystalline stony substance, 
deposited during the fermentation of 
grape juice. It consists of tartrate of 
potash and a little tartrate of lime witli 
colouring matter. The tartaric acid of 
commerce is prepared from it. 

AR'GONAUTA AR'GO, the scientific 
name of the Paper Nautilus, a marine 
mollusc belonging to the class of Ceplialo- 
pods, and inhabiting a thin white shell of 
elegant form. [See Nautilus.] 

AR'GONAUTS (Argo; and naides, a sailor: 
Gr.), in Grecian Antiquity, a company of .il¬ 
lustrious Greeks, who arc said to have em¬ 
barked along with Jason in the ship Argo, 
on an expedition to Colchis with a design 
to obtain the golden fleece, a fable to which 
perpetual allusion is made by Greek and 
Latin writers. Whether there was any 
nucleus of fact in the tradition it is impos¬ 
sible to tell. 

AR'GO NA'VIS (the ship Argo : Lat.), in 
Astronomy, a constellation, called after the 
ship of Jason and his companions. 

AR'GUMENT (argumentum: Led.), in 
Logic a line of reasoning employed to 
convince an opponent or one ignorant of 
the subject. Locke observes that, in 
reasoning, men ordinarily use four sorts of 
argument. The first is to allege the 
opinions of those whose parts and learning, 
eminence, power, or some other cause, have 
gained them a name, and settled their repu¬ 
tation in the common esteem, with some 
kind of authority ; this may be called ar¬ 
gumentum ad verecundiam. A second way 
is to require the adversaries to admit what 
they allege as a proof, or to assign a better ; 
this lie calls argumentum ad ignorantiam. A 
third way is, to press a man with conse¬ 
quences drawn from his own principles 
or acts : this is known by the name of 
argumentum ad hominem. A fourth way 
is the using proofs drawn from any of the 
foundations of knowledge or probability; 
this he calls argumentum ad judicium, and 
observes that it is the only one of all the 
four that brings true instruction with it, 
and advances us in our way to knowledge. 
-Argument, in Literature, the abridg¬ 
ment, or heads of a book, history, chapter, 

&c.- Argument, in Astronomy, the angle 

or quantity on which a series of num¬ 
bers in a table depends. Thus, in a table 
showing the amount of horizontal refrac¬ 
tion at every degree, &c., of altitude, the 
altitude would be the argument of the 
refraction. 

ARGUMENTA'TION (argumentation rea¬ 
soning : Lat.), in Logic, an operation of the 
intellect, by which any proposition is 
proved with the help of other proposi¬ 
tions. 

A'RIANS, the followers of Arius, a pies- 
byter of Alexandria, who, about a.d. 319, 
denied the three persons in the Holy- 
Trinity to be of the same essence: affirmed 
that Christ was a creature inferior to the 

























47 


Httcvnri) Cvcas'urn. 


[armadillo 


Father as to his deity, and neither co- 
eternal nor co-equal with him ; and asserted 
that the Holy Ghost was formed of the 
Son. These opinions were revived by 
Servctus in 1531, and have become preva¬ 
lent among the disciples of the church 
founded by Calvin. They were propagated 
in England in the beginning of the 
eighteenth century. 

A'RIES (the Ram : Lat.), in Astronomy, a 
constellation of fixed stars, drawn on the 
celestial globe in the figure of a ram. It is 
also the first of the twelve signs of the 
zodiac, from which a twelfth part of the 
ecliptic takes its denomination ; and the 
first point of Aries coincides with the point 
at which the ecliptic intersects the equator. 
Anciently, the signs and constellations co¬ 
incided ; but as, on account of the pre¬ 
cession of the equinoxes, the twelve signs 
go backward among the constellations at 
the rate of 50' annually, the first point of 

Aries is now in the constellation Pisces.- 

Aries was also the original name for the 
battering ram of the ancients, the striking 
end of it being frequently made in the 
shape of a ram’s head. 

AltlO'SO (graceful: Ttal.), in Musical Com¬ 
position, like an air, in contradistinction to 
recitation. When applied to instruments, 
it means a sustained vocal style. 

ARIS'TA ( arista , a beard of corn : Lat.), 
in Botany, a long needle-like beard, which 
stands out from the husk of barley, grass, 
&c., commonly called the awn. 

ARISTOC'RACY (aristokratia: from aris- 
tos, the best; and krateo, I govern : Or.), mi 
hereditary government, composed of the 
nobles or superior citizens of a country: 
such was the government of Venice. The 
word aristocracy is also often used to ex¬ 
press the nobility of a country, under a 
monarchy, or any form of government. 

ARISTOLO'CHIA ( Gr.: from aristos, best; 
and locheia, childbirth—from its supposed 
virtues), Birthwort, nat. ord. Aristolochiacece. 
The species of this genus are for the most 
part climbers, with curious flowers, inhabit¬ 
ing tropical countries. One species, A. 
qfematitis, is indigenous in Britain. 

ARISTOTELIAN, something relating to 
Aristotle: thus the Aristotelian philosophy, 
school, &c. The Aristotelians were also 
designated Peripatetics, and their philoso¬ 
phy long prevailed throughout Europe, 
until men perceived that facts could not be 
discovered by words. 

ARITH'METIC ( arithmos, number: Gr.), 
is the art of computation by numbers. 
Books of arithmetic contain a body of rules, 
by which the processes of addition, subtrac¬ 
tion, multiplication and division are facili¬ 
tated, and by which certain other computa¬ 
tions desirable for the purposes of business 
are effected. The method of notation we 
now use is said to have been obtained from 
the Arabians : and the characters by which 
all the operations of common arithmetic 
are performed are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. 
The first nine are called significant figures, 
or digits, which when placed singly denote 
the simple values belonging to them; but 
when several digits are placed together, the 
first or right-hand only is to be taken for 


its simple value, the second signifies so 
many tens, the third so many hundreds, 
and so on. Although this notation consists 
of only nine digits, with the cipher 0, yet, 
by giving a local power to these figures, 
namely, that of units, tens, hundreds, 
thousands, &c., they may be made to express 
numbers to an indefinite extent. The 
Greeks, and other ancient nations, made 
use of the letters of their alphabets to re¬ 
present numbers. The Romans followed the 
same method, but in a simpler form, using 
I, for One; V, for Five ; X, for Ten ; L, for 
Fifty; C, for One Hundred: D, for Five Hun¬ 
dred ; and M, for a thousand. Now it is 
evident that with these seven letters any 
number may be represented, by repetition 
and combination : thus XXX stands for 
three tens, or thirty, OCX for two hundred 
and ten, and so on. The general rule with re¬ 
gard to the addition and subtraction of 
these letters is this : when a character of 
smaller is placed after, or on the right hand 
of, one of a greater value, their values are 
to be added : thus XVI stands for sixteen. 
But when it is placed before, or on the left 
hand of, one of greater value, the value of 
the less is to be taken from that of the 
greater: thus IV stands for five less one, 
or four; IX for ten less one, or nine; 
XG one hundred less ten, or ninety, &c. 
MDCCCLXIV expresses the year 1864. 
Arithmetic deals not only with whole 
numbers, but with broken parts called 
fractions, of which there are two kinds, 
Vulgar Fractions, and Decimal Fractions. 
[See Fractions.) 

ARK OF THE COV'ENAXT, the chest 
in which the stone tables of the ten com¬ 
mandments, written by the divine hand, 
were laid up. The lid of the ark was called 
the mercy-seat, before which the liigh-priest 
appeared once every year on the great day 
of expiation ; and the Jews, wherever they 
worshipped, turned their faces towards the 
place where the ark stood. 

ARMA'DA, a Spanish term, signifying a 
fleet of men-of-war. The armada to which 
the Spaniards, in the confidence of success, 
gave the name of invincible, consisted of 
150 large ships, carrying 2,650 guns, 20,000 
soldiers, besides volunteers, and 3,000 sea¬ 
men ; it was furnished with an immense 
quantity of military stores, and was in¬ 
tended to destroy the liberties of this 
country during the reign of the illustrious 
Elizabeth ; but it was scattered by the ele¬ 
ments and almost annihilated by the En¬ 
glish fleet, on the 30th of July, 1588. On 
this occasion, a medal was struck with the 
motto, ‘ AfflavitDeus,etdissipantur.’ ‘God 
breathed upon them, and they are scat¬ 
tered.’ 

ARMADIL'LA (the dim. of armada), or 
Guarda Costa, a squadron of men-of-war, 
formerly maintained on the coasts of Spa¬ 
nish America, to prevent foreigners from 
trading with the colonists and natives. 

ARMADIL'LO ( Dasypus ), a mammalian 
animal, belonging to Cuvier’s familyof Eden¬ 
tata, of which there are several species, all 
inhabiting South America. They are cov¬ 
ered with a bony case, and most of the 
species have long tails similarly protected 














Armenians] CTje Jrricnttfu autf 48 

They are burrowing animals, with nocturnal 
habits, feeding chiefly on vegetables. Their 
flesh affords excellent food. 

ARME'NIANS, a sect or division amongst 
the Eastern Christians ; thus called, from 
Armenia, the country anciently inhabited 
by them. There were two kinds of Arme¬ 
nians, one which adhered to the Roman 
Catholic church, and another which re¬ 
jected episcopacy. They are generally ac¬ 
cused of being Monophysites, allowing only 
one nature in Jesus Christ. 

AR'MIGER ( arma , arms; and gero, I 
bear: Lat.), an esquire, or armour-bearer. 
Also, one entitled to bear coat-armour. 
Justice Shallow ■wrote himself ‘ armigero, 
in any bill, warrant, quittance or obliga¬ 
tion.’ 

ARMIL'LA (a bracelet: Lat.), in Anti¬ 
quity, an ornament for the wrist, presented 

to soldiers as a badge of distinction.- 

ArmillaMembrosa (a membranous brace¬ 
let: Lat.), in Anatomy, the circular liga¬ 
ment which surrounds all the tendons of 
the hand, retaining them as it were in a 
circle. 

ARMIL'LARY SPHERE (last), in Astro¬ 
nomy, an apparatus composed of the prin¬ 
cipal celestial circles, the equator ecliptic, 
&c., arranged so as to assist a student to 
comprehend the facts of astronomy. It re¬ 
volves on its axis, has a silvered horizon 
which is divided into degrees, and is mov¬ 
able every way upon a brass supporter.- 

Armillary Trigonometer, an instru¬ 
ment consisting of live semicircles, di¬ 
vided and graduated so as to solve many 
problems in astronomy. 

ARMENIANS, followers of Arminius, 
known as Remonstrants on the continent; 
a sect of Christians which arose in Holland 
about the beginning of the 17th century, 
and separated itself from the Calvinists. 
Arminius taught against Calvin that men 
are not predestined by the decrees of 
God to happiness or perdition in a future 
state. The Church of England, the Wesley¬ 
an Methodists, and other sects, entertain 
Arminian opinions. 

AR'MOUR ( armatura: Lat.), a name for 
all such contrivances as serve to defend the 
body from wounds, or to annoy the enemy. 
Hence it is divided into two kinds, defen¬ 
sive and offensive. A complete suit of de¬ 
fensive armour anciently consisted of a 
casque or helm, a gorget, cuirass, gaunt¬ 
lets, tasses, brassets,. cuishes, and covers 
for the legs, to which the spurs ivere 
fastened. This was called armour cap-a- 
pie, and was worn by cavaliers and men-at- 
arms. The infantry had only part of it, viz. 
a pot or head piece, a cuirass and tasses ; 
all of them made light. The horses had 
armour, which Covered the head and 
neck. Of all this furniture of war, scarcely 
anything is now retained except, in a few 
cases, the cuirass. Offensive armour, or 
arms, consists of a sword, lance, darts, 
musket, &c. 

AR'MOIJR-BE ARER, the person who was 
formerly employed to carry the armour of 
another. 

ARMS (arma: Lat.), in Military phraseo¬ 
logy, all kinds of weapons, whether used 

for offence or defence.- Arms, in a Legal 

sense, anything that a person wears for 
his own defence, or takes into his hand, 
and uses, in anger, to strike or throw at 
another.- Coats op Arms, family insig¬ 

nia or distinctions, which had their rise 
from the painting of shields practised even 
in the most ancient times; from the ban¬ 
ner borne in war and the tournament; and 
from the embroidered tunics worn over 
the armour. Without such contrivances, 
men cased in armour could not be recog¬ 
nized. In modern times they are placed on 
carriages, plate &c. 

AR'MY (armSe: Fr.), in a general sense, 
the whole armed force raised for the de¬ 
fence of a country by land. In a limited 
sense, it denotes a large body of soldiers 
consisting of horse and foot, completely 
armed and provided with artillery, am¬ 
munition, provisions, &c., under a com¬ 
mander-in-chief, having lieutenant-gene¬ 
rals, major-generals, brigadiers, and other 
officers under him. An army is generally 
divided into a certain number of corps, each 
consisting of brigades, regiments, batta¬ 
lions, and squadrons. When in the field it 
is formed into lines; the first line is called 
the vanguard, the second the main body, 
the third the rear guard, or body of reserve. 
The middle of each line is occupied by the 
foot; the cavalry forms the right and left 
wing of each line, and sometimes squadrons 
of horse are placed in the intervals between 

the battalions.-The matfriel of an army, 

as the French term it, consists of the 
horses, stores, provisions, and everything 
necessary for service. 

ARO'M A (any spice : Gr.), the odoriferous 
principle peculiar to plants and flowers. 

AROMAT'IC (last), an appellation given 
to such plants and other bodies as yield a 
brisk fragrant smell, and a warm spicy 
taste, as cloves, cardamom-seeds, cinna¬ 
mon, nutmegs, &c. The peculiar qualities 
of aromatic plants reside in a volatile oil, 
usually called essential oil, and in a grosser 
resinous substance, capable of being ex¬ 
tracted by spirit of wine. Aromatics, 
considered as medicines, warm the sto¬ 
mach, and by degrees the whole habit, 
raise the pulse, and quicken the circulation : 
hence, in cold languid cases, they increase 
strength and promote the natural secre¬ 
tions. 

ARPEG'GIO (arpeggiare, to play the harp: 
Ital.), in Music, a term implying that the 
tones should be sounded distinctly, as they 
are heard on the harp.- Arpeggio Ac¬ 

companiment, one that consists chiefly of 
the notes of the several chords, taken in 
returning successions. 

AR'PENT, an old French measure of 100 
perches. 

AR'QUEBUS (Fr.), an ancient hand-gun, 
larger than a musket. He who used it was 
called an Arquebusier. 

ARQUEBUSA'DE (last), an aromatic 
spirituous lotion, used with sprains and 
bruises, but originally intended for wounds 
inflicted with an arquebus. 

ARRA'CHE' ( arracher, to snatch : Fr.), in 
Heraldry, the representation Of a plant 
torn up by the roots. 












49 


Httcrarg &r*atfurg. 


ARRA'CK, an East Indian name for an 
ardent spirit distilled from rice,palm-juice, 
and other matters. 

ARRAIGN'HENT, in Law, the bringing 
a prisoner forth, reading the indictment to 
him, and putting the question of guilty or 
not guilty. 

AIl'RAS HANG'INGS, tapestry made 
at Arras, in France, or tapestry of similar 
design. 

ARRAY' (order: Old Fr.), the drawing 
up of soldiers in order of battle.——In Law, 
to challenge an array is to make exceptions 
against all the persons arrayed or empan- 
neled as a jury. 

ARREST' (i arreter , to stop : Fr.), the appre¬ 
hending and restraining a person which in 
all cases, except treason, felony, or breach 
of the peace, must be done by virtue of a 
warrant from some court, or some person 
authorized to grant it. Ambassadors, peers 
of the realm, and members of parliament 
are privileged from an arrest in civil cases, 
as also barristers and attorneys when at¬ 
tending the courts. When a defendant is 
already in one of the prisons of the 
superior courts, a writ of detainer will 
continue such imprisonment at the suit of 

a new plaintiff.- Arrest of Judgment, 

is the assigning just reasons why judg¬ 
ment should not pass; as, want of notice 
of the trial; a material defect in the plead¬ 
ing , when the record differs from the 
deed pleaded; where more is given by the 
verdict than is laid in the declaration, &c. 
This may be done either in criminal or 

civil cases.- Arrest, in the Veterinary 

art, a disease seated between the ham and 
the pastern. 

ARRIE'RE BAN ( arrilre , rear ; and ban, 
a convening of those who held immediately 
from the king : Fr.), the phrase for a gene¬ 
ral proclamation of the French kings, by 
which not only their immediate feudatories, 
but their vassals, were summoned to take 

the field, in war.-An arrilre vassal was 

the vassal of a vassal. 

AR'RIS ( arisan, to arise : Sax.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, the intersection or line formed by 
the meeting of the exterior surfaces of two 
bodies, answering to what is called the 

edge.- Arris Fillet, a small piece of 

timber, of a triangular section, used in 
raising the slates against a wall that cuts 
obliquely across the roof. 

ARRON'DE'E ( arrondir, to round : Fr.), 
in Heraldry, a cross, consisting of seg¬ 
ments of a circle, the whole of the curves 
being in the same direction, so that its 
arms are not of different widths at different 
parts. 

AIl'ROW (arwe: Sax.), a light shaft, or 
rod, pointed at one end, and feathered at 
the other, intended as a weapon of offence. 
Arrow-makers were called fletcliers (from 
tllche, the French word for arrow). When 
the arrow is borne in coats of arms, it is said 
to be barbed and feathered. 

AR'ROW-GRASS, marsh plantsbelonging 
to the genus Triglochin, nat. order, Juncagi- 
nacece, so called because their leaves re¬ 
semble the head of an arrow. There are 
two species in Britain. 

AR'ROW-ROOT, a nutritive fecula, ob¬ 


[ARTESIAh 


tained from the tuberous roots of several 
exotic plants. The West Indian arrow- 
root is obtained from species of Maranta, 
chiefly M. arundinacea; East Indian from 
Curcuma leucorhiza. The root is simply 
grated, and the starch freed from impurities 
by repeated washing. 

AR'ROW-STICK, a rod employed in sur¬ 
veying. 

ARSE'NIATE, a salt formed by the com¬ 
bination of arsenic acid with a base; as the 
arseniate of ammonia, &c. 

Alt'SENIC ( arsenikon, yellow orpiment: 
Gr.), a brittle metal, of an iron-grey colour; 
its specific gravity is 57. It volatilizes at 
365° Fahr., with the odour of garlic. Like 
its compounds it is highly poisonous. It 
is found associated with many other sub¬ 
stances ; but it is usually obtained as real¬ 
gar, or orpiment, which are both sulphurets, 
and, when prepared artificially, are used as 
red and yellow paints. White oxide of ar¬ 
senic or arsenious acid is the arsenic of 
which we hear in poisoning cases. The 
best antidote for arsenic is expelling 
it as quickly as possible by emetics or 
the stomach-pump, and administering 
the hydrated peroxide of iron in plentiful 
doses. 

AR'SON ( arsum , to burn : Lat.), the act 
of wilfully setting houses on fire, which is 
felony at common law, and likewise by 
statute. 

ART ( ars: Lat.), a system of rules, serv¬ 
ing to facilitate the performance of certain 
actions; in which sense it is opposed to 

science, or a system of principles.-Such 

words as are used in any particular art, pro¬ 
fession, or science, are called terms of art, 
or technical terms. 

ART AND PART, a phrase used in Scot¬ 
land. When anyone is charged with a 
crime, they say he is art and part in com¬ 
mitting it : that is, he was concerned 
both in the contrivance and execution of 
it. 

AR,TEM1'SIA (Gr.: from Artemis, Diana), 
in Antiquity, a festival celebrated in honour 
of Diana.-In Botany, a genus of compo¬ 

site plants, in which southernwood, worm¬ 
wood, and tarragon, are contained. 

AR'TERY ( aer, the air; and tereo, I keep : 
Gr.— see Aorta), a blood-vessel which pro¬ 
ceeds from the heart, and gradually becomes 
less in diameter the farther it goes; but it 
gives out numberless ramifications in its 
course. Arteries carry the blood from the 
heart to every part of the body. The action 
of the arteries, called the pulse, corre¬ 
sponds to that of the heart. 

ARTE'SIAN WELL, a well bored to a 
considerable depth, until it reaches a sub¬ 
terranean basin. The -water then rises up 
the bore in consequence of the hydrostatic 
pressure, and in some cases will spring into 
the air from the mouth of the well. It is 
said that Artesian wells derive their name 
from the ancient French province of Artois 
where for many centuries they have been 
used, although their adoption in thjs coun 
try is very recent. In London and its 
vicinity there are now a great many of 
these wells, which have been perforated 
through the immensely thick bed cf Lon- 
E _ 








ARTHRITIS j 


‘frumtific rmtf 


.50 


don clay, and even through some portions 
of the subjacent chalk. The fountains in 
Trafalgar Square are supplied by an Arte- 
siau well 400 feet deep, and from another 
one of the same depth is drawn the water re¬ 
quired for the Horticultural Gardens at 
South Kensington. The Artesian well at 
Grenelle, near Paris, is 1,798 feet deep : it 
affords 881,884 gallons of pure water in the 
twenty-four hours. The water rises to a 
considerable height above the surface of 
the ground. The temperature of the water 
as it escapes is 81°. A well at Passy, near 
j Paris, is 1,925 feet deep, and affords upwards 
of four millions of gallons per diem, suiH- 
! cient for the wants of a population of 
500,000. The cost was about 39,0001. 

AltTHRI'TIS (Gr.), the gout, which see. 

ARTHRO'DIA ( arthron, a joint: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, a species of articulation, in which 
the flat head of one bone is received into 
the shallow socket of another. 

ARTHUR, the chief hero of British chiv¬ 
alrous romance. He was said to be the son 
of Pendragon, the last British king who de¬ 
fended England against the Anglo-Saxons. 
His wife was named Genevra, or Guinevere. 
, He, and his twelve knights, called peers, 

! sate at the Round Table which he instituted. 

! Of these knights the most famous were Sir 
Tristan of the Lyonnese, Lancelot of the 
Lake, Galaar his son, Percival of Wales, and 
Gawin the king’s nephew. Merlin the en¬ 
chanter was a leading personage at the 
king’s court. 

AR'TICIIOKE ( kharciof: Arab.), a compo¬ 
site plant, the Gynara Scolymus of botan¬ 
ists. The fleshy bases of the scales of the 
involucre are eaten. The Jerusalem Arti¬ 
choke, called Helianthus tuberosus by botan¬ 
ists, is a member of the same order. It is 
the root of this plant that is eaten. Its 
common name is a corruption of the Ita¬ 
lian word Girasole, a name given to it 
because it was supposed that it, or some of 
its congeners, turned with the sun. 

ARTICLE ( articulus, literally a small 
! joint: Lat.), in Grammar, a particle in most 
modern languages, that serves to mark 
the several cases and genders of nouns, 
when the languages have not different 
terminations to denote their different 

states and circumstances_ Article, in 

Law, a clause or condition in a covenant. 

- Article, in Zoology and Botany, a 

joint. 

AR'TICULATA (same deriv.), a sub-king¬ 
dom or province of the Animal Kingdom, 
which is divided into live classes: l. Crus¬ 
tacea (Crabs, lobsters &c.) 2. Arachnida 
(Spiders and their allies) 3. Insecta (Flies, 
bees, beetles, butterflies, moths, &c.) 4. An¬ 
nelida, or Annulata (Worms). 5. Ex- 
tozoa (Intestinal worms). 

ARTICULATION (articulatio, from arti- 
\ culo, I diyide into joints: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the junction of two bones intended 
for motion. There are two kinds of arti¬ 
culation ; the diarthrosis, which has a 
manifest, and synarthrosis, which has 

only an obscure motion.-Also, the 

distinct utterance of every letter, sylla- 
I ble, or word, so as to make oneself intelli- 
I gible. 


ARTIFICER ( artifex: from ars, an art; 
and facio, I make : Lat.), one who works 
with the hands, and manufactures any kind 
of commodity in metal, wood, &c.; a me¬ 
chanic. 

ARTIFI'CIAL DAY, in Astronomy, that 
space of time which intervenes between the 
rising and setting of the sun. 

ARTIFI'CIAL LINES, in Geometry, lines 
so marked on a sector as to represent loga¬ 
rithmic lines and tangents. 

ARTIL'LERY (artillerie : Fr.), a collec¬ 
tive name denoting all kinds of missiles 
used in war, with the machines for pro¬ 
pelling them, but particularly cannon, 
mortars, and other large pieces for the 
discharge of shot and shell. The science of 
artillery teaches whatever relates to the ! 
construction of all engines of war, tb,q ar¬ 
rangement, movement, and management of 
cannon and all sorts of ordnance, used 
either in the field, or the camp, or at sieges, 
&c. The same name is also given to the 
troops by whom these arms are served, the , 
men being, in fact, subsidiary to the instru- j 

ments.- Park of artillery, a place set apart 

in a camp for the artillery and large fire¬ 
arms. Train of artillery, a set or number 

of pieces of ordnance mounted on carriages. 

- Flying artillery, a sort of artillery, so 

called from the celerity with which it can 
be moved. Seats are contrived for the men 
who work it, andasumelent force of horses 
i3 applied to enable them to proceed at a 
gallop. 

ARTIST (artiste: Fr.; from ars, an art: 
Lat), a proficient in the liberal arts, in dis¬ 
tinction from artisan, or one who follows 
one of the mechanic arts. 

ARTS (ars, an art : Lat.), are usually di¬ 
vided into the/ineand the useful: the former 
comprising all those of which the direct 
object is not absolute utility, as painting, 
sculpture, music, poetry, &c.; and the lat¬ 
ter such as are essential to trade and com¬ 
merce. The ancients divided them into the 
liberal and the servile: the former being 
considered as belonging to freemen, and the 
latter to slaves. 

ARUM, a common English herbaceous 
plant, the root of which yields a starch 
known as Portland sago. It belongs to the 
nat. ord. Aracece, or Avoid ere, characterized 
by having the male and female flowers 
growing upon a central shaft or spadix, and 
surrounded by a sheath called a spatlie. 
The beautiful Lily of the Nile belongs to 
this order. The roots of some species be- 1 
longing to the genera Caladium and 
Colocasia are common articles of food in 
hot countries, and form the taro (kalo ac¬ 
cording to Seemann) of the South Sea 
Islanders. In tropical Brazil there are 
groves of arborescent Caladia, from 12 to 
15 feet high, and having woody stems from 
8 to 10 inches in diameter. 

ARUNDE'LIAN MAR'BLES,a collection 
of ancient statues, busts, altars, and in¬ 
scribed stones.found, in the early part of the 
17th century, by Thomas Howard, Earl of 
Arundel, a great lover of the arts, who died 
in 1646. The collection when complete con¬ 
sisted of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 in¬ 
scribed marbles, besides altars, sarcophagi, 
























| 51 fUtcrary Ct’fa^ury. [asclepiadaceai 

' and some flue gems (tlie Marlborough 
j gems of the present day), and these were 
placed in Lord Arundel's house in the 
Strand. After his death the collection was 
dispersed: part was purchased by Lord 
Pembroke, and is now at Wilton ; another 
part went into the possession of the present 
j Lord Pomfret’s family, and ultimately 
found their way to Oxford. The inscribed 
marbles which had descended to a grand¬ 
son of Lord Arundel, were by him presented 
to the University of Oxford. After Selden’s 
collection had been added to them, the in¬ 
scriptions were published with annotations. 
The most interesting of the inscribed stones 
i is that called the Parian Chronicle, from its 
i being supposed that it was made in the 
island of Paros, n.c. 263. 
j ARUS'PICES, or HARUS'PICES (i haru- 
spe x, a soothsayer: Lat.; probably from 
j liirci, the empty gut, or jejunum ; and spicio, 

I behold: Lat.), an order of priests among 
: the Romans, who pretended to foretell 
i events by inspecting the entrails of vic- 
; tints killed in sacrifice. They derived 
their name from looking on the entrails, 
being called also, for the same reason, exti 
spices (ab extis inspiciendis). The tradi¬ 
tion ran that they had been instituted by 
Romulus. 

AR'VIL, or AR'VAL, in English Arclneo- 

logy, funeral rites.- Arvil Bread, bread 

given to the poor at a funeral. 

ARYAN (Sanskrit), a term applied in 
Philology to a family of languages, other¬ 
wise termed Indo-European, embracing 
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, and 
Slavonic. It is conjectured that there was 
an ancient people, the Aryans, of whose 
tongue these various languages are corrup¬ 
tions. 

AS (Lat,), a weight used by the ancients, 
consisting of 12 ounces, and very nearly 

equal to our pound.-Also, a brass coin, 

which originally weighed an as, but was ulti¬ 
mately reduced to half an ounce : its value 
was about three farthings English money. 

-Also, an integer divided into twelve 

parts. ‘ Ex asse liseres,’ the heir to the 
whole estate. 

ASBES'TOS (inextinguishable: Gr.), a 
mineral which has a fibrous structure [see 
Amianthus], The ancients made an in¬ 
combustible cloth from asbestos, for the 
purpose, it is said, of wrapping up the bodies 
of the dead when placed on the funeral 
pile, that their ashes might be collected free 
from mixture with those of the combusti¬ 
bles employed. A rock has been found in 
; Western Australia, of which asbestos forms 
a principle ingredient, and this renders it 
so soft that it may be cut into any shape 
with an axe. 

ASCAR'IDES (Gr.), the plural of Ascaris, 
the name of a genus of entozoa, of which 
some species infest the human body. 

ASCEN'DANT (ascendo, I ascend: Lat.), 
in Law, such relations as are nearer the 
root of the family; as the father, grand¬ 
father, great-uncle, &c. Marriage is always 
forbidden between the ascendants and de¬ 
scendants in a right line.- Ascendant, 

in Astrology, that degree of the ecliptip 
that rise 3 at a person's nativity; or -the 

planet supposed by astrologers to preside 
over the fate of an individual at his birth. 
- Ascendant, in Architecture, an orna¬ 
ment in masonry or joiner’s work, which 
borders the three sides of doors, windows, 
and chimneys. 

ASCEND'ING (same deriv.), in Astronomy, 
an epithet applied to any star, degree, or 
point in the heavens, which is rising above 

the horizon.- Ascending Latitude, the 

latitude of a planet when going towards 

the north pole.- Ascending Node, that 

point of a planet’s orbit, at which it 
passes the ecliptic to proceed northward. 

-Ascending Signs, those eastward 

from the meridian, that is, approaching 
the meridian gn account of the diurnal 
rotation. 

ASCEN'SION (ascensio, from same deriv.), 
an astronomical term. The right ascension 
of a star is the arc of the equinoctial in¬ 
cluded between a certain point called the 
vernal equinox and the point cut by the 
circle of declination of that star. The right 
ascension (r.a.) and declination (n.p.d.) of 
a star correspond to the longitude and lati¬ 
tude of a place on our globe. The right as¬ 
cension of a star is determined by observing 
the moment of its passage across the me¬ 
ridian by a clock regulated to exact sidereal 
time. 

ASCEN'SION-DAY (same deriv.), a festi¬ 
val observed in the Christian church, on a 
Thursday, ten days before Whitsuntide, 
in commemoration of Christ’s ascent into 
heaven. 

ASCET'ICS (asketikos, industrious ; from 
aslceo, I exercise: Gr.), in Ecclesiastical His¬ 
tory, such Christians as inured themselves 
to great degrees of abstinence and fasting, 
in order to subdue their passions ; following 
the system of the Essenes and Therapeutre 
among the Jews. They had their origin in 
Egypt and Syria. They seem to have sup¬ 
posed that mortification of the body, even 
though equivalent to slow suicide, is the 
perfection of religion. 

ASCID'IANS (askidion, the dim. of askos, 
a wine-skin : Gr.), in Zoology, a tribe of 
marine molluscs, belonging to the class of 
Tunicata. In place of a shell they have 
an elastic bag, like a coat or tunic, by the 
base of which they are attached ro rocks. 
Into this sac there are two openings, one 
branchial, the other anal. These animals 
sometimes grow to the length of several 
inches. 

AS'CII (aslcioi; from a, without; and 
skia, shadow: Gr.), in Geography, inhabit¬ 
ants of the globe who, at certain times, 
have no shadow: such as those in the torrid 
zone, who twice a year have the sun ver¬ 
tical at noon. 

ASCITES (askites, from askos, a wine¬ 
skin : Gr.), in Medicine, dropsy in the re¬ 
gion of the abdomen. 

ASCLEPIADA'CEHU (from Asclepias, the 
name of one of the genera;, an order of 
plants with monopetalous flowers grow¬ 
ing chiefly in Africa. They are remarkable 
for abounding in milky juice, and for the 
curious structure of the anthers and stigma, 
which are consolidated into a column. A 
kind of silky cotton is attached to the seed. 






























&l)c Jf>ctenttftc ruttf 


52 


ash] 


The plants of this order are not possessed 
of many useful properties; hut some of 
the genera (Hoya, Stapelia, Stephanotis, 
&c.) are conspicuous in our hot-houses 
for their beautiful or curious flowers. 

ASH (cic, a point: Celt.), a well-known 
English tree, whose wood is much used by 
wheelwrights, turners, &c. It is the Frax- 
inus excelsior of botanists: nat.ord. Oleacece. 
The mountain-ash is a small tree, bearing 
bunches of red pomes, which are very or¬ 
namental in autumn. It is called Pyrus au- 
cuparia by botanists, and is allied to the 
apple and pear: nat. ord. Rosacece. 

ASH-WED'NESDAY, the first day in Lent, 
so called from the ancient custom of fast¬ 
ing in sackcloth and ashes. 

ASH'LAR MAS'ONRY (. asciare , to chip : 
Ital.), in Architecture, consists of blocks of 
stone cut to rectangular or other regular 
figures, and laid in courses of uniform 
depth. 

ASHO'RE, a term for ‘ on the shore or 
land,’as opposed to aboard; but a ship is 
said to be as/iore when she lias run aground. 

ASI'DE, a term in plays for what is sup¬ 
posed to be said on the stage without being 
heard by the other performers. 

ASI'LUS (the horse-fly: Lot.), in Ento¬ 
mology ,1a genus of dipterous insects which 
prey on other insects. Several of the spe- 
S cies are natives of Britain. 

ASP ( aspis , a shield : Gr., because it coils 
itself up so as to resemble a circular shield), 
a venomous serpent, the Naja liaje of natu¬ 
ralists, a native of Lybia and Egypt, where 
it was formerly considered sacred, and the 
emblem of divinity. Its bite is very deadly, 
and yet the serpent charmers make use of 
it in their performances. It is supposed to 
have been the instrument of Cleopatra’s 
death. The fatal cobra de capello belongs 
to the same genus. 

ASPAR'AGUS ( asparagos: Gr.), a well- 
known plant, the young shoots of which 
are eaten. It belongs to the order of Li- 
liacece. 

AS'l’EN-TREE, a species of poplar, the 
Populus tremula of botanists. The shak¬ 
ing of its leaves with the slightest motion 
of the air is well-known. 

ASPHAL'TUM (asphaltos: Gr., from its 
use as a cement), a bituminous substance, 
found in abundance in different countries, 
especially near the Dead Sea, and in 
Albania; but nowhere in such quantities 
as in the island of Trinidad, where there is 
a large plain of it, called the Tar Lake, 
which is three miles in circumference, and 
of an unknown depth. It is also found in 
France, Switzerland, and in some other 
parts of Europe. This substance, which is 
also called mineral pitch and compact 
bitumen, has no regular structure, and 
breaks easily in any direction. It is a 
little -heavier than water, melts easily, is 
highly inflammable, and burns with a red 
smoky flame. It is a compound of carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen. The ancients em¬ 
ployed asphaltum in the construction of 
their buildings. 

AS'PHODEL ( asphodelos , the daffodil: 
Gr.), a plant celebrated by the ancient 
poets, belonging to the lily order. There 


are several species, most of which are 
natives of Europe. 

ASPHYXTA ( asphuxia: from a, without; 
and sphuxis, pulsation: Gr.), in Medicine, 
a stoppage of the power of respiration. If 
a person’s throat were accidentally stopped 
up by the introduction of some foreign 
substance, and he were to die in con¬ 
sequence, it would be a case of death by 
asphyxia. 

AS'PIRATE ( aspiratio, from aspiro, I 
breathe on : Lat.), in Grammar, a character 
in the Greek marked thus ('), denoting that 
h is to be sounded before the letter to 
which it is prefixed. In English, the letter 
h is called aspirate, when it is sounded, in 
distinction from h mute. 

ASS ( asinus : Lat.), a well-known animal, 
remarkable for its hardihood and length of 
life. It is said to be a descendant of.the 
wild ass, inhabiting the mountainous de¬ 
serts of Tartary, &c., celebrated in history 
for the fiery activity of its disposition, and 
the fleetness of its course. Its character¬ 
istics are a long head, long ears, a round 
body covered with a short and coarse fur, of 
a pale dun colour, with a streak of black 
running down its back and across the 
shoulders, and a tail not hairy all the way, 
as in a horse, but only at the end. The best 
breed of asses is that originally derived 
from the hot and dry regions of Asia; but 
the best to be met with in Europe are the 
Spanish. 

ASSAFGS'TIDA (fetidus, stinking: Lat.), 
a resinous gum of a very fetid smell, ob¬ 
tained from the Ferula Assafcetida, a peren¬ 
nial umbelliferous plant, a native of Persia. 
It comes into this country in small grains 
of different colours, hard and brittle, and 
is employed medicinally as a stimulant.and 
antispasmodic. 

ASSA'I (enough : Ital.), a Musical term, 
which indicates that the time must be rea¬ 
sonably accelerated or retarded ; as allegro, 
quick; allegro assai, still quicker; adagio 
assai, still slower. 

ASSAS'SIN ( haschischa, henbane : Arab.), 
which was used by such persons to produce 
excitement), one who kills another, not in 
open combat, but privately or suddenly. 

ASSAULT' (ass aut: Fr. ; from assilio, I 
spring upon : Lat.), in Law, an attempt or 
offer, with force and violence, to do a bodily 
injury to another, as by striking at him 
either with or without a weapon.- As¬ 

sault, in the Military art, a furious effort 
made to carry a fortified post, camp, or for¬ 
tress, in which the assailants do not screen 
themselves by any works. 

ASSAY' ( essayer, to try: Fr.), in Metal¬ 
lurgy, is used to express those chemical 
operations which are made in small to 
ascertain the quantity of metal contained 
in ores, or to discover the value or purity 
of any mass of gold, silver, or other metal. 
This mode of examination differs from 
analysis, in being principally concerned 
about only one of the ingredients in the 
ore or alloy, whereas the object of the latter 
is to ascertain the quantity and proportion 
of every substance in the mass to which it 
is applied. 

ASS A Y'-MASTE R, an officer of the Mint, 
















53 


Etterarg Crca^urj)* 


[asteroids 


whose duty it is to make assay of the gold 
and silver. 

ASSENT' ( assentio , I agree with: Lat.), 
(the royal}, is the approbation given by 
the sovereign in parliament to a-bill which 
has passed both houses; after which it be¬ 
comes a law. The formal words by which 
this assent is expressed are in Norman- 
Frencli. If it is a bill of supply, the words 
are ‘Le Roi (or la Heine) remercie ses 
loyaux sujets accepte leur benevolence 
et ainsi le veut.’ If it is a public bill, not 
being a bill of supply, ‘ Le Roi le veut,’ 
and if a private bill, ‘ Soifc fait comme il est 
desire.’ 

AS'SETS ( assez , enough: Fr.), in Law, 
signifies goods or property in the hands of 
the heir, devisee, executor, or administra- I 
tor, of a deceased person, chargeable witli 
the payment of debts and legacies. It has ; 
been extended to all property which can be 
made available to satisfy a man’s lia¬ 
bilities. 

AS'SIDENT SIGNS ( assideo , I attend: 
Lat.), in Medicine, symptoms which occa¬ 
sionally attend any disease incident to the 
human frame. 

ASSIGN'ABLE MAG'NITUDE ( assigno , 1 
assign : Lat.), in Mathematics, any finite 
magnitude that can be expressed or speci¬ 
fied. 

ASSI'GNAT ( Fr .), the name of the national 
paper currency in France during the Re¬ 
volution. Four hundred millions of this 
paper money were first Etruck off by the 
constituentassembly, with the approbation 
of the king, April 19, 1790, to be redeemed 
with the proceeds of the sale of the con-1 
flscated goods of the church, &c. They at 
length increased, by degrees, to forty thou¬ 
sand millions, and after a while they be¬ 
came of no value whatever. 

ASSIGNEE' ( assigno, I assign to: Lat.), in 
Law, a person to whom something is made 
over. One to whom is committed the ma¬ 
nagement of a bankrupt’s estate. 

ASSI'GNMENT (same deriv.), in Law, the 
act of assigning or transferring the inter¬ 
est or property a man has in a thing, or 
of appointing and making over a right to 
another, and the formal instrument by 
which the act is made evident. 

ASSIMILA'TION (assimilatio, from as- 
similo, I make like to : Lat.), that process 
in the animal economy by which the 
different ingredients of the blood are 
made parts of the various organs of the 
body. 

ASSI'ZES (sessions : Nor. Fr.), a meeting 
of the king’s judges, the sheriff, and juries, 
for the purpose of making gaol deliveries, 
and trying causes between individuals ; in 
some places held eight times a year. The 
assizes are general when the justices go their 
circuits, with commission to take all assizes, 
that is, to hear all causes; and they are spe¬ 
cial when special commissions are granted 
to hear particular causes. 

ASSOCIA'TION OF IDE'AS ( associo , I 
unite with : Lat.). By this phrase is under¬ 
stood that connection between certain ideas 
which causes them to succeed each other 
involuntarily in the mind. To the wrong 
association of ideas made in our minds by 


custom, Locke attributes most of the sym¬ 
pathies and antipathies observable in men, 
which work as strongly, and produce as 
regular effects, as if they were natural, 
though they at first had no other origin 
than the accidental connection of two ideas, 
which, either by the strength of the first 
impression, or by subsequent indulgence, 
are so united, that they ever after keep 
company together in the mind, as if they 
were but one idea. 

ASSO'DES (loathsome: Gr.), in Medicine, 
a fever with excessive inward heat, though 
not so great externally. 

ASSOI'LE ( absoudre, I absolve: Fr.), in 
our ancient Law-books, to absolve, free, or 
deliver one from excommunication. 

AS'SONANCE (assotio, I answer by sound: 
Lat.), in Poetry, is where the terminating 
words of the verses have the same vocalic 
sounds, but different consonants, so that 
there is no proper rhyme. Spanish poetry 
abounds with assonant verses. 

ASSUMP'SIT ( assumo, I take up: Lat.), 
in Law, an implied promise to pay for 
work or goods, such as will sustain an 
action. 

ASSUMP'TION (assumptio, from same 
deriv.), a festival in the Roman Catholic 
Church, kept on the 15th of August, in 
honour of the alleged miraculous ascent of 
the Virgin Mary into heaven.- Assump¬ 

tion. in Logic, is the minor or second 
proposition in a categorical syllogism. 
Also, the consequence drawn from the 
propositions of which an argument is 
composed. 

ASSUMP'TIVE ARMS (same deriv.), in 
Heraldry, such arms as a person has a 
right to assume to himself by virtue of 
some action, provided his right be con¬ 
firmed by the approbation of his sovereign 
and the heralds. Also, armorial bearings 
improperly assumed. 

ASSU'RANCE. [See Insurance.] 

AS'TER {aster, a star: Gr.), a genus of 
ornamental plants belonging to the Compo¬ 
sites. 

AS'TERISK ( asterislcos, from same : Gr.), 
a little star (*) used in Printing as a mark 
of reference. 

AS'TERISM {aster, a star : Gr.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, a constellation of fixed stars. 

A'STEROI'DS {aster, a star; and eidos, 
form : Gr.), the small planets that circulate 
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. 
The first discovery took place in 1801. About 
eighty are now known, and new discoveries 
are being continually made. They are con¬ 
jectured to be the ruins of a large planet, 
shattered by some explosion. They are so 
small that their magnitudes cannot be as¬ 
certained with certainty ; but it is thought 
that their total mass is quite insignificant. 
In only two can disks be perceived by 
careful examination with very powerful 
telescopes. ‘ A man placed on one of them 
(says Sir John Herscliel) would spring with 
ease sixty feet high, and sustain no greater 
shock in his descent than he does on 
the earth from leaping a yard. On such 
planets giants might exist, and those 
enormous animals which on earth require 
the buoyant power of water to counteract 













asthma] ffC\)z J^ncnttfic nuft 


their weight might there he denizens of 
the land.’ 

ASTHMA (Or.), a disease of the lungs, 
causing paroxysms of laborious breathing. 

ASTRAGAL ( astragalos, the ankle-bone: 
Gr.), in Architecture, a little round mould¬ 
ing in form of a ring, serving as an orna¬ 
ment at the top and bottom of columns.- 

Astragal, in Gunnery, the corner ring of 
' a piece of ordnance. 

ASTRA'GALUS (same deriv.), in Anatomy, 

the ankle-bone.- Astragalus, in Botany, 

I Liquorice-Vetch, the seed of which resem- 
! hies In shape the ankle-bone. It belongs 
to the Leguminosce. 

ASTRIC'TION i astringo, I bind : Lat,), the 
operation of astringent medicines. 

I ASTRIM'GENTS (same deriv.), medicines 
which cause the fibres of the muscles and 
i blood-vessels to contract. Hence they di¬ 
minish the flow of the fluids, and are em¬ 
ployed to give tone, lessen glandular secre¬ 
tions, stop the flow of blood from a ruptured 
vessel, &c. Mineral acids, metallic salts, 
tannin, and gallic acid, are amongst the as¬ 
tringents commonly employed. 

ASTROLABE (cistron, a star; and lam- 
bano, I take: Gr.), an instrument formerly 
used for observing the stars. It consisted 
of two or more graduated circles, having a 
common centre, but so inclined to each 
other, that the astronomer might observe 
in the planes of different circles of the 
sphere. Its place is now supplied by the 
equatorial, theodolite, &c. Ptolemy reduced 
its form to a plane surface, which he called 
a planetarium. 

ASTROL'OGV (astron, a star; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), originally meant the 
same thing as astronomy: but for a long 
time, under the name of judicial astrology, 
it has been used to designate an art which 
may truly be said to be among the oldest 
superstitions of the world, and which con¬ 
sisted in judging or predicting human 
events from the situation and different 
aspects of the heavenly bodies. It is men¬ 
tioned in the Mosaic history; and we know 
that those who professed the astrological 
art, gave so much trouble at Rome, that 
they were at length banished by Tiberius. 
During the middle ages, astrology and as¬ 
tronomy were cultivated in connection by 
the Arabs, and their works on the subject 
are still extant. Nay, even so late as the 
17th century, astrology had its defenders 
among the learned men of Europe; but the 
Copernican system shook the foundations 
of this ancient science, and, at the present 
day, there are none but artful plunderers 
and ignorant dupes who give it the slight¬ 
est countenance. 

ASTRON'OMY ( astronomia; from astron, 
a star; and nomos, a law : Gr.) that science 
which treats of the heavenly bodies, ex¬ 
plaining the motions, times and causes of 
the motions, distances, magnitudes, gra¬ 
vities, light, &c., of the sun, moon, and 
stars; the nature and causes of the eclipses 
of the sun and moon, the conjunction and 
opposition of the planets, and any othpr 
of their mutual aspects, with the times 
when they did or will happen. .Since the 
heavens may be considered either as they 


appear to the naked eye, or as they are dis¬ 
covered by the understanding, Astronomy 
may be divided into Practical, Rational, and , 
Physical. Practical Astronomy enables us, j 
by means of instruments, to determine j 
the apparent positions and motions of 
the heavenly bodies. Rational Astronomy 
teaches us the modes of ascertaining their 
real orbits and motions, and gives us the 
means of calculating their positions in ad- j 
vance. Various hypotheses nave at differ- : 
ent periods been invented to explain their 
apparent motions, and seemed sufficient to 
account for the phenomena known at the 
time of their adoption. But they were j 
exploded in succession, by more accurate 
observations. Physical Astronomy is the 
application of mathematical science to the ■ 
investigation of the laws which regulate j 
the motions of celestial bodies, the nature 
of the forces which maintain them, and the 
effects produced by the action of one on 
another. This sublime science is founded j 
on observation, but it receives its last per- j 
fection from calculation. Outrunning the ; 
cautious advances of observation, it de- [ 
scends from causes to phenomena, and on j 
philosophical principles explains all the mo- ! 
tions, magnitudes, and periods of revolution ! 
of the heavenly bodies. It is not within the 
scope of this work, however, to enter into 
the details of this science: but we shall 
liriefly notice the most striking portions of | 
its-liistory. The generality of writers agree | 
in assigning the origin of Astronouiy-to j 
the Chaldeans soon after the deluge. For ! 
the purpose of making their astrological j 
predictions, to which they were much 
addicted, as also for that of advancing the ; 
science of Astronomy, they devoted them 
selves to the study of the heavenly bodies, i 
They discovered their motions and peculiar 
characters, and, from their supposed in¬ 
fluence on human alfairs, pretended to I 
predict what was to come. The Egyptians j 
also cultivated the science of Astronomy ! 
about the same time, and there are some 
who ascribe to. them the honour of being 
its real authors. The most ancient astro¬ 
nomical observations known to us are 
Chinese : one, mentioned by Montucla, viz. 
a conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, j 
Mercury, and the Moon, was made almost 
2,500 years before the Christian era! That 
the Indian Brahmins also made consider¬ 
able advances in the science of Astronomy, 
among the earliest people of antiquity, 
appears no less certain. But, in the ob¬ 
scurity of ancient history, it is no easy task 
to determine to what nation the merit 
is actually due. Descending, however, to 
classic times, we find that Astronomy made 
great progress in Greece, and that Thales 
calculated a solar eclipse about GOO years n.o. 
Pythagoras also seems to have been pos- ! 
sessed of very considerable astronomical ! 
knowledge. Ho taught that the earth was 
not placed as the centre of the system, 
but revolved about the sun. After him, 
the Athenian Meton (B.c. 432) introduced ! 
the famous lunar cycle of 19 years, at the 
end of which time the new moon appears i 
on the same day of the year as at the 
beginning of it, since 19 solar years constl- 





























M _ ILfteravg 

tute very nearly 235 lunations, a discovery 
which was then regarded as so important 
; that the calculation was engraved in letters 
! of gold, whence the number which marks 
the year of the cycle is still called golden. 
; Eratosthenes, a Cyrenian, who was born 
! 276 b.c., measured the circumference of the 
I earth ; and, being invited to the court of 
! Ptolemy Euergetes at Alexandria, he was 
made keeper of the royal library, and set 
up there the armillary spheres which Hip¬ 
parchus and Ptolemy afterwards used so 
j effectually. He also determined the dis- 

! tance between the tropics to be — of the 

166 

whole meridian circle, which makes the ob¬ 
liquity of the ecliptic in his time to be 23 
degrees, 51 minutes and one-third. Archi¬ 
medes is said to have constructed a plane¬ 
tarium to represent the phenomena and 
motions of the heavenly bodies ; and many 
others added to the stock of astronomical 
knowledge; but none so much as Hippar¬ 
chus, who flourished about 140 years n.c., 
and surpassed all who had gone before him 
in the extent of his researches. He showed 
that the orbits of the planets are eccen¬ 
tric, and that the moon moves more slowly 
in her apogee than in her perigee. He con¬ 
structed tables of the motions of the sun 
and moon; collected accounts of eclipses 
that had been computed by the Chaldeans 
and Egyptians, and calculated such as would 
happen for six hundred years to come; 
besides correcting the errors of Eratosthe¬ 
nes in his measurement of the earth’s 
circumference, aad computing the sun’s 
distance more accurately. He is, how¬ 
ever, most distinguished by his catalogue 
of the fixed stars to the number of a 
j thousand and eighty, with their latitudes 
and longitudes and apparent magnitudes. 
These and most other of his observa¬ 
tions have been preserved by his illustrious 
successor Ptolemy. From the time of Hip¬ 
parchus, a chasm exists in the history of 
Astronomy, till the commencement of the 
2nd century after Christ, when Ptolemy 
compiled a complete system of Astronomy, 
in 13 books, which is known under the name 
of Almagest , an appellation given it by 
the Arabians, who translated it into their 
language in 827, and which, as the Ptole- 
11 ) 02 an system, notwithstanding its many 
errors, has maintained its value down to. 
the latest times. The Arabians continued 
j for many ages to direct their attention 
| to astronomical science; and though they 
confounded it with the dreams of astro¬ 
logers, they, nevertheless, deserve the re- 
gard of all who came after them, by 
I their valuable observations. Among the 
i Christian nations at this period a pro- 
I found ignorance generally prevailed; but 
[ in the 13th century Astronomy, as well 
as other arts and sciences, began to re¬ 
vive in Europe, particularly under the 
auspices of the emperor Frederic II., who, 
besides restoring some decayed univer¬ 
sities, founded a new one, and in 1230 caused 
vhe works of Aristotle and the Almagest of 
Ptolemy to be translated into Latin. King 
Alplionsoof Castile,about the same time, in¬ 
vited to his court several astronomers, and 


{Ju'cns'ury. [astronomy 


commissioned them to prepare a set of new 
astronomical tables, which, under the name 
of Alphonsine Tables, have acquired much 
celebrity, but which in the 17th century 
differed a whole degree from the true 
situations of the celestial bodies. We now 
approach the era of reviving science. Many 
astronomers of inferior note paved the 
way, by various insulated observations, 
for the great restorer of Astronomy, Coper¬ 
nicus, who, at the beginning of the 16tli 
century, gave the science an entirely dif¬ 
ferent aspect, exploded the Ptoleinaean hy¬ 
pothesis, and in its stead substituted the 
Cojiernican system of the world, which, 
withafewmodifications,is now universally 
acknowledged to be correct. He it was who 
gave the sun its place in the centre of the 
planetary system, and who first conceived 
the bold idea that the earth is a planet, like 
Mercury, Venus, and the rest, and moves, 
in common with them, in an orbit round the 
sun. His system did not, however, im¬ 
mediately meet with a general reception ; 
and among its opponents was Tycho Brahe, 
a Dane, who asserted that the earth is im¬ 
movable, in the centre of the universe, 
and that the whole heavens turn round it in 
24 hours: an opinion which he supported 
principally by the literal sense of various 
passages in the Bible, where a total absence 
of motion is ascribed to the earth. His 
pupil and assistant, Kepler, however, found 
that all the planets revolve in elliptical 
orbits, in one of the foci of which the sun 
is placed; and he moreover demonstrated 
that, in each elliptical revolution of the 
planets round the sun, an imaginary straight 
line, drawn from the latter to the former, 
called the radius vector, always describes 
equal areas in equal times, and, lastly, that 
in the revolutions of the planets and satel¬ 
lites, the squares of the times of revolution • 
are as the cubes of the mean distances from 
the larger body. These great discoveries 
paved the way for views still more compre¬ 
hensive. Kepler had been indulged with a 
faint glimpse of the mutual tendency of all 
bodies to one another; and Dr. Hook went 
so far as to show that the motions of the 
planets are produced by the attractive 
agency of the sun, combined with the force 
which had originally projected them. But it 
was reserved for Newton to establish the law 
of universal gravitation in its entire gene¬ 
rality, and to apply it with demonstrative 
evidence to all the movements within the 
solar system. His doctrine was, that all 
material bodies attract each other with a 
force directly proportional to the number of 
their particles, and inversely proportional 
to the squares of their distances. Descartes 
had sought the cause of the motion of the 
planets around the sun, and of the satellites 
around the planets, in the rotatory motion 
of a subtle matter. But Newton and Kep¬ 
ler have rescued the laws of the material 
universe from the thraldom of a false 
philosophy, and left to later times merely 
the.development of the truths which they 
established. By the application of their 
principles, as well as by new discoveries, se¬ 
veral succeeding astronomers have gained 
a high reputation; thus, Halley by bia i 

































astroscope] 


CHjc Scientific anti 


56 


theory of comets; Bouguer and Mauper- 
tuis, by their exertions to determine the 
form of the earth; Meyer, by his lunar 
tables; and Bradley, by the discovery of the 
aberration of light. The progress recently 
made in Astronomy has been very great. 
The existence of the planet Neptune was 
ascertained, not, as usual in such cases, by 
chance, but by the most profound calcula¬ 
tions ; and its approximate position was 
fixed before it was seen. These results were 
attained, not by one, but by two astro¬ 
nomers—one in England, the other in 
France ; and neither knew of the investiga¬ 
tions of the other. Forty years elapsed, 
after the discovery of the fourth asteroid, 
before a fifth was found : ten more were 
soon discovered, and their number has been 
gradually increased until about eighty have 
been found. An eighth satellite has been 
added to those of Saturn: and it was dis¬ 
covered on the very same day by an English 
and an American astronomer. The improve¬ 
ment of telescopes, &c., have led to the 
best results; and better methods of calcu¬ 
lation and observation have enabled astro¬ 
nomers to derive the greatest advantages 
from the more perfect means placed at their 
disposal. 

AS'TROSCOPE ( astron , a star ; and slcopeo, 
I examine: Gr. ), an old astronomical instru¬ 
ment, composed of two cones, on whose 
surface the constellations were delineated, 
and by means of which the situation of a 
star might easily be known. 

ASY'LUM (asulon: from a, not; and sulao, 
I rob : Gr.), in Antiquity, a place of refuge 
for offenders, where they were screened 
from the hands of justice. The use of altars 
and temples for such a purpose was very an¬ 
cient. The Jews had their asyla; the most 
remarkable of which were, the temple, the 
altar of burnt offerings, and the six cities 
of refuge. Among the Greeks and Romans, 
temples, altars, and statues were places of 
refuge for criminals of every description. 
They had an idea that he who fled to the 
temple or altar submitted his crime to the 
punishment of the gods, and that it would 
be impiety in man to take vengeance out of 
their hands. In former times the like im¬ 
munities were granted by the pope to 
churches, convents, &c. At present, an 
asylum is a place of refuge for blind, deaf, 
or other afflicted or unfortunate people. 

ASYM'PTOTE (a, not; and sumpipto, I 
fall together with : Gr.) ; two lines which 
continually approach each other, and yet 
never meet, arc termed asymptotic or 
asymptotes by mathematicians. At least 
one of such lines must be a curve. How¬ 
ever improbable the existence of such lines 
may be, it can be easily proved. 

ASYN'DETON (a, without; and sundeton, 
abend: Gr.), in Rhetoric or Composition, 
the omission of conjunctions, or other con¬ 
necting particles of speech, in order to 
render the sentence more lively and impres¬ 
sive, as ‘ I came, I saw, I conquered.’ 

AT'ABAL, a kind of tabour used among 
the Moors. 

AT'ABEK, the title given to the rulers of 
the small states into which the empire of 
the Seljuk Turks was divided during the 


! eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries 
According to one interpretation, the word 
signifies ‘ the Father of the Prince : ’accord- 
1 ing to another, ‘ a faithful parent/ 

ATARAX'IA, or AT'ARAXY ( ataraxia, 
\ freedom from passion : from a, without; 
i and taraxis, confusion : Gr.), a term used to 
denote that calmness of mind which se- 
j cures us from all emotions arising from 
vanity or self-conceit. In this consisted 
the summum bonum, or sovereign good, of 
| the Stoics. 

A'TAXY ( ataxia: from a, without; and 
taxis, order : Gr.), in a general sense, the 
want of order ; with Physicians it signifies 
the irregularity of crises and paroxysms of 
fevers. 

A TEM'PO (in time : Ital.), in Music, is 
a term employed, when the regular mea¬ 
sure has been interrupted, to show that the 
| usual time is to be again observed. 

ATHANA'SIAN CREED, a formula of 
faith ascribed to St. Athanasius, which has 
been adopted into the liturgy of the Church 
of England. In consequence of its com- 
minating character several attempts have 
been made to remove it from the Prayer 
Book. 

A'THEIST (atheos: from a, without; and 
Theos, God : Gr.), one who denies the exist¬ 
ence of God or Providence. 

ATH'ELING(at7iei,noble : Sax.), the title 
given to the king’s eldest sou among the 
Saxons, as that of Prince of Wales is in 
our time. 

ATHENJE'UM (Athenaion, a temple de¬ 
dicated to Minerva: Gr.), in Antiquity, a 
public school in which the professors of the 
liberal arts held their assemblies, the rheto¬ 
ricians declaimed, and the poets rehearsed 
their performances. That at Rome, built 
by the emperor Adrian, was situated on 
the Capitoline hill, and had a staff of pro¬ 
fessors like a university. Besides the in¬ 
structions given In it, there were recitations 
by orators, poets, &c. The most celebrated 
Athenma were those at Athens, at Rome, 
and at Lyons. 

ATHLE'T/E ( athletes, a prize-fighter: Gr.), 
in Antiquity, men of remarkable strength 
and agility, disciplined to perform in the 
public games. Under this general term 
were comprehended wrestlers, boxers, run¬ 
ners, leapers, throwers of the disk, and 
those who practised exercises exhibited in 
the Olympic, Pythian, and other solemn 
sports, in which there were prizes allotted 
to the conquerors. 

ATHWART', aseaterm, signifying across 
the line of a ship's course. 

ATHYMTA (Gr.: from a, without; and 
tliumos, courage), in Medicine, the dejection 
of spirits attendant upon some diseases. 

AT'IBAR, in Commerce, gold-dust ob¬ 
tained on the coast of Africa. 

ATLAN'TES (from Atlas), in Architec¬ 
ture, images of men, used as pillars, sup¬ 
porting buildings like Caryatides. 

ATLAN'TITES (supposed to be the 
daughters of Atlas), in Astronomy, another 
name for the Pleiades. 

AT'LAS (probably from a, euphon.; and 
tlao, I bear : Gr.), in Geography, a collection 
of maps, more properly a book containing 


















67 Hitrrarg Crcas'uvj). [atom 


maps of the whole world; so called from 
Atlas, who was fabled to have borne the 

world on his shoulders.-It is also the 

name of a chain of high mountains in 
Africa, extending from the coast of the 

Atlantic to the border of Egypt.- Atlas, 

a rich kind of satin, made in the East 
Indies: it is either plain, striped, or flow¬ 
ered, and interworked with gold : its manu¬ 
facture is beyond the reach of European 
art. Though formerly in great repute, it is 
but little used at present. 

AT'MOSPHERE ( atmos , vapour: sphaira, 
a sphere: Q-r.'). The ring of subtle, invisible, 
elastic fluid, surrounding our globe, and 
reaching about 45 miles above the earth’s 
surface, is termed the atmosphere. The 
air of which it is composed is 816 lighter 
than water. Four-flfths of it, by bulk, are 
nitrogen, the remaining fifth oxygen; it 
has also a little carbonic acid, and some 
vapour of water, which varies very con¬ 
siderably at the same place at different 
times. [See Hygrometry.] Though invi¬ 
sible, except in large masses, and without 
smell or taste, yet it is a substance possess¬ 
ing all the principal attributes of matter; 
it is impenetrable, ponderable, compressi¬ 
ble, dilatable, and its particles are operated 
on, like those of other bodies, by chemical 
action. It is indispensable to the life of all 
organic beings; it is the agent of combus¬ 
tion, and the principal medium of sound. 
Although the atmosphere is one of the 
most transparent bodies in nature, yet its 
transparency is not perfect. Its particles 
absorb one portion of the light they receive, 
transmit a second, and reflect a third. 
Hence it is that light becomes diffused 
over terrestrial objects and enables us to see 
those upon which the rays of the sun do 
not directly fall, and hence the phenome¬ 
non of twilight, by which we see things 
after the sun has set. The greater the 
extent of atmosphere traversed by rays 
from a luminous body the fewer do those 
rays become. The light of the sun in the 
zenith is much more powerful than when 
it is near the horizon. The blueness of the 
heavens is owing to the reflection of light 
by the particles of air, and not to the 
colour being proper to them. The air has 
the property of reflecting the blue rays of 
the spectrum more than the other rays. 
As the blue rays disappear with the in¬ 
creasing depth of atmosphere, the red rays 
become predominant, and this is the reason 
that when the sun is at the horizon it is of 
an orange or red colour. The refracting 
power of the atmosphere increases from 
the zenith to the horizon, and causes us to 
see objects, except when they are in the 
zenith, at places where they really are not. 
Hence the sun’s disk becomes enlarged the 
lower it sinks, and we are able to see a por¬ 
tion of it when, in fact, the whole is below 
the horizon. The atmosphere has also a 
polarizing effect, and maps of its polarizing 
power have been constructed, from which 
we perceive that the curves of equal polari¬ 
sation are related to three principal neutral 
points or poles of non-polarisation. Pro¬ 
fessor Wheatstone constructed an inge¬ 
nious apparatus, which he called a polar 


clock or dial, for determining the apparent 
solar time as long as the sun’s rays illumi¬ 
nate the atmosphere. His method consisted 
in determining the diurnal changes of the 
plane of polarisation at the north pole of the 
sky. Instruments have been invented for 
ascertaining the electrical condition of the 
atmosphere at any given moment at the 
place of observation. It appears that the 
atmosphere is nearly always positively 
electric, and that fluctuations in atmosphe¬ 
ric electricity produce two maxima and two 
minima in the twenty-four hours. As to 
the temperature of the air, as the sun is 
the only source of heat which need be 
taken into account, it is manifest that there 
must be a considerable variation of tempe¬ 
rature in every twenty-four hours. The 
minimum of this variation takes place 
about half an hour before sunrise, and the 
maximum in our climate about 2 p.m. 
The extent of the daily range varies con¬ 
siderably at different places. It is least at 
sea, and greatest on the middle of a large 
continent. Small islands surrounded by a 
large expanse of ocean enjoy an equable 
climate. The less elevated the sun above 
the horizon, the more feeble is its heating 
power, because its rays cross a greater 
thickness of atmosphere, and many of 
them glance along the surface of the 
ground without resting upon it. Hence 
the coldness of the polar regions through¬ 
out the year, and of our climate in winter. 
Hence, also, the greater warmth of the 
atmosphere in the neighbourhood of the 
equator. The higher we go into the at¬ 
mosphere the colder becomes the tempera¬ 
ture, because we move farther and farther 
out of the range of the earth’s reflected 
heat. As to other phenomena of the atmo¬ 
sphere, see Barometer, Hygrometry, 
Winds, Aurora Borealis. 

ATOLL (Ind.) or Lagoon Island, a ring 
formed by coral-zoophytes'in the ocean, en¬ 
closing a tract of smooth water. Atolls 
abound in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 
The ring is usually elevated into land 
formed of sand, on which palms sometimes 
grow. It is often more or less incomplete, 
and sometimes it consists of a great num¬ 
ber of separate little atolls. The water 
usually breaks furiously upon the outer side 
of atolls. They vary in size, some being less 
than a mile in diameter, whilst theSuadiva 
atoll is 44 geographical miles in one direc¬ 
tion and 34 in another, and Rimsky atoll is 
54 miles by 20. [See Coral Islands.] 

A'TOM {atomos: from a, not; and tome, a, 
cut: Gr.), in Philosophy, an ultimate par 
tide of matter. Two opinions, directly 
opposed to each other, have long had cur¬ 
rency with regard to the constituent parti¬ 
cles of material things ; the one, that mat¬ 
ter is composed of an assemblage of minute 
particles, or atoms, incapable of further 
division; the other, that there is no limit 
to its divisibility, the smallest conceivable 
portion still consisting of an infinity of 
parts. The first of these theories, which is 
commonly distinguished by the name of 
the Atomic Philosophy, was originated in 
Greece by Leucippus; it was supported by 
Democritus, and subsequently improved by 













Ki)t £cfenttfic autf 


58 


atomic] 


Epicurus and his disciples. The Epicu¬ 
reans professed to account for the origin 
and formation of all things by supposing 
that these atoms were endued with gravity 
and motion, and thus came together into 
the different organized bodies we now see. 

ATOM'IC THE'ORY. [See Affinity.] 

A'TONY ( atonia, languidness: from a, 
without; and tonos, a brace : Gr.), a defect 
of tone or tension, or a relaxation of the 
solids of the body. 

A'TRA BI'LIS (black choler: Lat.), a dis¬ 
position to a dark biliary secretion, usually 
visible throughout the whole frame. 

ATRIP', in Nautical language, is applied 
either to the anchor or sails. The anchor is 
atrip when it is just drawn out of the ground 
in a perpendicular direction. The topsails 
are atrip when they are just started from 
the cap. 

A'TROPA ( Atropos , one of the Fates : on 
account of its deadly effects), in Botauy, 
a genus of plants, of the nat. order Sola- 
nacece, one species of which, the Atropa Bel¬ 
ladonna, or Deadly Nightshade, is remarkable 
for bearing berries of a fine black colour, 
which are highly poisonous. The flowers 
are bell-slinped, dusky on the outside and 
purplish within. The fruit has a nauseous 
sweet taste, and is full of small kidney¬ 
shaped seeds. From it is extracted the 
medicine called Belladonna, which is a nar¬ 
cotic and diaphoretic. It is also employed 
by oculists to produce dilatation of the 
pupil, which it does on being dropped into 
the eye. It is said that the juice of this 
plant was mixed with the food with which 
the Scotch were bound to supply the Danes 
during a truce, and that they were so in¬ 
toxicated thereby, that Sweno’s army Avas 
in great part killed when asleep. 

A'TItOPH Y («, not; and trepho, I nourish : 
Gr .)j a disease in which the body, or some of 
its parts, not receiving necessary nutri¬ 
ment, insensibly wastes away. 

ATTACH'MENT ( attacker, to stick to: Fr.), 
in Law, a process issuing, in a summary 
way, from a court of record, against a person 
guilty of contempt of its rules.-— Foreign 
Attachment. Under the custom of the 
City of London, whenever process for debt, 
from the mayor or sheriff’s court, is re¬ 
turned nil, the plaintiff may attach the 
debt due by a third person to the defend¬ 
ant, to satisfy his claim. 

ATTACK' {attaque: Fr.), in the Military 
art, a general assault, or onset, made to gain 
a post, or any particular point. Every com¬ 
bat consists of attack and defence: the 
first is generally the most advantageous; 
and an experienced general chooses it, if 
possible, even in a defensive Avar. Those 
attacks are considered the best where all 
the forces can be directed in concert to¬ 
wards that point of the enemy which is the 
key of his position. 

ATTAIN'DER (teindre , to stain: Fr.), the 
penalty by which the estate and life of a trai¬ 
tor or other convicted person are forfeited. 
It is the immediate inseparable consequence 
of sentence of death. When that sentence is 
passed, the person is said to be attaint (at- 
tinctus , Lat), and in law he is considered as 
already dead (civilitcr mortuus). Abill of at¬ 


tainder is a bill brought into parliament for 
attainting persons convicted of high trea¬ 
son. A person attainted of high treason 
forfeits all his lands, tenements, and here¬ 
ditaments ; his blood is corrupted, and he 
and his posterity are rendered base ; and 
this corruption of blood cannot be taken 
off but by act of parliament. Attainders 
may be reversed or falsified (i.e. proven 
to be false) by writ of error, or by plea. 

ATTAINT' ( atteinte, a damage: Fr.), in 
the Veterinary art, is a diseased limb, pro¬ 
ceeding from a bloAV. 

ATTEN'TION (attentio, from attendo, I 
take heed: Lat.), the word of command 
given in the British army, preparatory to 
any particular exercise or direction. 

ATTEN'UANTS ( attenuo, I make thin s 
Lat.), medicines which dilute the blood., 

AT'TIO ( Aitilcos, Athenian : Gr.), in Arclii- 
tecture, a sort of building in which there 
is no roof or covering to be seen, as Avas 

usual in the houses of the Athenians.- 

The Attic, or Attic story, is the upper 

story of a house.-The Attic ease is a 

peculiar kind of bage employed chiefly in 
the Doric and Ionic orders. 

ATTICISM ( attilcismos: Gr.), a concise 
and elegant form of expression, such as a 
polished Athenian might be expected to use. 
The brilliant style of the Attic writers Avas 
greatly admired by the Romans. 

ATTI'RE ( attirail, apparatus: Fr.), in 
Heraldry, a term designating the horns of 
stags and similar animals in blazoning coats 
of arms. 

ATTOL'LENS ( attollo, I raise up: Lat.), 
in Anatomy, an epithet applied to certain 
muscles, otherwise called levatores and ele- 
vatores. 

ATTOR'NEY ( attomatas, a person set In 
place of another: Mod. Lat.), one who is ap¬ 
pointed by another to do a thing in his 
absence. An attorney-at-law is one Avdio 
acts in the courts of law. No attorney can 
practise in any court, unless he has been 
admitted and sivorn an attorney of that par¬ 
ticular court. He must have served under 
articleaof clerkship, in the office of another 
attorney, and must pass a public examina¬ 
tion. As an officer of the court in which 
lie is admitted, an attorney enjoys several 
privileges, and is liable, on the other hand, J 
to the censure and correction of the judges, j 
——A private attorney acts upon particular I 
occasions, and is authorized by a letter of 
attorney, Avhich gives him full power to act. 

ATTOR'NEY-GEN'ERAL, the chief law 
officer of the crown, appointed by letters 
patent. The office is a very important one, 
and the duties numerous and onerous. The 
holder conducts all suits and prosecutions I 
in l’espect to the public revenue, exhibits I 
informations against persons Avho disturb j 
or endanger the state, appears on behalf of 
the croAvn in all legal proceedings Avhere 
the interests of the crown come into ques- i 
tion, and, in conjunction Avith the solicitor 
general, ad visos the goA T erument upon legal 
points. The chief lawyer of the day is 
usually selected for the post, and he is 
almost invariably knighted on receiving 
the appointment. Upon a vacancy occur¬ 
ring in the chancellorship, or any of the 






















59 


Htterarn Evcas'tmu 


chief judgeships, it is the custom to make 
him an offer of the place. Upon a change 
of ministry he resigns office. His income 
from official and general business trans¬ 
acted by him usually exceeds 20,000f. a year. 

ATTRACTION ( uttrachio, from attratio, I 
draw to : Lot.), that property of bodies by 
i which they mutually tend towards each 
i other; it varies according to the nature of 
the bodies attracted, and the circumstances 
under which this attraction takes place. All 
! bodies are supposed to consist of very 
small undecomposable particles named 
I atoms, which form groups termed mole- 

■ cules. The immanent forces of atoms, lead- 
! ing to the formation of molecules, are 
; named atomic forces; molecules though 

chemically decomposable are incapable of 
decomposition by any mechanical force 
whatever ; and, therefore, in a mechanical 
I point of view, the molecule may be regarded 
as the fundamental element of bodies. 
Molecules are kept at certain distances 
apart, by a force called molecular force, 
j which exhibits itself in the form of attrac- 
; tion (frequently called the attraction of 
cohesion) when the space between the 
molecules is increased, but in the form of 
repulsion when such space is lessened. 
[See Gravitation], 

ATTRIBUTES ( attribuo , I assign to : 
Lat.), in Logic, are the predicates of any 
subject, or what may be affirmed or de¬ 
nied of anything.- Attributes, in 

Painting and Sculpture, are symbols added 
to a figure or group, which are characteris¬ 
tic of the principal subject. Thus the eagle 
is an attribute of Jupiter; a peacock of 
Juno; a caduceus of Mercury; a club of 
Hercules, &c. 

ATTRITION (attritus, a rubbing against: 
Lat.), the rubbing or striking of bodies one 
against another, so as to throw off some of 

their superficial particles.- Attrition, in 

Roman Catholic Theology, an imperfect 
kind of sorrow, which, with confession to 
a priest, is considered to be a sufficient 
means of obtaining pardon for sin. 

AUCTION ( audio, an increase: Lat.), a 
public sale of goods to the highest bidder. 
A bidder at an auction, under the usual 
conditions, may retract his bidding any 
time before the hammer is down, but the 
fall of the hammer indicates the acceptance 
of his offer by the auctioneer on the part of 
the seller, and both parties are then bound. 

AU'CUBA JAPON'ICA, an evergreen 

■ shrub, nat. ord. Cornacece, much cultivated 
in England, where we have hitherto had 
only the variety with spotted leaves, and 
only female plants. Mr. Fortune has lately 
sent male plants from Japan, so that we 

i shall now have the shrubs adorned during 
winter and spring with bunches of red 
berries. 

AUCUPA'TION (aucupatio: Lat), fowl¬ 
ing, or the art of bird-catching. 

AU'DIENCE ( audientia , from audio, I 
hear: Lat.), the ceremonious admission of 
ambassadors or other public ministers to 
the presence of the sovereign, for the pur¬ 
pose of presenting his credentials, taking 
j leave, &c. In England audience is given 
to embassadors in the presence-chamber, 


[AUGUST 


and to envoys and residents in a gallery, 
closet, or any place where the sovereign 

happens to be.- Audience is also the 

name of an ecclesiastical court, held by the 
archbishop of Canterbury. It originated 
in the extrajudicial hearing of causes by 
the archbishop at his own palace. 

AU'DIT {audio, I hear: Lat.), a regular 
examination of accounts by officers ap¬ 
pointed for that purpose. 

AU'DITOR (a hearer: Lat), an officer ap¬ 
pointed to examine accounts. 

AUDITO'RIUS MEATUS (the auditory 
passage: Lat), the passage or entrance into 
the ear, conveying the air to the auditory 
nerve. 

AU'DITORY NERVES, the seventh pair 
of nerves arising from the Medulla oblon¬ 
gata, and distributed to the car, tongue, &c. 

AUGETT'E (a dim. of auge, a trough: 
Ft.), in Fortification, the wooden pipe 
which contains the powder by which a mine 
is fired. 

AU'GITE (augt, radiance: (?/•.), a mineral 
of which there are many varieties, differ¬ 
ing both in form and colour. It is supposed 
to be essentially the same as Hornblende, 
and that the difference of its external ap¬ 
pearance arises from its having cooled more 
rapidly. Different names have been applied 
to some of its most remarkable varieties; 
it is Diopside when in greenish-white tran¬ 
sparent crystals ; Sahlite, when it is in im¬ 
perfectly prismatic and foliated masses; 
and Coecolite, when in small, slightly-coher¬ 
ing grains. It is one of those few mineral 
substances, the composition of which may 
be imitated by the artificial mixture of its 
constituents, and subjecting them to fu¬ 
sion. More than half of it consists of si¬ 
lica; its other component parts are lime, 
magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron. It 
is common in basaltic and volcanic rocks. 

AUGMENTATION ( augmen,?a\ increase : 
Lat), in Heraldry, a particular mark of 
honour generally borne either on the es¬ 
cutcheon or a canton ; as argent, a hand 
gules, borne by every baronet who cannot 
claim higher honour. 

AU'GUR (Lat.), an officer among the Ro¬ 
mans, appointed to ascertain the will of the 
gods by the interpretation of signs and 
omens, for the guidance of the state or in¬ 
dividuals. The augurs bore a staff or wand 
as the ensign of their authority, and their 
dignity was so much respected, that they 
were never deposed, nor were any substi¬ 
tuted in their places when they were con¬ 
victed of the most enormous crimes. There 
was a college of augurs, which, from b.c.300 
to Sylla’s time, consisted of nine. In his 
dictatorship they were increased to fifteen. 
Julius Crnsar added another one. 

AU'GURY ( augurium: Lat.), a species of 
divination, or the art of foretelling events, 
practised by the ancients. Auguries origin¬ 
ally differed from auspices, inasmuch as the 
latter were limited to the omens afforded by 
birds, but in process of time they were ex¬ 
tended to all omens. 

AU'GUST, the eighth month of our year, 
containing thirty-one days. It was dedi¬ 
cated to the honour of Augustus Ciesar, 
because, being in the same month (beforo 

























augustan] djc gxttnttfic !UlJJ 60 


called Sextilis, or the sixth from March) 
created consul, he thrice triumphed in 
Rome, subjugated Egypt to the Roman 
sway, and put an end to the civil wars. 

AUGUSTAN denotes something relating 
to the emperor Augustus; as , Augustan age, 
A ugustan era, &c. 

AUGUS'TINES, a religious order, esta¬ 
blished in the llth century, and called 
after the communities which had been es¬ 
tablished by St. Augustine, but which had 
long ceased to exist. They were commonly 
called Austin friars, and, before the Refor¬ 
mation, had thirty-two houses in England. 
There are nuns of this order, who, at Paris, 
are known by the name of the religious 
women of St. Genevieve, and their abbess is 
the chief of the order. They are clothed in 
black. 

AUK, the popular name of some sea 
birds, placed by naturalists in different 
genera. All have strong bills and webbed 
feet. The little auk ( Mergulus melano- 
leucos ) is only a winter visitor to Britain, 
and chiefly frequents the Orkneys and Shet- 
lands. The great auk (A lea impennis) has 
become extremely rare, and perhaps it may 
be extinct. The wings are so short that the 
bird cannot fly, but they are of great ser¬ 
vice in diving for fish. The razor-bill is 
also an alca. 

AU'LIC (because it followed the empe¬ 
ror’s aula, or court), an epithet given to 
certain officers in the old German empire, 
who composed a court which decided, in 
most cases, without appeal. This court, 
which was proverbial for the slow adminis¬ 
tration of justice, had not only concurrent 
jurisdiction with the court of the imperial 
chamber, but, in many cases, exclusive 
jurisdiction. The right of appeal, possessed 
by the estates, existed also in regard to the 
judicial decisions of the aulic court. 

AURE'LIA, or Chrysalis, the name given 
to the form which lepidopterous insects 
assume between the caterpillar and the 
winged condition. 

AURE'OLA {aureolus, a dim. of aureus, 
golden : Lat.), in its original signification, 
denoted a jewel which was proposed as a 
reward of victory in some public dispute. 
Ifence the Roman schoolmen applied it to 
the reward bestowed on martyrs, virgins, 
&c., on account of their works of superero¬ 
gation. Painters use it to signify the glory 
which in old pictures is represented as sur¬ 
rounding the whole body, the nimbusbeing 
that placed round the head. The aureole was 
only given to the Father, Son, and Virgin. 

AU'REUS (golden : Lat.), a Roman gold 
coin, worth 25 denarii, or 100 sestertii; and 
from 17s. 8id. to 21s. lid., according to the 
relative values of gold and silver. 

AU'RICLE ( auricula, a dim. of auris, the 
ear: Lat.), in Anatomy, that part of the 
ear which is prominent from the head, 
called by many authors Auris externa— Au¬ 
ricles of the heart, two cavities in the 
mammalian heart, placed above the two 
cavities called ventricles. The auricles are 
in communication with the ventricles, but 
not with each other. The right auricle re¬ 
ceives the blood after it has been distri¬ 
buted through the body and been collected 


by the veins. Thence it passes into the 
right ventricle, which propels it by the 
pulmonary arteries to the lungs, where it 
is oxygenated. Collected by the pulmonary 
veins, it is conveyed to the left ventricle, 
by the contraction of which it is sent along 
the main arterial trunk, called the Aorta, 
and by its branches is distributed through 
the veins, and thus the circuit is com¬ 
pleted. The auricles dilate and contract 
together; the ventricles also dilate and 
contract together, but these operations are 
performed alternately with those of the au¬ 
ricles. These successive contractions and 
dilatations make the pulsations of the 
heart, the contraction being called systole, 
and the dilatation diastole. 

AURIC'UL A (same deriv.), a garden flower 
of which there are many cultivated va¬ 
rieties, all derived from the yellow Primula' 
Auricula of the Swiss Alps. 

AURIO'ULAR CONFES'SION (same dc. 
riv.), a mode of confession among Roman 
Catholics. In fulfilment of the duty of 
confessing our sins * to one another,’ en¬ 
joined by Christ, it became the custom in 
the early church to make public confession 
of sins. Certain inconveniences, however, 
at length arose from the practice, which in¬ 
duced Leo the Great, in the fifth century, 
to recommend private confession to a priest 
in certain cases. But the obligation of au¬ 
ricular confession was not imposed until 
the fourth council of Lateran, in 1215. 

AUIII'GA (a charioteer: Lat.), or the 
Wagoner, in Astronomy, a constellation 
of the northern hemisphere, containing 
about 261 stars. 

AURISCAL'PIUM ( Lat.: from auris, the 
ear; and scalpo, I scrape), a surgical instru¬ 
ment employed to operate on the ear. 

AURO'RA (the goddess of the morning: 
Lat.), the morning twilight, or that faint 
light which appears in the morning when 
the sun is within 18° of the horizon. 

AURO'RA BOREA'LIS, in Meteorology, 
the northern lights, a kind of meteor appear¬ 
ing in the northern part of the heavens, 
most frequent and most brilliant during the 
winter solstice. We often see in the north, 
near the horizon, usually a short time after j 
sunset, a dark segment of a circle, sur¬ 
rounded by a brilliant arch of white or fiery 
light; and this arch is often separated into 
several concentric arches, leaving the dark I 
segment visible between them. From these i 
arches, and from the dark segment itself, in 
high latitudes, columns of light, of the 
most variegated and beautiful colours, 
shoot up towards the zenith, and some¬ 
times masses like sheaves of light are 
scattered in all directions. In the Shetland 
Islands, the merry dancers, as they are 
there called, are the constant attendants of 
clear evenings, and cheerers of the long 
winter nights. In still more northern coun¬ 
tries, as Norway, Lapland, and Siberia, they 
greatly enliven the snowy landscapes. They 
commonly appear at twilight, near the hori¬ 
zon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow; 
sometimes continuing in that state for se¬ 
veral hours, without any sensible motion; 
after which they break out into streams of 
stronger light, spreading into columns, 














61 


Httcrarj) Creagurt). 


and altering slowly into a thousand dif¬ 
ferent shapes, varying their colours from 
all the tints of yellow to the obscurest 
russet. They often cover the whole hemi¬ 
sphere, and then make the most splendid 
appearance. Their motions, at all these 
times, are amazingly quick; and they as¬ 
tonish the spectator with the rapid change 
of their form. They break out in places 
where none were seen before, skimming 
briskly along the heavens, an dare suddenly 
extinguished, leaving behind them a uni¬ 
form dusky track. This is again illumined in 
the same manner, and as suddenly left a dull 
blank. In certain nights, they assume the 
appearance of vast columns, on one side of 
the deepest yellow, on the other declining 
away till they become undistinguished from 
the sky. They have generally a strong tre¬ 
mulous motion, which continues till the 
whole vanishes. During the winters of | 
1837 and 1838, the Aurora Borealis was 
several times witnessed in England; but 
we, who only see the extremities of this 
northern phenomenon, have but a faint 
idea of its grandeur or its motions. 
Various theories have existed respect¬ 
ing its cause: but little doubt is now 
entertained of its being occasioned by 
the passage of electricity through the 
upper regions of the atmosphere, where it 
is highly rarefied; its appearance, in fact, 
exactly resembling the effects of ordinary 
electricity when passing through rarefied 
air. There is the same variety of colour 
and intensity ; the same undulating motion 
and coruscations ; the streams exhibit the 
same diversity of character, being at one 
moment minutely divided in ramifications, 
and at another beaming forth in one body 
of light, or passing in distinct broad 
flashes; and when the rarefaction is con¬ 
siderable, various parts of the stream as¬ 
sume that peculiar glowing colour which 
occasionally appears in the atmosphere, and 
is regarded by the uninformed observer with 
astonishment and fear. 

AU'RUM FUL'MINANS (fulminating 
gold: Lat.), a precipitate of gold, so called 
because of the explosion which it causes 
when it is gently rubbed. [See Fulminat¬ 
ing Powder.] 

AU'RUM MUSI'VUM (mosaic gold: Lat.), 
an obsolete name for bisulphuret of tin, 
used by statuaries and painters for giving 
a gold colour to their figures. 

AU'RUM POTA'BILE (drinkable gold: 
Lat.), a preparation of gold not now used. 

AUS'PICES (Lat.: from avis, a bird ; and 
the obs. specio, I behold), a kind of sooth¬ 
saying among the Romans, originally de¬ 
pending on the flight or singing of birds. 
[See Augury.] 

AUS'TRAL (Auster, the south wind: Lat.), 
relating to the south : thus the six signs on 
the south side of the equinoctial are called 
austral signs. 

AUTO-DA-FE' (act of faith : Span.), the 
public infliction of the punishment of death, 
with many circumstances of solemnity and 
horror, upon those found guilty of heresy, 
in Spain and Portugal, at the instance of the 
Inquisition. Those who professed peni¬ 
tence were strangled before their bodies 


[avatar 


were burned ; the impenitent were burned 
alive. The last Spanish Auto-da-fe was cele¬ 
brated in 1680, at the wish of Charles II., 
who thought that a religious rite of this 
sort would draw down the favour of heaven 
upon him and his kingdom. Upwards of 
340,000 persons have suffered punishments 
of various kinds at Autos-da-fft, in Spain, 
from the first celebrated at Seville in 1481 

AU'TOGRAPH (autos, self; and grapho, 
I write: Gr.), an epithet applied to what¬ 
ever is in a person’s own handwriting, as 
an autograph letter. 

AUTOM'ATON (automatos, self-moving: 
from autos, self ; and mao, I attempt: Gr.), 
Every mechanical construction, which, by 
virtue of a latent intrinsic force not obvious 
to the sight, can carry on for a certain 
length of time such movements as resemble 
those of an animal, is an automaton. But 
the term is generally applied to the figure 
of an animal, to which motion is given by 
wheels, springs, and weights, internally 
placed, and causing apparent animation; as 
the mechanical chess-player and flute- 
player. The practice of making these auto¬ 
mata is much less frequent at present than 
formerly; ingenious mechanicians now find 
themselves better rewarded by directing 
their talents to the self-acting machinery 
of modern manufactures. As Dr. Ure ob¬ 
serves, ‘ it is in our modern cotton and 
flax-mills that automatic operations are 
displayed to most advantage; for there the 
elemental powers have been made to ani¬ 
mate millions of complex organs, infusing 
into forms of wood, iron, and brass, an in¬ 
telligent agency.’ Many of the needs of a 
steam engine are automatically supplied. 
Thus, the boiler is furnished with a self¬ 
feeding apparatus, and with a safety-valve, 
which corrects over pressure ; the heat of 
the fire can be regulated by a valve in the 
chimney acting automatically ; the engine 
itself removes the condensed water, &c. 

AU'TUMN ( auctumnus, from auctus, an 
increase: Lat., being the season of plenty), 
the third season in the year, which begins, 
in the northern hemisphere, on the day on 
which the sun enters Libra, that is, about 
the 22 ud of September, and continues while 
he is passing through the three signs, 
Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius. The ellip¬ 
tic form of the earth’s orbit prevents the 
four seasons from being equal in length; 
and the precession of the equinoxes causes 
them to vary a little from age to age. At 
present the length of autumn is 89 days, 16 
hours, and 47 minutes. It is the time which 
the sun takes to pass from the autumnal 
equinox to the winter solstice. 

AUTUM'NAL SIGNS, the three signs, 
Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, through 
which the sun passes during the season of 
autumn. 

AUXILIARY VERBS (auxilium, assist¬ 
ance : Lat.), in Grammar, are such verbs as 
help to form or conjugate others: as, in 
English, the verbs ‘ to have ’ and ‘ to be.’ 

AVA'TAR (descending: Sans.), a term 
used by the Hindoos to express an incarna¬ 
tion or descent of Vishnu, their deity, of 
which nine are believed to be past, and 
the tenth is yet to come. 





















Oje ^cicnttfic niitf 


G2 


avb] 


A'VE MARI'A (hail, Mary: Lot.), the 
Latin form of the angel Gabriel’s saluta- 
• tion of the Virgin Mary. [See Angelus 
Domini.] 

A'VENUE (Fr.; from advenio, I arrive at: 
Dot), in ornamental Gardening, a walk 
planted on each side with trees, leading to 
a house, garden-gate, wood, &c., and ge¬ 
nerally terminated by some distant object. 

- Avenue, in Portiiication, an opening 

or inlet into a fort, bastion, &c.-In Ar¬ 

chitecture, an approach to a palace or man¬ 
sion, by a long line of columns, arcades, 
statues, Sec. 

A'VERAGE, the result from division of 
several sums added together by the num¬ 
ber expressing how many of them have 
been added. Thus, if I buy a pound of any¬ 
thing for 5s., another pound of it for 4s. 
and a third pound for 3s., I have paid, on 
an average, 4s. per pound: that is, if each 
pound had cost 4s. the whole would have 
come to the same sum ; and the average is 
formed by adding 5s., 4s., and 3s., which 
make 12s., and dividing by 3, the number 
of pounds, which gives 4s. The method of 
averages is a potent instrument of research 
which has come into use only of late years. 
It has been applied to physical phenomena 
as well as to the social and moral conditions 
of man, and has contributed greatly to the 
extension and accuracy of our knowledge. 
General Average, a term used among 
merchants and ship-owners, to denote the 
quota or proportion which each merchant or 
proprietor in the ship or lading is adjudged, 
upon a reasonable estimate, to contribute 
for any damage, loss, or necessary expense 
which has been incurred by any one for the 
good of all. 

A'VIARY ( aviarium from avis, a lord: 
Lot.), a place set apart for feeding and pro¬ 
pagating birds. 

A'VOIIIDUPOI'S ( avoir da voids, to have 
weight: Fr., because employed in weighing 
heavy goods), a weight used in England, the 
pound being sixteen ounces. 

AWARD', in Law, the judgment of an 
arbitrator, or of one who is not appointed by 
the law, but is chosen by the parties them¬ 
selves for terminating their difference. 

AWEIGH', a sea term, denoting that the 
anchor is just drawn up, and hangs perpen¬ 
dicularly. 

AWL'WORT, the popular name of the 
Subularia aquatica ; a British plant belong- 
. ing to the order Cniciferce, so called from its 
awl-shaped leaves, which grow in clusters 
round the root. It expands its white flowers 
under water. 

AWN, a slender sharp process issuing 
from the glume or chaff in corn and grasses : 
the beard. 

AX'E-STONE, a mineral: a sub-species of 
nephrite, of an olive or grass-green colour. 
It is a tough silico-magnesian stone, found 
chiefly in New Zealand and the South Sea 
Isles, where it is used by the natives for 
axes and other instruments. 

AXIL'LA (. Lot .), in Anatomy, the arm-pit, 
or the cavity under the upper part of the 

arm. - Axilla, in Botany, the apex of 

the angle formed by a branch with the stem, 
or by a leaf with a branch. 


AX'INITE (axlne, an axe: Gr.), a mineral 
which sometimes occurs in lamellar masses, 
but commonly in axe-sliaped crystals. Its 
edges are thin and sharp, like an axe, 
whence its name. Its principal consti¬ 
tuents are silica, alumina, and lime. It 
has been found in Cornwall and Saxony. 

AX'IOM {axiurna, from axioo, I demand: 
Gr.), in Philosophy, is such a plain, self-evi¬ 
dent proposition, that it cannot be made 
more plain and evident by demonstration; 
because it is itself better known than any¬ 
thing that can be brought to prove it. By i 
axioms, called also maxims, are understood 
all common notions of the mind, whose evi¬ 
dence is so clear and forcible that a man 
cannot deny them without renouncing com¬ 
mon sense and natural reason. 

AX'IS ( Lai .), in Anatomy, the second.ver- 
tebra of the neck, so called from the head’s 
turning on it like an axis.-Axis, in As¬ 

tronomy, an imaginary right line supposed 
to pass through the earth, sun, planets, sa¬ 
tellites, &c„ and about which they perform 
their respective diurnal rotations. The axis 
of the earth is inclined to the ecliptic at an 
angle of nearly sixty-six degrees and a half. 
-Axis, in Geometry, a right line con¬ 
ceived to be drawn from the vertex of a 
figure to the middle of the base. It is so 
called because the figure, by revolving 
round this line, is conceived to genei - ate a 
solid. The axis of a circle is the same as 
the diameter.-Axis, in Mechanics, a cer¬ 

tain line about which a body may move, as 

the axis of a balance, &c.-Axis, in Optics, 

is that ray, among all others that are sent 
to a lens which passes through its centre. 

-Axis in Peritrociiio, or wheel and 

axle, one of the five mechanical powers or 
simple machines. It consists of a wheel 
( Feritrochius) fixed on an axis. The power 
is applied at the circumference of the wheel, 
and the weight is raised by a rope that is 
wound up cn the axis while the wheel turns 

round.-Axis of Oscillation is a line 

parallel to the horizon, passing through the 
centre about which a pendulum vibrates, 
and perpendicular to the plane in which it 
oscillates.-Axis of a vessel is an imagin¬ 

ary line passing through the middle of it, 
perpendicular to its base, and equally dis¬ 
tant from its sides. 

AX'OLOTL (Mex.), a fish-like animal liv¬ 
ing in the lake which is adjacent to the 
city of Mexico. It is furnished with both 
lungs and gills, and is therefore truly am¬ 
phibious. It is esteemed as an article of 
food. Naturalists place it in the family of 
Sirenidce. 

AYE-AYE (Chiromys Madagascariensis), 
the name of a Madagascar quadrumanous 
animal, allied to the lemurs, remarkable 
for the position of the mammae at the 
lowest part of the abdomen, andfor having 
the middle finger of each hand very long 
and slender, and terminated by a hooked 
claw. The large front teeth enable it to 
gnaw wood easily, and it is supposed that, 
in its native woods, it eats into trees, for 
the purpose of devouring the larvae of in¬ 
sects, which it extracts with its long Anger. 
But in captivity, in this country, it rejects 
all the insect larvae offered to it. Its habits 


























63 


Hitoun Evens'uru. 


ate nocturnal. Its curious structure has 
excited much interest and some contro¬ 
versy amongst zoologists. 

AZA'LBA ( azaleos, dry: Gr.), in Botany, 
a genus of plants with beautiful mono- 
petalous flowers, the chief species of which 
are flowering shrubs, inhabiting North 
America and China. They belong to the 
! nat. ord. Ericaceae, and are allied to the 
rhododendron. 

AZ'IMUTH ( assamt , a path : Arab.), in 
Astronomy, an arc of the horizon inter- 
j cepted between the meridian of the place 
and the vertical circle passing through the 
centre of a celestial object.— —Magnetical 
Azimuth is an arc of the horizon contained 
between the sun’s azimuth circle and the 

magnetic meridian.- Azimuth Circles, 

or vertical circles, imaginary great circles 
passing through the zenith and nadir, and 
cutting the horizon at right angles. The 
altitudes of the heavenly bodies are mea¬ 
sured on these circles.- Azimuth Com¬ 

pass, an instrument for finding, in a more 
accurate manner than by the common sea 
compass, the magnetical amplitude of the 
sun or stars. 

AZO'TE (a, not; and zbe, life: Gr.), one 


[babyroussa 


of the constituents of atmospheric air, 
otherwise Nitrogen, which see. 

A'ZUItE ( azzurro: Ital.), the blue colour of 
the sky. Among Painters, this word ori¬ 
ginally signified lapis lazuli, and the blue 
colour prepared from it. At present the 
latter is called ultramarine; and the blue 
glass made from the earth of cobalt and 
other vitrifiable matters, which, when in 
masses, is called smalt, is, in the state of 
flue powder, known by the name of azure. 
Azure, being employed to colour starch, is 
also called starch-blue. - Azure, in He¬ 

raldry, the blue colour in the arms of any 
person below the rank of a baron. In the 
escutcheon of a nobleman it is called sap¬ 
phire; and in that of a sovereign prince, 
Jupiter. In engraving, this colour is ex¬ 
pressed by lines or strokes drawn horizon¬ 
tally. 

A'ZYMA ( azumos: from a, not; and zume, 
leaven: Gr.), the feast of unleavened bread 
among the Jews. 

A'ZYMITES (same deriv.), in Church His¬ 
tory, Christians who administer the eucha- 
rist with unleavened bread. This appellation 
was given to the Latin by the Greek church, 
and also to the Armenians and Maronites. 


B 


B, the second letter and first consonant 
in all European and most other alphabets, 
is formed by a quick emission of the 
breath, and a sudden opening of the lips ; 
it is therefore called a labial, and its pro¬ 
nunciation differs but slightly from p and 
v. Among the Romans, it was used as an 
abbreviation, in inscriptions, for Baccho, 
&c.; B.B. for bene bene, that is optime (best); 
B.P. benefactum (done under favourable 
auspices), affixed to decrees, &e. We use it 
for Bachelor, as B.A. Bachelor of Arts, B.D. 
Bachelor of Divinity; for before, as B.C. Be¬ 
fore Christ; for Bath, as C.B. Companion of 
the Bath ; G.C.B. Grand Cross of the Bath ; 
for bene, as N.B. nota bene (mark well), &c. B, 
as a numeral among the Romans, stood for 
300, and, with a dash over it, for 3000. B, in 
the ecclesiastical calendar, is one of the do¬ 
minical letters, and in Music is the seventh 
note in the gamut. 

| BA'AL, an idol among the ancient Phoe¬ 
nicians and Carthaginians, worshipped 
chiefly at Tyre; supposed to represent the 
sun, and to be the same as the Bel or Belus 
of the Greeks. The word signifies lord or 
commander ; the character of the idol was 
varied by different nations and at different 
times. Of the manner in which Baal was 
worshipped we have only imperfect and con- 
tradictory statements; but we are informed 
in the Bible that human victims were among 
the sacrifices offered to him. 

BABOO'N ( babouin: Fr.), the popular 
name of the members of the genera Cyno- 
cephalus, and Papio, apes with projecting 

i ridges above .the eyes, long and truncate 


muzzle, cheek pouches, Iscliiatic callosities, 
and generally no tail. They are the ugliest 
of the tribe, and have fierce and brutal dis¬ 
positions, which render them tafueable with 
great difficulty. They are vegetable feeders. 
They herd together in troops, and when they 
are living near cultivated ground, they 
make predatory incursions at night upon it. 
Their limbs are strong, the face dog-like, 
and the teeth of the same number and form 
as in man. The common baboon (C. papio) 
is an inhabitant of the Guinea coast. The 
Derrias {C. liamadryas) lives in the moun¬ 
tains of Arabia and Abyssinia, and its figure 
in a sitting posture frequently appears j 
upon the temples and tombs of Egypt. It 
was dedicated to Thoth and the moon, and 
appears as the second amongst the four 
gods of death. The chacma «7. porcarius) is 
a native of South Africa, and is well known . 
to the people of Cape Town. The Mandrill 
(Papio mormon) is the largest species. 

BABYLON'ICA, in Antiquity, a species of 
rich weaving, so called from the city of 
Babylon, where the art of weaving hang- | 
ings with a variety of colours was first i 
invented. 

BABYLON'ICS, in Literary History, a 1 
fragment of the ancient history of the 
world, ending at 267 years before Christ; 
and composed by Berosus, a priest of Baby¬ 
lon, about the time of Alexander. 

BABYROUS'SA, the Indian hog. This 
quadruped,,the Babirussa Alfurus of natu¬ 
ralists, belongs to the boar tribe. It is a 
native of the Indian Archipelago, and is re¬ 
markable for the great development of tue 

































bacca] ^rtcnttfic nntf 64 

upper canine teetli, which curl upwards, 
bending like horns, and almost touching 
the forehead. 

BACCA ( Lat .), in Botany, the berry, a 
succulent fruit, such as that of the currant 
and gooseberry, in which the calyx adheres 
to the ovary, and the parietal placentas 
when the fruit is ripe form a pulpy mass, 
in which the seeds lie. 

BACCALAU'REAT (probably from bacc.is 
laureis donatus, presented with laurel 
berries: Lat., on account of the custom 
among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and 
the modern Italians, of crowning distin¬ 
guished persons with laurel), the first and 
lowest degree in continental universities, 
equivalent to the degree of bachelor of arts 
with us. 

BACCHANA'LIA (from Bacchus), feasts 
celebrated in honour of Bacchus by the 
ancient Greeks and Romans. Their times 
of celebration were spring and autumn, the 
former in the city, and the latter in the 
fields. The celebrants personified Silenus, 
Pan,fauns, satyrs, &c.; and in this manner 
appeared in public, acting frantically, and 
crying out Evoe Bacche l or To Bacche t 

BAOCIF'EROUS (bacca, a berry; and 
fero, I bear : Lat.), a term applied to berry- 
bearing plants. [See Bacca.] 

BACH'ELOR [see Baccalaureat]. Con¬ 
nected with knighthood, it has been derived 
from the bacillus, or staff with which 
knights were usually invested; or from bas 
chevaliers, an inferior kind of knights. In 
old French, the word signifies a young man, 
as bachalette, a young woman; in its primi¬ 
tive sense, meaning one who has not been 

married.- Bachelor, in the Universities, 

one who has attained the first degree in the 
liberal arts and sciences in the particular 
study to which he devotes himself. At 
Oxford a student must have resided twelve 
terms, at Cambridge nine, before he 
can take the degree of Bachelor of Arts. 

-Bachelor, an ancient denomination 

of knighthood, given to such as had not a 
sufficient number of vassals to carry their 
banners, to such knights-bannerets as were 
not of age to display their own banner, to 
young cavaliers little more than initiated to 
arms, and, in a very honourable sense, to 
him who had overcome his antagonist in 

the tournament.- Knights Bachelors 

the lowest rank of knights, whose titles are 
not hereditary. These are the knights of 
modern days. 

BACK, a word used in various nautical 
phrases; as to ‘back an anchor,’to ‘back 
the sails,’ to ‘back astern,’ &c.; meaning 
to carry out a small anchor to support the 
larger one—to arrange the sails for the ship 
to move back, in consequence of the tide 
favouring her—to manage the oars in a way 
contrary to the usual one, to move a boat 
stern foremost, &c. The word back has 
also various figurative as well as technical 
applications. 

BACKGAM'MON (bach, little; and cam- 
inon, a battle : Welsh), an ingenious game 
played by two persons with the help of dice, 
on a board or table divided into parts, on 
which are twenty-four black and white 
6paces called points. 

BACK'PAINTING, the method of paint¬ 
ing mezzotinto prints pasted on glass with 
oil colours. 

BACK'STAFF, an instrument used before 
the invention of the quadrant and sextant, 
for taking the sun’s altitude at sea; it had 
this name because the back of the observer 
was turned towards the sun. 

BACK'STAYS, the ropes or stays which 
extend from the topmast heads to both 
sides of a ship, to assist the shrouds in sup¬ 
porting the masts, when strained by a 
weight of sail, and to prevent them from 
giving way and falling overboard. 

BAC'ULITES ( baculum, a stick : Lat.), a 
genus of fossil shells of a straight form, 
allied to the ammonites. It is so abundant 
in the chalk of Normandy, that the name 
of baculite limestone has been given to it. 

BADGE, an exterior ornament of a coat 
of arms, originally worn by the retainers 
or attendants of the nobility. It fell into 

disuse in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.- 

In Naval Architecture, an ornament placed 
on the outside of ships near the stern, con¬ 
taining either a window or the representa¬ 
tion of one. 

BAD'GER, the Meles taxus of naturalists, 
an animal which inhabits the north of Eu¬ 
rope and Asia, and is found in many parts 
of England. It is of a clumsy make, with 
short thick legs, and long claws on the 
fore-feet; is very indolentand sleepy ; feeds 
on insects, roots, earth-nuts, or berries; 
burrows during winter, hunts by night, 
and lies concealed by day. 

BAG'GAGE ( Fr .), in Military affairs, the 
clothes, tents, utensils of different sorts, 
provisions, and other necessaries belonging 
to an army. 

BAG'NIO ( bagno, a bath : Ital.), a house 
with conveniences for bathing and other¬ 
wise cleansing the body.-In Turkey, it 

is the name of prisons where slaves are 
kept. 

BAG'PIPE, a musical wind instrument 
used chiefly in Scotland and Ireland. It is 
of high antiquity, and consists of two parts, 
namely, a leathern bag and three pipes. 
The bag of the Irish pipes is filled with 
wind by a bellows, that of the Scotch pipes 
by the mouth : and each is compressed with 
the arm, so as to sound the pipes. There are 
three of the latter; two of them, called the 
great and little drones, have but one sound 
each ; the third is something like an oboe, 
and has eight finger-holes. Sometimes there 
are other pipes. 

BAIL ( bailler , to deliver up : Old Fr.), in 
Law, sureties given for the appearance, 
when required, of a person on his being set 
free from custody. In civil cases, bail is of 
two kinds, above and below: bail below, or 
common bail, is bail to the sheriff; and 
bail above, or special bail, is bail to the ac¬ 
tion. When a person is arrested on affidavit 
that he is indebted to the plaintiff 201. or 
upwards, and that there is probable cause 
for believing he intends to leave the king¬ 
dom unless discharged by a judge’s order, 
he cannot regain his liberty if he do not 
execute a bail-bond to the sheriff, that he 
will, at a period mentioned in the bond, pun 
in special bail. At this period he must either 













65 Htterarg 


put in special bail, consisting of two or 
more persons, who undertake that if he lose 
the verdict he shall pay the amount awarded 
against him, or render himself to custody, 
or that they will do it for him; or he must 
return himself into custody. In cases of 
felony, hail is taken by the magistrates 
where there is a presumption, from the 
nature of the case and the character of the 
person, that he will not abscond from the 

kingdom.- To admit to bail is to release 

upon security given by bondsmen.- To 

justify bail, is to prove by the oath of the 
person that he is worth the sum for which 
he is surety beyond his debts. 

BAILEE' (same deriv.), in Law, the per¬ 
son to whom the goods of another (the 
bailor) are delivered for some purpose on 
the express or implied contract that they 
shall be delivered to some third person or 
redelivered to the bailor. The case of a car¬ 
rier to whom goods are entrusted to be 
conveyed to some third party is a case of 
bailment. The sender of the goods is the 
bailor and the carrier is the bailee. 

BAI'LIFF (same deriv.), a subordinate 
magistrate or officer appointed within a 
particular province or district: as the bailiff 
of hundred, liberty, &c. Sheriffs’ bailiffs 
are officers appointed by the sheriff to exe¬ 
cute writs. These, being bound in bond to 
the sheriff for the due execution of their 
office, are called bound bailiffs, vulgarly 

bum-bailiffs.- Water Bailiff, an officer 

who searches ships, gathers toll for anchor¬ 
age, and arrests persons for debt upon the 
water. 

BAI'LIWICK (bailli, a bailiff: Fr.; and 
vicus, a village: Lat.), a liberty exempt from 
the power of the sheriff, in which district 
the lord exercises the office of sheriff, and 
appoints his own bailiff. A bailiwick is also 
the hundred, or district, through which the 
authority of a bailiff extends. 

BAIO'CO ( Ital .), a small coin in the Papal 
States, one hundred of which make a Ho¬ 
man ducat. 

BAI'RAM, a festival among the Turks, in 
imitation of the Christian Easter, cele¬ 
brated after the fast of Ramazan, when it 
is customary to send presents from one to 
another, and otherwise to express the joy 
felt on the occasion. 

BAIZE, a coarse woollen stuff, with along 
nap, sometimes frized on one side: it is 
without wale, being manufactured on a 
loom with two treadles, like flannel. 

BALZE'NA (phalaina, a whale : Gr.), a ge¬ 
nus of Whales, which includes the right- 
whale of sailors. 

RA'LANOE (perhaps from bilanx: bi, two; 
and lanx, the basin of a balance : Lat.), an 
instrument for weighing.commodities, con¬ 
sisting of a beam or lever suspended exactly 
in the middle, with a scale hung to each 
extremity, both scales being of precisely 
equal weight. Hence the term balance, in 
Mechanics, is understood to mean a pecu¬ 
liar application of that simple mechanical 
power called the lever, by which it is ren¬ 
dered usoful in determining the difference 
or equality of weights in heavy bodies, and 
consequently their masses or quantities of 
matter. The difference between the com¬ 


Ercatfurin [ballast 


mon scales and the steelyard consists in 
this, that in the former a larger power or 
more weight is used to estimate the weight 
of a heavier body ; in the latter the same 
power is employed, but applied at a varying 
distance from the fulcrum or fixed point. 

[See Lever.] - The hydrostatic balance is 

an instrument to determine the specific 

gravity of fluid and solid bodies.-The 

assay balance is used to ascertain the exact 
weight of the different metallic bodies of 
which an ore, &c., is composed.-In ac¬ 

counts, balance is the difference of two sums: 
hence, to pay a balance is to pay the differ¬ 
ence, and make the two accounts equal. 

-Balance, or Libra, in Astronomy, a 

sign in the zodiac which the sun enters at 

the autumnal equinox.- Balance, in 

Horology, that part of a watch which, by 
its inertia, regulates the beat, and produces 
equable motion. 

BALANCE OF POWER, the equipoise 
of nation and nation, an object of much 
solicitude amongst politicians, with a view 
to prevent any one nation becoming greatly 
stronger than, and domineering over, the 
others. 

BALANCE OF TRADE, in Commerce, 
the equality between the value of the com¬ 
modities bought of foreigners, and the 
value of the native productions exported. 
An opinion was long entertained that, when 
a nation imports to a greater extent than 
it exports, the balance of trade is against 
it—that is, that it loses by its trade; and vice 
versd. But this opinion is now proved to 
be utterly groundless. So far from an ex¬ 
cess of exports over imports being any cri¬ 
terion of an advantageous commerce, it is 
directly the reverse; for, were the value of 
the exports greater than the value of the 
imports, merchants would lose in every 
transaction with foreigners, and the trade 
with them would be speedily abandoned. 

BA'LAS RU'BY, in Mineralogy, a ruby of 
the bright red spinel kind. It is much less 
valuable than the oriental ruby, or red sap¬ 
phire. 

BAL'CONY ( balcone, a canopy: Hal.), in 
Architecture, a projection from the front of 
a house, surrounded by a balustrade or open 
gallery. In large buildings balconies are 
susceptible of considerable elegance of de¬ 
coration, and may be made highly orna¬ 
mental to the edifices to which they are 
Jit tflCllGtl 

BALDACHI'NO (a canopy: Ital), in Ar¬ 
chitecture, a kind of canopy erected over 
an altar. 

BALIS'TES (from ballista: Lat.) [See File 
Fish.] 

BALL ( Germ .), in Military affairs, compre¬ 
hends all sorts of bullets for fire-arms, from 
the cannon to the pistol. Balls for pistols 
and small arms are made of lead, but can¬ 
non-balls are formed of cast iron. 

BAL'LAD (ballata: Ital.), a short lyric 
composition, or tale in verse, of a simple 
and popular character. 

BAL'LAST (hallo, I cast : Gr.), in Naviga¬ 
tion, stones or other weighty articles placed 
in the hold of a vessel when she has no 
cargo on board, with the view of sinking 
her to the proper depth in the water In 
F 













ball-cock] (£f)c ^ctntttft'c antf og 

Railway Engineering, ballast signifies that 
part of tlic road which forms a Arm founda¬ 
tion for the rails and their sleepers. The 
best material for the purpose is broken 
stone. 

BALL'-COCK, a hollow globe of metal at¬ 
tached to the end of a lever, which turns the 
stop-cock of a cistern pipe by floating on 
the surface of the water, and thus regulates 
the supply. 

BAL'LET {Fr.), a dramatic entertain¬ 
ment, consisting of action and dancing 
only, invented by the Italians. 

BALLIS'TA, or BALLIS'TiE {Lat., from 
hallo, I throw : Gr.), a military engine used 
by the ancients, in battle, to throw stones, 
darts, and javelins. 

BALLIS'TICS (same deriv.), the art of 
using projectiles.-The Ballistic Pen¬ 

dulum is an apparatus for measuring the 
velocity of military projectiles, and the im¬ 
pulse of the explosion of powder. In the 
former case, it is a box full of clay, or a 
heavy block of wood, into which the can¬ 
non-ball is fired ; and the rate at which it 
vibrates gives, with easy calculations, the 
velocity at which the ball was moving. In 
the latter case, the gun to be experimented 
on is fixed to and forms part of the pen¬ 
dulum. When the ball is fired, the pres¬ 
sure produced by the gas generated by the 
explosion causes the pendulum to swing 
through a certain angle, and this being 
registered forms the basis of the calcu¬ 
lation. 

BALLOO'N (ballone, a large ball: Ital.), 
in a general sense, means any spherical 
hollow body; but it more particularly de¬ 
signates a globe made of silk, or other 
material, rendered air-tight, so that when 
filled with hydrogen gas, coal gas, or some 
other elastic fluid lighter than ordinary air, 
it will ascend into the atmosphere, and con¬ 
vey heavy bodies suspended to it. A car, 
supported by a network which extends over 
the balloon, sustains the aeronaut. A valve 
at the top allows the ga3 to escape when he 
wishes to descend; and throwing out a bal¬ 
last, consisting of sand, makes him ascend. 
There are two kinds of balloon: the fire- 
balloon, in which ordinary air, made lighter 
than the surrounding atmosphere by rare¬ 
faction produced with heat, is employed : 
and the gas-balloon, in which an air natu¬ 
rally lighter than that of the atmosphere is 
used. The principle on which a balloon 
rises in the air is that which makes a cork 
ascend in the water. The lightness of hy¬ 
drogen gas very soon suggested its employ¬ 
ment in the construction of a body speci¬ 
fically lighter than the atmosphere, and 
therefore calculated to ascend in it. Many 
aerial voyages have been effected, but aeros¬ 
tation has made little progress, and pro¬ 
bably will never be very successful. Of 
late, balloons have been made use of for 
scientific investigations in the upper re¬ 
gions of the atmosphere, and an ascent to 
the height of five miles above the earth’s 
surface has been effected. The largest 
balloon built in this country was con¬ 
structed for Mr. Glaisher’s ascents. It had 
a height of 69 feet and a diameter of 54, 
and it was capable of holding 95.000 cubic 

feet of gas.—A fire-balloon is inflated with 
rarefied air, by burning in the car a quantity 
of chopped straw, the heated air from which 
fills it. 

BAL'LOT ( ballotte, from balle, a ball : Fr.), 
the method of determining an election by ; 
means of small balls, black or white, &c., i 
put privately into a box. 

BALLOTA'DE ( balloter, to toss: Fr.), in 
Horsemanship, the leap of a horse between 
two pillars, or upon a straight line, so that, 
when his fore feet are in the air, he shows 
nothing but the shoes of his hind feet, 
without jerking out ; differing in that re¬ 
spect from the capriole. 

BALM (a contraction of balsam), in Bo¬ 
tany, the name of several aromatic plants. 

--Balm op Gilead, or Balsam of Mecca, 

the dried juice of a small tree or shrub 
growing in Syria, called Balsamodendron 
opobalsamum by botanists : nat. ord. Amij- 
ridace<B. It has a warm aromatic taste, and 
an exquisitely fragrant smell. It is highly 
esteemed by the Turks as an odoriferous 
unguent and cosmetic; but its scarcity is 
such that the genuine balsam is seldom ex¬ 
ported as an article of commerce. The 
American Balm of Gilead is the produce of 

a tree belonging to the same order.-The 

Balm of Gilead Fir is a coniferous tree, 
growing in Canada, the Abies balsameaoi 
botanists. 

BAL'SAM (balsamon: Gr.), an oily aro¬ 
matic, resinous, or liquid substance, flow¬ 
ing, either spontaneously or by means of 
incisions, from certain plants, and used in 
the cure of several kinds of wounds, dis¬ 
eases, &c. The Balsam of Tolu is the pro¬ 
duce of the Myrospermum toluiferum; the 
Balsam of Peru, of Myrospermum perui- 
ferum; the Balsam of Copaiva, of various 
species of Copaifera, all leguminous trees. 

-Factitious, or Artificial Balsams, 

are certain compositions, chiefly of bal¬ 
samic and healing ingredients, made by 
apothecaries in imitation of the native 
balsams. 

BA'LUSTER ( balustre: Fr.), often impro¬ 
perly written banister, in Architecture, a 
small turned column, usually introduced 
between piers, on the upper parts of large 
buildings, under windows, and on balco¬ 
nies, &o. 

BALTJSTRA'DE (same deriv.), a series or 
row of balusters, joined by a rail ; serving 
as well for rest to the elbows as for a fence 
or enclosure to balconies, altars, staircases, 

&c. 

BAMBOO'. All the species of bamboo, 
and they are numerous, belong to the fa¬ 
mily of grasses. Some of them grow to 
the height of sixty feet, and most of them 
are very useful to the inhabitants of tro¬ 
pical countries, on account of the number 
of purposes to which they can be applied. 
The stems are hollow, more or less flexible, 
and extremely tough. A group of bamboos 
waving in the breeze is one of the most 
graceful objects in nature. 

BANA'NA, the fruit of the Musa sapi- 
entum, a tall herbaceous plant, with broad 
sail-like leaves, growing in tropical coun¬ 
tries. Dampier compares it, when stripped 
of its integuments, to a large sausage, in 
























67 Ettmrg 

size and shape; and to fresh butter in win¬ 
ter, as to substance and colour. Its taste 
is luscious, and perhaps more resembles 
that of a pear than any other fruit. [See 
MUSACE2E.] 

BAND ( bande: Fr.), in Architecture, any 
flat, low member or moulding which is 
broad but not deep.-The Band op Pen¬ 

sioners, now the band of Gentlehen-at- 
Arms, which see. 

BAN'DAGE (same deriv.), in Surgery, a 
fillet, roller, or swathe, used in dressing and 
binding up wounds, restraining dangerous 
haemorrhages, and in joining fractured or 
dislocated bones. 

BANDAN'NA, a kind of calico-printing 
practised in India from time immemorial, 
by which white or bright-coloured spots are 
produced on a red or dark ground. By the 
joint resources of mechanical and chemical 
science, the European imitations have now 
far surpassed, in beauty and precision, the 
Oriental patterns. 

BANDIT'TI (outlaws: Ital), a term pecu¬ 
liarly denoting companies of armed robbers, 
formerly common in Italy and Prance; but 
sometimes also used, in a more general 
sense, for robbers, pirates, outlaws, or 
others, united for nefarious purposes. 

BANDOLEE'R (bandoulier i Fr.), a large 
leathern belt, thrown over the right shoul¬ 
der, and hanging under the left arm, worn 
by ancient musketeers, for sustaining their 
fire-arms and musket-charges. 

BANG, the name of a narcotic used in the 
East, made from the leaf of wild hemp. 

BA'NIANS ( banik , a merchant: Sans.), a 
caste of the Hindoos, whose profession is 
trade and merchandise; and, in India and 
Asia, they are the great factors and bankers, 
as the Jews often are in the West. They 
believe in the transmigration of souls, and 
not only abstain from eating the flesh of 
animals, but endeavour to release even the 
most noxious from the cruelty of others. 
They are mild in temper and honest in their 
dealings, and are so cautious of having 
commvmication with any but their own 
caste, that if one belonging to another na¬ 
tion or tribe has drunk out of or touched 
their cup, they break it. 

BA'NIAN-DAYS, a proverbial expression, 
imported from the Asiatic colonies, and 
used for a short or indifferent dinner, or 
days on which no animal food is eaten : in 
allusion to the Banians above described. 

BA'NIAN-TREE, one of the greatest 
wonders of the vegetable kingdom, the Ficus 
indica of botanists, a tree growing in India. 
Every branch shoots downward, and, strik¬ 
ing into the ground, takes root, and is 
then capable of becoming a distinct tree. 
One of them, the Cubbeer Burr, has 350 
stems, equal to large oaks, and more than 
3,000 smaller ones, covering space sufficient 
to shelter 7,000 persons. Its branches are 
crowded with families of monkeys, and 
with birds of every description, and also 
with enormous bats, all of which find lux¬ 
urious subsistence upon the rich scarlet figs 
that grow upon it. 

BANK (banco , a bench : Ital), in Com¬ 
merce, an establishment for the receiving 
of moneys and letting them out at interest. 


[banker 


It may likewise be defined, a place used as 
a common repository of the money of indi¬ 
viduals or of companies. The basis of all 
banking is the profitable use to which the 
banker or company can apply the capital 
which is deposited. The first bank was 
established at Venice, about 1157, and the 
name was given to it, in Italian, from the 
bench upon which the money-changers or 
bankers used to sit in their burses or 

Gxchan 

BANK'-NOTE, or BANK'-BILL, a promis¬ 
sory note, issued by a banking company, 
properly signed and countersigned, payable 
to the bearer in the current coin of the 
realm, on demand. 

BANK OP ENGLAND. In the fifth and 
sixth years of William and Mary, 1694 and 
1695, in consideration of a loan to govern¬ 
ment of 1,200,0001. at an interest of almost 
eight per cent., a company was incorporated 
by the name of the ‘ Governor and Com¬ 
pany of the Bank of England,’ with a restric¬ 
tion by which it was prevented from deal¬ 
ing in any other than money concerns. The 
loans to government ultimately amounted 
to 14,686,8001.; but one-fourth of this has 
since been paid off. The profits of the 
company arise from the interest received 
from government on the permanent debt, 
and on their annual advances on exchequer 
bills, &c.; from their allowance for receiving 
the contributions to loans, and for paying 
the dividends on the public funds; from 
dealing in bullion, and from their large dis¬ 
counts with a mere paper currency. The 
Bank receives about 200,0001. a year from 
government for managing the public debt, 
receiving taxes, &c. To this revenue must 
be added the profit derived from the use of 
a floating balance due to the public, and 
never less in amount than four millions 
sterling. The affairs of this company are 
in the hands of a governor, deputy-gover¬ 
nor, and twenty-four directors, eight of 
whom go out of office every year. The 
‘ Bank Parlour ’ is the room where the di¬ 
rectors meet the governor to discuss the 
affairs of the company. There are about 
900 persons employed in the establishment, 
and the sum paid in salaries is about 
210,0001. a year. A large amount of bullion 
is always kept in the vaults. This ranges 
in value from fourteen to seventeen millions 
sterling, and on the amount depends the 
rate of discount, i. e. the rate at which 
money is lent by the bank on bills of ex¬ 
change. When the reserve falls the rate of 
discount goes up. A peculiar paper is made 
for their notes, and the printing is executed 
in the bank. There is an ingenious machine 
for detecting light gold coin, which is sepa¬ 
rated from the pieces of full weight in the 
process of weighing. 

BANK'EIt, one who traffics in money, by 
receiving the current cash of individuals 
free of interest, or at a small interest, and 
negotiating with it, either in the discount 
of bills, or the advance of money on suffi¬ 
cient securities. The moneyed goldsmiths, 
in the reign of Charles II., first acquired 

this name.-The Romans had a similar 

profession, but its duties were much more 
extensive than those of bankers among us; 



























^cteuttftc anU 


68 


bankrupt] 


it united the functions of brokers, agents, 
bankers, and notaries, managing the ex¬ 
change, taking in money, assisting in buy¬ 
ing and selling, and drawing the writings 
necessary on all these occasions. 

BANK'RUPT (banco rotto, a broken bench: 
Ital.). It was a custom formerly observed, 
in some places, that the seat of the merchant 
■who was found unable to meet his liabilities 
should be broken : hence the name. In a 
general sense, a Bankrupt is a person who 
fails or breaks, so as to be unable to carry on 
his business or to pay his debts. The policy 
of the bankrupt law was to distribute all 
the debtor’s property among his creditors, 
and then to discharge him from all further 
liability in respect of their debts. This 
being regarded in the light of a privilege, 
was formerly allowed only in the case of 
traders, non-traders not being held entitled 
to a discharge from existing debts. The 
system under which the estates of non¬ 
trading debtors was wound up was called 
insolvency. The distinction between bank¬ 
ruptcy and insolvency was abolished in 
1861, and all persons, whether traders or 
not, may now be made bankrupt. In all 
cases, some act of bankruptcy must be 
committed before a creditor can render his 
debtor a bankrupt: and an act of bank¬ 
ruptcy is an act of such a nature as evinces 
an intention on the part of a debtor to de¬ 
prive his creditors of the security which 
they might have in the possession of his 
person or his property. The following are 
among the chief acts of bankruptcy, com¬ 
mon to traders and non-traders. 1. Depart¬ 
ing from the realm, or remaining abroad 
with intent to delay his creditors. 2. Mak¬ 
ing any fraudulent conveyance of his 
property. 

BANN, in the Feudal law, a solemn procla¬ 
mation or publication of anything. Hence 
the custom of publishing the banns be¬ 
fore marriage.-In Military affairs, a pro¬ 

clamation made in the army, by beat of 
drum, sound of trumpet, &c„ requiring the 
strict observance of discipline, the declar¬ 
ing a new officer, &c.-The word ban also 

means an edict of interdiction or pro¬ 
scription. Thus, to put a prince under 
the ban of the empire, was to divest him of 
his dignities, and to interdict all inter¬ 
course and all offices of humanity with 
the offender. 

BAN'NER ( bannilre: Fr.), a square flag, or 
the principal standard belonging to a prince 
or state. 

BAN'NERET (same cleriv.), an ancient 
order of knights or feudal lords, who, pos¬ 
sessing several large fees, had their own 
flag or banner. As the spirit of the feudal 
system declined, persons came to be created 
bannerets; and hence the institution must 
have become merely titular. The last knight 
of this description was Sir John Smith, on 
whom the honour was bestowed after the 
battle of Edgehill, for rescuing the standard 
of Charles I. On the day of engagement, 
the candidate presented his flag to the king 
or •general, who, cutting off the train or 
skirt, and making it a square, returned it 
to him. Hence bannerets are sometimes 
called knights of the square flag. 


BAN'NOCK, a kind of oat-cake, baked 
in the embers, or on a stone placed before j 
the fire : it is common in Scotland and thcj 
northern parts of England. 

BAN'QUETTE (a bench : Fr.), in Fortm-i 
cation, the elevation of earth behind a . 
parapet, on which the garrison of a fortress 
may stand, on the approach of an enemy, 1 
in order to fire upon him. 

BA'OBAB, the name of a tree growing in 
tropical Africa, the Adansonia digitata of J 
botanists, nat. order, Sterculiacece. It is re¬ 
markable for the thickness of the trunk; 
specimens having been found having a dia¬ 
meter of 30 feet. The tree, however, is not | 
high in proportion. The pulp of the fruit is j 
agreeably acid, and a cooling drink is pre¬ 
pared from it which is useful in fevers. 1 
Some specimens of this tree have been sup- ! 
posed to have an age of 5,000 years. The 
African tree was until lately the only 
species of the genus, but another species 
has been discovered in the north-western 
part of Australia. 

BAPTISM ( baptismos , from bap to, I dip: 
Gr.), a rite of the Christian religion, by 
which the members of the church are re¬ 
ceived into its communion. Almost all 
sects of Christians style baptism a sacra¬ 
ment, and consider its use as important; j 
but the manner in which it ought to be ! 
performed, and the effects to be derived 
from it, have been subjects of much con¬ 
troversy. 

BAPTISTERY ( baptisterion , from baptizo, 

I baptize : Gr.), with Ecclesiastical writers, 
a place in which the ceremony of bap¬ 
tism is performed. In the ancient church, 
it was one of the exedrce, or buildings dis¬ 
tinct from the church itself, and consisted 
of a porch or ante-room where the persons 
tobe baptized made their confession of faith, 
and an inner room •where the ceremony of 
baptism was performed. Thus it continued 
till the 6th century, when the font began 
to be taken into the church porch, and | 
afterwards into the church itself. 

BAPTISTS ( baptizo , I baptize: Gr.), a de- I 
nomination of Christians, who deny the I 
validity of infant baptism. In this point, 
they agree with the Anabaptists, with I 
whom, however, they are not to be con¬ 
founded. 

BAR ( barro: Fr.), the partition which 1 
separates the members of a court of justice 
from those who have to report or hear. It I 
is also applied to the benches where the i 
lawyers are seated, because anciently there I 
was a bar to separate the pleaders from the j 
attorneys and others. Hence those who arc 
called to the bar, or licensed to plead, are 
termed barristers, an appellation equivalent j 
to licentiate in other countries.-In He¬ 

raldry, an ordinary in form of a fesse, but j 

much smaller.-In Law, a plea of a defend- ! | 

ant, which is sufficient if true to destroy 

the plaintiff’s action.-In Music, a stroke » 

drawn perpendicularly across the five lines 
of the stave, the space between each two 
bars including a certain quantity or mea¬ 
sure of time.——B ar, a shoal often formed 
across the mouths of rivers. 

BARB {barba, a beard: Lot.), one of the 
points in the heads of arrows or fishing- 




















69 


Ettcniri> Crcagttrg, 


[barometer 


hooks, which prevent them from being 

drawn out easily.-The name of a horse 

of the Barbary breed, remarkable for its 
swiftness. 

BARBA ( Lat.), in Mammalogy, tha tuft 

of hair dependent from the lower jaw.- 

In Ornithology, the feathers which, in some 
species of birds, depend from the skin 
covering the gullet. 

BAR'BACAN, or BAR'BICAlsr, an outer 
defence to a city or castle, or a watch-tower 
for observing the enemy; also an aperture 
made in the wall of a fortress, through 
which to fire upon an enemy. 

BARBA'RIAN (barbaros: Gr.), a name 
given by the ancient Greeks and Romans 
to all who were not of their own country, 
or were not instructed in their language, 
manners, and customs. 

BAR'BARISM (barbarismos: Gr.), tn a 
general sense, a rudeness of language or 

behaviour.-In Grammar, an offence 

against the purity of style or language, 
or a mode of speaking or writing contrary 
to the true idiom of any particular lan¬ 
guage. 

BAR'BEL, a fresli-water fish, the Barbus 
vulgaris of naturalists, which takes its 
name from the processes termed barbels, or 
filamentary appendages about the mouth, 
of which it has four. It belongs to the 
carp family, and is therefore allied to the 
gudgeon, but is distinguished from that 
fish by the shortness of the under jaw, and 
by the possession of a strong serrated bony 
ray at the dorsal fin. It lies in holes near 
the banks, and feeds on testaceous animals, 
worms, &c. 

BAR'BERRY. [See Berberis.] 
BAR'BLES, or BARBS (barba, a beard : 
Lat.), in Farriery, the knots of superfluous 
flesh that grow in the channels of a horse’s 
mouth ; that is, in the intervals that sepa¬ 
rate the bars, and lie under the tongue. 

BARD ( jbardus: Lat.), the name given to 
individuals of semi-barbarous tribes, parti¬ 
cularly those belonging to the Celtic race, 
whose genius enabled them to describe 
events in elevated or measured language. 

BARGE, a boat of state and pleasure. 
Also, the name of a flat-bottomed vessel 
employed for carrying goods on anavigable 
river. 

BARIL'LA, the crude soda of commerce, 
formerly obtained by burning several spe¬ 
cies of fucus and shore plants, belonging 
chiefly to the genera Salsola and Salicornia 
and then melting the ashes in a small kiln 
Soda is now procured more cheaply from 
common salt. 

BA'RIUM (barns, heavy: Gr.), a metal so 
called by Sir Humphry Davy, the disco¬ 
verer; and obtained by the chemical de¬ 
composition of barytes. It has the colour 
and lustre of silver, but is soon tarnished 
by the oxygen of the air. It is malleable, 
and melts below a red heat It decomposes 
water. Its equivalent is 68 - 5. 

BARK (bergen, to cover: Ger.), that part 
of a tree which is external to the wood. 
When young, it is cellular, and similar to 
the pith. Afterwards, it is composed of 
both cellular and vascular tissue, the latter 
being next the wood, and called liber. On 


the outside of the liber is the cellular en¬ 
velope, and outside this is the outer cover¬ 
ing, or rough bark. It is observed, that 
trees stripped of their bark in the time of 
the sap, and suffered to die, afford heavier 
timber, more uniformly dense, stronger, 
and fitter for service than those which are 
cut down in their healthy state. 

BARK, PERU'VIAN. [See QUININE.] 
BAR'LEY, a valuable kind of grain, prin¬ 
cipally used in England in the state of malt 

for brewing.- Pearl Barley, or French 

Barley, the grain freed from the husk by a 
mill, and reduced to the size of small shot, 
all but the very heart of the grain being 

ground away.- Barleycorn, the least of 

our long measures, being the third part of 
an inch. 

BARM, or YEAST, the head, or working 
out of beer, which is used as a ferment to 
lighten bread. By the aid of the micro¬ 
scope it has been found that yeast is a col¬ 
lection of vegetable cells of very rapid 
growth, in fact a species of fungus. 

BAR'NACLE, or BER'NICLE GOOSE, a 
prettily-marked wild goose, which visits 
our islands in winter. 

BAR'N ACRES, the common name of a 
class of shell-bearing animals, balled Cirri- 
pedia, allied to the Crustacea. Some of the 
sessile species, called acorn-sliells, are com¬ 
mon on every shore rock washed by the 
sea. Examples of the stalked species are 
to be seen on the bottom of most ships 
that have been to sea. It was once com¬ 
monly supposed that these the true barna¬ 
cles produced the barnacle goose, whence 

their name.-In Farriery, an instrument 

composed of two branches joined at one 
end with a hinge, and put upon a horse’s 
nose, to confine him for shoeing, bleeding, 
or dressing. 

BAR'OLITE (baros, weight; and lithos, a 
stone: Gr.), or Witherite, a ponderous 
stone, the carbonate of barytes. It usu¬ 
ally occurs in small masses, which have a 
fibrous structure; and it is generally of a 
light yellowish-grey colour. 

BAROM'ETER (baros, weight; and me- 
treo, I measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring the weight, or rather the pres¬ 
sure of the atmosphere. It is of various 
forms: the best and most usual is a 
straight tube of glass hermetically sealed 
at one end; having been filled with pure 
mercury, free from air, the open end is 
closed with the thumb, and it is inverted 
into a cup of mercury. The column of 
mercury will descend until its weight just 
balances the pressure of the atmosphere at 
the time. The empty space next the upper 
or closed end is called the Torricellian va¬ 
cuum. The upper surface of the mercury 
never descends, in ordinary circumstances, 
more than a few inches; and this space is 
measured by a scale, aided by what is called 
a vernier [which see]. The real height of 
the column of mercury is the distance from 
the surface of the mercury in the cup to the 
upper surface of the column in the tube. 
This instrument is used for obtaining 
probable indications of the state of the 
weather. In dry weather, the air, being free 
from vapours, is heavy, and forces up the 


















BAROMETZ] Cf )t J^CtCllttCtC JClllJ 


70 


mercury; But in moist rainy weather, the 
atmosphere Being charged with clouds and 
fogs, the air is lighter, and acts upon it 
with less effect. From the Best observa¬ 
tions that have Been made on the Baro¬ 
meter, it appears, however, that it is not so 
much the height of the mercury in the tube 
that indicates the weather, as its motion up 
and down; hence, in order to know whether 
the mercury is actually rising or falling, 
the following rules are of use1. If the 
surface of the mercury is convex, it is a 
sign that the mercury is then rising. 2. If 
the surface is concave, it is sinking. 3. If 
the surface is plain, or rather a little con¬ 
vex, the mercury is stationary. 4. If the 
glass is small, shake the tube, and if the 
air is grown heavier, the mercury will rise 
about half the tenth of an inch; if it is 
growing lighter, it will sink as much. Prof. 
Daniell constructed a Barometer with water 
in place of mercury. This liquid Being 
much lighter, requires a longer tube, and 
the tube of Daniell’s instrument was forty 
feet long. The oscillations of the water 
are, of course, much more apparent than in 
a small Barometer, and, in unsettled wea¬ 
ther, it is very interesting to watch the 
movements*of the liquid. As to the use of 
the Barometer in measuring heights, see 
Hyfsometry ; see, also. Aneroid Baro¬ 
meter. 

BAR'OMETZ, or BAR'ANETZ, the name 
given to the stem of a woolly fern, when art¬ 
fully prepared, so as to deceive persons into 
the belief that the deserts of Scythia con¬ 
tained creatures that were half animal, half 
plant. The name of Scythian lamb was 
also given to it. 

BA'RON, a member of the lowest order 
of the nobility with us. Originally, the 
barons, being the feudatories of princes, 
were the proprietors of land held by honour¬ 
able service; hence, in ancient records the 
word barons comprehends all the nobility. 
It is probable that formerly all those were 
barons who had lordships with courts-ba- 
ron, and soon after the Conquest all such 
sat in the house of peers; but being very 
numerous, it was ordered that none should 
sit there but such as the king thought pro¬ 
per to call up by writ, which ran pro hdc vice 
tant&m. This state of nobility being very 
precarious, they at length obtained of the 
king letters patent, and were then called 
barons by patent, or creation. The coronet 
of a baron has only four pearls, and no 
leaves. Barons do not appear to have had 
the privilege of wearing a coronet until 

the time of Charles II_ Barons of the 

Exchequer, the live judges of the court of 
Exchequer. 

BARON AND FEMME (femme , a wife: 
Ft.), a term in Law for husband and wife, 
who are deemed but one person; so that, 
except under peculiar circumstances, as, 
for instance, in cases of high treason, or 
violence to the wife, she cannot be witness 
for or against her husband, nor he for or 
against his wife. The queen, whether 
queen regnant or queen consort, is, how¬ 
ever, regarded by English law as a single 
woman. 

BA'RONET, one having tho lowest degree 


of honour that is hereditary. The order of 
baronets was founded by James I., when in 
want of money, at the suggestion of Sir 
Robert Cotton, when 200 were created at 
once, each of whom paid 1,0951., and under¬ 
took to maintain 30 men for three years 
against the rebels in the Irish province of 
Ulster. To this number it was intended 
that they should always be restricted, but 
it is now enlarged, at the royal pleasure, 
without limitation. The baronetage of Scot¬ 
land, of Nova Scotia in America, and of 
Ireland, was afterwards instituted. All 
indifferently bear the red hand of Ulster on 
their coat-armour, and have the right to 
prefix ‘Sir’ to their names; their wives 
being styled ‘ Lady.’ 

BAR/RACAN (Fr.), a kind of thick, strong 
stuff, something like camlet, but of a coarser 
texture. It is used to make cloaks, sur- 
touts, and other outer garments. 

BAR/RACKS, large buildings erected for 
the security and accommodation of soldiers, 
whether infantry or cavalry. 

BARRACU'DA, a species of fish found in 
the West Indian seas, belonging to the 
genus Sphyrcena of ichthyologists. It is 
sometimes taken ten feet long, and is very 
voracious. 

BAR'RATRY (baratta , strife: Ttal.), in 
Law, ‘ the moving and maintaining of suits, 
in disturbance of the peace, and the taking 
and detaining the possession of houses, 
lands, and goods, by false inventions.’ It is 
indictable. In maritime assurance, it is the 
act of the master or mariners, of a criminal 
or grossly negligent nature, tending to their 
benefit, but to the prejudice of the owner of 
the ship. In Scotland, it is the crime of a 
judge who receives a bribe. 

BARRIOA'DE (Fr.), or BARRICA'DO, a 
fortification made in haste, of trees, earth, 
palisades, wagons, or anything that will 
obstruct the progress of an enemy, or 
serve for defence or security against his 
attack. 

BAR/RISTER, a counsellor earned in 
the law, admitted to plead at the bar, and 
there to take upon him the protection and 
defence of clients. Barristers are termed 
Juris consulti; in some countries Licentiati 
jure; and anciently they were called Appren¬ 
tices of the law : in Latin, Apprenticii juris 
nobiliores. In Scotland, they are called Ad¬ 
vocates. Certain barristers are from time 
to time appointed to be the counsel of the 
crown, and are called king's or queen’s 
counsel. These sit within the bar, and take 
precedence of all barristers not of that 
dignity. Without special license they can¬ 
not be employed against the crown, for 
example, in defence of persons accused of 
crimes. Before anyone can apply to be called 
to the bar, he must become a member of 
an inn of court, and keep twelve terms 
there. [See Inn of Court, Sergeant-at- 
Law.] 

BAR'ROW, a large artificial hillock or 
mound of earth. Barrows are met with in 
many parts of the world, and on being 
opened are found to be repositories of the 
dead. By the Romans they were called tu¬ 
muli. They are still to be seen in many parts 
of Great Britain and Ireland, as well as in 

























n Ettcrarg CHriatfurg* [basilidtans 


several other countries. They are the most 
ancient monuments in the worid. In this 
country, they are chiefly found in the chalk 
districts of Wilts and Dorsetshire. A mound 
of stones is usually called a cairn. 

BAR'RY, in Heraldry, is when an escut¬ 
cheon is divided bar-wise (that is, across 
from side to side) into an even number of 
partitions, consisting of two or more tinc¬ 
tures interchangeably disposed. 

BAR'-SHOT, double-headed shot, consist¬ 
ing of a bar with a half ball or round head 
at each end; used for destroying the masts 
and rigging in naval combat. 

BAR'TER, the exchanging of one com¬ 
modity for another, the trucking of wares 
for wares, among merchants. Barter was 
the original and natural way of commerce, 
there being no buying till money was in¬ 
vented.-Also, the rule in Arithmetic by 

which the proportionate value of commo¬ 
dities is found. 

BARYSTRON'TIANITE (a combination 
of the words barytes and strontian ), a mine¬ 
ral called also stromnite, from Stromness, 
in Orkney. It is of a yellowish-white colour 
externally, but of a greyish-white within. 

BABY'TA, or BARY'TES ( barus , heavy : 
Gr.), the oxide of the metal Barium. It is 
white, and is soluble in water. The native 
carbonate (Barolite, or Witherite) and 
sulphate are found abundantly in lead 
mines, and are remarkable for their weight. 
The latter is frequently in the form of 
beautiful crystals. All the soluble salts of 
barytes are poisonous. Barytes and some 
of its salts are employed by chemists as 
tests. 

BARYTO-CAL'CITE ( barytes , and cal¬ 
cium), in Mineralogy, a mixture of carbonate 
of baryta, lime, and sulphate of baryta. It 
is of various forms, and of a grey colour. 

BA'RYTOXE (barus, heavy; and tonos, a 
tone: Gr.), in Music, a male voice, the com¬ 
pass of which partakes of the common bass 
and the tenor, being lower than the latter 
and higher than the former. 

BASALT' (basaltes: Lat.), a heavy, stony 
rock of volcanic origin, and of the Trap 
series, composed of felspar, augite, and iron 
intimately mixed, with other minerals em¬ 
bedded, the commonest of which is Olivine. 
It is usually of a black or bluish colour. It 
is found in sheets of more or less thickness, 
and of variable width, alternating with the 
other products of volcanoes. It is frequently 
found split vertically into angular columns, 
which vary from the utmost degree of 
rudeness to columns of a very regular 
structure, such as are seen at the Giant’s 
Causeivay, and Staffa. It is very often the 
injected rock of a dike, and its tendency to 
split at right-angles to the cooling surfaces 
is them clearly shown. 

BASALT'INE (last), in Mineralogy, a va¬ 
riety of common hornblende, often found in 
basalt and volcanic scorice. 

BAS'ANITE (basanos, the touchstone: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, Lydian stone, or black 
jasper; a variety of silicious or flinty slate, 
of a bluish-black colour, interspersed with 
veins of quartz. It is employed to test the 
purity of gold. . „ 

BASE (basis, a foundation: Gr.), in Geo¬ 


metry, the lowest side of the perimeter of 

a figure.- Base, in Architecture, any 

body which bears another, but particularly 
the lower part of a column or pedestal. 
The base of columns is differently formed 
in different orders : thus, the Tuscan base 
consists only of a single torus, besides the 
plinth; the Doric has an astragal more than 
the Tuscan; the Ionic has a large torus over 
two slender scotias, separated by two astra¬ 
gals; the Corinthian has two toruses, two 
scotias, and two astragals; the Composite 
has an astragal less than the Corinthian; 
the attic base has two toruses and a scotia, 
and is proper for either the Ionic or Com¬ 
posite column.-In Chemistry, a term used 

to denote the metal which, with oxygen, 
forms an oxide, and the oxide which, with 
an acid, forms a salt. Thus, in oxide of iron 
or copper, the iron, or copper, is the base; 

in sulphate of baryta, baryta is the base.- 

In Fortification, the exterior side of the 
polygon, or that imaginary line which is 
drawn from the flanked angle of a bastion 

to the angle opposite to it.- Base Court, 

any court not of record.- Base Fee, a 

qualified fee, which must be determined 
whenever the qualification annexed to it is 

at an end.- Base Line, in Perspective, 

the common section or a picture, and the 

geometrical plane. -Base Tenure, in 

Law, the holding by villenage or other 
customary services, as distinguished from 
the higher tenures in capita, or by military 
service. 

BASHAW' (a viceroy: Turk.), PASHA', 
or PACHA', a dignity under the Turkish 
government. Bashaw, used absolutely, de¬ 
notes the prime vizier; other bashaws, who 
are generally governors of provinces or 
cities, being distinguished by the name of 
the places under their command. The ap¬ 
pellation is given by way of courtesy to 
almost every person of any importance at 
the Grand Signior’s court. The degree of a 
bashaw’s dignity is mavked by his bearing 
one, two, or three horses’ tails. 

BA'SIL, an aromatic plant of the genus 
Ocyrnum, of which there are many species, 
all natives of warm climates: nat. order. 
Labiates. The sweet basil is much used by 
the French in cookery.- Basil, in Car¬ 

pentry, the slope or angle of a chisel, plane, 
or other tool. 

BASIL'ICA (basilikos, royal: Gr.), in 
Architecture, properly the palace of a king, 
but used to indicate a place where courts 
of justice were held. Its form was a paral¬ 
lelogram, with a portico at each end; being 
covered with a roof supported by rows of 
columns. Some of the basilicas were after¬ 
wards used for Christian churches: and 
many of the latter have, from this circum¬ 
stance, been termed basilicce. -In Ana¬ 

tomy, the interior branch of the axillary 
vein, running the whole length of the arm. 

BASIL'ICON (same derivi), in Medicine, 
an ointment consisting of resin, oil, wax, 
&c.; it was considered a sovereign kind of 
plaster. The word was also used as an epi¬ 
thet for many other compositions. 

BASILI'DIANS (from Basilides, their 
founder), in Church History, a branch of 
Gnostics, who maintained that Christ’s body 

















basilisk] J^rienttftc anif 72 

was only a phantom, and that Simon the 
Cyrencan suffered in his stead, 

"baS'ILISK ( basiliskos : Gr.), a fabulous 
kind of serpent, called a cockatrice, said to 
he produced from a cock’s egg, hatched by 
a serpent, and supposed to kill by its breath 

or sight only.-A large piece of ancient 

ordnance. 

BA'SIN (bassin: Fr.), a hollow vessel for 
holding liquids.-In Hydraulics, any re¬ 
servoir of water. - Basin of a dock, a 

p:.ice where the water is confined by double 
flood-gates. The basin of a haven is that 
part which opens from a narrow passage 

into a spacious receptacle.-In Jewish 

Antiquities, the laver of the tabernacle. 

BA'SIS (basis, a foundation : Gr.), in 
Medicine, the principal ingredient in a com¬ 
position. - Basis Cereuri, in Anatomy, 

the lower and posterior part of the brain. 

- Basis Cordis, the superior part of the 

heart, so called to distinguish it from the 
apex or small point. 

BAS'KING-SHARK, the Selaclius max- 
imus of ichthyologists, has been frequently 
taken on the British coasts. It has been 
known to reach the length of 36 feet. It 
derives its common name from its habit of 
lying on the surface of the water and bask- 
ing in the sun. It produces a great quantity 
of oil. 

BASS (bas, low : Fr.), sometimes written 
base, the lowest or fundamental part in 
music, and important as the foundation of 
harmony. Counter bass is a second or 
double bass, where there are several in the 
same concert. Ground bass is that which 
commences with some subject of its own, 
that is continually repeated throughout 
the movement, whilst the upper parts pur¬ 
sue a separate air. Thorough bass is the 
science of harmony including the funda¬ 
mental rules of composition. - Bass, 

among gardeners, a soft kind of sedge or 
rush used in binding plants, &c. 

BAS'SET, a miner’s term, signifying the 
out-crop or emergence of a stratum at the 
surface of the earth. 

BAS'SO (low : Ital.), in Music, the Italian 
term for bass. Thus, basso concertante is 
the bass of the little chorus ; basso repieno, 
the bass of the grand chorus; and basso 
continuo, that part of a composition which 
is set for the organ, &c. 

BAS'SO RILIE'VO (Ital.), or BAS-RE¬ 
LIEF, sculpture in which the figures pro¬ 
ject but little from the plane on which they 
are formed. Prominent figures are said to 
be in relief; and when the work is low or 
flat it is called bas-relief, or basso rilievo, 
in distinction from alto rilievo and mezzo 
rilievo. 

BASSOO'N (bas, low; and son, a sound : 
Fr.), a musical wind instrument, consisting 
of a very long tube of wood, with a reed 
for the mouthpiece. 

BASTI'LLE, a general name in France, 
during the middle ages, for works outside 
a city ; but commonly applied to a cele¬ 
brated fortress in Paris, which was used as 
a state prison, and in which many persons 
who had incurred the resentment of the 
French monarclis or their ministers were 
immured. It was built at the latter part of 

thefourteentli century, and was demolished 
by the enraged populace at the commence¬ 
ment of the revolution, in 1789. 

BASTINA'DO (bastone, a stick : Ital.), a 
mode of punishment used among the Turks, 
in which the offender is beaten on the soles 
of the feet. 

BAS'TION, in Modern Fortification, a 
large mass of earth, usually faced with 
sods, but sometimes with brick, and in a 
few instances with stone, standing out 
from a rampart of which it is a principal 
part; and what, in ancient fortification, 
was called a bulwark. The bastion consists 
of two faces, and an opening towards the 
centre, called the gorge. Bastions are solid 
or hollow. A flat bastion is made in the 
middle of the curtain, when it is too long 
to be defended by the bastions in its ex¬ 
tremes. A demi bastion is composed of one 
face only, with one flank and a demi-gorge. 

A double bastion is one raised on the plane 
of another. 

BAT, the name of a family of mammalian 
animals, the Cheiroptera or Vespertilionidcc. 
Their distinguishing feature is that the 
fore and hind legs are connected by a mem¬ 
brane which spreads over the elongated 
finger bones, so as to form an apparatus for 
flying. They are nocturnal animals, with 
•wonderful powers of sight. They are found 
in all parts of the world. The majority 
feed upon insects, and only a few upon 
fruits. Some of them are blood-suckers, 
and in South America there is at least one 
species which is troublesome to horses in 
this way. The family is divided into two 
sections : those which have upon the noses 
a leaf-shaped membrane, in which the nos¬ 
trils are placed ; and those which are desti¬ 
tute of such a membrane. 

BATH ( bad : Sax.). Natural warm baths 
are formed of the water of hot springs, of 
which there are many in different parts of 
the world, especially in countries where 
there are, or evidently have been, volca¬ 
noes. The chief natural warm baths in 
Great Britain are those of Bath and Bristol, 
in Somersetshire; and those of Buxton 
and Matlock, in Derbyshire ; which latter 
are merely tepid. Some are impregnated 
with iron,and called chalybeate; others with 
sulphur, carbonic acid, and other mineral 
substances. They are often very efficacious 
in scorbutic, bilious, and dyspeptic com¬ 
plaints, as well as for the removal of various 
chronic diseases. The word bath also sig¬ 
nifies any artificial contrivance which is to 
supply the place of a bath, as a shower bath, 
or an apparatus for applying water to the 
body in the form of a shower; a vapour 
bath, or a mode of conveying moisture to 
the body by means of steam. Among the 
ancients, the most magnificent edifices 
were erected for bathing in; such were the 
baths of Titus and Diocletian, the ruins of 
which still remain. At the present day, 

baths are in general use in the East. - 

Bath, in Chemistry, an apparatus used in 
various processes, particularly in distilla¬ 
tions, and consisting in the use of different 
intermedia. When the degree of heat re¬ 
quired is below that of boiling water, a 
vessel containing that fluid is interposed 























73 


Htterarj) Creatfurg. 


between the Are and the substance to be 
acted upon; and when a superior degree of 
heat is necessary, sand, or some other mat¬ 
ter of a similar nature, is employed. 

BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE, a military 
order of knighthood in England, supposed 
to have been instituted by Richard II., who 
limited the number of knights to four; 
but his successor, Henry IV;, on the day of 
his coronation, increased'them to forty-six. 
This order received its denomination from 
a custom of bathing before the knights re¬ 
ceived the golden spur. The badge or sym¬ 
bol of the order is a sceptre, rose, thistle, 
and three imperial crowns conjoined within 
a circle, upon which is the motto, ‘Tria 
juncta in uno,’ alluding to the three car¬ 
dinal virtues—faith, hope, and charity. The 
order of the Bath, after remaining many 
years extinct, was revived under George I., 
in 1725, by the solemn creation of a great 
number of knights. There are three classes 
of the order: Knights Grand Cross (G.C.B.), 
Knights Commander (K.C.B.), and Compa¬ 
nions (C.B.). The members of the two 
first are entitled to prefix ‘Sir’ to their 
names. Each class has a civil and military 
division. 

BA'TON (Fr.), the staff or truncheon 
given to fleld-marslial3 as a symbol of au¬ 
thority. 

BATOO'N, in Architecture, a moulding in 
the base of a column. 

BATRA'CniANS ( batrachos, a frog: Gr.), 
an order of amphibious animals, which 
some naturalists have placed amongst the 
reptiles. They are divisible into two groups: 
the tailless and the tailed batrachians. To 
the first belong frogs and toads; to the 
second, salamanders and tritons, which run 
instead of leaping. All the batrachians 
undergo transformation. When hatched 
from the egg, they have gills like fishes, 
a tail, and no legs. 

BAT'RACHCS (same derive, in Ichthy¬ 
ology, the sea-devil, a frog-like fish.-In 

Medicine, an inflammatory tumour under 
the tongue. 

BAT'TA, allowances made to troops in 
India. Dry batta is money given in lieu of 
rations; wet batta, what is given in kind. 

BATTA'LIA ( Ital.'i , an army drawn up in 
order of battle. 

BATTA'LION (bataillon: Fr.), a body of 
foot soldiers, consisting of from COO to 1,000 
men. 

BAT'TEL, an ancient mode of trial by 
single combat, which was sanctioned by 
law, and was introduced into England by 
William the Conqueror. It was allowed in 
a civil action, called a writ of right, and 
also in appeals, which were actions by the 
subject demanding punishment for the 
crime on account of the private rather 
than the public injury. In the latter, the 
combat was between the parties, in the 
writ of right between the champions. The 
contest took place before the judges, on 
a piece of ground enclosed, and the com¬ 
batants wei’e bound to fight until the stars 
appeared, unless the death of one party 
sooner decided the contest. It is but in 
comparatively late years that this bar¬ 
barous practice has been abolished.-An 


[batter-1 

account of the expenses, for provisions 
and liquor, of a student at Oxford. 

BAT'TEN (bdton, a stick : Fr.), a scantling 
or piece of wood, from two to four inches 
broad, and one inch thick. 

BAT'TERING-RAM, a military machine, 
with which the ancients effected breaches 
in fortifications. This engine was variously 
constructed, and of different sizes; but in 
general it consisted of a vast beam sus¬ 
pended from a frame, and armed at one end 
with a head of iron, resembling that of a 
ram, from the butting of which animal the 
idea was doubtless derived. This being 
equally balanced, and furnished with a 
number of ropes at the extremity opposite 
to the ram’s head, a great number of men 
threw it forward with violence, and thus, 
by a repetition of the strokes, the wall 
against which it was directed was de¬ 
molished. 

BAT'TERY ( batterie: Fr.), in the Military 
art, any raised place where cannon or mor¬ 
tars are planted. A parapet covers the 
gunners and men employed about the guns 
from the enemy’s shot, and is cut into em¬ 
brasures for the cannon to fire through. A 
battery of mortars is sunk in the ground, 
and has no embrasures. Battery d'enfllade, 
is one that scours or sweeps the whole 
length of a straight line. Battery enecharpe, 
is that which plays obliquely. Battery de 
revers, that which plays on the enemy’s back. 
Cross-batteries are two batteries which play 
athwart one another upon the same object, 
thus forming an angle, and producing great 
effect, because what one ball shakes the 
other throws down. A camerade battery 
consists of several guns which play at tho 
same time upon one place. A ricochet bat¬ 
tery, is one from which the cannon are dis¬ 
charged with a very small quantity of 
powder, and very little elevation, so as to 
carry the ball just over the parapet, where 
it rolls along the opposite rampart, and 

produces a destructive effect.- Battery, 

in Electricity, is a combination of coated 
surfaces of glass, commonly jars, so con¬ 
nected together that they may be charged 
at once, and discharged by a common con¬ 
ductor.- Galvanic Battery, or Pile, an 

apparatus employed for accumulating the 
electricity of galvanism, which is produced 
by the natural agencies of certain metallic 
and carbonaceous substances and peculiar 
fluids. This instrument was invented by 
the celebrated Volta, and is often called the 
Voltaic battery. It has, at different times, 
assumed various forms, each more perfect 
than the preceding. The earlier species 
consisted of compound plates of zinc and 
copper, in cells charged with dilute acid3. 
But the action of such batteries was very 
transitory. Constant batteries were then 
invented : they were so called from their 
prolonged action. Many of them are very 
effective and convenient; but the two 
kinds most generally used at present are 
Smeets and Grove’s. The former consists of 
a very thin sheet of silver platinized—that 
is, covered all over with metallic platinum 
in the form of a black powder; at each side 
of this, but not in contact with it, is fixed 
a thick plate of zinc amalgamated; that is, 





















J^cfeuttfic anU 


74 


battle] 

well covered with metallic mercury. 'When 
this apparatus is immersed in tolerably 
strong sulphuric acid, there is no action 
until the zinc plates are connected by a wire 
or some metallic conductor with the pla¬ 
tinized silver ; violent action then occurs. 
Hydrogen in large quantities is given oft 
from all parts of the platinized silver, and 
electricity is transmitted along the wire or 
other conductor. Grove’s battery, called 
the nitric acid battery, consists of a flat cell 
cf glazed porcelain, containing within it a 
smaller cell of porous earthenware. A plate 
of amalgamated zinc is bent, so as to re¬ 
ceive the porous cell, and at the same time 
to lie in the glazed cell. Within the porous 
cell is a thin plate of platinum. When the 
glazed cell is charged with a mixture of 
one part oil of vitriol and six parts water, 
and the inner cell with strong nitric acid, 
action commences, as in Smee’s battery, on 
uniting the two metals by a metallic con¬ 
ductor, and electricity is transmitted along 
the latter. With this battery no hydrogen 
escapes, as it forms water with some of the 
oxygen of the nitric acid, which it changes 
into nitrous. Prof. Bunsen has rendered 
Grove’s battery much cheaper by substitut¬ 
ing dense coke for platinum. -Battery, 

in Law, the striking, beating, or offering 
any violence to another person, for which 
damages may be recovered. It is distin¬ 
guished from an assault, inasmuch as the 
latter does not necessarily imply a blow. 
There may be an assault without battery, 
but battery always implies an assault. 

BAT'TLE-AXE, a military weapon which 
owes its origin to the Celts. It was not 
used by the Greeks or Romans, but was 
very common among the contemporaneous 
Celts. It was a favourite weapon in Eng¬ 
land, Scotland, and Ireland; and the Loch- 
aber axe was particularly celebrated. 

BAT'TLEMENTS (from battle), in Mili¬ 
tary Architecture, a wall or parapet on the 
top of a building, with embrasures or open 
places to look through, or discharge missiles 
against the enemy. 

BATTOL'OGY ( battoloyia , idle talk: Gr.), 
in Grammar, a superfluous repetition of 
some words or things. 

BAT'TUE ( battre, to beat: Fr.), in Sport¬ 
ing, the surrounding a portion of a forest, 
wood, or park, and, by beating the bushes 
and shouting, endeavouring to bring out 
the animals intended for the chase. 

BAY (bale: Fr.), in Geography, an arm of 
the sea extending into the land; it is also 
often applied to large tracts of water, as the 

Bay of Biscay.- Bay, one of the colours of 

a horse, of which there are various shades. 

-Bay, or Bay-tree, the Laurus nobilis 

of botanists, an evergreen which grows 
wild in the south of Europe. A garland or 
crown made of bay leaves was awarded, 
among the ancients, as a prize for victory 

ot pyppIIpbcp 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, a linen web, 442 
feet long, and 2 wide, said to have been 
embroidered by English women, under the 
direction of Matilda, the queen of 'William 
I the Conqueror, the subject being the con¬ 
quest of England. It is preserved in the 
cathedral of Bayeux. 


BAY'ONET (from Bayonne, where it was 
first invented), a short pointed instrument, 
or triangular dagger, made to fix on the 
muzzle of a firelock or musket. 

BAY'-SALT, a salt which crystallizes or 
receives its consistence from the heat of 
the sun or action of the air. 

BAZAR', or BAZAAR' (a sale : Pers.), a 
kind of exchange or market-place among 
the Turks and Persians. Some of these build¬ 
ings are remarkable not only for their ex¬ 
tent, but for their magnificence.-This 

name has of late years been in use with us 
to denote certain large buildings containing 
a collection of shops or stalls, let to diffe¬ 
rent persons, and in which a great variety 
of ‘ fancy goods’ are exposed for sale. 

BDEL'LIUM ( bdellion: Gr.), a name given 
to certain gum-resins, the produce of differ¬ 
ent plants. African bdellium, which hash, 
bitter nauseous taste, and a dark-brown 
colour, is yielded by a composite half suc¬ 
culent plant, called Ceradia, which grows in 
SW. Africa. Egyptian bdellium is produced 
by a palm, Ilpphxne thebaica. Another 
bdellium is obtained from various species 
of Balsamodendron trees growing in India 
and Africa. 

BEA'CON (beacn, to point out: Sax.), a 
signal erected on a long pole, upon an emi¬ 
nence. It consists of a pitch-barrel or other 
combustible matter, which is fired at night, 
to notify the approach of an enemy'. Also, 
any object serving as an occasional signal, 
or as a constant sea-mark, by means of 
which ships may be warned of danger, or 
assured of their port. 

BEAD ( beade: Sax.), in Architecture, a 
round moulding, commonly made upon the 
edge of a board, &c. In the Corinthian 
and Roman orders, it is cut or carved in 
short embossments, like beads in necklaces. 

-Bead, in Metallurgy, the small ball or 

mass of pure metal separated from the 
scoria, and seen distinct while in the fire. 

-Bead-proof, a term amongst distillers 

for that proof of the strength of spirituous 
liquors denoted by the bubbles called beads, 
which rise and remain on the surface of 
the liquid for some time after it has been 
shaken. 

BEAD'-TREE, a shrub growing in Spain 
and Portugal; so called, because the nuts 
which it bears are bored through, and 
strung as beads by the Roman Catholics of 
those countries. It belongs to the genus 

Meiia. -A Beadsman is one who recites 

prayers for his patron, &c. 

BEA'DLE (bidet, a public crier: Sax.), a 
messenger, or apparitor of a court,who cites 
persons to appear and answ'er in the court 

what is alleged against them..-A Beadle 

is also a person at a university, whoso 
chief business it is to walk before the uni¬ 
versity officers with a mace in all public 
processions, &c, [See Bedell.] 

BEA'GLE ( bigle: Fr.), the name of a par¬ 
ticular kind of hound or hunting-dog, of 
■which there are several sorts. 

BEAK ( bee: Fr.), in a general sense, the 
upper end or point, as the upper part of the 

bill of a bird- Beak-head, in a ship, a 

small platform at the fore-part of the upper 
deck.- Beaked, in Heraldry, an epithet in 

















75 


Ettcrarj) Ereagurg. 


[BED 


blazoning for birds whose beaks are of a 
different tincture from their bodies. In 
Botany, an epithet for the fruit when it 
is terminated by a process in the shape of a 
bird’s beak. 

BEA'KER (same deriv.), a drinking cup, 
so called from its having a spout like a 
bird’s beak. 

BEAM, the largest piece of timber in a 
building, laid across the walls, and serving 
to support the principal rafters. In ships, 
beams are the large main timbers that 

stretch across a ship to support a deck.- 

In Mechanics, the part of a balance, from 
the ends of which the scales are suspended. 

-Beam, among Hunters, the main stem 

of a deer’s head, or that part which bears the 

antlers, royals, and tops.- Beam-ends. A 

vessel is said to be on her beam-ends when 
she inclines so niuch on one side that her 

beams approach a vertical position.- 

Abeam, in a direction perpendicular to the 
ship’s length: amidship.— Beam Compass, 
an instrument consisting of a square wooden 
or brass beam, having sliding sockets, and 
used for describing large circles.- Be¬ 

fore the Beam, is an arch of the horizon 
between a line that crosses the ship at right 
angles, and that point of the compass to¬ 
wards which she steers. 

BEAM'-TREE, the Pyrus aria of bota¬ 
nists, nat. ord. Pomacece. This tree grows 
to the height of thirty or forty feet, and is 
particularly fitted for making axle-trees and 
the like. 

BEAR ( bera : Sax.), a family of mamma¬ 
lian quadrupeds, of which there are several 
species, agreeing in having large stout 
limbs, large heads, terminating in a pro¬ 
longed snout; bodies clothed with shaggy 
hair, and feet furnished with hooked claws. 
The best-known species are1. The brown 
bear, which subsists chiefly on fruit, vege¬ 
tables, and honey. 2. The American bear, 
which is smaller than the other, and feeds 
in like manner. 3. The Polar or maritime 
bear, which is only found in high northern 
latitudes: it is from eight to twelve feet 
long, of great strength and ferocity, de¬ 
vouring at sea fish, seals, and whales, and 
. on land any animals which it can seize. 

-Bear, in Astronomy, a name given to 

two constellations called the greater and 
the lesser bear, or Ursa major and Ursa 
minor. 

BEARD'ED ( barbatus), in Botany, having 
tufts of hair. 

BEAR'ER, in Architecture, a post or 
brick wall placed between the ends of a piece 

of timber, to support it.-In Heraldry, a 

figure in an achievement, placed by the side 
of the shield, and seeming to support it. 

BEAR'ING, in Navigation and Geogra¬ 
phy, the situation of a place with regard 
to the points of the compass, or the angle 
which a line, drawn through two places, 

makes with the meridian of each.-Also a 

Sea-term found in several phrases; thus, 
when a ship sails towards the shore, before 
the wind, she is said to bear in with the land 
or harbour. To let the ship sail more before 
the wind, is to bear up. To put her right 
before the wind, is to bear roxmd. A ship 
that keeps off from the land is said to bear 


off. When a ship that was to windward comes 
under another ship’s stern, and so gives her 
the wind, she is said to bear under her lee, 

&c_ Bearings, in Heraldry, the coats of 

arms, or armorial figures, by which the 
nobility and gentry are distinguished from 
common persons, and from each other. 

BEAT ( beatan , to beat: Sax.), in Military 
phraseology, a word of various significa¬ 
tions, expressive of giving a signal by beat 
of drum. As, ‘ To beat an alarm,’ to give 
notice of danger. ‘To beat a charge,’ to 
give a signal for charging the enemy. ‘ To 
beat the general,' to give notice to the troops 
to march. ‘ To beat the reveille,’ to give no¬ 
tice for leaving quarters. * To beat the tat¬ 
too,’ to give notice for retiring to quarters, 
as at bedtime. ‘ To beat the troop,’ a signal 
for repairing to colours. ‘ To beat to arms,’ 
to give a signal for the troops to arm them¬ 
selves. ‘ To beat a parley,’ a signal for a 
cessation of hostilities, to hold a conference 
with the enemy. These signals are now 

given with the bugle.- Beat, in Music, a 

reversed shake, without a turn. 

BEATIFICA'TION ( beatus facio, I make 
happy : Lat.), an act of the Pope, by which 
he declares a person beatified or blessed 
after death, and the first step towards ca¬ 
nonization, or the raising of any one to the 
dignity of a saint. No one can be beatified 
till fifty years after his death. 

BEAT'INGS ( beatan , to beat: Sax.), in 
Music, the regular pulsative swellings of 
sound produced in an organ by pipes which 
are not quite in unison, their vibrations not 
being exactly simultaneous or coincident. 

BEAU MONDE (polished society : Fr ), a 
term implying the gay fashionable world. 

BEA'VER (fiefer: Sax.) a mammalian ani¬ 
mal belonging to the order Eodentia. The 
common beaver, Castor fiber, is a native of 
Europe and North America, living on the 
banks'of rivers and unfrequented lakes, and 
remarkable for its ingenuity in building its 
habitation. It has short ears, a blunt nose, 
small fore feet, large hind feet, and a flat 
ovate tail. It walks slowly, swims dexter¬ 
ously, eats sitting on its haunches, and 
conveys its food to its mouth with its fore 
paws. This animal is valued both for its 

fur and for the oil which it yields.- 

Beaver, that part of the helmet which 
defends the sight, and opens in front. 

BECHE-DE-MER, or BICHO-DE-MAR,the 
commercial name of what is called trepavg 
by the Malays, marine worm-like animals 
(Holotliurice, belonging to the class of Echi- 
noderms), which are collected in large 
quantities in the Eastern archipelago, for 
the Chinese, by whom they are esteemed a 
table delicacy. When taken from the sea 
they are plunged for a few minutes in 
boiling water, and then dried. Their in¬ 
teguments contain more or less carbonate 
of lime, in the form of minute plates or 
spicula. 

BED, an article of furniture on which 
the body is stretched and composed for 
rest or sleep, and consisting generally of 
feathers enclosed in a case of tick. The 
ancient Romans had various sorts of beds, 
for various purposes: they had their cham¬ 
ber-bed, on which they slept; their table- 














bedell] dje J^rirnttfu autf 76 


bed, on which they ate in a recumbent 
posture. Three persons usually reclined on 
one bed, and the middle place, as well as 
the middle bed, was accounted the most 
honourable. They had also the bed on 
which they studied, and that on which the 

dead were carried to the funeral pile.-- 

Bed, in general, a hollow place in which 

anything rests; as, the bed of a mortar.- 

A stratum, or extended mass of anything, 
whether upon the earth or within it; as, a 

bed of sulphur, a bed of sand, &c.-The 

bed of a river is the bottom of a channel 
in which the stream or current usually 

Hows.- From bed and board, in Law, a 

decree separating man and wife without 
severing the marriage tie, formerly granted 
by the ecclesiastical courts. The wife had 
a suitable maintenance, called alimony, 
allotted to her out of the husband’s estate. 
It was usually expressed in Latin a mensa 
et thoro. It has been superseded by what 
is termed a judicial separation. 

BEDELL. In the University of Cam¬ 
bridge there are two officers styled Esquire 
Bedells, whose duties are to precede the 
Vice-Chancellor with silver maces on all 
public occasions, to summon members of 
the Senate to the Chancellor’s Court, &c. 

BEDOUIN (dwellers in the wide: Arab.), 
nomadic tribes of the African desert, 
broken up into groups of families varying 
in number. At the head of each group is a 
chief called a sheikh, a dignity which is 
often hereditary for some generations. 
They are Mahometans. 

BEE, a hymenopterous insect, of which 
there are numerous genera, but the most 
interesting and useful to man is the honey¬ 
bee, the Apis mellifica of entomologists. 
It is justly celebrated for its singular in¬ 
stincts, and highly prized for the valuable 
products of its industry. The honey-bees 
live in swarms or societies which amount 
to from 10,000 to 40,000, and contain three 
sorts of individuals : the female, or, as she 
is commonly called, the queen bee; the 
males, or drones; and the neuters, or work¬ 
ing bees, by some naturalists called imper¬ 
fect females. A hive usually consists of 
one mother or queen, from 600 to 800 males, 
and from 15,000 to 20,000 working bees. 
The office of the queen bee is to propagate 
the species; that of the workers to collect 
the honey, form the cells, and feed the 
young. Bees are furnished with a pro¬ 
boscis by which they suck the honey from 
flowers; they swallow this, and when it 
has undergone a peculiar process in the 
stomach, they disgorge it into the cells. 
The pollen of flowers settles on the hairs 
with which their body is covered, whence 
it is collected into pellets, by a brush on 
their second pair of legs, and deposited in 
a hollow in the third pair. It is called bee- 
bread, and is the food of the larvas or young. 
The females and neuters have a barbed 
sting, attached to a bag of poison, which 
flows into the wound inflicted by the sting. 
The season of fecundation occurs about 
the beginning of summer. It is said that 
the female, in the spring, lays as many as 
12,000 eggs in the lapse of twenty-four days. 
When a hive is overstocked, a new colony 


is sent out under the direction of a queen- 
bee ; this is called swarming, and threo or 
four swarms sometimes leave a hive in one 
season. The true honey-bee was originally 
confined to the old world, but has been 

transplanted to America.-The Humble 

Bees ( Bombi ) are well known from their 
large size and humming noise. Some of the 
species form their nest low in the ground, 
others on the surface. They form rude 
cells of wax, and collect honey for the 
larvae. 

BEER ( bier: Germ.), a drink made from 
malt and hops by the process of brewing. 

BEE'TLES (beetel: Sax.), insects fur¬ 
nished with a pair of membranous wings, 
which are folded up when the animal is not 
flying under a pair of hard wing cases or 
elytra. They form the vast order of Cole- 
optera. They all of them undergo a com¬ 
plete metamorphosis. They issue from the 
egg in the shape, of a grub, which in many 
species is very destructive to plants and 
wood. In time they assume the pupa form, 
and then emerge as perfect beetles. The 
forms of beetles arc very varied ; some are 
so minute as to require the assistance of a 
microscope in making out the parts, whilst 
others attain the size of four inches. The 
majority are plain in colour, but some are 
very brilliant. The Scarabceus, an object of 
reverence amongst the ancient Egyptians, 
the lady-bird of children? the cockchafer, 
the may-worm, the blistering cantharides, 
the weevils (so destructive to grain), the 
turnip fly, and the perfect animals of the 
nut maggot and the glow-worm, all belong 
to this order. Coleoptera have been divi¬ 
ded into four suborders: 1. Pentamera, all 
the tarsi flve-jointed; 2. Ileteromera, four 
anterior tarsi flve-jointed, two posterior 
four-jointed. 3. Pseudotetramera, all the 
tarsi five-jointed, the fourth very small. 
4. Pseudotrimera, all the tarsi four-jointed, 
the third very small. 

BEHE'MOTH (Web.), an animal mentioned 
in the book of Job, which some naturalists 
suppose to be the same as the river-horse. 

BEI'ZA (beizath, an egg: IIcb.), in Hebrew 
Antiquity, a certain measure in use among 
the Jews. The beiza was likewise a gold 
coin of the Persians. When it was asserted 
that Philip of Macedon owed their king 
Darius a thousand beizas or golden eggs 
for tribute money, Alexander the Great 
refused to pay them, saying that the bird 
which laid these eggs had flown into the 
other world. 

BELEM'NITE ( belemnon, a dart: Gr.), the 
fossil pen, or internal shell of cuttle fishes. 
Bclemnitcs, vulgarly called thunder stones, 
have been found ranging from the lias to 
the gault, and about 100 species have been 
described. 

BELL (pel: Sax.), a hollow metallic body, 
ranked among the musical instruments of 
percussion. The constituent parts of a bell 
are the barrel, the clapper on the inside, 
and the ear or cannon by which it hangs to 
a large beam of wood. It is usually made 
of a composition called bell-metal, which 
contains three parts of copper and one of 
tin ; and sometimes of cast steel, &c. The 
sound of a bell consists in a vibratory 












77 


Etoarj) Cmrfttrg. 


motion of i-ts parts, much like that of a 
musical chord ; and as the external surface 
of the hell undergoes alternate changes of 
figure, it gives that tremulous motion to the 
air which causes the sensation of sound. 
Bells are of high antiquity. The blue tunic 
of the Jewish high-priest was adorned with 
golden bells; and the kings of Persia are 
said to have had the hem of their robe 
adorned with them. They were introduced 
into English churches about the year 700, 
and used, to be baptized before they were 
hung. The number of changes may be 
found by multiplying together the number 
of bells and all the integers between it and 
unity. Thus four bells will give 24 changes, 
since 4, 3, and 2 multiplied together make 
24; six bells will give 720 ; and twelve bells 
479,001,600 changes, which, at the rate of 
twelve per minute, could not be rung in less 

than nearly 78 years.-To bear the bell, 

to be the first, or the leader: in allusion to 
the bell-wether of a flock, or the leading 
horse of a team that wears bells on his 
collar. Or it may be synonymous with to 
bear away the bell, which is thus explained. 
Race-courses were formerly called bell- 
courses, the prize given being a silver bell; 
therefore, to win the race was ‘to bear 

away the bell.’.- Bells, in Naval language, 

half-hours of the watch, which are marked 
by striking the bell at the end of each. 

BELLADON'NA, in Medicine, a prepara¬ 
tion from the Atropa Belladonna, a poison¬ 
ous plant growing wild in Britain, and 
belonging to the Solanacece. 

BELLADON'NA LI'LY, the Amaryllis 
Belladonna of botanists, a bulbous rooted 
plant, with a handsome flower. 

BELLES LET'TRES (Fr.), or Polite 
Literature, in its most obvious sense, is 
that description of literature which has a 
peculiar reference to matters of taste ; but 
according to many writers, the term has a 
much more extensive signification, and is 
made to comprehend not merely every ele¬ 
gant acquirement, but nearly every branch 
of knowledge. 

BELL'EYUE (a fi ne prospect: Fr.), a name 
given in France to small country-seats, or 
to arched bowers at the end of a garden or 
park, intended for the enjoyment of fresh 
air in the shade. 

BEL'LIS (bellies, fair: Lat.), a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Compositce, including the 
common daisy. 

BELLOC'ULUS ( bellus, handsome; and 
oculus, an eye : Lat.), in Mineralogy, a pre¬ 
cious stone resembling the eye, and for¬ 
merly on that account supposed to be useful 
in diseases of that organ. 

BEL'LOWS (bloivan, to blow: Sax.), an 
instrument or machine for blowing fire, so 
contrived as to draw in and force out air 
alternately, by enlarging and contracting its 
capacity. It is used with organs and other 
pneumatic instruments, to give them a 
proper supply of air. The air which enters 
the bellows is compressed when they are 
closed, and flows with a velocity propor¬ 
tioned to the force by which it is com¬ 
pressed. Bellows of very great power are 
generally called blowing machines. One of 
the largest known is erected at the smithy 


[bendlet 


in the royal dockyard at Woolwich; it is 
adequate to the supply of air for forty forge- 
fires, amongst which are several for the 
forging of anchors, &c. 

BELL METAL, an alloy which, for large 
bells, is composed of 80 per cent, of copper 
and 20 per cent, of tin. 

BEL-META'LO DIYO'CE (Ital.), in Music, 
an expression for a clear and brilliant-toned 
soprano voice. 

BELTS ( balteus, a belt: Lat.), or FASCiiE, 
in Astronomy, two zones or girdles round 
the planet Jupiter, more lucid than the 
other parts of his body, and terminated by 
parallel straight lines, sometimes broader, 
and sometimes narrower, varying both in 
magnitude and position. 

BELU'GA, the genus of cetaceous mam¬ 
mals, to which the white whale belongs. 
This whale, which yields good oil, inhabits 
the North Sea, and herds of 40 or 50 may 
sometimes be seen. Its usual length is 
from 12 to 18 feet. 

BEL'VEDERE (a fine prospect: Ital.), a 
name given in Italy to the small buildings 
on the tops of palaces or large houses, 
which are ascended for the enjoyment of a 
fine prospect and the advantage of a pure 
air. It is the name also of a part of the 
Vatican, where the famous statue of Apollo 
is placed, and which, on this account, is 
called the Apollo Belvedere. 

BEN, or PEN, a Celtic word, signifying 
rock or mountain. Ben Nevis, Scotland; 
Pen-y-ghent, Yorkshire; Pen-maen-mawr, 
Wales; and Penzance, Cornwall; are ex¬ 
amples. 

BENCH, in Law, a seat of justice, as the 
Queen’s Bench at Westminster. Also, the 
persons sitting on a bench, as a bench of 
magistrates. 

BENCII'ERS, a body of barristers, for¬ 
mally styled Masters of the Bench, in whom 
the management of each inn of court is 
vested. It is a self-elected body, and by it 
calls to the bar are made. The benchers 
have also the power of disbarring any bar¬ 
rister whose conduct may appear to them to 
deserve such a punishment. 

BEND (bendan,to make crooked: Sax.), in 
Heraldry, one of the ten honourable ordina¬ 
ries, drawn from the dexter or right cor¬ 
ner, at the top of the escutcheon, to the 
sinister base, or left corner, at the bottom. 
It is supposed to represent a shoulder-belt, 
or scarf, and to show the bearer to be 
valiant in war. It is sometimes called a 
bend-dexter, to distinguish it from the bend- 
sinister, which is drawn from the left side 
of the shield to the right, and signifies ille¬ 
gitimacy. -Bends, of a ship, are the 

strongest and thickest planks in her sides, 
and are reckoned from the water, first, 
second, or third bend. They have the 
beams, knees, and foot-hooks bolted to 
them, and are the chief strength of the 

grip’s si(^0s. 

BEND'ING (same deriv.), in Seamanship, 
the tying of two ropes or cables together : 
thus, to ‘ bend the cable,’ is to make it fast 
to the ring of the anchor; to ‘ bend the sail,' 
is to make it fast to the yard. 

BEND'LET (a dim. of bend), in Heraldry; 
a little bend which is only half breadth. 












JMenttfic antt 


78 


BENEDICTINES] 


BENEDIC'TINES, a celebrated order of 
monks, who profess to follow the rules of 
St. Benedict. They wear a loose black gown 
with large white sleeves, and on the head 
a cowl ending in a point. They are also 
called black friars. 

BEN'EFICE (beneflcium: Lat.), an eccle¬ 
siastical living, particularly a rectory and a 
vicarage. Bishoprics, deaneries, and pre¬ 
bendaries are usually styled dignities. In 
the middle ages the popes assumed feudal 
rights with reference to ecclesiastical pa¬ 
tronage. The assumption of these aroused 
the jealousy of princes, and was one of the 
circumstances which led to the Reformation. 

BEN'EPIT OP CLER'GY, a privilege, 
originating in a superstitious regard for 
the church, by which the clergy were either 
partially or wholly exempted from the ju¬ 
risdiction of lay tribunals. It extended in 
England only to the case of capital felony, 
and was intended to apply to none but 
clerical felons. But, by the laws of England, 
everyone who could read was considered to 
be a clerk, so that, when the rudiments 
of learning came to be diffused, almost 
overy person became entitled to this privi¬ 
lege. Clerks in orders were by it discharged 
on the felonies to which it was applicable, 
with no other punishment than forfeiture 
of goods, and might claim the privilege as 
often as they chose. Laymen were only al¬ 
lowed to claim their clergy once. By the sta¬ 
tute of 7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 28, it was decreed 
that ‘ benefit of clergy, with respect to per¬ 
sons convicted of felony, shall be abolished.’ 

BE'NE PLA'CITO (Ital.), in Music, a term 
denoting that the performer is to exercise 
his own taste. 

BEN'ZINE, or BEN'ZOLE, a liquid hydro¬ 
carbon, which at 32° F. forms a white crys¬ 
talline mass. It may be obtained by 
distilling benzoic acid with lime, but its 
chief source is coal tar. Having a strong 
affinity for fats it is employed to remove 
grease spots from clothes, &c. 

BEN'ZOIC ACID, a combination of the 
compound radical called benzoyl and oxy¬ 
gen, principally obtained from gum-benzoin 
by sublimation. It is a solid in the form of 
thin plates or feathery crystals, and it 
forms salts with the alkalis and some of 
the metals. 

BEN'ZOIN or BEN'JAM IN, a dry solid 
vegetable substance, a combination of ben¬ 
zoic acid and a resin, of a fragrant smell, 
and produced by an incision in the Sty- 
rax, Benzoin, nat. ord. Styracasece an Indian 
tree. It is brought from the East Indies, 
particularly from Siam and the islands 
of Java and Sumatra, in masses of va¬ 
rious sizes, composed of small granules 
of a whitish or yellowish colour, with a 
purple cast on the surface. It is very in¬ 
flammable, and diffuses a fragrant smell 
while burning, or when rubbed in the hand. 
When the benzoin tree is six years old, the 
natives cut it in several places in an oblique 
direction, and the benzoin flows out in the 
form of a balsamic juice, having a pungent 
taste and an agreeable odour. Benzoin was 
formerly very much esteemed as an expec¬ 
torant, and is still often employed in medi¬ 
cine. A cosmetic is also prepared from it. 


which is much used in France, under the 
title of lait virginal; and the gum is a prin¬ 
cipal ingredient of court plaster, and of 
paregoric elixir.-The Benzoin of the che¬ 

mists is a product obtained on distilling 
bitter almond-oil with lime and oxide of iron. 

BER'BERIS, in Botany, a genus of shrubs 
including the B. vulgaris, the Barberry 
tree, a shrub rising to eight or ten feet 
high, well known as an ornament in our 
gardens. The leaves have a grateful acid 
taste ; the flowers at a distance yield a plea¬ 
sant smell, but very near they are rather 
offensive. The berries are so very acid that 
the birds seldom touch them; they arc 
used in this country as pickles and pre¬ 
serves. The roots of the shrub boiled in 
lye give a fine yellow, which is used in Po¬ 
land for dyeing leather; the bark, with the* 
aid of alum, is used for the same purpose. 

BERGAMOT', or BERGAMOTTE (Nr.), 
an essential oil, obtained from the rind of 
a citron, the Citrus bergamium. It is used 
in perfumery. 

BEB/LIN, a kind of chariot, supposed to 
have obtained its name from the Prussian 
capital, where it was first made. 

BERME, in Fortification, a space of 
ground left between the rampart and the 
moat or fosse, designed to receive the ruins 
of the rampart, and prevent the earth from 
filling the fosse. 

BER'NARDINES, an order of monks, 
founded by Robert, abbot of Moleme, and 
reformed by St. Bernard. They wear a 
white robe with a black scapulary, and when 
they officiate they are clad in a large white 
gown with great sleeves, and a hood of the 
same colour. 

BER'RY ( berig, from beran, to bear: Sax.), 
the popular term for a succulent pulpy fruit, 
containing several seeds or granules, as the 
gooseberry, &c. It is the bacca of botanists. 

BERTH, any situation or place where a 
vessel lies, either at anchor or in a wharf. 

•-An apartment in a ship where a number 

of officers or men mess or reside.-Also, 

the box or place for sleeping at the sides of 
a cabin, or the place for a hammock. 

BER'YL ( berullos: Gr.), in Mineralogy, the 
name of a class of crystallized minerals, to 
which the Emerald and the precious beryl 
belong. They contain about G8 per cent, of 
silica, the rest being chiefly composed of 
alumina and glucina. Common beryl is of 
a light green colour, and found in the East 
Indies, Brazil, Peru, Siberia, &c. It is 
crystallized in six-sided rrisrns, which are 
either perfect or truncated on the edges and 
angles. It is nearly as hard as the topaz ; 
can scarcely be melted without the addition 
of some other substance, but with borax 
fuses easily. It becomes electrical by rub¬ 
bing, and is found in primitive rocks, 
accompanied with quartz, felspar, garnet, 

mica, and topaz.-A beautiful sea-green 

colour for the use of artists is also prepared 
under this name. 

BER'YL-CRYSTAL, a species of crystal, 
which, after a certain kind of prayer termed 
a call, was supposed to have the power of 
showing those who looked into it the past or 
the future. It was a kind of looking-glass 

BE'TEL, the name of a creeping plant a 













79 




Piper, originally confined to the peninsula 
of Malacca, but now spread through India, 
the leaf of which is chewed by high and 
low, by men, women, and children, along 
with slices of the nut of an Areca, a palm, 
and a little lime. A certain degree of 
intoxicating effect is produced, and the 
salivary glands and digestive organs are 
stimulated. The lips, gums, and teeth are 
stained a deep red. ‘ Betel is pungent, 
bitter, aromatic, sweet, alkaline, astrin¬ 
gent, a carminative, a dispeller of phlegm, 
a vermifuge, a sweetener of the breath, an 
ornament of the mouth, a remover of im¬ 
purities, and a kindler of the flame of love! 
O friend I these thirteen properties of betel 
are hard to be met with, even in heaven 1’ 
—Sanslcrit Poem. 

BE'TON, a word borrowed from the 
I French, signifies a strong hydraulic cement 
composed of hydraulic mortar (that is, mor¬ 
tar made from limestone, containing from 
20 to 30 per cent, of silicates of alumina) and 
angular fragments of stone. 

BE'TONY, or BETON'ICA, in Botany, the 
Stachys Betonica, a plant of the nat. ord. 
Labiates. 

BET'TJLACEiE, a nat. ord. of exogenous 
| trees,bearing their male flowers in catkins, 
and comprising two genera, Betula, the 
birches, and Alnus, the alders. The birch 
is applied to a great variety of uses. Its 
wine is drawn, by tapping, from the trunk, 
by the natives of Canada; and, in Europe, 
wine is made from the fruit of the alder, 
i The birch, though the worst of timber, is 
! manufactured into vessels for various do¬ 
mestic uses. Broom-makers use the twigs, 
and lioop-benders the larger branches; the 
trunks are employed in large quantities by 
the turners and the manufacturers of in¬ 
struments of husbandry. It is also used in 
i certain processes of dyeing, and for tanning 
leather. 

BEY'EL (bivius , having two ways : Lett.), 
an instrument for marking particular angles 
on wood or stone; much used by joiners and 

masons.-In Architecture, any angle that 

is not a right angle, or is more or less than 
90 degrees, is termed a bevel; but an angle 
of 45 degrees is called a mitre. 

BEY'EL GEAR, in Mechanics, a kind of 
wheel work, in which the teeth are raised 
on a surface inclined to the plane of the 
wheel. Such gear is employed when it is 
desired to communicate motion in an angu¬ 
lar direction. 

BEY (Turk.), the governor of a country 
or town. The Turks write it begh or beg, 
but pronounce it bey. The word is particu¬ 
larly applied to a lord of a banner, whom 
they call Sangiac-beg or bey. Every pro¬ 
vince in Turkey is divided into seven San- 
giacs, or banners, each of which qualifies a 
bey, and these arc all commanded by the 
governor of the province, whom they also 
call Begler-beg, that is, lord of all the beys 
of the province. 

BEZA'NT (from Byzantium), a round flat 
piece of pure gold, without any impression, 
supposed to have been the current coin of 
Byzantium. In Heraldry, a circle, or. 

BE'ZIL, that part of a ring in which the 
stone is placed. 


[biennials 


BEZ'OAR (pa, against; and zahar, poi¬ 
son : Pers.), a medicinal stone, brought 
from the East and West Indies, which was 
formerly reckoned a sovereign antidote 
against poison. It is found to be a calcu¬ 
lus, or morbid concretion, contained in the 
stomachs of certain animals, and consists, 
for the most part, of bile and resin. The 
great value of the bezoar at one time 
gave rise to many imitations; nor can it 
be wondered at, when we read of its being 
eagerly bought for ten times its weight in 
gold. Hence, other medicines, supposed to 
possess similar virtues, obtained the name 

of bezoardics. - Bezoah is also the name of 

some medicinal preparations. 

BIARTTC'ULATE (bis, twice; and artim - 
lus, a joint: Lat.), consisting of but two 
joints. 

BI'BLE (biblos, a book: Gr.; The Boole, by 
eminence), a name given to the Sacred 
Writings of the Jews and Christians. The 
Old Testament consists of the five books 
called the Pentateuch, and the Historical, 
Poetical, and Prophetic books; the New 
Testament, of the four Gospels, the Acts, 
the Epistles, and the Revelation. The earli¬ 
est version of the Bible is a Greek transla¬ 
tion called the Septuagint, and from this 
other translations have been made. The 
Bible was first printed in English in 1535. 
The present authorised version of the Bible 
was published in 1611, in James I.’s reign. 

BIBLIOG'RAPHY (biblos, a book; and 
graphs, I write: Gr.), the knowledge of 
books as to their several editions, time of 
being printed, and other information tend¬ 
ing to illustrate the history of literature. 

BIB'LIOMANCY (biblos, a book; and 
manteia, prophecy: Gr.), a kind of divina¬ 
tion, performed by means of the Bible, by 
selecting passages of Scripture at hazard, 
and drawing from them indications con¬ 
cerning future events. 

BIBLIOTHE'CA (biblos, a book; and 
tithemi, I place: Gr.), in its original and 
proper sense, denoted a library, or place for 
depositing books. In matters of Literature, 
it means a treatise giving an account of all 
the writers on a certain subject: thus we 
have bibliothecas of Theology, Law, Phi¬ 
losophy, &c. There arc likewise universal 
bibliothecas, which treat indifferently of 
books of all kinds. 

BICAP'SULAR. (bis, twico ; and capsula, 
a small box: Lat.), in Botany, a term ap¬ 
plied to a fruit having two capsules con¬ 
taining seeds. 

BICE, a blue colour, prepared from the 
Lapis Armenius. Bice bears the best body 
of all the bright blues used in common 
work, as house-painting, &c., but it is the 
palest in colour. It works tolerably well, 
but inclines a little to sandy, and therefore 
requires good grinding. Next to ultrama¬ 
rine, which is too dear for general use, it is 
the best of all the blues. 

BICIP'ITAL, or BICIPTTOIJS (bis, twire ; 
and caput, a head: Led.), in Anatomy, a 
term applied to a muscle which has two 
heads or origins; and such a muscle is de¬ 
nominated biceps. 

BIEN'NIALS (bis, twice ; and annus, a 
year : Lat.), in Botany, plants that flourish 






























HLl)t ^ctcntttfc autf 


80 


BIFARIOUS] 


for two years, and then perish; their roots 
and leaves being formed the first year, and 
their fruit the second. 

BIFA'RIOUS ( bifarms, twofold : Lat.), in 
Botany, denotes that the leaves grow only 
on opposite sides of a branch. 

BIF'ID (bifidus, divided into two parts : 
from bis, twice; and findo I cut: Lat.), in 
Botany, an epithet for anything cleft in two. 

BIG'AMY (bis, twice: Lat.; and gamos, 
marriage: Gr.), double marriage, or the 
marrying of a second wife or husband 
while the first is alive, which is felony by 
statute, and the second marriage is abso¬ 
lutely void. 

BIGA'RIUS (Lat., from bigm, a two-horsed 
chariot), in Antiquity, the charioteer of a 
two-horsed chariot. Money or medals 
stamped with this emblem were called 
Mgati. 

BIGEM'IKATE (bis, twice; and gemino, 
I double: Lat.), in Botany, two-forked: 
used of a decompound leaf having a forked 
petiole, with several leaflets at the end of 
each division. 

BIG'OT, a person who is obstinately and 
unreasonably wedded to a particular prac¬ 
tice or opinion; or one who is illiberally 
attached to any form or system of belief. 

BIJU'GOUS ( bijugus, yoked two together: 
from bis, twice; and jugum, a yoke : Lat.), 
in Botany, composed of two pairs of any¬ 
thing. Thus, leaves pinnated with two 
pairs of leaflets. 

BILA'BIATE (bis, twice; and labium, a 
lip: Lat.), in Botany, two-lipped; an epithet 
for the corolla and perianth. 

BILACIN'IATE (bis, twice; and laeinia, 
a lappet: Lat.), a term in Botany applied to 
a leaf when the margin is cut into two 
segments. 

BILAM'ELLATE (bis, twice : and lamella, 
a plate: Lot.), a term in Botany, used to 
denote that the part is of the form of a 
flattened sphere longitudinally bifid. 

BIL'ANDER (bilandre: Fr.), a small mer¬ 
chant vessel with two masts, rigged in a 
peculiar manner, but now rarely used. 

BILAT'ERAL (bis, twice; and lotus, a 
side: Lat.), in a general sense, denotes 
something with two sides. Hence, bilateral 
cognation is kinship both by the father’s 
and mother’s side. 

BIL'BOES, a punishment at sea, answer¬ 
ing to the stocks on land. The offender is 
laid in irons, which are more or less 
ponderous, according to the quality of the 
offence of which he is guilty. 

BILE (bilis: Lat.), ayellowish-green fluid, 
secreted by the liver, part of which is accu¬ 
mulated in the gall-bladder, and the rest is 
conveyed through a canal into the duode¬ 
num, where it helps to convert the chyme 
into chyle. The bile is properly of two kinds, 
which are distinguished by the names of 
cystic and hepatic. The hepatic bile is thin, 
almost insipid, and scarcely coloured; the 
cystic bile is thicker, more coloured, and 
very bitter. The use of the bile is to attenu¬ 
ate the chyle, to mix the oleaginous parts 
of the blood with the aqueous, to stimulate 
the intestines, and in part to change the 
acid of the chyle. 

BIL'IARY CAL'CULI, or gallstones, con¬ 


cretions formed in the gall bladder, or bila 
ducts. 

BIL'IARY DUCTS (ductus, a conducting: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, small canals which con¬ 
vey the bile out of the liver into the hepatic 
duct, which is formed by the blending of 
these canals into one trunk. 

BILINGUAL (bis, twice; and lingua, a 
tongue : Lat,), that which is written in two 
languages. The inscription on the Rosetta 
Stone is bilingual, being in Greek and 
Egyptian, the latter being copied in the 
different characters. 

BILL (bille, to write in a list: Sax.), an 
account of goods sold, with their prices and 

total cost.-A BILL OF EXCHANGE is ail 

order drawn on a person, requesting him to 
pay money to some person assigned by the 
drawer, or to his order, in consideration of 
value received. The person who draws the 
bill is called the drawer; the person to 
whom the request or demand is made, is 
called the drawee, or acceptor, after he has 
accepted it; and the person to whom the 
money is directed to be paid, is called the 
payee. Such a bill is frequently called a 
draft. Bills of exchange are very exten¬ 
sively used in carrying out mercantile 
transactions, and a large body of law has 

grown up respecting them.-A bill of 

entry is a written account of goods entered 
at the custom-house, whether imported or 

intended for exportation.-A bill of 

lading is a written account of goods 
shipped by any person on board of a vessel, 
signed by the master of the vessel, who 
acknowledges the receipt of the goods, and 
promises to deliver them safe at the place 
directed.-A bill of parcels is an ac¬ 

count, given by the seller to the buyer, of 
the several articles purchased, with the 

price of each.- Bill of sale, in Law, 

an instrument in writing, by which the 
transfer of movables is effected. It may 
be either absolute or conditional. In the 
latter case it is usually a kind of mort¬ 
gage given to secure payment of a debt, 
or repayment of a loan. To be valid against 
other creditors, a bill of sale must be re¬ 
gistered within twenty-one days from the 
making thereof. If the goods assigned 
by a registered or unregistered bill of sale 
should continue in the possession of the 
original owner, they will, upon his bank¬ 
ruptcy, pass to the assignees for the general 

benefit of the creditors.-A bill of 

health is a certificate, signed by the pro¬ 
per authorities, given to masters of ships 
leaving ports suspected of being infected 
with particular diseases. It is of three 
kinds, clean, foul, and injected: each states 

the condition of the ship on sailing.- Bill 

of Rights, the declaration delivered by the 
two houses of parliament to the prince of 
Orange, February 13,1G88, on his accession 
to the throne, stating what acts of James II. 
were illegal, and asserting the rights and 
privileges of the people.- Bill, in parlia¬ 

ment, an instrument drawn up by any 
member, and presented to parliament for 
its approbation or rejection. Should it be 
passed into a law, it then becomes an act of 

parliament.- Bill of exceptions ; at a 

trial at nisi prius, if the judge is thought to 












SI 


Hfterarg Cm£ttr£j, 


make a mistake in Alie law, counsel may- 
tender his objections to the judge’s ruling, 
and require him to sign a bill of exceptions, 
which may be afterwards argued before a 
Court of Error. 

BILLS OF MORTA'LITY, annual regis¬ 
ters of the deaths and burials which for¬ 
merly took place in and near London. These 
bills were first commenced in 1592, during 
the period of a great pestilence, when they 
included 109 parishes, but were not kept 
regularly until 1603. The ages at which 
deaths occur were not inserted until 1728. 

BI'FTARY ARITHMETIC ( binaire: Fr.; 
from binus, by twos: Lut.), that in which 
two figures or characters, viz. 1 and 0, only, 
are used; the cipher multiplying every¬ 
thing by 2, as in the common arithmetic 
by 10: thus, 1 is 1, 10 is 2, 11 is 3, 100 is 
4, 101 is 5, 110 is 6, 111 is 7, 1000 is 8, 1001 
is 9,1010 is 10 ; being founded on the same 
principles as common arithmetic. This 
species of arithmetic was invented by Leib¬ 
nitz, who asserts that it is more expeditious 
than common arithmetic in discovering the 
properties of numbers, and in extensive 

tabular calculations.- Binary Stars, two 

stars revolving about each other in regular 
orbits. They are to be distinguished from 
double stars which may be only optically 
so. Upwards of a hundred binary systems 
have been discovered. [See Stars.] 

BIN'NACLE, or BIT'TACLE ( liabitacle, 
a small dwelling: Fr.), a wooden case, con¬ 
taining the steering compass on board a 
ship. It is fixed near the tiller or wheel, 
and is lighted at night. 

BINOC'ULAR (pis, twice; and oculus, an 
eye: Lat.), capable of being used by both 

eyes at once.- Binocular Telescope, a 

kind of dioptric telescope fitted with two 
tubes, joined in such a manner that one 
may see a distant object with both eyes at 
the same time. Opera glasses are frequently 
made in this form.- Binocular Micro¬ 

scope, an instrument with a tube for each 
eye, employed to obtain stereoscopic views 
of magnified objects. Several plans have 
been contrived, but that which has been 
most successfully carried out in this country 
is Mr. Wenham’s. A small prism is intro¬ 
duced immediately above the object-glass. 
One half of the rays from the object take 
the usual course, whilst the other half are 
reflected by the prism into the second 
tube. 

BINO'MIAL (bis, twice; and nomen, a 
name: Lat.), a term in Algebra for any 
quantity consisting of two names or terms, 
connected together by the sign + or —. 
Thus a + b and 8-3 are binomials, one 
consisting of the sum, and the other of the 
difference of two quantities. 

BIOG'RAPHY (bios, life ; and grapho, I 
write : Gr.), the story of an individual’s life. 
When -written by himself it is an auto¬ 
biography (autos', himself: Gr.). 

BIOL'OGY (bios, life ; logos, a discourse : 
Gr.), that branch of scientific enquiry which 
is concerned with the nature and relations 
of living bodies. The discovery of the laws 
by which the beings of the organic world 
are governed is the object in view. 

BIPARTITE (bis, twice; and partitas, 


[BISHOP 


divided: Lat.), an epithet for anything 
divided into two parts. 

BIQUAD'RATE (bis, twice; and quad- 
ratus, squared: Lat.), in Algebra, an obso¬ 
lete term for the square of the square. 
16 is the biquadratic power of 2 ; for 2X2 
is 4, and 4 x 4 is equal to 16. The biqua¬ 
dratic root of a number is the square root 
of its square root: thus the biquadratic root 
of 81 is 3; for the square root of 81 is 9, and 
the square root of 9 is 3. A biquadratic 
equation is an equation where the unknown 
quantity of one of the terms has four di¬ 
mensions.-A biquadratic parabola, in 

Geometry, is a curve line of the third order, 
having two infinite legs tending the same 
way. 

BIQUIN'TILE (bis, twice; and quintilis, 
the fifth : Lat.), in Astronomy, an aspect of 
the planets, when they are distant from 
each other by twice the fifth part of a great 
circle, that is, 144 degrees. 

BIRDS. [See Ornithology.] 

BIRD'-BOLT (bolis, a missile: Gr.), a 
small arrow with three heads, which was 
discharged at birds from a cross-bow. The 
bird-bolt is still used as a bearing in coat 
armour. 

BIRD'LIME (Sax.), a glutinous substance, 
made of the bark of holly, which is spread 
on the twigs of trees to catch birds. 

BIRDS’-NEST, Edible, the nest of the 
Eirundo esculenta or Indian swallow, a 
Chinese delicacy used in soups. Vast num¬ 
bers of these birds are seen on the sea- 
coasts of China, at certain seasons of the 
year: they leave the inland country at 
their breeding time, to build in the rocks 
on the coast. At one time it was thought 
that sea-weed furnished them with the 
matter of the nests; but it is now known 
that it is secreted by the birds themselves. 
The nests are of a hemispherical figure, of 
the size of a goose’s egg, and in substance 
much resemble isinglass. They are es¬ 
teemed a great luxury, and sell at a high 
price. [See Swallow.] 

BISH'OP (biscop: Sax.; from episcopos, 
an overseer: Gr.), a prelate, or person con¬ 
secrated for the spiritual government of a 
diocese. In Great Britain, bishops are no¬ 
minated by the sovereign, who, upon re¬ 
quest of the dean and chapter for leave to 
elect a bishop, sends a congt d'elirc, or 
licence to elect, with a letter missive, nomi¬ 
nating the person whom he would have 
chosen. This recommendation is equivalent 
to a command; it cannot be neglected 
without incurring a preemunire. The elec¬ 
tion by the chapter must be made within 
twelve days, or the king has a right to ap¬ 
point whom he pleases. The jurisdiction 
of a bishop of the Church of England con¬ 
sists in collating benefices, granting insti¬ 
tutions, commanding inductions, taking 
care of the profits of vacant benefices for 
the use of the successors, consecrating 
churches and chapels, ordaining priests and 
deacons, confirming after baptism, &c.; 
these functions depend upon the ecclesias¬ 
tical law. A bishop of the Church of Eng¬ 
land, with an English diocese, is a peer of 
the realm (except in the case of the bishop 
last appointed), and he has a seat in the 

G 











bishop’s court] 


<£f )t ^rtmttCu antf 


82 


House of Lords By virtue of a Barony 
which he is supposed to have. He is styled 
‘ Right Reverend Father in God,’ and ad¬ 
dressed as * My Lord.’ 

BISHOP’S COURT, an ecclesiastical court 
in each diocese, the judge of which is the 
Bishop’s chancellor, who decides_ By the 
civil and canon law; and if the diocese is 
large, he lias his commissaries in distant 
parts, who hold what are called consistory 
courts, for matters limited to them By their 
commission. 

BIS'MUTH (torn.), one of the metals, of 
a reddish or yellowish-white colour, and a 
crystalline structure. It is moderately 
hard, and so Brittle that it not only Breaks 
into pieces under the strokes of the ham¬ 
mer, But may even Be Beat into powder. 
It melts at about 500° F. When strongly 
heated, it volatilizes, and at a higher tem¬ 
perature Burns with a Blue flame. Its 
specific gravity is 9‘9. Bismuth is more 
commonly found in a native state than any 
other metal. Most metallic substances 
unite with Bismuth, and are rendered By it 
more fusible than Before: hence it is used 
in making solder, printer’s types, pewter, 
&c. An alloy of 8 parts of Bismuth, 5 of 
lead, and 3 of tin, melts Below the tempera¬ 
ture of Boiling water, and is known as 
fusible metal. 

BIS'ON (a Buffalo: (Jr.), in Zoology, the 
Bison Americanus, often erroneously 
termed the Buffalo. It has short Black 
horns, very wide at the Base; and on the 
shoulders is a large hunch, consisting of a 
fleshy substance, which, with the head, is 
covered with a long undulated fleece, di¬ 
vided into locks. In winter, the whole 
Body is covered in this manner ; But in 
summer, the hind part of the Body is naked. 
The tail is about a foot long, with a tuft of 
hair at the end. The fore parts of the Body 
are very thick and strong; But the hind 
parts are slender and weak. The Bison 
inhabits the interior of North America, 
and congregates in vast herds on the 
prairies. It is a congener of the European 
Bonassus. 

BISSEXTILE (bissextilis: from bis, twice; 
and sextus, the sixth: Lat.), or Leap- 
year, a year happening every fourth year, 
and every fourth hundredth year, and con¬ 
sisting of 366 days, on account of the ad¬ 
dition of a day in the month of February, 
which then consists of 29 days. This day 
is added to include the nearly six hours 
which the sun takes up in his course. Be¬ 
sides the 365 days allowed for it in other 
years. According to" the Roman method 
of counting the days of the months, the 
24 th of February was called Sexto Calendas 
Martii (the sixth day Before the calends 
of March): and when the calendar was cor¬ 
rected By J. Caesar, the day added every 
fourth year was inserted in February; But 
to prevent interruption in the order of 
counting the days, the 24th of February was 
taken twice, the inserted day being named 
bis sexto Calendas Martii (the second sixth 
day before the calends of March). As the 
year does not consist of quite six hours 
more than 365 days, adding a whole day every 
fourth year would gradually cause another 


error, like that removed 'ey the Gregorian 
correction [see Calendar]; and to prevent 
this, only the hundredth years whose num¬ 
bers are divisible By 4, are leap-years. Thus, 
1600 was a leap-year Because 16 is divisible 
By 4; 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap-years, 
since 17,18, and 19 are not divisible By 4 ; 
But 2000 will Be a leap-year, since 20 is divi 
sible By 4. 

BIS'TORT, or Snalcc-xceed, a species of 
Polygonum (P. bistort a), the roots of which 
afford an astringent decoction, which is 
variously applied in medicine. 

BIS'TOURY, a small surgical knife of 
various forms, according to the purpose 
for which it is intended. 

BIS'TRE, or BIS'TER, a pigment pre¬ 
pared from the soot of wood, especially the 
roots of Beech. 

BISUL'PHURET (bis, twice; and sulplm- 
ret), in Chemistry, a sulphuret with a double 
proportion of sulphur. 

BIT (bitan, to make an incision : Avg. 
Sax.; when used for the iron of the Bridle, 
it comes from bite), in Carpentry, a Boring 
instrument, so constructed that it may Be 

taken out of the handle.-Also, the iron 

attached to the Bridle, which is put into the 
horse’s mouth. 

BITT, a sea term for the two upright 
pieces of timber, with a cross piece, to 
which the anchor cable, ropes, &c., are at¬ 
tached. 

BIT'TERS, preparations from plants con¬ 
taining Bitter principles, such as gentian. 
Bitters are accounted stomachic and cleans¬ 
ing, and are considered to assist digestion ; 
But their frequent use is injurious. 

BIT'TERN, in Ornithology, the English 
name of the Ardea stellaris ; it is about the 
size of the common heron. It haunts 
marshy places, and feeds at night. During 
the Breeding season it makes a loud Boom¬ 
ing noise. It is allied to the storks and 

herons.- Bittern (from its taste), in the 

salt works, is tlse Brine remaining after the 
common salt is removed. It is used in the 
preparation of Epsom salt, the sulphate of 
magnesia, and of Glauber’s salt, the sulphate 
of soda. 

BITTER-SWEET, or Woody Nightshade, 
the Solanum Dulcamara of botanists, a 
British wild plant, with narcotic foliage, 
and dangerous Berries. 

BITU'MEN (Lat.; from pitta, pitch: Gr.), 
a combustible mineral, which is greasy to 
the touch, and if ignited emits a strong 
odour. True Bitumen discloses no trace of 
organic structure, But it was probably de¬ 
rived from deposits of coal By the action of 
subterranean heat. A sphaltum is a form cf 
Bitumen, and mineral caoutchouc, or elastic 
Bitumen, is another. Mineral tar is soft bi¬ 
tumen, and the liquids petroleum and 
naphtha are essentially the same substance. 

BI'YALYE (bis, twice; and valva, the 
fold of a door: Lat.), an epithet given to 
molluscs which have two shells like the 
oyster and cockle, and also to such seed- 
pods as split in two through their whole 
length like the pods of the Bean and pea. 

BIY'OUAC, in Military affairs, a night- 
guard, performed by the whole army, when 
there is any apprehension of danger from 



















S3 ?Utev<U'D CvtiUaurj). [blast-furnacb 


the enemy; or an encampment in the open 
air. 

BIX'A (South Amer.), in Botany, a genus 
of plants, nat. ord. Flacourliacecc, including 
the tree from which the colouring matter 
called Annotto is obtained. 

BLACK (blac: Sax.). Nearly all the rays 
which fall on black bodies are absorbed, in¬ 
stead of being reflected, hence the sensation 
of blackness. There are several species of 
black used in painting ; as Frankfort black, 
of which there are two sorts, one a natural 
earth inclining to blue, and the other made 
from the lees of wine, &c., burnt, washed, 
and ground : lamp black, the smoke of resin, 
prepared by heating the resin in iron 
vessels; ivory black, made of burnt ivory, 
and used in miniatures; Spanish black, 
made of burnt cork, and first used by the 
Spaniards. 

BLACK'-BOOK, abook kept in the exche¬ 
quer of England, containing a description 
of that court, its oflices, ranks, privileges, 
perquisites, and jurisdiction, with the re- 
! venues of the crown, in money, grain, and 
cattle. It is said to have been composed in 

1175, by Gervais of Tilbury.- Black-book, 

; that compiled by the visitors under Henry 
1 VIII., giving an account of the enormities 
I committed in convents. 

BLACK'-CAP, a British song-bird, the 
Motacilla atricapilla, or mock-nightingale; 
so called from its black crown. 

BLACK DEATH, the name given to a 
frightful epidemic, which in the fourteenth 
century swept away one quarter of the 
population of the old world within four 
years (1347-1350); and in England carried off 
one-half of the inhabitants. Altogether it is 
estimated that 25 millions of persons died. 
It originated in the East, and being attended 
with the breaking out of black spots over 
the body.it received the name which stands 
at the head of this article. The tongue and 
mouth also became black, whilst inflam¬ 
matory boils appeared in great numbers. 
The pestilence was highly contagious, and 
almost everyone attacked died at farthest 
in three or four days, and many did not 
live more than twelve hours. Even dogs, 
cats, and other animals fell victims. The 
only king who died of it was Alphonso XI. 
of Castille. Boccaccio, in his ‘ Decameron,’ 
has given a vivid description of the pesti¬ 
lence at Florence. 

BLACK LEAD, otherwise called Plum¬ 
bago and Graphite, is a mineral substance, 
composed almost entirely of carbon, with a 
minute quantity of iron intermixed. It is 
used in making pencils, in forming a com¬ 
position for crucibles, and in covering the 
surface of iron utensils to preserve them 
from rust and give them a good appearance. 
It has a dark iron-black colour, a metallic 
lustre, and a thin slaty fracture; it is found 
in separate loose pieces of a fine grain, 
which are very soft, and leave, as is well 
known, dark traces on paper by friction. 
It is obtained chiefly in Cumberland, and 
forms a very valuable article of commerce. 
Recently a large deposit has been found in 
Siberia. 

BLACK'-LETTEIt, the old English, or 
modern Gothic characters, introduced into 


England about the middle of the fourteenth 
century ; the character generally used in 
manuscripts before the art of printing was 
publicly practised. . 

BLACK'-MAIL ( mail rent, from an old 
kind of small money, called maille), a cer¬ 
tain rate of money, corn, or cattle, anciently 
paid, in the north of England, and in Scot¬ 
land, to certain persons connected with the 
moss-troopers or robbers, to be protected 
by them from pillage. 

BLACK'-THORN, or Slor-tree, the Pm- 
nus spinosa of botanists. It is much used 
for hedges, its branches being armed with 
sharp strong spines. 

BLAD'DER ( blceclr: Any. Sax.), a thin 
membranous bag in animals, serving as the 
receptacle of some liquid: as the urinary 
bladder, gall bladder, &c. 

BLANCHIM'ETER (&lancfteur,whiteness: 
Fr.; and metreo, I measure: Gr.), an instru¬ 
ment for measuring the bleaching power of 
chloride of lime, &c. 

BLANCH'ING ( blancliir, to whiten : Fr.), 
the art of making anything white, as (in 
Cookery) the blanching or peeling of al¬ 
monds, or, as (in Horticulture) the method 
of whitening salads. Blanching money is 
the annealing, boiling, and cleansing it 
when it is coined. Copper is blanched in 
various ways, so as to make it resemble 
silver. Blanching is also the operation of 
covering iron plates with a thin coat or 
crust of tin. 

BLANK (blanc, white: Fr.), a void space 
in any writing or printing. The word is 
applied in various ways, usually in the sense 
of destitution, or emptiness. 

BLAN'KET (blanchet: Fr.), a warm wool¬ 
len stuff, light and loosely woven; chiefly 

used in bedding. -Blankets, a sea term 

for combustibles made of coarse brown 
paper steeped in nitre, dried, and then 
steeped in tallow, resin, and sulphur. They 
are used in fire-ships. 

BLANK TERSE, in Poetry, that which is 
without rhyme. 

BLAST'-FURNACE, a large conical or 
quadrangular building, used at iron works 
for smelting iron-stones and ores. The 
outer stack is composed of stone or brick, 
covering a casing of masonry 14 inches 
thick, which, when the furnace requires to 
be renewed inside, can be taken down and 
rebuilt without injuring the outer fabric. 
A space of about six inches is compactly 
rammed with river sand, which is a bad 
conductor of heat. Lastly, there is a coating 
of fire-brick 14 inches tiiick. The total 
height is from 40 to 50 feet. When in full 
work it will contain 100 tons of material. A 
powerful blast of air is sent in at several 
places through tubes called tuyeres. One of 
the greatest improvements ever made in 
the manufacture of iron was the use of the 
hot blast, the effect of which, in fusing re¬ 
fractory lumps of cast iron, was discovered 
by accident about the year 1827. It is evi¬ 
dent that a large quantity of cold air thrown 
upon a body at a high temperature must 
have an enormous cooling effect. The use 
of the hot blast causes a great saving, by 
allowing the use of coal where coke was 
formerly employed: and refractory ores not 


































S5 


ILitcrary Creatfui’y* 


with water; and 2, a great number of mi¬ 
nute discs which make up the red part of 
tlio blood; though under the microscope 
they are pale and transparent. In most of 
the mammalia, these corpuscles are round 
discs ; in the reptiles they are elliptical. As 
to the circulation of the blood, see Auricle 
and Heart.-Blood, in Law, the rela¬ 

tionship required In descent of lands ; for 
a person must be next and most worthy of 
blood in order to inherit his ancestor’s es¬ 
tate. A kinsman of the whole blood, is one 
who descends from the same couple of an¬ 
cestors ; of the half blood, one who descends 
from one of them only. 

BLOOD'-HORSE, one belonging to the 
breed of horses originally from the Arabian 
stock, the excellence of which consists in 
compactness of fibre, that adds to strength 
without increasing bulk. 

BLOOD'HOUND, a hunting dog, of such 
exquisite scent that it will follow the track 
of men as well as of the lower animals. It 
is the Canis sagax of Linnaeus. 

BLOOM, a mass of iron which has under¬ 
gone the first hammering, called blomary. 

BLOW'ING MACHI'NES. The earliest and 
still a very usual form of blowing machine, 
is some modification of the ordinary bellows. 
When a constant blast is required, a receiver 
for the air, independent of the mere bellows, 
properly so called, is required; as in the 
smith’s bellows. A very powerful kind of 
blowing machine consists of a cast-iron 
cylinder like that of a steam-engine, a 
piston, valves, &c. It acts as a large air- 
pump, the air being drawn from the atmo¬ 
sphere, and forced to where it is wanted by 
the arrangement of tubes and valves. The 
fan is another and very convenient form 
of blowing machine. A wheel, consisting of 
leaves instead of spokes, is put into rapid 
motion. The air which is drawn into the 
centre of the machine by the vacuum pro¬ 
duced within it, is driven out through an 
aperture made for the purpose, by the tan¬ 
gential force caused by rapid rotation; and 
it passes with great velocity through a tube 
intended to convey it where it is to be used. 

BLOW'PIPE, in Chemistry and Mine¬ 
ralogy, a wind apparatus used to increase 
the heat of a candle or lamp, in the same 
| manner as a pair of bellows is employed for 
raising the temperature of a common fire 
or furnace. It is made of brass; and its 
most simple form is that of a tapering 
tube, about eight inches in length, and 
curved, nearly at right angles, within two 
inches of its smaller extremity, which is 
very slender and has a perfectly round 
aperture. The use of the blowpipe, both to 
the artist for the purpose of enamelling, 
and of softening and soldering small pieces 
of metal, to the glass-blower for making 
thermometers and other glass instruments, 
to the chemist and mineralogist for the 
examination of substances, and indeed 
whenever it is required to subject a small 
body to a strong heat, is very important. 

BLUB'BEIt, the cellular membrane which 
contains the fat or oil of the whale. It 
varies in thickness from eight to twenty 
inches. The oil is extracted by cutting up 
the blubber and placing it on racks above 


[BOILING 


casks into which the oil drains. Sometimes 
as many as 100 tons of oil are obtained 

from a single whale.- Sea-Blubber, a 

vulgar name for some of the Medusidic, 
Sea Jellies. 

BLUE ( blau: Germ.), one of the colours 
into which white light is decompounded 
when refracted through a prism. It is usu¬ 
ally considered one of the three primitive 
colours, out of which all others may be 
formed. Blue, as a colour in painting., is 
distinguished into ultramarine, formerly 
made from the azure stone called lapis la~ 
zuli: Prussian blue, a colour next to u Lira- 
marine for beauty; blue ashes, used in fresco 
and miniature ; blue verditer, a blue some¬ 
what inclined to a green ; and bice, which 
is the palest of all the bright blues. In 
dyeing, the principal ingredients for giving 
a blue colour are indigo and woad. 

BO'A CANI'NA ( caninus, pertaining to a 
dog : Lat.), a snake of South America, of a 
beautiful form, and about four feet long: 
the head of the animal is large and is fur¬ 
nished with long teeth, with which a dan¬ 
gerous bite can be inflicted, although it 
does not possess poison fangs. Its colour j 
is green with white stripes. 

BO'A CONSTHIC'TOR ( constringo, I bind : 
together: Lat.), the largest of the serpents, 
from twenty-five to thirty feet long, very 
ferocious, and so strong that, by coiling 
itself round the bodies of deer and other 
animals, it breaks their bones ; after which 
it swallows them whole. The true boas arc 
from South America; the large serpents 
brought into this country, though called 
boa constrictors, are generally 'pythons, ob¬ 
tained from Asia. 

BOAT'S WAIN, the officer who has the 
boats, sails, anchors, and cables committed 
to his charge, and who directs whatever 
relates to the rigging of a ship. 

BODE, LAW OP, an empirical law, the 
suggestion of which is ascribed to Prof. 
Bode, of Berlin, as to the progressive dis¬ 
tances of the planets from the sun. Taking 
the distance of Mercury from the sun to be 
4, the distance of Venus may be represented 
by 7, that is, 4 plus 3 ; the distance of the 
earth by 10, that is, 4 plus twice 3; the dis¬ 
tance of Mars by 10, that is, 4 plus 4 times 3, 
and so on. This law of progression, how¬ 
ever, is not strictly exact in numerical veri¬ 
fication, and, in the case of Neptune, it is 
strikingly contravened, since its distance 
from Uranus is hardly more than one-fourth 
of what this law would make it. 

BO'DY (bodig: Sax.), in Physics, an ex¬ 
tended solid substance, of itself utterly 
passive and inactive, indifferent either to 

motion or rest.- Bodies, Regular, the 

name of five solids, consisting of the tetra 
liedron, or pyramid, with four triangular 
faces; the hexahedron, or cube, with six 
square faces; the octahedron, with eight 
faces ; the dodecahedron, with twelve; and 
the icosahedron, with twenty faces. 

BOG-ORE, oxide of iron sometimes found 
at the bottom of peat mosses. 

BOIL'ING, or Ebullition ( ebullio, I 
boil up : Lat.). the bubbling up of any fluid. 
The term is most commonly applied to that 
bubbling which happens by the application 
































bole] 


dje Jbctenttffc anU 


86 


of heat; though that which ensues in 
other cases, as on the mixture of an acid 
and carbonate, is sometimes also distin¬ 
guished by the same name. Boiling, in 
general, is occasioned by the discharge of 
an elastic fluid through that which is said 
to boil; and the appearance is the same 
whether it is common air, carbonic acid, or 
steam that passes through the fluid. The 
boiling of water is occasioned by the lower¬ 
most particles being rarefied into vapour on 
account of the vicinity of the bottom of 
the containing vessel to fire. Being greatly 
inferior in specific gravity to the surround¬ 
ing fluid on account of this rarefaction, 
they ascend with great velocity, and, agitat¬ 
ing the body of water in their ascent, give 
it the tumultuous motion called boiling. 
Every liquid has a fixed point at which boil¬ 
ing commences, and this is called the boil¬ 
ing point. Thus water, in ordinary circum¬ 
stances, begins to boil at the temperature 
of 212°. After a liquid has begun to boil, 
it will not become hotter; for although a 
stronger heat makes all liquids boil more 
rapidly, yet it does not increase their tem¬ 
perature, the additional heat being required 
to raise the extra quantity of vapour to the 
same temperature as that of the fluid from 
which it ascends: since gases and vapours 
require a greater amount of heat to keep 
them at a given temperature than fluids or 
solids. The boiling point of ether is 96°, 
that of alcohol is 176°, that of oil of turpen¬ 
tine is 316°, and that of mercury 662°. 

BOLE ( halos , a lump of earth: Gr.), an 
argillaceous earthy mineral, a silicate of 
alumina generally reddened by oxide of iron. 
Boles are soft and unctuous to the touch : 
they adhere to the tongue, and by degrees 
melt in the mouth, producing a slight sense 
of astringenc.y. There is a great variety of 
these earths; which have been found in 
Britain, on the continent of Europe, and in 
India. They are no longer employed medi¬ 
cinally with us. In Germany a red paint is 
made from bole by calcining it. 

BOLE'TUS (Lat.; from bdlites, a mush¬ 
room : Gr.), in Botany, a genus of fungi, one 
species of which, B. eclulis, is esteemed as a 
delicate article of food. 

BOL'L ARDS (bolle, a round body: Germ.), 
large posts set in the ground, on each side 
of a dock: on docking or undocking ships, 
large blocks are lashed to them; and 
through these blocks are reeved the trans¬ 
porting hawsers which are to be brought to 
the capstans. 

BOLO'GNIAN STONE, a sulphate of baryta 
found near Bologna in Italy, which, when 
heated with charcoal, becomes a powerful 
solar phosphorus; giving out light, after 
having been exposed to the sun’s rays. 

BO'LSTER (jpolster, from polstcrn, to 
stuff with hair or feathers: Germ.), a sea 
term, for a piece of timber cut and placed 
for the easement of the cable. 

BOLT, among builders, a strong cylindri¬ 
cal pin of irou or some other metal, used as 
a fastening for doors and windows. Bolts 
are generally distinguished into three kinds, 

viz. plate, round, and spring bolts.-In 

Gunnery, there are prise-bolts transom- 
bolts, traverse bolts, and bracket-bolts.- 


In ships, bolts are used in the sides and 
decks, and have different names, as eye- 
bolts, ring-bolts, chain-bolts, &c. 

BO'LT-HEAD, in Chemistry, a long 
straight-necked glass vessel for distilla¬ 
tions, which being fitted to the alembic or 
still, is called a receiver. 

BO'LUS (halos, a lump of earth : Gr.), in 
Medicine, a very large pill, to be swallowed 
whole. 

BOMB ( bombos , a sound imitative of the 
sense: Gr.), a large shell or ball of cast-iron, 
round and hollow, with a vent to receive a 
fusee, andfllled with combustible materials: 
the fusee, which is inserted in the vent, 
being set on fire, the bomb is ttjrown from 
a mortar, in such a direction as to fall into 
a fort, city, or enemy’s camp, when it bursts 
with great violence, and often with terrible 
effect, blowing into pieces whatever may be 
in its way. At present, it is often made so 
as to explode on striking an object. Bombs, 
or, as they are commonly called, shells, seem 
to have been first used as part of the regu¬ 
lar material of an army, about the year 1C34, 

in the wars of the Netherlands- Bomb- 

chest, a chest filled with bombs, or gun¬ 
powder only, and placed underground, in 
order to effect gi’cat destruction when it 
bursts.—-B omb-ketch, a small vessel con¬ 
structed for throwing bombs into a fortress 
from the sea. 

BOMBAST' ( bombax, an exclamation of 
mock admiration : Gr.), in Literary compo¬ 
sition, an inflated style, by which, in at¬ 
tempting to raise alow or familiar subject 
beyond its rank, the writer seldom fails to 
be ridiculous. 

BOM'BAX ( bombux, a silkworm : Gr.), in 
Botany, a genus which includes the silk 
cotton trees, tropical plants of noble aspect. 
The seeds are enveloped in cottony fibres, 
but they cannot be made use of for spinning. 
They are natives of India and America, and 
belong to the nat. ord. Sterculiacece. 

BOM'BAZINE (same deriv.), a fabric, of 
which the tvarp is silk, and the weft 
worsted. It is generally black, and used 
for mourning. 

BOM'BYX ( bombux: Gr.), in Entomology, 
the genus which includes the common 
Silkworm, B. mori. 

BONAS'SUS ( bonassos: Gr.), or Aurochs, 
the European bison, the Bison Bonassus of 
naturalists, a fierce animal, which is wild 
in the Caucasus and some other parts of 
Europe. 

BOND (Sax.), a legal obligation to perform 
a certain condition under, the penalty of 
paying a sum of money.- Bond, in Car¬ 

pentry, the binding of any two pieces 
together by tenoning, mortising, &c. In 
Masonry, it'is the disposition of stones or 
bricks in a building, so that they are most 

effectually bound to one another.- Bond- 

timbers are the horizontal timbers bedded 
in stone or brick wrnlls for strengthening 
them. 

BONE (ban; Ang. Sax.). The bones aro 
covered with a thin, strong membrane, 
called the periosteum, which has very little 
sensibility in a sound state, but when in¬ 
flamed is extremely sensitive. Bones are 
traversed longitudinally by small canals, 






































87 


Ettcravi? ^ms'urn. 


which contain blood-vessels. Tlicso are 
known as Haversian canals. When a thin 
section of bone is examined under a 
microscope, many dark spots are seen 
with lines radiating from them. These are 
called lacunae and canaliculi. The osseous 
substance is usually arranged in laminae 
concentric with the Haversian canals. In 
the vertebrata, the middle of the long bones 
is filled with marrow. In some birds the 
bones are hollow. From the analysis of 
bones we learn that, although the propor¬ 
tion of ingredients varies in different ani¬ 
mals, the general constituents of bone are 
as follows: 1. Gelatin, obtained by boiling 
rasped or bruised bones in water; 2. Oil or 
fat, separable during the boiliug, by rising 
to tho top of the water, and when cold 
concreting into a suet; 3. Phosphate of 
lime, carbonate of lime, carbonate of mag¬ 
nesia, and fluoride of calcium. Of these 
ingredients the phosphate of lime exists in 
far the greatest abundance, and it is this 
which gives bones their solidity. Man has 
246 bones—the head and face 63, the trunk 

59, the arms 64, and the lower extremities 

60. That part of anatomy which treats of 
the bones is called Osteology. 

BONFTO, a fish of the tunny genus, grow¬ 
ing to the length of three feet, and found 
in the Atlantic Ocean. It is marked with 
four dark bands on each side. 

BON'NET (a cap : Fr.), in Fortification, a 
small work composed of two faces, usually 
raised before the salient angle of the 
counterscarp. 

BONZE, an Indian priest, who wears a 
chaplet of beads about his neck, and 
carries a staff, having a wooden bird at one 
end. The bonzes of China are the priests 
of the Foliists, or sects of Fohi; and it is 
one of their established tenets, that there 
are rewards alloted for the righteous, and 
punishments for the wicked, in the other 
world; and that there are various mansions, 
in which the souls of men will reside, ac¬ 
cording to their different degrees of merit. 
The number of bonzes in China is estimated 
at fifty thousand, and they are represented 
as idle dissolute men. They profess celibacy, 
reside in monasteries, perform penances, 
practise rigorous mortifications, and wear 
long coarse gowns bound with cords, like 
the Franciscans. 

BOO'BY, a species of gannet common on 
the coast of South America, so called from 
its stupid habits. Like the Solan goose, it 
belongs to the genus Sula. 

BOOK (boc: Ang. Sax.), a literary com¬ 
position, designed to communicate some¬ 
thing which the author has invented, ex¬ 
perienced, or collected, to the public; 
being printed, bound in a volume, and 

published for that purpose.-Plates of 

lead and copper, the bark of trees, bricks, 
stone, and wood, were among the first ma¬ 
terials employed to engrave such things 
upon as men were desirous of transmitting 
to posterity. Josephus speaks of two co¬ 
lumns, the one of stone, the other of brick, 
on which the children of Seth wrote their 
inventions and astronomical discoveries: 
Porphyry makes mention of some pillars, 
preserved in Crete, on which the ceremoxjies 


[borax 


practised by the Corybantes in their sacri¬ 
fices were recorded : Hesiod’s works were 
originally written upon tables of lead, and 
deposited in the temple of the Muses, In 
Boeotia: the ten commandments, delivered 
to Moses, were written upon stone; and 
Solon’s laws upon wooden planks. Tables 
of wood, box, and ivory, were common 
among the ancients: when of wood, they 
were frequently covered with wax, that 
people might write on them with more ease, 
or blot out what they had written. The 
loaves of the palm-tree were afterwards 
used instead of wooden planks, and the 
finest and thinnest part of the bark of such 
trees as the lime, the ash, the maple, and 
the elm ; and hence comes the word liber, 
as applied to the inner bark of the trees. 
As these barks were rolled up, that they 
might be removed with greater ease, each 
roll was called volumen, a volume ; a name 
afterwards given to similar rolls of paper 
or parchment. 

BOOK'-BINDING, a very ingenious art, by 
which printed sheets are folded, gathered, 
pressed, sewed together, shielded with mill¬ 
boards, and covered with leather or cloth, 
which is lettered, and ornamented by the 
use of leaf gold and gilding tools. 

BOOK'-KEEPING, the art of registering 
mercantile transactions for reference, state¬ 
ment, and balance; all of which must be so 
clearly done, that the true state of every 
part, and of the whole, may be easily and 
distinctly known. 

BOOM (a tree: Out.), a sea term, for a 
long pole extending along the bottoms of 
particular sails, as the jib-boom, and stud¬ 
ding-sail-boom. -The boom of a harbour is 

a strong iron chain thrown across it, to pre¬ 
vent the entrance of an enemy ; and a fire- 
boom is a strong pole thrown out from a ship 
to prevent the approach of fire-ships, &c. 

BOO'MERANG, a wooden weapon used 
by the natives of Australia, in whose hands 
it performs marvellous feats, though in 
those of a European it is inert and intract¬ 
able. 

BOO'TES ( bodtes, a herdsman; from lous, 
an ox: (fr.), a northern constellation con¬ 
taining Arcturus and 54 other stars. It is 
also known as Charles’s Wain. 

BOItA'CIC ACID, in its native state, ex¬ 
ists in several small lakes in Italy, and in 
certain hot springs, from whose waters it 
is deposited by natural evaporation. 11 is 
also obtained from the mineral called borax. 
The acid, when separated, appears in the 
form of a white, scaly, glittering substance, 
with hexahedral scales, soft and unctuous 
to the touch. Its taste is bitterish, with a 
slight degree of acidity. It is soluble in 
alcohol, which it causes to burn, when set 
on fire, with a green flame surrounded with 
a white one. Boracic acid was discovered 
by Sir Humphry Davy to be a compound of 
a peculiar base, which he called boron, and 
oxygen. 

BO'RACITE (from boron), in Mineralogy, 
a native borate of magnesia ; it is generally 
of a cubic form, and is remarkable for its 
electrical properties. 

BO'ItAX, borate of soda, a native salt 
found in certain waters, and discovered ia 

































borduke] QLl)t autf 


them by its brackish and bitter taste; 
readily separable from them by evaporation, 
and appearing, on a careful solution and 
evaporation, in transparent crystals. It is 
chiefly obtained from Tuscany, where it 
issues from the earth combined with steam. 
It is also found in Thibet and China, and 
imported to this country under the name 
of tincal. Peru supplies a native borate of 
lime, from which it is also obtained. Borax 
makes no effervescence either with acids or 
alkalis; and, when heated, the water of 
crystallization being driven off, what is 
called glass of borax remains. Its use in 
soldering gold and other metals is well 
known. It is employed in metallurgy as a 
flux, and in remelting the small masses of 
gold and silver that are the produce of 
assays; by rubbing it over the vessels in 
which these are to be fused, it fills up all 
their small cavities, and leaves not the 
least roughness on the surface to retain 
any of the melted metal. It is used by 
dyers to give a gloss to silks; and it is 
also employed both as a cosmetic and as a 
medicine. 

BOR'DUItE ( border, to edge: Fr.), in 
Ileraldry, an edging on the shield, having 
a width of about one-fifth of the field; 
serving as a difference in a coat of arms, to 
distinguish families of the same name, or 
persons bearing the same coat. 

BORE, a tidal phenomenon, occurring in 
some rivers that fall into estuaries. It is 
seen at spring tides as a violent rush of 
water up the stream, attended with much 
noise. The Severn, Trent, and Wye are 
subject to bores; but the most remarkable 
exhibition of the phenomenon occurs at the 
mouths of the Ganges and Brahmapootra. 

BO'RING, in Mineralogy, a kind of cir¬ 
cular cutting, or a method of piercing the 
earth with scooping irons, which, when 
drawn out, bring with them samples of the 
different strata through which they have 
passed. By this means the veins of ore or 
coal may be discovered without opening a 

mine.-Boring for water has been very 

successfully practised of late. [See Arte¬ 
sian Wells.] 

BO'RON, an elementary substance, the 
base of boracic acid. It is dark olive- 
coloured, and a non-conductor of electri¬ 
city ; is insoluble in water, and infusible. 
Heated to redness, it burns into boracic acid. 

BOR'OUGH (burg, an enclosed place: Sax.). 
This word originally denoted a fortified city 
or town: but at present it is applied to a 
town or village which possesses certain mu¬ 
nicipal institutions, or the privilege of 
sending burgesses or representatives to 
parliament. By the regulations of the Mu¬ 
nicipal Reform Act, the corporation of a 
borough consists of the mayor, aldermen, 
and councillors, who form the council of 
the borough. The burgesses of the borough 
annually elect one-third of the whole num¬ 
ber of councillors, and every third year 
there is an election of the aldermen to fill 
the place of those retiring,namely,one-lialf 
of the total number. The mayor is annually 
chosen by the aldermen and councillors, 

and he must be one of them.- Borough 

Lag lisu is a customary inheritance of 


lands or tenements, in certain parts of Eng¬ 
land, by which they descend to the youngest 
instead of the eldest son, or, if the owner 
leaves no son, to the youngest brother. 
The custom goes with the land, and cannot 
be altered by any limitation of the parties. 

BORSEL'LA, an instrument with which 
glass-makers contract or extend their 
glasses at pleasure. 

BORS'HOLDER (borough holder, or bo¬ 
rough’s elder), among the Anglo-Saxons, 
one of the lowest magistrates, whose au¬ 
thority extended over only one tithing, or 
community of about ten families. 

BOS (an ox: Lat.), in Zoology, a genus of 
ruminating quadrupeds (.Bovidcc), including 
our common domesticated cattle. 

BOS'SAGE (bosse, anything swollen out: 
Fr.), in Architecture, a term used for any 
stone that has a projecture, and is laid 
rough in a building, to be afterwards carved 
into mouldings, capitals, coats of arms, &c. 

-Bossage is also the name for what is 

otherwise called rustic work, which consists 
of stones that seem to project beyond the 
level of the building, by reason of inden¬ 
tures or channels left in the joinings. It is 
used chiefly in the corners of edifices, form¬ 
ing what are there called rustic quoins. 

BO T'ANY ( botane, an herb : Gr.), that 
branch of natural history which treats of 
plants. It is divisible into: 1. Structural 
Botany, Organography, or Yegctable Ana¬ 
tomy, which has reference to the parts of 
which plants are composed. 2. Physiologi¬ 
cal Botany, which has reference to the pro¬ 
cesses carried on by living plants. 3. Sys¬ 
tematical Botany, or Taxonomy, in which 
the relations of plants to one another are 
considered with a view to their arrange¬ 
ment and classification. Under the first 
the elementary organs or vegetable tissues 
arc studied. All plants originate in, and in 
their simplest state wholly consist of, 
minute vesicles called cells, which are 
formed of an elastic membrane composed 
of cellulose. This is a compound of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. The tissues com¬ 
posed of it, for example the pith, are 
termed cellular or parenchymatous. Cells 
are usually round or oval, but they are 
sometimes prismatical, stellate, and other 
shapes. The other elementary tissue of 
plants is called Vascular, and consists of 
tubes much longer than wide. These are 
probably elaborated out of cells. Woody 
fibre or ligneous tissue is an instance of 
such tubes or elongated cells with thick¬ 
ened walls and pointed ends. All the ves¬ 
sels and channels through which fluids 
flow are composed of vascular tissue vari¬ 
ously arranged. All the organs of plants 
are formed out of these two tissues. Of 
the form and structure of the root, stems, 
and leaves, we have no space to speak here, 
and must refer the reader to treatises on 
botany, and to the articles Root, Aerial 
Roots, Endogens, Exogens, Leaf. 
It may, however, be mentioned that bota¬ 
nists assign the term pliyllotaxis to the 
arrangement of the leaves, with reference 
to the stem from which they spring; and 
the term vernation, is applied to the ar¬ 
rangement of the leaves in the bud. The 















89 mterarg tErcagun). [botany 

corresponding terms anthotaxis or ivflo¬ 
rescence, and aestivation, are given to tlie 
arrangement of the flowers with reference 
to the axis of the plant, and to the arrange¬ 
ment of the parts of the flower to each 
other before it opens. Iteferring now to 
the flower, or that part of the plant where 
the productive organs are situate, we may 
first notice the outer whorl or calyx, usu¬ 
ally consisting of one or more green leaves. 
The blossom or corolla is that beautifully 
coloured part of a flower which principally 
attracts the attention. It is composed of 
one or more petals, or blossom leaves. 
When it consists of one, as in the polyan¬ 
thus or auricula, it is termed monopetalous; 
but if it is composed of more than one, it 
is said to be polypetalous. Sometimes the 
calyx and corolla are so blended together 
that it is not easy to distinguish them, as in 
the lily and iris,and then the term perianth 
is applied to the whole. Sometimes neither 
calyx nor corolla is present, and the flower 
is then said to be naked or achlamy- 
dcous. If there is only one floral envelope, 
that is either calyx or corolla, the flower is 
termed monochlamydeous. The stamens are 
slender thread-like substances, placed with¬ 
in the blossom, and surrounding the pistil. 
They are composed of two parts—the fila¬ 
ment or thread, and the anther or tip ; but 
the latter is the essential part, as it con¬ 
tains the pollen, the fructifying principle 
which bursts forth in the form of a line 
powder. This falling upon the stigma 
causes the ovary to produce fertile seed. 
A pistil consists of three parts, the germen 
or ovarium, the style or shaft, and the 
summit or stigma ; but the second is often 
wanting. Some flowers have only one 
pistil; others have two, three, or more. 
The seed-vessel, in the newly opening 
flower, is called the ovary; but when it 
enlarges it is termed the seed-vessel. Some 
plants have no appendage of the kind, and 
then the seeds are uncovered, as in the 
dead nettle. The cup, however, usually 
encloses and retains the seeds till they 
ripen ; and, in the tribe of grasses, this 
office is generally performed by what was 
previously called the blossom. Nectaries 
are those parts in a flower which usually 
contain a sweet nectarious liquor. They 
have generally the shape of spurs, but the 
name has been often extended to various 
unusual parts which have nothing to do 
with the secretion of honey. The recep¬ 
tacle is the seat or base to which the various 
divisions of a flower are affixed. Thus, if 
you pull off the calyx, the blossom, the 
Giamcns, the pistils, and the seeds or seed- 
vessels of a daisy, the body remaining on 
the top of the stalk is the receptacle. 

Although the Linnsean system of arrange¬ 
ment has been abandoned for a natural 
classification, it is too intimately connected 
with the literature of botany to be altoge¬ 
ther passed over, and we therefore give an 
outline of it. He divided all known plants 
into twenty-four Classes, distinguishing 
them according to the number or situation 
of the stamens, filaments, anthers, or male 
and female flowers in each plant, as fol¬ 
lows 

1. Monandria, plants having one stamen. 

2. Diandria .two stamens. 

3. Triandria .three stamens. 

4. Tetrandria .four stamens. 

5. Pentandria .five stamens. 

6. Jlexandria .six stamens. 

7. Ileptandria .seven stamens. 

8. Octandria .eight stamens. 

9. Enneandria .nine stamens. 

10. Decandria .ten stamens. 

11. Dodecandria, from eleven to seventeen 

stamens. 

12. Icosandria, many stamens inserted in 

the calyx. 

13. Polyandria, twenty stamens and up¬ 

wards, inserted in the receptacle. 

14. Didynamia, four stamens in one flower, 

two longer than the rest. 

15. Petr adynamia, six stamens, two shorter 

than the rest. 

16. Monodclphia, the filaments connected in 

the form of a tube. 

17. Diadelphia, the filaments forming two 

parcels. 

18. Polyadelphia, the filaments forming se¬ 

veral parcels. 

19. Syngenesia, the anthers formed into a 

tube. 

20. Gynandria, the stamens united with the 

pistil. 

21. Moncecia, stamens and pistils in separate 

flowers, but in one plant. 

22. Dicecia, stamens and pistils in separate 

plants. 

23. Polygamia, stamens and pistils separate 

in some flowers, and united in others, 
either in the same plant, or in two or 
three different ones. 

24. Cryptogamia, flowers inconspicuous, or 

invisible to the naked eye. 

The Orders, or subdivisions of the classes, 
from class 1 to 13 inclusive, are marked by 
the number of styles or pistils in each 
plant; as monogynia, where there is but one 
pistil; and digynia, trigynia, tetragynia, &c., 
for two, three, four, or more pistils. In 
the 14th class, when the seeds are naked, 
the term gymnospermia denotes the order; 
when contained in a pericarp, angiospermia. 

In the 15th class, when the seeds are con¬ 
tained in a silique of different sizes, they 
are termed siliquosce, if the pods are long; 
and siliculosce, if they are short. The orders 
of the 16th, 17th, and 18th classes are 
marked by the number of stamens in each 
plant. The orders of the Syngenesia are 
determined by the arrangement of their 
flowers, and the sex of their florets. The 
orders of the 20th, 21st, and 22nd classes are 
distinguished by the number, &c. of tlio 
stamens. The two orders of the 23rd class 
depend on whether the genera are monoe¬ 
cious or dioecious. The last class, Crypto¬ 
gamia, is divided into Filices, or ferns ; 
Musci, or mosses; Algce, or sea-weeds; and 
the different families of Fungi. Such an 
arrangement was evidently too artificial to 
continue in use after the study of anatomy 
and physiology had afforded data for a more 
philosophical classification. Many attempts 
have been made at such a classification, but 
no oiie has yet been proposed which has 
met with general acceptance. The follow¬ 
ing may be taken as one of the best. Plants 

-—-—-—--- 































BOTARGo] 


autf 


90 


are divided into three grand classes, of 
which the first contains the Acotyledones, 
or those which are destitute of seed-lohes. 
Such are the plants usually termed crypto¬ 
gam ic, and they may be separated into two 
sub-classes : 1. Those composed entirely of 
cellular tissue, such as lichens, fungi, and 
sea-weeds. 2. Thosehavinga certain amount 
of vascular tissue along with cellular tis¬ 
sue, such as ferns and mosses. 

The second class consists of Monocotyle- 
donous (having one seed-lobe) or Endo¬ 
genous plants, the latter term referring to 
the mode in which the wood grows, the ex¬ 
terior being the hardest part, and there 
being no true pith. There are three sub¬ 
classes. 1. Glumacece, the grass tribe. 
2. Fetaloidece, plants with whorled floral en¬ 
velopes, and leaves with parallel veins, 
including the orchid, iris, lily, palm, arum, 
and other orders. 3. Dictyogence, plants 
having whorled floral envelopes, and leaves 
with netted veins, including the yam, 
smilax, &c. The third class is composed of 
Dicotyledonous (having two seed-lobes) or 
Exogenous plants. These increase by addi¬ 
tions at the outside, the hardest part being 
within. The sub-classes are: 1 . Monochla- 
mydece, plants with either no floral enve¬ 
lope, or one of a single whorl. Here are 
placed the Gyninospermce, plants with naked 
ovules, which are fertilised by the direct 
application of pollen, without the interven¬ 
tion of a stigma, such as the Coniferous 
tribes, pines, cedars, larches, &c.; and the 
Ang'iospermw, plants with seeds contained 
in an ovary, and fertilized by pollen acting 
on a stigma. Here are placed numerous 
orders, including the laurels, begonias, 
euphorbias, elms, and figs, as well as the 
catkin bearing plants, such as the Willow, 
poplar, birch, plane, beech, chestnut, and 
oak. 2. Corolliflorce, plants having a calyx 
and a monopetalous corolla, which bears 
the stamens. A number of important 
orders fall into this sub-class, of which the 
salvia, verbena, primrose, convolvulus, and 
campanula, may be taken as examples. 3. 
Calyciflorce, plants having a calyx, and a 
polypetalous corolla, with stamens attached 
to the calyx. Here, also, are placed many 
orders, including those to which the pea 
and bean, the rose, myrtle, house leek, and 
carrot belong. 4. Thalamiflorcs, plants hav¬ 
ing a calyx and a polypetalous corolla, 
with stamens which are inserted below the 
pistil. The water-lily, poppy, geranium, 
and all the cruciferous order may be cited 
as examples. 

Several important orders of plants are 
noticed in various parts of this work, and 
the reader may consult the articles Acoty- 
LEDONS, ACROGENS, BULB, DICOTYLEDONS, 

Monocotyledons, Endogens, Exogens, 
Hoot, and Aerial Roots. 

BOTAR'GO, a kind of sausage, made of 
the roe of the mullet: it is much used on 
the Mediterranean coast as an incentive to 
drink. 

BO'TRYOLITE ( botrus , a bunch of 
grapes; and lithos, a stone: Gr.), in Mine¬ 
ralogy, a variety of silicious borate of lime, 
which occurs in botryoidal concretions in a 
bed of magnetic iron in gneiss, near Arun¬ 


del, and in Norway. Its colours are grey, 
reddish-white, and pale rose-red; and form 
concentric stripes. 

BOTS, small worms found in the intes¬ 
tines of horses. They are the larva} of a 
kind of gad-fly, the Gasterophilus equi of en¬ 
tomologists, a dipterous insect, which de¬ 
posits its eggs on the tips of the hairs, 
generally of the fore-legs and mane, 
whence they are taken into the moutli 
and swallowed. 

BOT'TOMRY (botin, the low r est place: 
Sax.), in Commerce, the act of borrowing 
money upon the keel or bottom of a ship ; 
that is, the ship itself is pledged as security 
for the repayment of the money. If the 
ship is lost, the lender loses the money; but 
if the ship arrives safe, he is to receive the 
money lent, with the interest or premium 
stipulated, although it may exceed the legal 
rate of interest. 

BOU'GIE (Fr.), a slender flexible tube 
intended for introduction into the urethra, 
oesophagus, or rectum, when those pas¬ 
sages are obstructed by stricture or other 

disease 

BOU'LDERS, in Geology, large frag¬ 
ments of rock, either angular or rounded, I 
lying detached on the surface of the earth, 
and evidently brought from a distance. 
They are believed to have been transported 
to their present sites by means of ice. They 
belong to a late geological period, and 
form part of what is termed the boulder 
formation. 

BOUL'TINE, in Architecture, a convex 
moulding nearly the quarter of a circle; 
more usually called the egg or quarter 
round. It is placed next below the plinth 
in the Tuscan and Doric capital. 

BOURGEOIS, a small kind of printing 
type, between long-primer and brevier. The i| 
type used in this work is four sizes smaller 
than bourgeois. 

BOURSE (Fr.), on the continent of j 
Europe, the name of an exchange, the 
building where merchants meet for the 
transaction of business. 

BOUSTROPIIE'DON (turning like plough¬ 
ing oxen : Gr.), a term given to an ancient il 
manner of writing, in which the lines are 1 
alternately to be read from right to left, 
andfrom left to right, as furrows are traced 
by the plough. The celebrated Sigean in¬ 
scription and some other ancient Greek in¬ 
scriptions in the British Museum have been 
cut in this manner. 

BOUTS-RIME'S (Fr.), a term for certain 
rhymes disposed in order, and given to a 
poet, together with a subject, to be filled up 
with verses ending in the same words and 
in the same order. 

BOW (past tense of to bend: Sax.), 

an instrument of war and hunting, formed 
of wood or other elastic material, which, 
after being bent by means of a string fas¬ 
tened to its two ends, throws out an arrow 
with great force and velocity. The bow is 
still used as a weapon of offence by many of 
the inhabitants of Asia, Africa, and Ame¬ 
rica; and in Europe, before the invention 
of fire-arms, a part of the infautry was 
armed with bows, which were made of the 
yew-tree or ash, and were of the height of 







































91 


mtsrary Cmrfur4j. 


the archer. For several centuries the long¬ 
bow was the favourite national weapon in 
England, and many laws were made to en¬ 
courage the use of it; the parliament under 
Henry VIII. complained of the disuse of 
long-bows, ‘heretofore the safeguard and 
defence of this kingdom, and the dread 
and terror of its enemies.’ The cross-bow, 
or arbalist, was a common weapon with the 
Italians, and was introduced into England 
in the thirteenth century; the arrows shot 
from it were called quarrels. Of the power 
of the bow, and the distance to which it will 
carry, many remarkable anecdotes are re¬ 
lated. Lord Bacon speaks of a Turkish bow 
! which has been known to pierce a steel tar¬ 
get, or a piece of brass; while other autho¬ 
rities declare they have seen an arrow shot 
from a bow a distance of 600 yards. [For 

further remarks, sec Archery.] -Bow, 

in Mechanics, is the name of several things 
so called from their curved figure ; as, the 
turner's bow, a pole fixed to the ceiling and 
having attached to it the cord that whirls 
round the piece to be turned ; the bow of a 
saddle, the piece of wood on each side, laid 
archwise to receive the upper part of a 

horse’s back.-Bow is also the name of 

an instrument formerly used at sea for 
taking the sun’s altitude; and consisting of 
a large arch of ninety degrees graduated, a 
shank or staff, a shade vane, a sight vane, 

and an horizon vane.-Bow, in Music, 

is the name of that well-known implement, 
consisting of a stick furnished with hair, 
by means of which the tone is produced 
from violins, &c. 

BOWLS, a game played with wooden 
balls, which are rolled by the hand upon a 
fine smooth grassy surface, used solely for 
the purpose, and denominated a bowling- 
green. 

BOX'-TREE. [See Buxus.] 

BRACE (braccio: Ital.; from brachium, the 
arm : Lat.), in Architecture, a piece of tim¬ 
ber framed in with bevel joints, to keep the 
building from swerving either way. When 
the brace is fixed into the principal rafters, 
it is sometimes called a strut [see Roof], 

-Braces, in Marine language, are ropes 

belonging to all the yards of a ship, except 
the mizen, two to each yard, reeved through 
blocks that are fastened to pennants at¬ 
tached to the yard-arms.- To brace about 

is to turn the yards round for the contrary 

tack.- To brace to is to check or ease off 

the lee braces, and round in the weather 
ones, to assist in tacking. 

BRA'CHIAL (brachialis, belonging to the 
arm ; from brachium, the arm: Lat.), in a 
general sense, denotes something belonging 
to the arm; as, the brachial artery. - Bra¬ 

chialis is particularly used for a thick and 
broad muscle of the arm, lying between the 
shoulder-bone and the elbow. 

BRA'OHIATE (brachiatus, having boughs; 
from same: Lat.), an epithet for having 
branches nearly at right angles to the stem. 

BRACHIOP'ODA (brachion, an arm; poda, 
feet: Or.), a class of marine bivalve mo.V 
luscs the shells being always equal sided, 
but never equivalve. One of the shells is 
perforated near the beak, to allow of the 
passage of the pedicle by which it is attached 


[BRAHMA 


to some extraneous object. They have been 
termed lamp shells, from their resemblance 
to an antique lamp, the hole referred to 
being that through which the wick-would 
pass in a lamp. The animals are destitute 
of any special breathing organ. Their sci¬ 
entific name was suggested by the two long 
arms furnished with cilia, with which they 
create currents that bring food to the 
mouth. * Of all shell-fish,’ says Mr. S. P 
Woodward, ‘Brachiopoda enjoy the great 
est range both of climate and depth and time. 
They are found in tropical and polar seas, 
in pools left by the ebbing tide, and at the 
greatest depths hitherto explored by the 
dredge. At present only 70 recent species 
are known, but above 1,000 extinct species 
are distributed through the sedimentary 
rocks of marine origin, from the Cambrian 
strata upwards. The oldest form of organic 
life at present known, both in the old and 
new world, is a Lingula.’ 

BRACHYCEPH'ALIC ( brachus, short ; 
kepliale, the head: Or.), a term applied by 
comparative anatomists to round skulls, 
such as those of the Calmucks; opposed to 
dolicho-cephalic. 

BRACHYG'RAPHY ( brachus, short; and 
graplie, a writing : Or.), stenography, or the 
art of writing in shorthand. 

BRACHYL'OGY (brachulogia: from bra¬ 
chus, short-, and logos, a discourse: Or.), in 
Rhetoric, the method of expressing any¬ 
thing in the most concise manner. 

BRACHYPNCE'A ( brachus , short; and 
pnoe, breath: Or.), in Medicine, short re¬ 
spiration at small intervals. 

BRAC'TEA, or BRACT (bractea, a thin 
plate: Lat.), in Botany, an altered leaf, 
which grows on the flower stalk of many 
plants, below the calyx. It is the first 
attempt made by the common leaves to 
change into the floral organs, and may, in 
some cases, be mistaken for the calyx. 

BRAC'TEOLATE ( bracteola, a thin leaf : 
Lai.), in Botany, an epithet for plants which 
are furnished with bracteoles, or small 
bracts. 

BRAH'MA. The religion of the Hindoos, 
that which is frequently styled Brahmin- 
ism, inculcates a belief in a supreme deity 
under the name of Brahma, who is an 
impersonal divine substance, the object 
merely of devout contemplation, not of 
worship. There is also Brahma, the creator 
of the universe, and the first of the trimurti 
or triad of divinities; of whom Vishnu, the 
preserver, and Siva, the destroyer, are the 
others. In Sculpture, Brahma is repre¬ 
sented as having four faces. It is said that 
there are not any temples exclusively dedi¬ 
cated to him in India; but prayers are 
addressed to him, and he is worshipped 
along with the other members of the triad. 
Vishnu and Si va,however, have a great num¬ 
ber of worshippers, and the sects who ac¬ 
knowledge each as their chief object of de¬ 
votion are not to be counted. The greatest 
confusion exists as to the names and attri¬ 
butes of these deities. Great changes in 
belief have taken place in the progress of 
time, and the most learned Brahmin is un¬ 
able to explain the great majority of the rites 
and articles ef belief. Transmigration of j 































brahmins] EIjc ^ctcnttCc autr 92 


souls Is a leading tenet of Hindoo belief. 
The slaying of animals of the cow kind is 
forbidden, under the penalty of loss of 
caste. Brahminism must not be confounded 
with Buddhism, which see. See also the 
next article, and Siva, Vishnu, Bubana, 
Vedas. 

BRAH'MINS (followers of Brahma), the 
highest caste amongst the Hindoos. Theirs 
is the exclusive duty of teaching the Vedas, 
and they were formerly considered bound 
to abstain from all laborious occupations, 
and to confine themselves to serving the 
godsandmeditatingon holy things. Though 
the members of this caste exact and receive 
respect from the other Hindoos, as their 
superiors, they are found following many 
occupations from which they are in strict¬ 
ness interdicted. The Gurus hold the first 
rank amongst them; they are the priests 
or spiritual advisers, having authority in 
matters of religion and education. [See 
Caste.] To the Brahmins we are indebted 
for whatever we know of the Sanskrit, or 
ancient language of the country, in which 
their sacred books are written. 

BRAIN ( brcegen: Sax.), in Anatomy, that 
soft white mass enclosed in the cranium or 
skull, in which all the organs of sense ter¬ 
minate, and the intelligent principle of man 
is supposed to reside. It consists of the 
cerebrum, which occupies the whole of the 
superior part of the cavity of the skull; the 
cerebellum, which occupies the lower back 
part; and the medulla oblongata, which is 
the smaller portion, lying at the base of the 
skull, beneath the cerebrum and cerebel¬ 
lum. The cerebrum is the largest portion 
of the brain in man, being nine times as 
heavy as the cerebellum. Above and be¬ 
hind it is divided into two ‘ hemispheres,’ 
separated by a fold of the dura mater, but 
united below by the corpus callosum. The 
surface of the cerebrum is marked by a 
number of tortuous folds or convolutions. 
Its under surface is separated by transverse 
furrows, or sulci, into three lobes. The 
outer portion of the cerebrum consists of 
grey matter covering the internal white 
neurine. The cerebellum is protected from 
the pressure of the back part of the cere¬ 
brum by an extension of the dura mater, 
called tentorium cerebelli. It is divided 
into three lobes, of which the central one is 
small. The medulla oblongata gives rise to 
the spinal chord. The external portion of 
the brain is soft and vascular, and is called 
the cortical substance ; the internal is called 
the medullary. Between the skull and the 
brain there are three membranes, called by 
the older anatomists matres (mothers), from 
the supposition that they gave rise to all 
the other membranes; the outer one is 
called the dura mater, which is stx-ong, 
dense, and elastic; the next is the pia 
mater, which is very vascular; and the 
innermost is the arachnoidea, which is thin 
and nearly transparent. These membranes 
also invest the spinal chord. It is worthy 
of observation, that every part of the brain 
is exactly symmetrical with the part on the 
opposite side, and that irregularities in its 
structure are far more uncommon than in 
the other parts of the human body. It is 


stated that the brain of an average Euro¬ 
pean child four years of age is twice as large 
as the brain of a full-grown gorilla. Not¬ 
withstanding the difference in size, Mr. 
Huxley says that, in cerebral structure, man 
differs less from the chimpanzee or the 
orang than these do from the monkeys, 
and that the difference between the brains 
of the chimpanzee and of man is almost in¬ 
significant, when compared with that be¬ 
tween the chimpanzee brain and that of 
a lemur. 

BRAIN STONE, the popular name of 
some stony corals growing in round masses 
and found in tropical seas, which bear some 
resemblance to the sinuous ridges of the 
brain. They are placed in the genus Mcan- 
drina and other allied genera. 

BRAN, the skins or husks of grain, .es¬ 
pecially wheat, separated from the flour by 
a sieve or bolter. 

BRAN'CHIiE (Lat., from branchia: Gr.), 
the gills or organs of respiration, answering 
to the lungs in other animals, with which 
all fishes are provided. There are usually 
four pairs on each side, and they consist of 
rows of threads, which absorb the oxygen 
from the atmospheric air contained in the 
water which passes over them. Pishes die 
when taken out of the water, not for lack 
of oxygen, but because the gills cling to¬ 
gether and dry, so as to be incapable of 
performing their function. 

BRANCHIOSTE'GAL RAYS (branchia, 
gills; osteon, a bone : Gr.), in Ichthyology, 
the slender bones upon which the mem¬ 
brane enclosing the branchial chamber is 
supported. There is a corresponding series 
on each side, the number varying in dif¬ 
ferent fishes from three to ten times that 
number. 

BRAN'DY (corrupted from branntwein, 
literally burnt wine: Germ.), a spirituous 
and inflammable fluid, chiefly alcohol, ob¬ 
tained from wine and other liquors by dis¬ 
tillation. It is colourless, except when 
coloured artificially or by the cask. The 
wine-brandy, manufactured in France, is 
considered the best in Europe. It is made 
wherever wine is produced, and damaged 
wine is used for this purpose rather than 
what is good. 

BRASS (bras: Ang.Sax.), in Metallurgy, 
a factitious compound metal, of a yellow 
colour, consisting of copper, and from one- 
third to one-fifth its weight of zinc. It is 
more fusible than copper, and not so apt to 
tarnish ; it is malleable when cold, but not 
when heated. It is so ductile, that fabrics 
for sieves, of extreme fineness, are woven 
with brass wire, in the same way as cam¬ 
bric.- Cobinthian Brass has been fa¬ 

mous in antiquity, and is a mixture of gold, 
silver, and copper. It is said that when 
L. Mummius sacked and burned Corinth, 
b.c. 146, this metal was formed from the 
gold, silver, and copper.with which that city 
abounded, and which, by the violence of 
the conflagration, were melted and run 
together. 

BRAS'SICA (Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
cruciferous plants, including the common 
cabbage and its numerous varieties, cauli¬ 
flower, broccoli, &c. The cabbage was as 













93 Eftcrary (Errarfurg. [bread 


much used by the ancients as it is by the 
moderns. The principal species are the 
Brassica oleracca, or common cabbage; 
and Brassica Napus, wild cabbage or rape. 

BRAVU'RA (courage: Ital.), in Music, an 
air so composed as to enable the performer 
to show his skill in the execution of diffi¬ 
cult passages. The term is sometimes used 
for the style of execution. 

BRAZIL'-NUTS are the fruit of a large 
tree ( Berthollctia excelsa: nat. ord. Lethy- 
cidacece ) growing in tropical Brazil. On the 
tree they are contained in a woody case, as 
large and round as a cannon-ball. The nuts 
of the Sapucaya ( Lecythis ollaria), a gigantic 
Brazilian tree belonging to the same order, 
are also edible. The hard capsules contain¬ 
ing the nuts are called monkeys’ drinking 
cups, and are furnished with a lid, which 
breaks off when the cups fall to the ground 
when the fruit is ripe. The nuts are thereby 
scattered over the ground, and are eaten by 
the wild animals of the forest. Hence this 
kind of nut is much scarcer than the other. 

BRAZIL'-WOOD, the wood of the Ccesal- 
pinia Brasiliensis, a lofty leguminous tree, 
found in the greatest abundance in the pro¬ 
vince of Pernambuco, in Brazil. The tree 
is large, crooked, and knotty: it is very 
hard, and susceptible of a flue polish; is 
pale when newly cut, but on exposure to 
| the air is of a red colour. The juice of the 
; Brazil-wood is made use of for dyeing silk 
| of a crimson colour, but it is inferior to, 
and less permanent than, the crimson ob¬ 
tained from cochineal. It is also used, in 
combination with certain mordants and 
alkalis, for various shades of red, purple, 
and violet, in cotton and woollen cloths. 
The word brazil is of Portuguese origin 
(from braza, a live coal, or glowing fire), 
and the name was given to the wood from 
its colour. It is said that King Emanuel of 
Portugal called a part of America Brazil, on 
account of its producing this wood. 

BRA'ZING, the soldering or uniting two 
pieces of metal together by means of thin 
plates of brass, melted between the parts 
that are to be joined. If the work be very 
flue, as when two leaves of a broken saw 
are to be brazed together, it is covered with 
pulverized borax, dissolved with water, that 
it may incorporate with the brass powder; 
or granulated hard solder, consisting of 
brass and zinc, and sometimes a little silver 
or tin, is applied to it. The piece is then 
exposed to the lire without touching the 
coals, and heated till the brass is seen 
to run. 

BREACH ( briche: Fr.), in Fortification, a 
gap or opening made in any part of the 
works of a town by the cannon or mines of 
the besiegers, in order to facilitate an at¬ 
tack upon the place. The breach is called 
practicable if it is large enough to afford a 
reasonable hope of success in case of an 

assault.- To repair a breach is to stop 

or fill up the gap with gabions, fascines, 

&c„ so as to prevent an assault.-In Law, 

a Breach is the violation of a contract. 

_Breach of Pound is the breaking any 

place where cattle are detained.- Breach 

of Prison, an escape by breaking out of 
prison. 


BREAD (brocl: Germ.), a preparation of 
flour and water, mixed with something, 
such as yeast, or a solution of carbonic 
acid, to make the mass spongy on being 
baked. It is the gluten which, by its visci¬ 
dity, retains in the bread the gases which 
give it lightness by filling it with pores. 
Hence, only the flour of grains containing 
gluten will make spongy bread ; and wheat 
flour, which contains it in so large a quan¬ 
tity, is usually mixed with every other 
kind in the making of bread. In the earliest 
antiquity, we find the flour or meal of 
grain used as food; and by degrees the 
artificial preparation of bread by proper 
fermentation was discovered : but it would 
appear that for many ages the meal derived 
from the bruised grain was merely mixed 
with milk and water, and the tough paste 
was made into balls. The superiority of 
wheat to all other farinaceous plants in 
the manufacture of bread is so very great, 
that, wherever it is successfully cultivated, 
wheaten bread is now used to the nearly 
total exclusion of others. But, in the 
16tli century, rye bread and oatmeal con¬ 
stituted the chief part of the diet of ser¬ 
vants, even in great families; and in the 
reign of Charles I. barley bread was the 
usual food of the middle classes : nay, so 
lately as a century ago, not more than half 
the people of England fed on wheaten 
bread. The process of making bread is 
nearly the same throughout Europe, though 
the materials of which it is composed vary 
with the farinaceous productions of dif¬ 
ferent climates and soils. The French, who 
particularly excel in the art of baking, 
have a great many different kinds of bread, 
from the pain bis, which is the coarsest of 
all, to the pain mollet, or soft bread, made 
of the purest flour, without any admixture. 
In this country we have fewer varieties of 
bread, and these differ chiefly in their de¬ 
grees of purity. Our white or fine bread is 
made of the purest flour; our wheaten 
bread of flour, with a mixture of the finest 
bran; and our household bread, of the 
whole substance of the grain, without the 
separation either of the flue flour or coarse 

bran.-The adulteration of bread, by means 

of alum, has long been a prolific source of 
evil, inasmuch as the health of the public, 
and of children especially, is often seriously 
injured by it. It is, however, fortunate, 
that to discover this pernicious practice no 
chemical skill is required. For this pur¬ 
pose, a small piece of the crumb of new- 
baked bread is macerated in cold water 
sufficient to dissolve it, and if alum has 
been used by the baker, the water will ac¬ 
quire a sweetish astringency. When alum 
is present in bread, even in a minute quan¬ 
tity, it may be detected by treating the 
bread with distilled water, filtering the 
water first through calico, and next through 
filtering paper, till it becomes clear; then 
pouring it off into two vessels, and drop¬ 
ping into the one a little nitrate or chloride 
of barytes, and into the other some water 
of ammonia. In the former, if alum was 
present, a heavy white precipitate, indi¬ 
cating sulphuric acid, will appear, and in 
the latter a light precipitate of alumina. 




















STIjc ^ct'cnttftc rmtf 


94 


BREAD-FRUIT] 


redissoluble by a few drops of solution of 
caustic potash. When chalk or plaster of 
Faris Is used to sophisticate flour, they may 
be best detected by incinerating the bread, 
and adding to the ashes nitric acid, which 
will dissolve the chalk with effervescence, 
and the plaster of Paris without it. In 
both cases the calcareous matter may be 
rendered visible in the solution by oxalic 
acid, or better by oxalate of ammonia. 

BREAD'-FRUIT-TREE, the Artocarpus 
incisa of botanists : nat. ord. Artocarpacece, 
to which order the Jack-tree and the Cow- 
tree belong. It appears to have been first 
made known to Europeans by the great na¬ 
vigator Dampier. It is indigenous in Ota- 
lieite and other islands of the South Sea. 
The tree is of the size of a large apple-tree; 
the leaves broad, deeply lobed, and of a 
dark green. The fruit is appended to the 
boughs in the manner of apples, and is 
about the size of a pound of bread, en¬ 
closed with a tough rind, which, when ripe, 
turns a yellow colour. The internal part is 
yellow, soft and sweet. The natives bake it 
in an oven till the rind is black ; and this 
being scraped off, they eat the inside, which 
is then white, resembling new-baked bread, 
having neither seed nor stone. Some of 
the trees have been planted in Jamaica and 
other West India islands, where the fruit 
is used as a delicacy; and whether em¬ 
ployed as bread, or in the form of pudding, 
it is considered highly palatable. But in 
Otaheite the bread-fruit-tree not only sup¬ 
plies food, but clothing, and numerous other 
conveniences of life. The inner bark, con¬ 
sisting of a white fibrous substance, is 
formed into a kind of cloth ; and the wood 
is used for the building of boats and houses. 

BREAK'EBS, billows which break into 
foam over submerged rocks, or coral reefs, 
or upon the shore. 

BREAKING GROUND, a Military term 
for opening the trenches and beginning the 
works for a siege. 

BREAK'WATER a contrivance for weak¬ 
ening the effect of waves in a harbour. 
The largest breakwaters are those of Cher¬ 
bourg and Plymouth. 

BREAM, a name given to several fishes. 
The common bream is a well-known fresh¬ 
water fish, of the Carp family, varying in 
colour from yellowish-white to yellowish- 
brown. The Spanish bream, the sea bream, 
and the black bream, are three closely allied 
marine fishes, belonging to the Sparidce. 

-Ray s Bream, a rare fish on our coasts, 

is the Brama Bail, and belongs to the Dol¬ 
phin family. 

BREAST'PLATE, a piece of defensive 
armour worn on the breast; it was formerly 
deemed of great importance, but in modern 
warfare has fallen much into disuse. It 
forms a portion of the cuirass worn by the 
cuirassiers, and w r as first used, in modern 
times, in some of the First Napoleon’s regi¬ 
ments-In Horsemanship, a leathern 

strap running across the horse’s breast, 
from one side of the saddle to the other, to 
keep it in its place. 

BREAST'-PLOUGH, a sort of plough 
which is driven forward by the breast, and 
Is used in paring off turf from the land. 


BREAST'-WHEEL, a water-wheel, which 
receives the water at about half its height, 
or at the level of its axis. 

BREAST'-WOB,K, a Military term for 
works thrown up to protect the besiegers 
against the fire of the besieged. It takes 

its name from its usual height.-A Sea 

term for the balustrade of the quarter-deck. 

BREC'CIA, Pudding Stone, a natural con¬ 
glomerate, consisting of fragments of stones 
united by some cement. 

BREECH, or BRITCH, the hinder part 

of a gun, from the cascabel to the bore.- 

Also a Sea term for the angle of a knee- 
timber in a ship. 

BREECH'ING, or BRITCH'ING, a rope 
used to secure the guns of ships of war, 
and prevent them from recoiling too much 
when discharged. 

BREECH'-LOADERS, fireams which are 
charged not at the muzzle but at the other 
end of the barrel. Various contrivances 
have been adopted to render such a mode 
of charging easy and secure. 

BREED'ING, in Husbandry, the rearing 
of cattle or live stock of different kinds, 
particularly by crossing or mingling one 
species or variety with another, so as to 
improve the species. 

BREEZE ( brise: Fr.), a shifting wind, 
that blows from sea or land for some 
certain hours in the day or night; common 
in Africa, and some parts of the East and 
West Indies. The sea-breeze is only sen¬ 
sible near the coasts; it commonly rises 
in the morning, about nine, proceeding 
slowly, in a fine small black curl on the 
water, towards the shore ; it increases gra¬ 
dually till twelve, and dies away about five. 
Upon its ceasing, the land-breeze com¬ 
mences, which increases till twelve at night, 
and is succeeded in the morning by the sea- 

breeze again- Breeze ( braise: Fr.), in 

Brick-making, small ashes and cinders, 
sometimes made use of instead of coals, for 
the burning of bricks. 

BREVE (brevis, short: Lot.), in Music, a 
note equal in length to two semibreves, or, 
when dotted, to three: the long is twice 
the length of the breve, and the large 
twice the length of the long. 

BRE'VET (Fr.), a Military term, ex¬ 
pressive of nominal promotion without ad¬ 
ditional pay : thus, a brevet major does the 
duty of a captain, and draws pay as such. 
The word is borrowed from a French term 
signifying a royal act granting some favour 
or privilege ; as brevet d'invention, a patent 
privilege. 

BRE'VIARY (breviaraim, a summary: 
Lat.), the book containing the daily service 
of the church of Rome. Originally every¬ 
body was obliged to read the breviary ; but 
by degrees the obligation was confined to 
the clergy in holy orders or holding bene¬ 
fices, who are enjoined, under penalty of 
mortal sin and ecclesiastical censure, to re¬ 
cite it at home when they cannot attend to 
it in public. In the fourteenth century 
there was a particular reservation granted 
in favour of bishops, who were allowed, on 
extraordinary occasions, to pass three days 
without reciting the breviary. It was for¬ 
merly much longer than at present: hence 













05 


ftiterorg Cnreatfur#. 


[BRIDGE 


its name. The breviaries used in different 
places, and by different religious orders, are 
extremely different.-In Roman Anti¬ 

quity, a book first introduced by Augustus, 
containing an account of the number of 
men in the army, the quantity of public 
money in the treasuries, &c., and other 
matters of importance. 

BRE' VIATOR (an abbreviator: Lat.), an 
officer under the eastern empire, whose 
business it was to write and translate briefs. 
-One who draws up the Pope’s briefs. 

BREVI'ER ( brevis, short: Lat), in Print¬ 
ing, a small kind of type or letter, between 
minion and bourgeois. 

BRI'BERY, the act of prevailing upon 
any individual to do a legal or illegal act for 
the sake of reward. A member of parlia¬ 
ment proved to have been guilty of bribery 
loses his seat, and is fined lOOOh Anyone 
attempting to obtain a seat in parliament 
by bribery, though unsuccessful, is sub¬ 
ject to the same fine. The giving of a bribe 
directly or indirectly, for the purpose of 
obtaining an election to parliament, is a 
misdemeanour; and besides the punishment 
of this, the giver is to be fined 100Z., the 
receiver 101. Meat, drink, or entertainment 
bestowed to corrupt a voter, is punishable 
with a forfeiture of 501. by him who gives 
it, and incapacity of voting in him who 
receives it. 

BRICK (briclce: But.), a composition of 
argillaceous earth, first moistened and made 
fine by treading and grinding, then formed 
into rectangular solids 8J inches long, 21 
inches thick, and 4 inches wide, when 
burned. The dimensions of fire bricks are 
somewhat different; they are longer and 
thinner. The different varieties of bricks 
are— malms, which are yellowish, of a uni¬ 
form colour and texture; seconds, which are 
somewhat inferior; red and grey stocks; 
place bricks, and peckings, which, being far¬ 
thest from the fire, and not well burnt, have 
little durability; burs and clinlcers, masses of 
brick run together by the heat; fire-bricks, 
paving-bricks, compass-briclcs (made circular 
on the plan, and used for walling wells, &c.); 
Dutch clinlcers, or Flemish bricks, which 
are of a very small size. Bricks are baked 
or burnt in a kiln, or in a clamp, to serve 
instead of stones in building. Place bricks 
and stocks are used in common walling; 
malms, which are of a fine yellow colour, 
hard, and well burnt, are used in the outside 
of buildings, and the best kind of them 
with red bricks, called cutting bricks, are 
used in the arches over windows and doors, 
being rubbed to a centre, and gauged to a 
height. An able workman will make, by 
hand, 5000 common bricks in a day, but 
machinery is now generally employed in 
the different operations of making bricks, 
tiles, and draining pipes. The use of un¬ 
burnt bricks is of great antiquity; they are 
found in the Roman and Grecian monu¬ 
ments, and even in the ruins of Egypt 
and Babylon. They were dried in the sun, 
instead of being burned, and were mixed 
with chopped straw to give them tenacity. 
Owing to the extreme heat and dryness of 
the climate, they acquired such hardness as 
to last for several thousand years. The 


ancient Roman bricks were thinner, and of 
a different shape from ours; they were very 
durable, and vast quantities of them remain | 
to the present day. 

BRIDE (bryd: Sax.) Among the Greeks 
it was customary for the bride to be con¬ 
ducted from her father’s house to her hus¬ 
band’s in a chariot, the evening being 
chosen for that purpose to conceal her 
blushes : she was placed in the middle, her 
husband sitting on one side, and one of her 
most intimate friends on the other; torches 
were carried before her, and she was enter¬ 
tained on the journey with a song suitable 
to the occasion. As soon as they arrived, 
the axle-tree of the chariot they rode in 
was burned, to signify that the bride was 
never to return to her father’s house. 
Among the Romans, when a bride was 
carried home to her husband’s house, she 
was not to touch the threshold at her first 
entrance, but was to leap over it. In Ger¬ 
many the corresponding word braut is given 
to a woman between her betrothal and her 
marriage; and in that country she ceases to 
be a bride when she becomes one amongst 
ourselves. 

BRI'DEGR.OOM (bryd, a bride; and gy- 
man, to take care of: Sax.), a term used 
immediately before and after the marriage 
ceremony. 

BRIDGE (brieg: Smc.), any structure car¬ 
ried across water or a roadway, and usually 
made of wood, stone, brick, or metal, but 
sometimes of basket-work or canes. Its 
strength depends on its form, its materials, 
and the permanence of the abutments. 
Among the bridges of antiquity, that built 
by Trajan over the Danube is considered to 
be the most magnificent; it was erected on 
twenty piers, of a hundred and fifty feet in 
height, and the opening from one pier to 
another was a hundred and seventy feet 
wide : the piers of this fine bridge are still 
to be seen on the Danube, between Servia 
and Moldavia, a little above Nicopolis. In 
Great Britain, the art of building bridges 
appears to have been diligently studiedfrom 
early times. The most ancient bridge in 
England is the Gothic triangular bridge at 
Croyland in Lincolnshire, said to have been 
built in 860; but the ascent is so steep that 
none but foot passengers can go over it. 
The longest bridge in England is that over 
the Trent, at Burton in Staffordshire, built 
in the 12th century. It consists of thirty- 
four arches, and is 1545 feet in length. 
Among the great architectural works of our 
own times are Waterloo and New London 
bridges. The former consists of nine ellip¬ 
tical arches of 120 feet span each; it is 1250 
feet long, and has a flat surface in its whole 
course. The latter, which was commenced 
in 1824, and finished in 1831, consists of five 
elliptical arches, the centre one being 152 
feet span, and the least of them being larger 
than any stone arch of this description ever 
before erected. This magnificent structure, 
which was built after a design of the late 
John Rennie, contains about 120,000 tons of 
granite, measures 982 feet from the extre¬ 
mities of the abutments, with 53 feet of 
roadway between the parapets, and cost 
about two millions sterling. There are 










T 


BRIDOONj 


ZL\)z Scientific airtr 


96 


several cast-iron bridges in England, the 
chief of which is Southwark bridge, over 
the Thames. But all these structures have 
been much exceeded in vastness by the 
viaducts and bridges of railways.- Sus¬ 

pension Bridges. Pendent or hanging 
bridges have by some been deemed a 
modern invention, but we find that the use 
of them is of great antiquity in mountain¬ 
ous countries; though the scientific prin¬ 
ciples which distinguish those of recent 
construction may perhaps be sought in 
vain among them. The most remarkable 
suspension bridge in existence is that built 
by Mr. Telford over the Menai strait, be¬ 
tween the Isle of Anglesea and Caernarvon¬ 
shire in Wales, which was finished in 1825. 
Others also, most elegant in their design, 
and fully answering all the purposes for 
which they were intended,have been erected 
over the Thames at Hammersmith and Bat¬ 
tersea, and in many other places. In these 
the flooring or main body of the bridge is 
supported by strong iron chains or rods, 
hanging in the form of an inverted arch 
from one point of support to another. The 
points of support are the tops of strong 
pillars or small towers, erected for the pur¬ 
pose. Over these pillars the chain passes, 
and is attached, at each extremity of the 
bridge, to rocks or massive frames of iron, 
firmly secured underground. The great 
advantage of suspension bridges consists 
in their stability of equilibrium, in conse¬ 
quence of which a smaller amount of mate¬ 
rials is necessary for their construction 
than for any other bridge. If a suspension 
bridge is shaken or thrown out of equi¬ 
librium, it returns by its weight to its pro¬ 
per form, whereas the reverse happens in 
bridges which are built above the level of 

their supporters.- A Drawbridge, in 

Fortification, is one that is fastened with 
hinges at one end only, so that the other 
may be drawn up ; in which case the bridge 
stands upright, to prevent an enemy from 
passing the moat.-A Bridge of Com¬ 

munication is that made over a river, by 
which two armies, or fort3, separated by 
that river, have a free communication with 
one another.-A Bridge of Boats con¬ 

sists of a number of common boats joined 
parallel to each other, at the distance of six 
feet, till they reach across a river. They 
are then covered with planks, so as to serve 
as a passage for men and horses. In mili¬ 
tary operations, temporary bridges are often 
formed by laying planks upon boats, pon¬ 
toons, or such other buoyant supporters as 
readily present themselves. [See Tubular 
Bridge.] 

BRIDOO'N (bridon, a dim. of bride, a 
bridle : Fr.), the snaffle and reiu of a mili¬ 
tary bridle, which acts independently of the 
bit and curb, at the pleasure of the rider. 

BRIEF (a letter: But.; from brevis, short: 
Lat.), in Law, an abridgment of the client’s 
case, made out for the instruction of coun¬ 
sel on a trial or hearing.-A letter from 

the sovereign to the archbishops, bishops, 
&c., authorizing collections of money at 
Lhe church-doors, for the repair of churches, 
&c. Its use has lately been discontinued. 
—— Briefs, Apostolical, letters or 


written messages of the pope, addressed to 
princes or magistrates, respecting matters 
of public concern. 

BRIGA'DE (Fr.), a party or division of 
soldiers, either horse or foot. A brigade 
of infantry may consist of from one to six 
battalions; of cavalry, of two or three 
regiments; of artillery, of six pieces of 
ordnance ; and of horse artillery, of twelve 
troops, each having a brigade of guns; and 
a brigade of sappers, of eight men. The 
commander of a brigade is called a bri¬ 
gadier-general. 

BRIG'ANDINE (because worn by bri¬ 
gands ), a kind of ancient defensive armour, 
consisting of thin jointed scales or plates 
so arranged as to be pliant and easy to the 

body. 

BRIG'ANTINE (brigantino: Ital.), a small 
light vessel, which can both row and sail 
well, being adapted either for fighting or j 
for chase. 

BRIM'STONE, the vulgar name for sul¬ 
phur, which see. 

BRINE, a solution of common salt. It is 
either native, as sea water or the water 
flowing from salt springs; or artificial, 
as when formed by the solution of salt in 
water. 

BRI'SE-VENT ( briser , to break ; and vent, 
the wind : Fr.), in Horticulture, shelters on 
the north side of melon beds, where walls 
are wanting. 

BRIS'TLE (bristl: Sax.), the hair of swine, 
which is much used by brushmakers, par¬ 
ticularly that imported from Russia. 

BRITAN'NIA, the name given by the 
Romans to the island of Britain, which is re¬ 
presented on their medals under the figure 
of a female resting her left arm on a 
shield. The name being of uncertain deriva¬ 
tion has given rise to much discussion. 

BRI'ZA (brizo, I nod: Gr.), in Botany, 
a genus of grasses, including our common 
Quaking-grass. 

BRIZE, in Agriculture, a term for ground 
that has lain long untilled. 

BR,OAD'SIDE, a Sea term for a discharge 

of all the guns on one side of a ship_In 

Printing, one full page printed on one side 
of a whole sheet of paper, of which a large 
posting-bill is an example.—A proclamation, 
or other old composition, printed on one 
side of a sheet, and formerly hawked about 
the streets for sale. They are objects both 
of curiosity and historical interest. 

BROAD'S WORD, a sword with a broad 
blade, chiefly designed for cutting. 

BROCA'DE (Fr.), a stuff of gold, silver, 
or silk, raised and enriched with flowers, 
foliages, and other ornaments, according to 
the fancy of the merchants or manufac¬ 
turers. 

BROGUE, a peculiar accent and style of 
pronunciation. The word is generally ap¬ 
plied to that of the lower orders in Ireland. 

BROKER (broceur: Fr.), in Commerce and 
Law, an agent who negociates between 
sellers and buyers, and is paid by a com¬ 
mission or brokerage. He is not, like a 
factor, entrusted with the possession of the 
goods, and he is not authorized to buy or 
sell in his own name. [See Factor.] 

BROKE GRASS ( broma , food; Gr.), & 
















97 JLttcmrj) Cvnitfurn. [buceros 


sort of grass much resembling oats in the 
stalk, leaf, &c.; whence it has also been 
called oat grass. It belongs to the genus 
Bromus. 

BliO'MINE ( bromos, a bad odour: Gr.), in 
Chemistry, a liquid element of an intense 
red colour. It is very volatile, and boils at 
145J° F. Its specific gravity is 2'9. Its 
vapour is very suffocating and has an offen¬ 
sive odour. Like chlorine, which it resem¬ 
bles in most of its properties, its solution 
in water has bleaching properties. It is 
obtained from the bittern of sea water or 
the washings of the ashes of seaweed. 

BRON'CHI ( bronchos , the throat: Gr.), 

I in Anatomy, the ramifications of the trachea 
j or windpipe, which convey the air to the 

lungs.- Bronchial Glands, absorbent 

j glands situated at the root of the lungs.- 

Bronchial Arteries and Veins, those which 
accompany the bronchi® into the lungs. 

BRON'CHOCELE (bronchos, the throat; 
and kele, a tumour: Gr.), in Surgery, a 
tumour occurring in the anterior part of the 
neck. [See Goitre.] 

BRONCHOT'OMY (bronchos, the throat; 
and temno, I cut: Gr.), in Surgery, an inci¬ 
sion made in the windpipe ; which is neces¬ 
sary in many cases, and especially in a 
violent quinsy, to prevent suffocation from 
the great inflammation or tumidity of the 
parts. It is also sometimes called laryngo- 
tomy and tracheotomy. 

BRONZE (bronzo: Ital.), an alloy which, 
when intended for statues, is composed of 
91J per cent, of copper, 5Jper cent, of zinc, 
.and about 11 per cent, of tin and lead. The 
ancients used bronze for a great variety of 
purposes; hence, arms and other instru¬ 
ments, medals and statues of this metal, 
are to be found in all cabinets of antiqui¬ 
ties. The moderns have also made much 
use of bronze, particularly for statues ex¬ 
posed to accidents or the influence of the 
atmosphere, and for casts of celebrated an¬ 
tiques. Bronze of a good quality acquires, 
by oxidation, a fine green tint, called patina 
antiqua, or cerugo, which appearance is imi¬ 
tated by an artificial process called bronzing. 

BROOM, the Spartium scoparium of bo¬ 
tanists, a well-known leguminous shrub, 

from which a yellow dye is obtained.- 

The Butcher's Broom is a small shrub with 
prickly leaves, named by botanists Ruscus 
aculeatus, nat. ord. Liliacece. 

BROWN'ISTS, in Church History, a reli¬ 
gious sect, which sprang up in England to¬ 
wards the end of the 16th century, and 
was long known under the denomination of 
Independents. Their leader was Robert 
Brown, born at Northampton ; yet his name 
was not adopted by them, but rather given 
to them by their adversaries as a nickname. 
They equally disliked episcopacy and Pres¬ 
byterianism. They condemned the solemn 
celebration of marriages in churches, main¬ 
taining that, matrimony being a civil 
contract, the confirmation of it ought to 
proceed from the magistrate; an opinion 
rather in accordance with recent enact¬ 
ments of our legislature on this subject. 
They also rejected all forms of prayer, and 
held that the Lord’s prayer was not to be 
recited as such, being given only as a model 


upon which to found our supplications. 
Any lay brother was allowed the liberty of 
exhorting the congregation, and, after the 
sermon, of reasoning upon the doctrines 
that had been preached. In a word, every 
church on their model is a body corporate, 
amenable to no class, synod, convocation, 
or other jurisdiction whatever. During 
Elizabeth’s reign, the laws were enforced 
against the Brownists with great severity, 
and accordingly many retired and settled 
at Amsterdam, where their church flour¬ 
ished nearly a century. 

BRU'MAL (brumalis, from bruma, the 
winter solstice : Bat.), relating to the win¬ 
ter quarter of the year, which begins at the 
shortest day. 

BRY'ONY, BLACK. [See Yam.] 

BRY'ONY, WILD. [See CUCURBITACEA3.] 

BUB'BLE ( bobbel: But.), a vesicle of 

water, &c., filled with air.- Bubble, in 

Commerce, a term given to any delusive 
scheme or project for raising money on 
imaginary or false pretences; as the famous ! 
‘ South Sea bubble,’ which see. 

BU'BO, a genus of owls, to which oui 

eagle owl belongs.- Bubo (bonbon, a gland 

in the groin : Gr.), in Medicine, the name of 
any tumour in the lymphatic glands of the 
groin or axilla. 

BU'BONOCELE ( bonbon, a gland in the 
groin: and kele, a tumour: Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, the inguinal hernia, a rupture of the 
groin, formed by a prolapsus of the intes¬ 
tines or omentum. 

BUCANI'ER, or BUCCANE'ER, a name 
applied to those piratical adventurers, 
chiefly English and French, who, in tlio 
seventeenth century, committed the most 
terrible depredations on the Spaniards in 
America. The first French settlers in the 
island of San Domingo had been taught by 
the Caribbee Indians how to cure the flesh 
of the wild cattle and boars they killed, and 
the preserved meat was called boucan by the 
Indians. Whence the French formed a verb 
boucaner, to dry without salt, and from this 
came the words Boucanier and Buccaneer. 

BUC'CINA (Xrtf.), an ancient musical and 
military instrument, somewhat similar to 
the modern trumpet. 

BUCCiNA'TOR (a trumpeter, from the 
last: Lat.), in Anatomy, a muscle of the 
cheek, so called from its office of forcing 
out the breath. . 

BUC'CINUM (same deriv.), a genus of 
molluscs, to wfuch the common whelk 
belongs. 

BUC'CULA (Lat., from bucca, the cheek), 
in Antiquity, that part of the helmet which 
protected the cheeks. 

BUCEN'TAUR (boukentauros, a centaur: 
Gr.), the name of the large vessel which the 
Venetians formerly used in the ceremony 
of espousing the sea. This took place an¬ 
nually on Ascension Day. The Doge threw 
a gold ring into the Adriatic, saying, ‘Des- 
ponsamus te, mare, in signum veri perpe- 
tuique domini.’ We wed thee, O sea, as a 
token of true and everlasting dominion. 

BU'CEROS (bous, an ox; and keras, a horn: 
Gr.), a genus of birds belonging to the order 
of Passeres. They are the horn-bills of the 
tropical parts of Asia and Africa, remark' 

H 




























buck] t£fjc ^rteuttflc nntf 98 


able for having a large horny appendage of 
a cellular structure, growing on the upper 
division of the beak. Its use is not known. 

BUCK (bucc: Sax.), the male of the fallow- 
deer. In his first year, a buck is called a 
fawn ; in the second, a pricket; the third, a 
sorel; the fourth, a sore ; the fifth, a buck 
of the first head; and the sixth, a great 
buck. The word is also used to denote the 
male of the hare and rabbit tribes. 

BUCK'LER, a piece of defensive armour 
used by the ancients, commonly composed 
of hides, strengthened with plates of metal. 
■- Bucklers, Votive, were those conse¬ 

crated to the gods, and hung up in their 
temples, in commemoration of some hero, 
or as a thanksgiving for a victory obtained 
over an enemy, whose bucklers taken in 

war were offered as a trophy.- Bucklers, 

in Naval language, are pieces of wood fitted 
together to stop the hawse-holes, so as to 
prevent the ship from taking in too much 
Water in a heavy sea. 

BUCK'RAM (bougran: Fr.), a sort of 
coarse cloth made of hemp, gummed, calen¬ 
dered, and dyed of several colours. It is 
used in drapery, garments, &c., which re¬ 
quire to be kept stiff to their form. 

BUCK'WHEAT, the seeds of the Fagopy- 
rmn esculentum, a plant belonging to the 
hat. ord. Polygonaceai, cultivated as food. 

BUCOLTC ( boukolckos, pastoral: Gr.), in 
j ancient Poetry, a poem relating to shepherds 
| and rural affairs. The most celebrated of 
the ancient bucolics are those of Virgil. 

BUDD'HISM, or BOOD'HISM, an ancient 
| system of religion w'hich originated in 
India, where it is now extinct, and whence 
it was carried to Ceylon, Thibet, China, and 
| Japan. Its adherents at the present day 
j have been calculated to amount to several 
hundred millions. The priority of Budd- 
: hism and Brahminism, which have many 
. points of identity, has been much disputed. 
The founder of this religion was, according 
to tradition, the son of an Indian king. lie 
is known by several names, such as Sakya- 
sinha, the lion of the race of Sakya, and 
Buddha or the sage. In China, the latter 
name has been corrupted into Fo-ta and Fo. 

| After Sakyasinha’s death, and to fill his 
place, a succession of perfectly virtuous 
souls have descended upon earth, and as- 
] suined human forms, for the welfare of 
mankind ; and it is believed in Thibet that 
the Grand Lama of Thibet is his successor 
for the time being. [See Lamaism.] The 
sacred writings of the Buddhists are very 
numerous; they were originally composed 
in Sanskrit, from which they were after¬ 
wards translated into other tongues. It 
would seem that there was a belief in a 
primeval Deity named Adi-Buddha, or the 
I First Buddha, and that he was the first 
person of the trinity, the other two persons 
being Dhurma and Sunga. answering to 
Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu, of the Brahmins. 
The trident borne by the priests is emble¬ 
matical of this trinity. The principal tenets 
of Buddhism are, that the world and all it 
contains are manifestations of the Deity, 
but of a transient and delusive character ; 
that the human soul is an emanation of the 
Deity, and, after death, will be bound to 


matter, and subjected to the miseries of life, 
unless the individual to whom it belongs, 
by the attainment of wisdom through 
prayer and contemplation, secures its reab¬ 
sorption into the Deity. The authority of 
the Vedas, the sacred books of the Brah¬ 
mins, is rejected, as well as the sacrifices, 
ceremonies, and other religious obser¬ 
vances of the Hindoos. There is no dis¬ 
tinction of caste, and the priests, who are 
not foi-bidden the use of animal food, are 
obtained from all classes. Monasteries and 
nunneries abound wherever Buddhism flou¬ 
rishes. The ceremonies have so many re¬ 
semblances to those of the Roman Catholic 
church as to strike European spectators 
with surprise. Amongst the characteristics 
of Buddhist temples arethedagobasand the 
images of Buddha. The former are stone 
structures of a hemispherical or pyramidal 
form, supported on cylindrical pedestals. 
The images represent a human form stand¬ 
ing, reclining, or sitting, with curly hair, 
and ears drawn downwards. Besides many 
other monuments of the ancient worship of 
Buddha, there are two particularly remark¬ 
able—the ruins of the gigantic temple 
Boro-Budor in Java, and the five large sub¬ 
terranean halls, called Pantsh-Pandu, on 
the way from Guzerat to Malwa. Tradition 
ascribes these astonishing works of ancient 
Indian architecture and sculpture, which 
far surpass the skill of the modern Hindoos, 
to the Pandus, the heroes of Indian my¬ 
thology. Buddhism ivas expelled from 
India by the persecutions of the Brahmins 
between the fifth and seventh centuries of 
our era. 

BUD'DING, a method of propagating 
plants. A bud with a small portion of bark 
is neatly cut off and transferred to another 
tree, a slit being first made in the bark of 
the latter to receive the bud. It is then 
bound round with thread until the bud has 
grown to and become part of the tree. The 
branch springing from the bud will afford 
flowers and fruit similar to those of the tree 
from which it was taken. 

BUDE LIGHT {Bade, in Cornwall, where 
the inventor resided). This name was 
given by Mr. Gurney to a light in which 
oxygen gas was passed into the flame, in¬ 
stead of common air, which greatly in¬ 
creased the brilliancy of the light: but the 
expense prevented this arrangement from 
being used commonly. What is now called 
the Bade light is a gas flame, with two, 
three, or more concentric burners, chim¬ 
neys supplied with conmum air, and reflec¬ 
tors of peculiar construction. 

BUD'GET ( bougette , a bag: Fr.), the ! 
name given to the annual statement of 
the public finances made to the House of 
Commons. 

BUF'FALO (boubalos: Gr.), in Zoology, 
the popular name for some animals of the 
ox tribe, belonging to the genus Bubalas. 
The common buffalo, B. buffelius, has been 
domesticated in India, where they are also 
wild. They are very strong animals, and 
have horns sometimes measuring six feet 
in length. The Cape buffalo, B. coffer, lives 
in large herds in Soutli Africa. It is a 
powerful beast, but has not been domesti- 























99 


Hfttrarg Cra^uri), 


[buoy 


cated. Buffaloes have the most violent an- 
! tipathy to a red colour, and are most 
] furious and vindictive: they are fond of 
standing in the water, and swim the 
| broadest rivers without hesitation. [See 
| Bison.] 

BUF'FERS (bouffer, to puff out: Fr.), 
fkistic cushions attached to railway car¬ 
riages for the purpose of breaking the 
i shock when one carriage is pushed against 
another. They are usually formed of strong 
springs of steel, or of vulcanized caout¬ 
chouc. 

BUFFET' ( Fr .), anciently a little apart¬ 
ment separated from the rest of the room 
by slender wooden columns, for the dispos¬ 
ing of china, glass, &c. 

BUF'FO (Hal.), a singer, or actor, who 
takes the humorous part in comic operas, 
&c. 

BU'FONITES (bufo , a toad: Lat.), in 
Mineralogy, a sort of stone formerly said to 
be found in the head of a toad, and hence 
vulgarly called toadstone. 

BUG (bugg, terror: Goth.), a troublesome 
and disgusting insect; the Cimex lectula- 
rius of naturalists. 

BU'GLOSS ( bouglAssos: from bo ns, an ox; 
and glossa, the tongue : Gr.), the Ox-tongue. 
In Botany, a name given to plants belong¬ 
ing to several distinct genera of plants, as 
Anchusa, Lycopsis, and Asperugo. 

BUL, in the ancient Hebrew chronology, 
the eighth month of the ecclesiastical, and 
the second of the civil year; it "has since 
been called Marshevan, and answers to our 
October. 

BUL-BUL, an Indian name for the night- 
I ingale, whose loves with the rose are cele¬ 
brated in eastern poetry. 

BULB (bulbils: Lat; bolbos: Gr.), in Bo¬ 
tany, is a subterranean leaf-bud covered 
with scales, from the centre of which pro¬ 
ceeds a stem with leaves. At the base of the 
! bulb is a sort of disc, from which the roots 
issue. Bulbs are said to be solid when 
composed of one uniform lump of matter, 
as in the tulip; tunicated, when formed of 
a great.number of coats surrounding one 
another, as in the onion ; squamose, or 
scaly, when composed of smaller flakes, as 
in the lily; duplicate, when there are only 
two to each plant; and aggregate, when 
there is a congeries of such roots to each 
plant. 

1 BULI'MIA, or BU'LIMY ( boulimia , liun- 
! ger : Gr.), a disease in which the patient 
i is affected with an insatiable and perpetual 
appetite for food. 

j BU'LIMUS (same deriv.), a very large 
genus of land molluscs allied to the common 
snails. About 700 species (including sub- 
genera) have been described, and some of 
the African species are of very large size. 
The young have shells in the egg. 

BULK'HEADS, partitions made athwart 
a ship, by which one part is divided from 
another; as in the great cabin, gun-room, 
bread-room, &c. 

BULL (bulle: Dut,), in Astronomy, the 

! constellation Taurus. - Also, an edict or 

mandate issued by the Pope, and sealed 
| with the bulla, a leaden or gold seal. 

BUL'LA (a bubble : Lat.), in Antiquity, a 


small round ornament of gold or silver, in 
the shape of a heart, worn about the neck 
or breast of the children of the nobility till 
the age of seventeen . when they assumed 
the toga, and hung- up the bulla as ail 

offering to the Lares or household gods.- 

In Zoology, a large genus of gasteropod 
molluscs with ventricose shells which the 
animals more or less invest. The gizzard is 
furnished with three calcareous plates by 
which the food is triturated. 

BUL'LATE ( bullatus , from last), in Bo¬ 
tany, an epithet for a leaf having protu¬ 
berances on its surface resembling blisters. 

BUL'LETIN, an official account of public 
transactions or matters of general interest. 

BULL'-FIGIIT, an entertainment frequent 
in Spain and Portugal, at which wild bulls 
are encountered by men armed with lances. 

BULL'FINCII, a well known songster of 
the Finch family, the Pyrrliula vulgaris of 
ornithologists. The wild bird does much 
injury during the spring to gooseberry 
bushes, cherry trees and plum trees, by 
devouring their flower buds. Bullfinches 
which have been taught to warble particular 
tunes are imported in large numbers from 
Germany. 

BULL'-FItOG, the Ran a pipiens of North 
America, the largest species of the genus, 
so called because its voice resembles the 
distant lowing of an ox. 

BUL'LION (bulla, an ornament of metal : 
Lat.) uncoined and unwrought gold or sil¬ 
ver, of any degree of fineness. 

BULL’S'-EYE, a mark in the centre of a 
target, in the shape of a bull’s eye, at which 

archers, &c., shoot by way of exercise.-In 

Astronomy, Aldebaran, a star of the first 

magnitude in the constellation Taurus.- 

Among seamen, a small obscure cloud 
ruddy in the middle, generally the imme¬ 
diate forerunner of a great storm.-In 

Architecture, any small circular opening or 
window. 

BUL'VVARK (bol, the trunk of a tree; and 
werk, a work: Goth.), in Fortification, a 
mound of earth capable of resisting cannon- 
shot. It is now termed a bastion. — The 
rails, &c., used to prevent persons from 
falling from the deck of a ship into the sea. 

BUM'-BOAT, a sort of wherry used about 
harbours to carry provisions, &e., for sale 
to ships lying at a distance. 

BUN'GALOW (Ind.), a house of one story 
with a thatched roof, such as is common in 
India. 

BUNT (supposed to be a corruption of 
bent), in Nautical language, the middle part 
of a sail, formed into a sort of bag or hol¬ 
low, that it may gather more wind. 

BUN'TINE, or BUNT'ING, the thin 
woollen stuff of which the colours, or flags, 
add signals of ships are made. 

BUN'TING (buntinawg, fat rump: Wei.), 
the appellation of several closely-allied 
birds, of which the Common Bunting, 
Emberiza miliaria, and the Yellow Bunting 
or Yellow-hammer, E. citrinella, may be 
taken as examples. 

BUNT'LINES, small ropes fastened to 
cringles, which serve to force up the bunt 
of the sail for the better furling of it. 

BUOY (bouee; Fr.), a short piece of woo<] 


























buphaga] (EIju Jrctfrnttft'c nutf 100 


or close-hooped barrel fastened by a rope to 

the anchor, to point out its situation.- 

Also, conical vessels, generally of large 
dimensions and showily painted, that they 
may be seen at a distance, serving to mark 
out the course a ship is to follow in leaving 
a harbour, &c. Sometimes bells are at¬ 
tached to them, which ring by their motion, 
and denote their proximity in foggy wea¬ 
ther.- A Life-Buoy is intended to keep 

a person afloat till lie can be taken from the 
water. It should be suspended from the 
stern of the ship, and let go as soon as any¬ 
body falls overboard, and a light may be 
attached to it which is kindled by its fall, 
if the accident happens by night. It 
usually consists of two hollow copper 
vessels connected together, and of buoy¬ 
ancy sufficient to support one man leaning 
upon them. 

BU'PHAGA (bous, an ox; and phago I eat: 
Or.), in Ornithology, a genus of South 
African birds allied to the Starlings. The 
species are termed Beef-eaters, or Cattle- 
pickers, from their settling upon the backs 
of oxen and other ruminants, to peck out 
with their beaks the maggots of bot flies 
deposited under the hide. 

BUPRES'TIS (bouprestis: from bous, an 
ox; and pretho, I swell out: Gr.) , in Ento¬ 
mology, a genus of beetles belonging to a 
large family, the species of which are re¬ 
markable for the brilliant colours and me¬ 
tallic lustre of their wing cases. These 
are frequently employed in the decoration 
of ladies’ dresses. 

BUR'DEN, the contents of a ship, or the 

number of tons which a vessel will carry.- 

Burden ( bourdon , the drone of a musical in¬ 
strument : Ft.), in Music, that part of a song 
which is repeated at every verse or stanza. 

BUREAU' (an office: Fr.), in its primary 
sense, was a cloth covering a table; next a 
writing-table; and afterwards the chamber 
of an officer of government, and the body 
of subordinates who labour under his di¬ 
rection. 

BUR'GAGE (burgh, a borough; from beorg: 
Sax.), an ancient tenure in boroughs by 
which the inhabitants hold their lands, &c. 
of the king, or other lord of the borough, 
at a certain yearly rent. There are also 
peculiarities as to descent. A dwelling- 
house'in a borough was also formerly 
called a burgage. - 

BUR'GESS (bourgeois: Fr.), an inhabitant 
of a borough, or one who possesses a tene¬ 
ment within it. Also.the representative of 
a borough in parliament. Also, the person 
who has the right to vote on the election 
of municipal officers. 

BUR'GLARY (burgi latrocinium, robbery 
of a burgh : Lat.), in Law, the breaking and 
entering the dwelling of another in the 
night, with the intent to commit some 
felony. The like offence committed by day 
is called house-breaking. 

BUR'GOMASTER, the chief magistrate 
of towns in Holland and Germany. 

BTURIN (Fr.), an instrument of tempered 
steel used for engraving on copper, &c. One 
end is ground off obliquely so as to produce 
a point, and the other is inserted in a short 
wooden handle. 


BURLET'TA (burlare, to jest: Ital.), a 
light, comic species of musical drama. 

BURN'ING. [See Combustion.] 

BURN'ING-GLASS, a convex lens which 
collects and concentrates to a focus the 
rays of heat that fall upon it from the sun; 
so that a piece of wood, or other body easily 
inflammable, is kindled when held in the 

focus.- Burning Mirrors, or specula, 

are concave surfaces, which reflect the rays 
of heat to a focus. Among the ancients, 
the burning mirrors of Archimedes and Pro- 
clus are famous. By the former, the Ro¬ 
man navy was set on Are and consumed, at 
the distance of a bow-shot; and by the 
latter, according to Zonaras, the navy of 
Vitellius, while besieging Byzantium, was 
burnt to ashes. By means of a mirror made 
by Villette, a French artist of Lyons,.a six¬ 
pence was melted in seven seconds and z, 
half, and a halfpenny in sixteen seconds. 
This mirror was 47 inches wide, and ground 
to a spherical surface of 76 inches radius, 
so that its focus was about 38 inches from 
the vertex. Its substance was a composi¬ 
tion of tin, copper, and bismuth. 

BUR'REL-SHOT (bourreller, to torture : 
Fr.), small shot, nails, pieces of old iron, 
&c., put into cases, to be discharged out of 
ordnance. 

BUR'SiE MUCO'SHi (mucous pouches. 
Mod. Lat.), in Anatomy, bags which secrete 
a mucous fat that serves to lubricate ten¬ 
dons, muscles, and bones, in order to render 
their motion easy. 

BURR'-STONE, the hard tough stone of 
which the grinding stones of flour mills are 
made, cut out of some igneous rock. Mill¬ 
stones from the trachyte of the Eifel dis¬ 
trict on the Rhine are exported to many 
countries. 

BUll'SAR (bursa, a purse : Mod. Lat.), in 
the English Universities, the treasurer of a 
college; in the Scotch Universities, a stu¬ 
dent whose success in his studies has 
gained for him a pension. - 

BUSH'-HARROW, an implement of hus¬ 
bandry for harrowing grass lands and 
covering grass or clover seeds. It con¬ 
sists of a frame with three or more bars, 
in which bushes are interwoven." 

BUSII'MEN, or BOSJESMEN, a savage 
tribe living in South Africa, in the neigh¬ 
bourhood of the English settlements. They 
are more wild and ferocious than either the 
Caffres or Hottentots. 

BUS'KIN, a kind of high shoe, anciently 
worn by tragedians; also a sort of leather 
stocking serving the purpose of a boot. 

BUST, or BUS'TO (JFtal.), in Sculpture, a 
figure "or portrait showing only the head 
and shoulders, the arms being absent. 

BUS'TARD, a name given to some birds 
belonging to the genus Otis, plaeedamongst 
the Grallai or Waders. They are heavy 
birds, without much power of flight, and 
swift runners. The Great Bustard seems to 
have become extinct in England. The Little 
Bustard is occasionally a winter visitor. 

BUTCH'ER-BIFJDS, a species of Lanius, 
which see. 

BUT'TER ( bouturon : from bous, a cow; 
and turns, cheese : Gr.), a fat unctuous sub¬ 
stance, procured from the cream of milk bv 



















101 


Jtttmcrg Cre*£ttrg. 


[CAABA 


churning. This kind of oil, in its natural 
condition, is distributed through all the 
substance of the milk in very small parti¬ 
cles, 'which are interposed between the 
caseous and serous parts, among which it is 
suspended by a slight adherence, but with¬ 
out being dissolved. Beingin the same state 
as oil in emulsions, it causes the milk to be 
white; and separating by rest, it ascends 
to the surface, and forms a cream. It was 
only at a late period that the Greeks appear 
to have had any notion of butter; their 
poets make no mention of it, and yet they 
frequently speak of milk and cheese. The 
Romans used butter only as a medicine, 
never as a nutriment.—— Butter, a name 
given in old books of chemistry to several 
metallic chlorides, on account of their ap¬ 
pearance when newly prepared. Hence there 
are the butters of antimony, arsenic, &c. 

BUTTERCUP, the common name of 
some wild species of Ranunculus. 

BUTTERFLIES, a well-known tribe of 
lepidopterous insects, distinguished from 
moths by having the antenna? clubbed at 
the end, carrying the wings upright when 
in a state of repose, and being destitute of 
any apparatus to connect them during 
flight. [See Lepidoftera.] 

BUTTER-TREE, a tree found by Mungo 
Park, in the interior of Africa, yielding 
from its kernels, by pressure, a white, firm, 
rich butter. The tree is supposed to have 
been some species of Bassia, nat. ord. Sapo- 
tacece, an order containing other trees with 
oily fruits. 

BUTTER-TVORT, an English plant with 
purple flowers, growing in bogs, and belong¬ 
ing to the genus Pinguicula, nat. ord. Len- 
tibulariacece. 

BUTTOCK ( aboutir, to join end : Fr.) of 
a ship, is that part which is right astern, 
from the tack upwards; and a ship is said 
to have a broad or a narrow buttock, ac¬ 
cording as she is built broad or narrow at 
the transom 


BUX'US ( Lat., from puxos: Or.), a genus 
of evergreen shrubs belonging to the nat. 
ord. Euphorbiacece. One species, the com¬ 
mon boxtree, is much used for the borders 
of flower-beds. Boxwood is extremely hard 
and smooth, and therefore capable of being 
wrought with great neatness by the turner. 
It is used for the same reason by engravers 
on wood. 

BUZE, a wooden or leaden pipe to convey 
the air into mines. 

BUZ'ZARD ( buse: Fr.), a rapacious but 
sluggish bird of the Falcon tribe, the Falco 
buteo of naturalists. 

BY'-LAWS, or BY'E-LATVS, private and 
peculiar laws for the good government of a 
city, court, or other community, made by 
the general consent of the members. All 
bye-laws are to be reasonable, and for the 
common benefit, not private advantage of 
any particular person; and they must bo 
consistent with the public laws in force. 

BYS'SOLITE ( bussos, flax; and lithos, a 
stone: Gr.), a scarce mineral from'the Alps, 
occurring in very delicate filaments, short, 
flexible, and elastic. The colour is olive- 
green, and the lustre rather silky. 

BYS'SUS ( bussos, flax : Gr.), a fine linen 
among the ancients, procured from India. 
Also that Egyptian linen, of which the 

tunics of Jewish priests were made.-- 

Byssus, the fibrous matter by which some 
shell-bearing molluscs attach themselves to 
rocks and stones under water. The silky 
fibres of the byssus of the Pinna, a bivalve 
which grows to a large size, are made into 
gloves, and other articles of dress, in the 
island of Sardinia. 

BYZANTINE, a gold coin of the value of 
151., so called from being coined at Byzan¬ 
tium. Also an epithet for anything pertain¬ 
ing to Byzantium, an ancient city of Thrace, 
situated on the Bosphorus, nearly in the 
place where Constantinople now stands. 
Also a style of Architecture. 


C 


C, the third letter, and second consonant 
of the alphabet, is pronounced like k before 
the vowels a, o, and u, and like s before e, i, 
and y. Before h it has a peculiar sound, as 
in chance, chalk ; in chord and some other 
words, it is hard like k; but in many French 
words it is soft before h, like s, as in chaise, 
chagrin, &c. As a numeral, C stands for 
100, and CC for 200, &c.; as an abbreviation, 
it stands for Christ, as A.C. or B.C., Ante 
Christum, or Before Christ. Also, in ancient 
authors, for Caius, Cassar, consul, civitas, 
&c. For Civil, as D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law; 
for Companion, as C.B. Companion of the 
Bath; for Cross, as G.C.B. Grand Cross of 
the Bath; for Commander, as K.C.B. Knight 
Commander of the Bath; for Company, as 
E.I.C. East India Company. It was a symbol 
of condemnation in the Roman tribunals, 


as an abbreviation for condem.no; being, on 
this account, called litera tristis, or a sor¬ 
rowful letter, in opposition to A,for absolvo, 
a litera salutaris, or advantageous letter. 

-In Music, C after the clef is the mark 

of common time. 

CAA'BA, or CAA'BAH (a square stone: 
Arab.), properly signifies the stone in the 
temple of Mecca, greatly reverenced by the { 
Mahometans, as having been presented to 
the patriarch Abraham by the angel Gabriel. 
It is used also to indicate the edifice in 
which this stone is placed. The Mahome¬ 
tans always turn their faces towards this 
building when they pray, in whatever part 
of the world they happen to be. It enjoys 
the privilege of an asylum for all sorts of 
criminals; but is most remarkable for the 
pilgrimages made to it by the devout Mus- 
































calamanco] Cljc ‘grrtfntttfc ftlttf 104 

enclosed in a hard shell that serves the na¬ 
tives of the tropical parts of America for 
a drinking cup, a pot for boiling, and for 
various other domestic purposes. 

CALAMAN'CO ( calamancus , a hat: Mod. 
Lat.), a fine sort of woollen stuif, of a rich 
gloss, and chequered in the warp, so that 
the checks are seen only upon one side. 

CALAMA'RY, or Squid, common names 
for a section of cuttlefishes, having elon¬ 
gated bodies with short broad fins, and a 
horny internal pen or shell. The common 
calamary is the Loligo vulgaris of natu- 
ra l ists 

CALAMIF'EROUS (kalamos, a reed; and 
phero, I bear: Or.), a Botanic term for 
plants having a long, hollow, knotted stem. 

CAL'AMINE, or Lapis calajiiNauis, 
native carbonate of zinc : a name formerly 
given to the ore of zinc, used in making 
brass. 

CAL'AMTTS ( kalamos , a reed: Or.), a reed 
used anciently as a pen to write on parch¬ 
ment or papyrus-The generic name of 

some Indian palms, including the dragon’s 

blood calamus, and the rotang.-Also, a 

kind of reed, or sweet-scented cane, used 
by the Jews as a perfume. 

CAL'ATHUS, in Antiquity, a basket or 
hamper, made of osiers or reeds, used to 
put needle-work in, or to hold flowers. The 
calatbus was also a pan for cheese-curds and 

I milk, and a cup for wine used in sacrifices. 

CAL'CAR ( calcarice , a lime-lciln; from 
calx, lime: La £.), a kind of furnace, used in 
glass works for the calcination of sand and 
potash. 

CALCA'REOUS ( calcarius , from calx, 
lime : Lat.), a term applied to anything 
composed of lime. 

CALCA'REOUS SPAR (same deriv.), crys¬ 
tallized native carbonate of lime. 

CAL'CEUS {Lat., from calx, the heel), in 
Antiquity, a shoe or boot. The shoes were 
frequently open in front, leaving the toes 
bare. In the time of the Emperors, senators 
wore high shoes like buskins, fastened 
with four black thongs in front, and orna¬ 
mented with a crescent. 

CALCIF'EROUS {calx, lime : and fero, I 
bear: Lat.), having lime. 

CALCINA'TION {calx, lime: Lat.), the 
process of the reduction of bodies to a pul- 
verisable state by the action of fire, in the 
same way as lime is produced from lime¬ 
stone. 

CAL'CITTM (calx, lime : Lat.), the metallic 
basis of lime. It is solid, rather yellowish, 
highly lustrous, but tarnishes quickly in 
the air. In contact with cold water it de¬ 
composes rapidly, and hydrogen is evolved. 
Heated to redness in the air, it burns and 
sends off sparks, but does not inflame. It 
is i ■ alerately hard, malleable and ductile, 

| and has a specific gravity of T58. It is ob- 
ta’iiable by the electrolysis of chloride of 
c< cium. 

1 OALCOG'RAPIIY (calx, lime: Lat.; and 
grapho, I write: Gr.), an engraving after 
the manner of a drawing in chalk. 

CALC-SINTER ( Italic , lime; and sintem, 
to d rop: Germ.), incrustations of carbonate 
of lime; also, the stalactites attached to 
(me roofs of caverns. 

CALC-TUFF, a deposit of carbonate of 
lime by water holding it in solution. 

CAL'CULARY ( calculus, a pebble : Lat.), 
a congeries of stony secretions found in 
the pulp of a pear and other fruits. 

CAL'CULATING MACHINES. Mathema¬ 
tical calculations, both simple and compli¬ 
cated, enter so largely into the common 
concerns of life, that any machine capable 
of facilitating them must be considered of 
deep Importance. The earliest contrivance 
of this kind was the abacus, which see. 
Within the last hundred years, several of 
great ingenuity have been devised, which 
were capable of performing simple opera¬ 
tions. Their principle may be understood 
by supposing some number of wheels, each 
having a dial with ten numbered divisions 
and an index, and driving one anothefi by 
pinions, so arranged that ten revolutions 
of one shall produce one revolution of that 
which it drives. Such a machine will repre¬ 
sent the decivial system, and will indicate, 
without the possibility of error, the total 
number of impulses, each of which is ex¬ 
pressed by one division of the first dial. 
This is the principle on which the gas 
meter registers the revolutions of its re¬ 
volving part. It is the principle, also, of 
many contrivances for recoi-ding the num¬ 
ber of strokes made by steam-engines in a 
given time, the number of persons passing 
over bridges at which toll is paid, &c. A 
very few wheels suffice to register enor¬ 
mous numbers. It is clear that such a train 
of wheels may be made to represent any 
system as well as the decimal. Pascal con¬ 
structed a machine suited to the currency 
used in his time in Upper Normandy. 
These contrivances were not, however, 
calculated to supply a want most seriously 
felt —the production of arithmetical and 
other tables rigorously correct. From the 
imperfection of the human mind, and the 
impossibility of keeping the attention in¬ 
variably fixed on any one object, errors 
must creep into such tables, and these 
errors must be highly inconvenient if con¬ 
nected with navigation, &c. The process 
of multiplication is not very complicated; 
yet, in an extensive table prepared by Dr. 
Hutton for the Board of Longitude, forty 
errors were detected in a single page., taken 
at random. These considerations led Mr. 
Babbage, nearly forty years ago, to make a 
machine which should construct tables of 
an important kind without the chance of 
error. It would be impossible to give any 
idea of his ingenuity npd labours here. 
Government made grants at various times 
to meet the expenses of the mechanical 
processes required ; but no recompense has 
been accepted by Mr. Babbage for his mem 
tal exertions. Considerable progress was 
made in what he called a ‘ difference engine,’ 
but after about 17,000 1 . had been expended, 
and several years had been spent in the 
experiment, it was abandoned. The in¬ 
complete machine has been placed in the 
museum of King’s College, London. Mr. Bab¬ 
bage has since invented a still more power¬ 
ful machine, which he calls an ‘ analvtical 
engine,’ but it has never been constructed 
Meantime, a calculating machine has been a 


























105 


SLttrrani Cratfurn. 


[callosum 


work for some years in the office of the 
Registrar-General, London. This was de¬ 
signed hy Messrs. Scheutz of Stockholm, 
and has been found of great use. It not 
only calculates tables but prints them. 

CALCULATION ( calculatio , from calcu¬ 
lus, a pebble: Lat.), the art of computing, 
deriving its name from the methods an¬ 
ciently used to facilitate calculations. [See 
Abacus.] 

CAL'CULUS (a pebble: Lat.), a name 
generally given to hard abnormal concre¬ 
tions, not bony, which are formed in the 
bodies of animals. Biliary calculi are those 
found in the gall bladder; urinary calculi, 
those found in the urinary bladder. The 
disease of calculus in the bladder is called 

lithiasis ; in the kidneys, nephritis. -In 

Mathematics, the term calculus, taken in its 
widest sense, extends from the simplest 
numerical operations to the highest com¬ 
binations of the transcendental analysis. 
Leaving out of view the simple processes 
of numerical computation the object of the 
calculus may be said to be the discovery of 
unknown quantities from known quantities. 

CALEPA'CIENTS ( calefacio , I make 
warm: Lat.), in Medicine such preparations 
as have a tendency to stimulate the action 
of the blood. 

CAL'ENDAR ( calendar, the first of the 
month, from calo, I call: Lat.), a register 
of time, divided into months, weeks, and 
days throughout the year; together with an 
account of such matters as serve for the daily 
purposes of life. The Roman and Julian 
calendars were in use among the Romans ; 
the Gregorian and reformed have been 
adopted by the moderns.. [See Style.] 
The calendar received its name from its 
being the custom, in the early ages of Rome, 
for the pontiffs to call the people together 
on the first day of the month (the calendar), 
to inform them what days in it were to be 
kept sacred. 

CAL'ENDER ( caleo, I am warm : Lat.), the 
process being literally a hot-pressing), a 
machine used in manufactories, to press 
stuffs, silks, linens, &c., to give them a fine 
gloss and wavy appearance. It consists of 
two thick rollers or cylinders, revolving so 
nearly in contact with each other that cloth 
passed through between them is not only 
smoothed, but glazed by their powerful 
pressure. 

CALEN'DULA, a genus of plants of the 
nat. order Composite, including the common 
marigold. 

CAL'ENTURE (caleo, I am warm : Lat.), 
a violent fever, incident to sailors in hot 
climates ; the principal symptom of which 
is their desire to rush into the sea, which 
it is said, they imagine to be a green field. 

CAL'IBER COM'PASSES, a particular in¬ 
strument used by gunners for measuring 
the diameter of shot, shells, &c. They re¬ 
semble other compasses, except in tlieir 
legs, which are arched, so that the points 
may touch the extremities of the arch. 

CAL'ICO, cloth made of cotton. It is 
called calico, because originally brought 
from Calicut, a kingdom of India on this 
side of the Ganges, on the coast of Malabar. 
Cotton cloths, whether plain, printed, dyed, 


stained, or painted, chintz, or muslins, are 
all included under this one general denomi¬ 
nation. 

CAL’ICO-PRINTING, the art of impress¬ 
ing cotton cloth with coloured patterns. It 
has been for many centuries practised by 
the oriental methods in Asia and the Le¬ 
vant, but it was unknown in this country 
till the end of the 17th century. The pat¬ 
terns are printed from revolving cylinders. 
Of late years great improvements have been 
made, especially in the chemical part of the 
art. Whilst silk and wool have a strong 
affinity for colours, cotton will not retain 
soluble colours without the aid of Mor¬ 
dants, which render the colours insoluble 
and thereby permanent. By varying the 
mordants, many changes of colour may be 
obtained from the same dye-stuff. 

CAL'IGA (Lat., from calx, the heel), in 
Antiquity, a heavy shoe worn by the Roman 
soldiers. Caligce were sometimes adorned 
with gold and silver nails. The caligula 
was a smaller kind of military boot, from 
wearing which the emperor Caligula derived 
his name. 

CA'LIN, a compound of lead and tin, of 
which the Chinese make tea-canisters, &c. 

CA'LIPH (khalifah, a deputy : Arab.), the 
chief sacerdotal dignitary among the Sara¬ 
cens or Mahometans, vested with absolute 
authority in all matters relating both to 
religion and politics. It is at this day one 
of the Grand Seignior’s titles, as successor 
of the Prophet [see Sultan] ; and of the 
Sophi of Persia, as successor of Ali. The 
government of the original caliphs con¬ 
tinued from the death of Mahomet till the 
655tli year of the hegira, that is, from a.d. 
632 to 1277. 

CALK'ING, or CAULK'ING, the driving 
oakum, or old ropes untwisted, into the 
seams of a ship, to prevent their leaking 
or admitting water; after which they are 

covered with melted pitch or resin.-In 

Painting, the covering of the back side of a 
design with red chalk, and tracing lines 
through on a waxed plate or wall, so as to 
leave an impression of the colour there. 

CALK'INS, in Farriery, the prominent 
parts at the extremities of a horse-shoe, 
bent downwards, and forged to a sort of 
point. 

CALL OF THE HOUSE, a parliamentary 
term implying an imperative call or sum¬ 
mons, sent to every member on some 
particular occasion. 

CALLION'YMUS (lealos, beautiful; and 
onoma, anarae: Gr.), a genus of spiny finned 
fishes, including the dragonet of our coasts. 

CALLISTEI'A, in Grecian Antiquity, a 
Lesbian festival, at which the women pre¬ 
sented themselves in the temple of Juno, 
in order that the prize might be assigned 
to the fairest. There was a similar festival 
of Cei - es Eleusinia among the Parrliasians; 
and another among the Eleans, where the 
most beautiful man was presented with a 
complete suit of armour, which he conse¬ 
crated to Minerva. 

CALLO'SUM COR'PUS (the callous body: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, a medullary prominence 
in the brain, seen on separating the two 
lateral parts of the cerebrum. Its fibrous 













CIjc gpcimtific antf 


106 


callus] 


structure extends into the two hemi¬ 
spheres, and unites them organically to¬ 
gether. 

CAL'LUS (a hard thick skin: Lat.'), the 
new growth of osseous matter between the 
extremities of fractured hones; or any 
dense, insensible knob or horny substance 
on the skin. 

CA'LOMEL {halos, beautiful; and melas, 
black: Gr.), a heavy white tasteless powder, 
the sub-chloride of mercury, prepared by 
heating a mixture of metallic mercury with 
corrosive sublimate (the protochloride of 
mercury). Calomel sublimes as a vapour. 
The name is an old one, and the reason of 
J applying it to a white powder is not known. 

CALOR'IC {calor, heat: Lat.), the old 
' name of the principle of heat, as distinct 
from the sensation, when it was considered 
to be matter. 

CALORIM'ETER {calor, heat: Lat.; and 
matron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring the heat given out by a body in 
cooling. 

CALORIMO'TOR {calor, heat; and motor, 
a mover: Lat.), a galvanic instrument, in 
which the calorific effects are attended by 
scarcely any electrical power. 

CALO'TE {calotte: Fr.), a sort of skull-cap 
worn by the French cavalry under their 
caps, as a guard against the blows of a 
sabre. 

CAL'OTYPE (halos, beautiful; and tupos, 
a sketch: Gr.), a process for obtaining pho¬ 
togenic drawings on paper by the action of 
light upon certain salts of silver. This 
process is also called Talbotypc. [See Pho¬ 
tography.] 

CAL'TROPS. [See Crow’s feet.] 

CAL'UMET, a symbolical instrument of 
great importance among the Indians of- 
America. It is a smoking pipe, the bowl 
of which is generally made of a soft red 
marble, and the tube of a very long reed, 
ornamented with feathers. This instru¬ 
ment, the use of which bears a great re¬ 
semblance to the caduceus of the Greeks, 
is a pledge of peace and good faith. The 
calumet of war, differently made, is used 
to proclaim war. 

CAL'YINISM, in Theology, the tenets of 
John Calvin, who, in the 16th century, 
flourished at Geneva, where his doctrines 
still subsist; they relate both to doctrine 
and discipline. The doctrinal parts of this 
system differ from that of other reformers 
of Calvin’s period, chiefly in what regards 
the absolute decrees of God, by which, ac¬ 
cording to this teacher, the future and 
eternal condition of the human race was 
predetermined : in other words, Calvin 
denied the free agency of man, and main¬ 
tained predestination. The discipline esta¬ 
blished by Calvin rejected episcopacy, and 
has been adopted by the Presbyterians of 
France, &c. 

CALX (lime : Lat.), a name given by the 
alchemists to the remains of metals, mine¬ 
rals, &c., after they have undergone the 
action of fire, and have lost all their humid 
parts. On account of the combined oxygen, 
metallic calxes are heavier than the metal 
from which they are produced. 

CALYC'IFLORiE {calyx, a flower cup; and 


,flos, a flower : Lat,.), a sub-class of dicotyle¬ 
donous plants, having a calyx with the 
stamens attached to them, and a corolla of 
several distinct petals. Leguminous plants 
belong to this sub-class. 

CALY'CIFOltM {calyx, a flower cup ; and 
forma, a shape: Lat.), In Botany, an epithet 
for the involucrura, when it has the appear¬ 
ance of a calyx. 

CAL'YCLE {haluhion, a dim. of halux, a 
fiower-cup : Gr.), in Botany, a row of leaf¬ 
lets, at the base of the calyx on the outside. 

CALYP'TRA {haluptra, a covering : Gr.), 
in Botany, a thin membranaceous cap, or 
cowl, usually of a conic figure, which covers 
the parts of fructification in mosses. 

CA'LYX {halux: Gr.), in Botany, the 
flower-cup, or that whorl of the fioralorgans 
which is external to the corolla. It may 
consist of one or several leaflets. Its usual 
colour is green, but in the iris, lily, and 
some other flowers, its leaves are mixed 
with those of the corolla, from which they 
are not easily distinguished. 

CAMARIL'LA {Span.), the private cham¬ 
ber of the sovereign of Spain; but the 
term is generally applied to his immediate 
confidants, and is synonymous with clique. 

CAM'BER-BEAM {cambrer, to bend : Fr.), 
in Architecture, a beam cut hollow or arch¬ 
wise in the middle, commonly used in plat¬ 
forms. 

CAM'BERED (same dcriv.), an epithet 
applied to the deck of a ship, the flooring 
of which is highest in the middle; also 
when it is defectively so, or what is some¬ 
times called brohen-bached. 

CAM'BRIAN SYSTEM, in Geology, a se¬ 
ries of sedimentary rocks lying below the 
Silurian beds, and being the lowest fossili- 
ferous rocks yet discovered. They are di¬ 
visible into two groups, upper and lower. 
The latter is seen in North Wales, and in 
Wicklow, Ireland, where a few zoophytes 
have been found in them. The former 
group is to be seen in North Wales and 
Shropshire, and has yielded some shells, 
trilobites, crustaceans, and polyzoa. Tin’s 
system has a thickness of many thousand 
feet. It has received its name from the 
place of its chief development. 

CAM'BRIC, a species of fine white linen, 
made of flax, said to be named from Cam- 
bray, in Flanders, where it was first manu¬ 
factured. 

CAM'EL (hamelos: Gr.), a genus of horn¬ 
less ruminant quadrupeds, containing two 
species, which are only known in the do¬ 
mesticated state. The dromedary, or African 
camel {G. dromedanus), has one hunch on 
the back; the common, or Asiatic camel 
(C. Bactrianus), has two humps. They are 
distinguished from other bovine animals 
by the possession of cutting teeth in the 
upper jaw. The camel, by its power of sus¬ 
taining abstinence from drink for many 
days, from the peculiar formation of its 
stomach, and of subsisting on a few coarse 
shrubs, is peculiarly fitted for the parched 
and barren lands of Asia and Africa. The 
Arabians live chiefly on- the milk of their 
camels; and without them they could nei¬ 
ther carry on trade, nor travel over their 
sandy deserts. 


































107 


Ettcrary Erntfurg. 


CAMEL'LIA, in Botany, a genus of 
plants, well known In conservatories for 
their beautiful flowers. They are natives 
of China and Japan. The tea-plant belongs 
to the same nat. ord.: TemstrOmiacecc. 

CA'MELOPARD ( kamelos, a camel; and 
pardalis, a leopard : £7r.), or Giraffe. This 
animal, whose existence was at one time 
disputed, is a native of several parts of 
Africa, living in forests, and feeding on 
the leaves. It has two straight horns, with¬ 
out branches, six inches long, covered with 
hair, truncated at the end, and tufted. 
The shoulders are of such a length as to 
render the fore part of the animal much 
higher than the hind part. The neck is 
very long, the head slender and elegant, 
and the colour of the body is a dusky 
white, with large rusty spots. It is mild 
and inoffensive, and in cases of danger has 
recourse to flight for safety, but when 
obliged to stand on self-defence, it kicks 
its adversary. It derives its name from a 
supposed resemblance to both the camel 
and the leopard. It is a ruminant animal 
of the ox family, and has been named 
Giraffa Camelopardalis by naturalists. 

CAMELOPAR'DALIS (the camelopard : 
Gr.), in Astronomy, a constellation consist¬ 
ing of 58 stars, situated between Ceplieus, 
Perseus, Cassiopeia, Ursa Major and Minor, 
and Draco. 

CAM'EO, or CAMA'IEU, a peculiar sort 
of onyx; or a stone or shell on which 
figures are cut in relief on a differently 

coloured ground.-The name is likewise 

given to such paintings as have but one 
colour, where the lights and shades are 
made on a ground of gold or azure. 

CAMERALISTICS (kameralien : Germ.; 
from kamera, a chamber: Gr.; strictly, a 
place with a vaulted roof), the science of 
finance or public revenue, comprehending 
the means of raising and disposing of it. 

CAM'ERA LU'CIDA (a bright chamber: 
Lat.), an optical instrument, for throwing 
upon paper the image of an object, so that 
it can be drawn. 

CAM'ERA OBSCU'RA (a dark chamber : 
Lat.), an optical instrument. The light 
being collected and thrown through a sin¬ 
gle aperture, external objects are exhibited 
distinctly, and in their natural colours, on 
any white surface placed within it. 

CAMISA'DE ( camisa, shirt: Languedo- 
; cian), a French term for attacking or sur¬ 
prising an enemy by night. It obtained 
the name from the Camisards, or French 
Protestants, in the Cevennes, who, after 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, suf¬ 
fered much persecution from the govern¬ 
ment in the early part of the last century. 
Going about at night, they were accus¬ 
tomed to wear a shirt over their other 
clothes, that they might recognize each 
other. They called themselves ‘Enfants 
de Dieu.’ Gibbon has alluded to ‘ the bold¬ 
ness, the crimes, and the enthusiasm of 
the fanatics of Languedoc.’ 

CAM'LET ( camelus, a camel: Lot.), a sort 
of stuff originally made of camel’s hair 
and silk mixed, hut now of wool and silk. 

CAMP ( campus , a field : Lat.), the resi¬ 
dence of an army resting in tents; or the 


[campus I 


place and order of tents for soldiers in the 
field. On the continent of Europe the 
armies bivouac in the open air, or, if the 
time will allow it, lodge in huts built of 
branches, &c. In the progress of the mili¬ 
tary art, camps have become slight and 
simple. The Romans carried the art of en¬ 
camping to great perfection. Their camp 
was quadrangular: it was surrounded by 
regular entrenchments, and so arranged 
that each cohort, legion, and individual, 
knew exactly the point he should occupy, 
and the place to which he should proceed 
in case of alarm. 

CAMPA'IGN ( campagne, the country : 
Fr.), the space of time during which an 
army is kept in the field. A campaign is 
usually from spring to autumn ; but some¬ 
times armies make a winter campaign. 

CAMPANILE ( Ital.), a bell tower, fre¬ 
quently standing apart from the building 
to which it belongs. 

CAMPAN'ULACEiE, a natural order of 
herbs or undershrubs, with monopetalous 
bell-shaped flowers (whence the name, ccvtn- 
panula, a little bell: Lat.). They are na¬ 
tives of temperate regions. Our common 
hare-bell and the flower called Canterbury- 
bells, are examples. The order yields little 
that is of value to man. 

CAMPAN'ULAT.H (same deriv.), or CAM- 
PAN'IFORM ( campana, a bell; and forma, 
a form: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for 
the corolla, or calyx, when either is bell- 
sliaped. 

CAM'PHENE ( camphor, an artificial kind 
of which is made from oil of turpentine), a 
liydro-carbon, consisting of highly rectified 
spirit of turpentine. 

CAM'PHOR ( capliura : Arab.), a white 
concrete crystalline substance, of an acrid j 
bitter taste, and a penetrating smell. It is j 
extracted from the Camphor a offleinarum, 
nat. ord. Lauracece, a large tree growing 
wild in China, Borneo, Sumatra, &c. To 
obtain camphor, the tree is cut down, and 
divided into pieces, and the camphor is 
taken out; being found in small whitish 
flakes in and near the centre. It is also ob¬ 
tained by distilling the wood with water. 
Like most of the essential oils it is a hydro¬ 
carbon, combined with oxygen. It slowly 
sublimes and wholly disappears at the or¬ 
dinary temperature of the atmosphere. It 
is soluble in alcohol, ether, and strong 
acetic acid, but very sparingly in water. 

CAM'PION, in Botany, the Agrostemma of 
Linnaeus. The rose campion, or Agrostemma 
coronaria, is a well-known garden flower. 

CAM'PUS MA'II (the field of May : Lat.), 
an anniversary assembly of our ancestors, 
held on May-day, when they confederated 
together for defence of the kingdom against 
all its enemies. 

CAM'PUS MAR'TIUS (the field of Mars : 
Lat.), among the Romans, a field, by the 
side of the Tiber, where the youth exer¬ 
cised themselves in warlike exercises. It 
was so called on account of a temple ; 
that stood on it, consecrated to the god 
Mars. The consuls Brutus and Collatinus 
are said to have made it the place for hold- 
ingthe comitia or assemblies of the people : 
and, in after times, it was adorned with a 




















camwood] CTtjc j^ctnxttftc <*mtf 


108 


great number of fine statues. -It consti¬ 
tutes the principal part of the modern city 
of Rome. 

CAM'WOOD, a material from which a 
brilliant red colour is obtained by dyers. It 
is the produce of a leguminous tree grow¬ 
ing in India, the Bapliia nitida of botanists. 

CAN'ADA BAL'SAM, a very pure turpen¬ 
tine ; a natural combination of resin with 
the essential oil, chiefly extracted from the 
Balm of Gilead Fir (Abies balsamea) growing 
in Canada. It is employed in medicine, and 
as a medium for mounting microscopic ob¬ 
jects on glass slides. 

CANAL' ( ccmalis : Lat.), an artificial river, 
provided, if required by the nature of the 
place through which it passes, with locks 
and sluices, and sustained by banks and 

mounds.-In Anatomy, a duct or passage 

in the body of an animal, through which 
any of the juices flow, or other substances 
pass. 

CANA'RIUM AUGU'RIUM (canarius, be¬ 
longing to a dog ; and auguriwm, an augury : 
Lat.), in Antiquity, a sacrifice among the 
Romans of a red dog, for the purpose of 
appeasing the fury of the dog-star on the 
approach of harvest. 

CANA'RY BIRD, a beautiful yellow sing¬ 
ing bird much bred in England, brought 
originally from the Canary Islands, where 
it is of a green colour. It is a species of 
finch, and was introduced into Europe in 
the sixteenth century. 

CANCELLA'RIA CU'RIA (Lat.), in Ar- 
fineology, the Court of Chancery. 

CANCEL'Ll (Lat.), in Architecture,trellis 
>r lattice work, made of cross bars of wood 
>v iron. Also the balusters or rails encom¬ 
passing the bar of a court of justice. 

CAN'CER (a crab: Lat.), in Medicine, 
a hard ulcerous and exceedingly painful 
swelling, generally seated in the glandu- 
lous parts of the body. Its extirpation 
affords the only chance of recovery. It ob¬ 
tained its name from the large blue veins 
which ramify round a cancer of the breast, 
compared by old authors to the claws of a 

crab.-In Zoology, a genus of crabs, to 

which the large edible crab of our coast be¬ 
longs.-In Astronomy, a constellation, 

and the fourth sign in the zodiac, which the 
sun enters on the 21st of June, thence called 

the summer solstice.- Tropic op Caxcer, 

a small circle of the sphere, parallel to the 
equator, and passing through the beginning 
of Cancer. 

CANDELA'BRUM (Lat.), originally signi¬ 
fied a candlestick amongst the ancients, 
afterwards a support 'for a lamp. They 
were made of wood, metal, or marble, and 
were carved into a variety of elegant shapes. 
A shaft, standing on three short legs, was 
a common form. 

CAN'DIDATE (candidatus, clothed in 
white; from candidus, white: Lot.), a person 
who seeks or aspires to some public office. 
In the Roman commonwealth, the candidati 
'"’ere obliged to put on a white robe while 
soliciting a place. According to Plutarch, 
they wore this garment without any other 
clothes, that they might not be suspected 
of concealing money for purchasing votes, 
and also that they might the more easily 


show the scars of those wounds they had 
received in fighting for the defence of the 
commonwealth. 

CANDIDA'TI MII/ITES (soldiers clothed 
in white : Lat.), an order of soldiers, among 
the Romans, who served as the emperor's 
body-guards to defend him in battle. They 
were the tallest and strongest of all the 
troops, and were called candidati in conse¬ 
quence of being clothed in white. 

CAN'DLE (candela: Lat.). Candles, for¬ 
merly made only of tallow and wax, are 
now made of other substances, such as 
palm oil, paraffine and stearic acid (or 
stearine), either pure or mixed with mar- 
garic acid. The candle manufacture is a 
very extensive one in this country, not¬ 
withstanding the enormous consumption of 
gas and oils. Tallow, spermaceti, stearic 
acid, and paraffine candles are cast in 
moulds, but wax candles are made by pour¬ 
ing melted wax over each wick as it hangs 
over a pan of wax, until the requisite thick¬ 
ness has been obtained. It is then rolled 
on a table until it acquires a cylindrical 
shape. 

CAN'DLE-BERRY-TREE, the Myrica ce- 
rifera, or wax-bearing myrtle, nat. ord. 
Myricacece, a shrub common in North Ame¬ 
rica, from the berries of which a kind of 
wax is produced of which candles are made. 

CAN'DLEMAS-DAY (candle-mass, from 
the candles consecrated at the mass of that 
day), the festival observed on the 2nd of 
February, in commemoration of the puri¬ 
fication of the Virgin Mary. In the Roman 
Catholic church the candles then blessed at 
the mass are used in processions and other 
ceremonies throughout the year. 

CAN'DY (Candidas, white : Lat.), a prepa¬ 
ration of sugar made by melting and crys¬ 
tallizing it several times. 

CAN'DYTUFT (same deriv.), a common 
garden annual, belonging to the genus 
Iberis: nat. ord. Cruciferce. 

CANE'PIIORCE (kaneplioroi: from kane, 
a basket; and phero, I bear: Gr.), the noble 
Athenian virgins who carried the baskets 

at public festivals.-In Architecture, 

figures of young women bearing baskets on 
their heads, and often confounded with 
Caryatides. 

CAN'FARA, a sort of ordeal by fire, as it 
once existed in this kingdom. The accused 
•carried hot irons in his hands, and if he 
came off unhurt, he was deemed innocent. 

CANIC'ULAR DAYS (canicularis, per¬ 
taining to the dog-star; from canicula, the 
dog-star: Lat.), a period of the year com¬ 
monly called the dog days. It lasts about 
forty days, beginning the 3rd of Julv, and 
ending the 11th of August. Sirius, or the 
dog-star, rose in ancient times heliacally, 
that is, just before the sun, at the beginning 
of July; and the sultry heat, which had a 
tendency to render dogs mad, was ascribed 
to the malignant influence of that star 
The precession of the equinoxes has 
caused the heliacal rising of the dog-star 
to take place later, and in a cooler season • 
so that the dog-star has not now the same 
reference to hot weather. The Ethiopians 
and Egyptians began their year at the 
rising of the dog-star, reckoning to its ris* 




































109 Ettcraru (Etoatfurg. [cantharides 


again the next year: and hence it is called 
the canicular year. 

CA'NIS ( Lat .), a genus of quadrupeds, 
class Mammalia, order Force. It compre¬ 
hends animals that differ very essentially 
j from each other in their hahits, as the 
dog, the wolf, the fox, and the jackal. 

- Canis, in Astronomy, the name of two 

! constellations in the southern hemisphere; 
namely, Canis Major and Canis Minor. 

CAN'KER ( cancer , a crah: Lat.), a corrod¬ 
ing disease which occurs frequently in fruit 

trees.-Also a fungous excrescence in the 

feet of horses. 

CAN'NEL-COAL, or CANDLE-COAL, a 
hard, opaque, inflammable jet-black fossil 
coal, which burns with a bright white flame, 
like a candle. It is sufficiently solid to be 
cut and polished, and, like jet, is often 
made into trinkets. In Scotland it is called 
parrot coal. 

CAN'NEQUIN, white cotton cloth brought 
from the East Indies, made in pieces of 
about eight ells long. 

CAN'NON ( canna , a pipe made of reed: 
Lat.), a piece of ordnance, or a heavy metal¬ 
lic gun for abattery, mounted onacarriage. 
Cannon are made of iron, steel or brass, and 
are of different sizes, carrying balls varying 
from three pounds weight to several hun¬ 
dred. The explosive force being directed 
| by the tube, balls and missiles are carried 
to great distances with destructive power. 
In a field of battle they are often drawn by 
horses on light carriages, and are then 
called field pieces, or flying artillery. The 
different parts of a cannon are, the breecli, 
or solid metal, from the bottom of the bore 
to the cascabel or extremity of the solid 
end ; the trunnions, which project at each 
side, and form an axis, on which it turns; 
the bore, or cyliudrical cavity, which at pre¬ 
sent is not cast, but formed in the solid 
metal by a boring machine; and the chamber, 
which is a recess for the powder, formed at 
the end of the bore, and of smaller diameter. 
Cannon were originally made of longitu¬ 
dinal bars, bound with strong hoops; and 
this mode of manufacture has been, in some 
instances, revived. 

CANO'E, a small boat, formed of the trunk 
j of a tree, hollowed out by cutting or burn¬ 
ing ; and sometimes also of pieces of bark 
joined together. It is impelled by a paddle 
instead of an oar, and is used by uncivilized 
I nations in both hemispheres. 

| CAN'ON (IcanOn, a rule : Or.), is a word of 
many meanings. Thus it signifies the laws 
and ordinances of ecclesiastical councils. 

.-The authorized and received catalogue 

of the books of Scripture.-A dignitary in 

cathedral and collegiate churches who, 
when he performs the duties of his office, 

is termed residentiary. -Originally, canons 

were priests who lived in community, re¬ 
siding near the cathedral church, and assist- 
| ing the bishop; but, by degrees, shaking 
off their dependence, they formed separate 
bodies: in time they freed themselves 
from their rules, and at length ceased to 

live in a community.-In modern Music, 

a canon is a kind of perpetual fugue, in 
which the different pants, beginning one 
after another, repeat iflcessantly the same 


air.-In Mathematics, it is a general rule 

for resolving all cases of a like nature in 
geometry, algebra, &c. 

CANONICAL ( Icanonikos , from same 
deriv.), in Ecclesiastical Polity, signifies 
agreeable to the canons of a church; as, 
canonical hours, or hours prescribed by the 
canons for prayers. 

CANONIZA'TION ( kanon, an example, or 
model: Gr.), an act of the Roman Catholic 
church, by which it takes upon itself to 
rank a deceased person in the catalogue of 
the saints; but the act is preceded by beati¬ 
fication, and by a kind of inquiry into the 
life and ‘miracles’ of the deceased. The 
life of the person proposed for examination 
is considered with special reference to the 
austerities and observances which the Ro¬ 
man Catholic church considers as indicative 
of sanctity. 

CAN'ONRY, or CAN'ONSHIP, the bene¬ 
fice filled by a canon. It differs from a pre¬ 
bend, inasmuch as a prebend may subsist 
without a canonicate; whereas a canon- j 
icate always involves a prebend: again, the | 
rights of suffrages, and other privileges, are 
annexed to the canonicate, and not to the 
prebend. 

CANO'PUS, in Astronomy, a star of the , 
first magnitude in the rudder of Argo, a ! 
constellation of the southern hemisphere. 
It is the a Argus of astronomers. ‘ Sidus 
ingens et clarum,’ a large bright star, wrote 
Pliny. 

CAN'OPY (konopeion, literally a mosquito 
curtain; from IcOnops, a gnat: Gr.), a mag- I 
niflcent covering raised over an altar, [ 
throne, chair of state, pulpit, &c, In figu¬ 
rative language the sky is called a canopy. 

CANT, in Architecture, a term expressing 
the position of any piece of timber not 

standing square.- Cant-mo u lding, a 

moulding with a bevelled surface applied j 

to the capitals of columns.-In Ship-build- ! 

ing, Cant-timbers are those timbers which 
are situated at the two ends of a ship, and | 
canted or raised obliquely from the keel. 

CANTAB’ILE ( Ital., fron canto, I sing: j 
Lat.), in Music, a term applied to move- J 
ments intended to be in a graceful and j 
melodious style. 

CANTAN'TE (a singer : Ital., from same), 
in Music, a term to denote the vocal part of 
the composition. 

CANTA'TA (Ital., from same), a song or 
composition, intermixed with recitative, 
airs, and different movements, chiefly in¬ 
tended for a single voice, with an instru¬ 
mental accompaniment. 

CANTEE'N ( cantine: Fr.), a public-house 
licensed in every barrack or fort to sell 
liquors. Also a semi-cylindrical tin-case 
over a soldier's knapsack, to carry his 
cooked victuals in. 

CANTHARTDES (Gr.), the plural form of 
Cantliaris, the name of a genus of beetles, 
including the C. vesica, or Spanish-fly, exten¬ 
sively used in this country as a material for 
raising blisters. The beetle is found gene¬ 
rally in the south of Europe, but our chief 
supply comes from Spain. It is usually about 
half an inch in length, of a shining green co¬ 
lour, but of a foetid smell. Taken internally 
they are a most energetic acrid poison. 



















cantharidin] &l)e J)n'cutt(u nntf no 


CANTHAR'IDIN (from cantharidcs), that 
peculiar substance existing in cantliarides, 
which causes vesication. 

CAN'THARUS (kantharos: Gr.), in An¬ 
tiquity, a tankard sacred to Bacchus. 

OAN'THI ( kanthos, the corner of the eye : 
Gr.), in Anatomy, cavities at the extremities 
of the eyelids, commonly called the corners 
of the eye : the internal or greater cantlius 
is next the nose; the external or lesser 
near the temple. 

CAN'TICA ( Lat.), songs in Roman comedy 
sung to music by one person, and supposed 
to have been introduced as interludes. 

CAN'TICLES (canticulum, a little song: 
Lat.), the Song of SongS, in the Bible. It is 
supposed by some to be a marriage song 
written by Solomon, and must be explained 
by compositions of a similar nature in East¬ 
ern countries. Other writers consider it to 
be a series of sacred idyls, each distinct and 
independent of the other. It was forbidden 
to be read before a mature age by the Jews 
and early Christians, lest it should be mis¬ 
understood. 

CANTILE'NA (a song: Lat.), in Music, 
the treble melody, or upper part of any 
composition. 

CAN'TO (a song: Ital.), a part or division 
of a poem, answering to what in prose is 
called a book. In Music, it signifl.es the 
first treble, or highest vocal part. 

CAN'TON, a small division: hence, in 
Heraldry, a small square, separated from the 

{ rest of the coat, is called a canton. -In 

Military affairs,troops billeted into different 
quarters or divisions are said to go into 

cantonments. -In Geography, a small dis- 

i trict of territory, constituting a distinct 
state or government: as the cantons of 
Switzerland. 

CAN'TONED, in Architecture, isjwlien the 
[ corner of a building is adorned with a 
pilaster, an angular column, rustic quoins, 
or anything that projects beyond the level 
of a wall.-In Heraldry, a shield is can¬ 

toned by two lines proceeding from the 
top or sides, and meeting at right angles. 
A canton dexter is always meant, unless it 
is otherwise expressed. 

CAN'YAS ( canevas: Fr.; from kannabis, 
hemp: Gr.), a coarse sort of cloth, of which 
there are several kinds. Among others are 
—1. That worked regularly in little squares 
as a basis for tapestry; 2. That which is 
called buckram ; 3. The cloth used for pic¬ 
tures ; 4. That employed for sails of ships, 
tents, &c. 

. CAN'ZONE, or CANZO'NA (a song : Ital.), 
in Music, a song or air in two or three 
parts, with passages of fugue and imitation. 
The term is sometimes applied to a kind of 
lyric poem, in Italian, to which music may 
be adapted in the style of a cantata. 

CANZONET' ( canzoneta, the dim. of can¬ 
zone, a song: Ital.), in Music, a short song, 
in one or two parts. 

CAOU'CIIOUO, or CAOU'TCHOUC, im¬ 
properly called elastic gum, and more com¬ 
monly india-rubber, is obtained from the 
milky juice of several plants and trees, 
particularly* from the Siphonia elastica of 
Cayenne. Its elasticity is such that it can 
i he stretched to a great extent, and its 


pliancy is increased by heat. From its soft¬ 
ness, impermeability to water, &c., it is used 
in the manufacture of many articles. It is 
easily dissolved by purified naphtha obtain¬ 
ed from coal tar, which does not change its 
properties, and the solution has been most 
extensively employed to give a thin cover¬ 
ing to cloth, so as to render it impervious \ 
to moisture. It is also used for over-shoes, 
and, when dissolved in oil, forms a flexible 
varnish. Caoutchouc is principally obtained 
from South America, but latterly it has 
been imported in great quantities from 
Africa and Asia. It is usually brought to 
Europe in the form of pear-shaped bottles, 
which are formed by allowing the juice to 
flow from the tree over a mould of clay, 
then drying by exposure to the sun or to 
the smoke of burning fuel, after which the 
clay in the inside is moistened with water, 

and picked out.- Vulcanized india-rubber. 

In its ordinary state, india-rubber becomes 
rigid by cold, and soft by heat: hence it 
loses its value in hot or cold countries ; but 
when combined with a little sulphur, at a 
temperature of 320 Q F. (this process being 
termed vulcanization), it becomes highly 
elastic: it is not affected by the most in¬ 
tense cold, nor by a temperature less than 
that which is sufficient to char it; moisture, 
however long continued, seems to produce 
no action upon it; and it is unaffected by 
any of the ordinary solvents, such as grease, 
oils, ether, turpentine, naphtha, or acid 
solutions. In this state it is very largely 
employed in the arts. Subjected to a higher 
degree of heat, and for a longer time, it is 
converted into Hard india-rubber. Ebonite, 
or Vulcanite, and in this condition it can be 
employed in the place of bone and wood for 
a great number of articles, such as knife- 
handles, combs, cups, and boxes. 

GAP [caput, the head: Lat.), a part of 
dress made to cover the head. The use of 
caps and hats is referred to the year 1449, 
the first seen in Europe being at the entry 
of Charles VII. into Rouen : from that 
time they began to take the place of hoods 

or chaperons.- Cap, in Architecture, the 

uppermost part of any assemblage of prin¬ 
cipal or subordinate parts.-In Ship-build¬ 

ing, a square piece of timber which is 
placed over the head or upper end of a 

mast.-In Botany, the pileus, or top of | 

the fungus, generally shaped like a bonnet. 

-Cap of Maintenance, one of the orua- 

ments of state, carried before the kings of 
England at their coronation. It is of crim- | 
son velvet, faced with ermiqe; and is also } 
frequently met with above the helmet, in- , 
stead of wreaths, under gentlemen’s crests, j 
&c.- Cap-a-pie (Fr.), from head to foot. 

CAPA'CITY ( capacitas , from capax, able 
to hold: Lat.), in a general sense, means 

the power of containing or holding. -In 

Chemistry, that quality of bodies by which, 
according to some theorists, they absorb 
and contain heat, which was considered 

an imponderable fluid.-In Geometry, the 

solid contents of a body. 

CAPE (caput, a head : Lat.), in Geography*, 
a part of a continent projecting into the 
sea, as the Cape of Good Hope, Cape St. Vin¬ 
cent, &c. 





























Ill 


mtcntri? ©rwtfurg. 


[CAPONNIERE 


CAPEL'LA (a kid: Lat.), a star of the 
first magnitude in the constellation of the 
, Charioteer ; it is the a Aurigai of astrono¬ 
mers. Its distance from the earth has been 
calculated at 390,000 millions of miles, and 
yet its spectrum has been photographed by 
the scientific man. The light that effected 
the impression on the sensitive plate must 
have left the star 63 years before. 

CA'PERS, the pickled flower-buds of the 
Capparis spinosa, a shrub belonging to the 
nat. ord. Capparidacece, growing in the 
south of Europe. 

CA'PET, the name of the French race of 
kings, which has given 118 sovereigns to 
Europe, viz. 36 kings to France, 22 kings to 
Portugal, 5 kings to Spain, 11 kings to 
Naples and Sicily, 3 kings to Hungary, 3 
kings to Navarre, 3 emperors to the east, 
17 dukes to Burgundy, 12 dukes to Brit¬ 
tany, 2 dukes to Lorraine, and 4 dukes to 
Parma. 

CA'PIAS (you are to take: Lat.), in Law, 
certain writs by one of which, the capias 
ad respondendum, a party is arrested at the 
commencement of a suit, if there is ground 
for supposing that he is about to fly the 
country. Another is the capias ad satis¬ 
faciendum (called briefly Ca. Sa.), a writ of 
execution, by which the sheriff is com¬ 
manded to take the body of the defendaut 
I in execution. 

CAPIL'LAIRE, a kind of syrup in which 
1 the Maiden-hair fern, Adiantum capillus 
veneris, is an ingredient. 

CAPIL'LARY ( capillus, a hair: Lat.), an 
epithet given to things on account of their 

hair-like fineness.- Capillary Attrac- 

; tiox, or Capillarity, that property which 
; causes fluids to rise, contrary to gravity, 
when in contact with other bodies. If a 
I piece of clean sheet glass is placed partly in 
! water, the fluid wiil rise at each side. If a 
fine tube is treated in the same way the fluid 
will rise in the tube above the level of the 
: rest, and the finer the tube the higher it 
1 will rise. -Capillary Ores, in Minera¬ 

logy, the same with those otherwise denom¬ 
inated arborescent, or striated. -Capil¬ 

lary Tubes, tubes of hair-like fineness.-—• 
Capillary Vessels, in Anatomy, the 
smallest and extreme parts of the ramifica- 
I tions of the veins and arteries. 

CAP'ITAL ( capitalis, important; from 
I caput, the head: Lat.), in Commerce, the 
j j fund or stock, in money and goods, of a 
S merchant, manufacturer, &c., or of a trad¬ 
ing company.- Capital, in Architecture, 

the uppermost part of a column or pi¬ 
laster, serving as the head or crowning, 

I and placed immediately over the shaft, 

! and under the entablature.- Capital, 

[ in Geography, the metropolis, or chief city 
| or town of an empire, kingdom, state, or 
province. 

| ! CAPITAL PUNTSHMENT (.caput, phy¬ 
sical life; literally, the head: Lat.), the 
extreme penalty of the law, by which the 
criminal’s life is taken. 

I CAP'I TATE ( capitatus, Lat.), in Botany, 
that which has a head or thickened summit. 
CAPITA'TION (capitatio, a poll-tax ; from 
] caput, the head: Lat.), a tax or imposition 
levied on each person in a state. It is a 


very ancient kind of tribute, and an¬ 
swers to what the Latins called tributum, 
by which taxes on persons are distin¬ 
guished from taxes on merchandise, called 

vectigalia. 

CAP'ITE (caput, the head: Lat.), in Law, 
a sort of ancient tenure, by which a man 
held lands of the crowm, by knight’s service 
or in socage. 

CAP'ITOL (caput, a head : Lat.), a collec¬ 
tion of buildings in ancient Rome, on the 
Mons Capitoliuus, in one of which the 
senate assembled. On the same spot is 
still the city-liall or town-house, where the 
conservators of the Roman people hold 
their meetings. It is asserted, but without 
much authority, that it was thus called 
ou account of the head of a person named 1 
TolluS having been found in digging its j 
foundations; but the appellation is suffi¬ 
ciently accounted for by its being the chief 
post of the city. The ascent to it was by 100 ! 
steps; and among the other structures it 
contained was the magnificent temple of Ju¬ 
piter, both the inside and outside of which 
were enriched with numerous ornaments, 
the most splendid being the statue of that 
deity. Augustus gave to this temple 2,000 
lbs. weight of gold; the gilding of its arch 
cost 21,000 talents; and its gates were of j 
brass, covered with gold. 

CAP'ITOLINE GAMES, annual games 
said to have been instituted by Camillas, 
in honour of Jupiter Capitoliuus, and in 
commemoration of the preservation of the 
capitol from the Gauls. There was also 
another kind of Capitoline games, instituted 
by Domitian, and celebrated every five 
years, at which rewards and crowns were 
bestowed on the poets, champions, orators, 
historians, &c. 

CAPIT'ULA RURA'LIA (rural chapters: 
Lat.), assemblies or chapters held by rural 
deans and parochial clergy within the pre- | 
cinet of every district deanery. 

CAPIT'ULARY (capitulum, a chapter: 
Lat.), the body of laws or statutes of a chap¬ 
ter, or of an ecclesiastical council. 

CAPITULATION ( capitulum, a head: 
Lat.; in the original sense, a drawing up of 
the different heads of agreement), in Mili¬ 
tary affairs, a treaty made between the gar- 1 
rison of a place besieged and the besiegers, 
for yielding on certain conditions. The 
term is also applicable to the surrender of 
troops in any situation in which they are 
compelled to submit to a victorious enemy. 

CAPIT'ULUM (Lat., from caput, the 
head), in Antiquity, a transverse beam in 
the military engines of the ancients, having 
holes for the strings with which they were 

set in motion.-In Anatomy, the small 

head, or protuberance of a bone received 
into the concavity of another.— In Botany, 
a mode of inflorescence, when several 
flowers form a kind of head or ball. 

CAP'NIAS (smoky, from kapnos, smoke: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, a kind of jasper, of a 
smoky colour. 

CAPONNIE'RE, in Fortification, a oo 
vered lodgment placed in the glacis, at 
the extremity of the counterscarp, and in 
dry moats, with embrasures or loopholes 
through which the soldiers may fire. 




































capote] 


CHI )t ^(tcnttCc mitr 


112 


CAPO'TE (Fr.), a great-coat, with a hood 
or cowl, which is sometimes worn hy sen¬ 
tinels in bad weather. 

CAP'PARIS (Gr.\ [See Capers.] 

CAPRE'iE ( capra , a goat: Lat.), in Zoo¬ 
logy, a family of mammalian quadrupeds, 
including the common goat, the Cashmere 
goat (whose wool is the material of which 
Cashmere shawls are made), and the ibex or 
steinbock, which inhabits various moun¬ 
tain ranges in',Europe. 

CAP'REOLATE {caprcoins, a tendril: 
Lat.), in Botany, having the tendrils, or 
filiform spiral claspers, by which plants 
fasten themselves to other bodies, as in 
vines, peas, &c. 

CAPRE'OLUS (Lat.), in Anatomy, the 

helix of the ear.-In Botany, the clasp or 

tendril of a vine or other plant. 

CAPItlC'CIO (a whim : Ital.), in Music, the 
term for tliat irregular kind of composition 
in which the composer, without any re¬ 
straint, follows the bent of his humour. 
It denotes also that the movement before 
which it is written is to be in a free and 
fantastic style. 

CAP'RICORN (caper, ahe-goat; and cornu, 
a horn: Lat.), in Astronomy, a southern 
constellation, and one of the twelve signs 
of the zodiac, which the sun enters on the 

2ist December.- Tropic op Capricorn, 

a small circle of the sphere, parallel to the 
equinoctial, passing through the beginning 
of Capricorn or the tvinter solstice, which 
is the sun’s greatest southern declination, 
viz. 23} degrees. 

CAPRI FICA'TION (caprificus, the goat- 
fig, the wild Jig.tree: Lat.), a method used 
in the Levant for ripening the fruit of the 
domestic fig tree, by means of insects bred 
in that of the wild fig tree. The caprifloa- 
tion of the ancient Greeks and Romans 
corresponds in every circumstance with 
what is practised at this day in the Archi¬ 
pelago and in Italy, l Ancient writers agree 
in declaring that the wild fig tree, caprificus, 
never ripened’its fruit, but was absolutely 
necessary for^ripening that of the garden 
or domestic fig tree, over which husband¬ 
men suspended its branches. 

CAP'RIOLES (capreolus, a wild goat : 
Lat,.),' in' Horsemanship, are those leaps 
which' a horse makes in the same place 
without advancing, in such a manner that 
when he is at the height of the leap, he 
‘erks out with his hind legs. 

CAP'SICUM, a genus of South American 
plants, belonging to the order Solanacece. 
Their ground capsules and seeds afford the 
red or Cayenne pepper of our tables. 

CAP'STAN (cabestan: Fr.), in a ship, a 
strong massy column of timber, of the na¬ 
ture of a windlass, which is placed behind 
the mainmast, and is used for weighing, or 
raising up anchors, or any other purpose 
for which great power is required. 

CAPSULA'RES ARTE'RLE ( capsula, the 
dim. of capsa, a box: Lat.), in Anatomy, 
the arteries of the renal glands, so called 
because they are enclosed by a capsule. 

CAP'SULE (same deriv.), in Botany, a dry 
seed vessel, opening by valves or pores. 
The seed vessels of the foxglove and the 
poppy may be taken as examples.-In 


Chemistry, a porcelain or other dish for 
boiling or evaporating. 

CAP'TAIN (capitaine: Fr.; from caput, 
head: Lat.), in the Army, the commander 
of a company of foot or of a troop of horse; 
and in the Naval or merchant service, the 
commander of a vessel.-A Captain-lieu¬ 

tenant- is an officer in the guards who, 
with the rank of captain and pay of lieu¬ 
tenant, commands a company or troop.- 

A Post-captain, in the British navy, is an 
officer commanding any man-of-war, from 
a ship of the line down to a ship-rigged sloop. 

CAP'TION ( captio, a taking; from capio, I 
take: Lat.), in Law, the act of taking any 
person by any judicial process. 

CAP'UCHINS, an order of Franciscan 
friars in the Roman Catholic church, so 
called from the capuche or hood sewe,d to 
their habits, and hanging down their backs. 

CA'PUT (Lat.), in Anatomy, the Head, 
which is divided into the skull (cranium) 
and the face (facies). The skull consists of 
the crown, or vertex; theposterior part, or 
occiput ; the anterior part, or sinciput ; and 

the temples, or tempora. - Caput Obsti- 

pum, a wry neck, which is generally a spas¬ 
modic disorder. 

CA'PUT MOR'TUUM (a dead head : Lat.), 
in Chemistry, the residuum in the retort 
after the operation of distilling. 

CAPTBA'RA (Hydrochcerus capybara), a 
large rodent animal, sometimes called the 
water hog, which inhabits the neighbour¬ 
hood of lakes and rivers in South America. 
It may be likened to a colossal guinea-pig. 
It feeds on fish and vegetables. It is of a 
sluggish disposition, is easily tamed, and 
enjoys having its skin rubbed like a pig. 
Its body is covered with coarse brown hair. 
It utters a low peculiar grunt. Specimens 
have been brought alive to this country 

CAR'ABINE, or CAR'BINE (Fr.), a short 
gun used by cavalry soldiers. 

CARACA'RAS, birds of prey, inhabiting 
South America, and belonging to the Fal¬ 
con family. The caracara eagle ( Polyborus 
brasiliensis) derives its common name from 
its cry. It is a carrion feeder, and, like the 
rest of its tribe, has its cheeks and part of 
its throat bare of feathers. 

CAR'ACOLE '(Fr.), the half wheel which 
a horseman makes either to the right or 
left. .The cavalry make a caracole after 
each dischargeT in order to pass to the rear 
of the squadron. 

• CAR'ACOLY, a mixture of gold, silver, 
and copper, of which are made rings and 
other ornaments, for bartering with savage 
tribes. •„ . 

CA'RAITES, a sect among the Jews which 
adheres closely to the text and letter of the 
Scriptures, rejecting the rabbinical inter¬ 
pretations and the cabala. 

CARAM'BOLA, the fruit of some East 
Indian plants belonging to the genus 
Averrlioa: uat. ord. Oxalidacece. It is in¬ 
tensely acid, and is only tolerable to Eu¬ 
ropeans in the shape of pickles. 

OAR'AMEL, burnt sugar, used for co¬ 
louring spirits or gravies. It is a shining 
black substance, soluble in water, which 
it renders brown. The French dissolve it 
in lime water. 































113 


Htt entry 


CARAPA'CK.the hard external coat with 
which certain animals, such as the arma¬ 
dillo and the tortoise, are covered. The 
shell protecting the body of the crab is 
j called the carapace. 

I CAR'AT, or CAR'ACT ( kyrat , a weight: 

( Arab.), the twenty-fourth part of an ounce 
i Troy.. It is a term employed in speaking of 
the fineness of gold. Pure gold is 24-carat 
gold, whilst 23-carat gold is the metal al¬ 
loyed with one twenty-fourth by weight of 
copper. The British gold coinage is 22 carats 
fine, that is, one-twelftli of the whole 
weight is composed of copper. What is 
called jeweller’s gold is a much debased 
form of the metal, the usual degree of 
fineness being 16 carats, that is, only two- 
thirds of the total weight are gold.—- 
Carat, a weight of four grains, employed 
in weighing precious stones. 

CARAVAN' ( carvan, a trader: Pers.), in 
the East, a company of travellers, and more 
particularly of merchants, who, for greater 
security, proceed in a body through the 
deserts of Arabia, or any other region in¬ 
fested with robbers. Such a company often 
has more than a thousand camels to carry 
the baggage and goods; and, as the travel¬ 
lers walk in single file, the line is often a mile 
long. Proper officers, the chief of whom has 
| the title of Caravan-Bachi, are appointed 
I to regulate everything during their march. 

CARAVAN'SEllA, or CARAVAN'SERY 
(edirawan: Arab.), a large building or inn 
for the reception of travellers and the cara¬ 
vans. It commonly forms a square, in 
the middle of which is a spacious court; and 
under the arches or piazzas that surround 
it there runs a bank, raised some feet above 
the ground, where the merchants and tra¬ 
vellers, take up their lodgings, the beasts 
of burden being tied to the foot of it. In 
the upper part there are generally private 
! apartments, the use of which is costly. In 
many cases, however, the hospitality is 
i gratuitous, it being by no means uncom¬ 
mon for a pious Mussulman to establish, 
during his life or by will, one or more of 
these caravanseries. 

CAR'AW AY, an umbelliferous plant, the 
Carum carui of botanists, the seeds of 
which have an aromatic smell and a warm 
pungent taste. Caraway seeds are used in 
j cakes, &c., and are distilled with spirituous 
liquors. 

CAIi'BON ( carbo , charcoal: Lat.), an ele¬ 
mentary body, the essential part of char¬ 
coal. Though this substance abounds 
throughout the vegetable kingdom, and is 
! also contained in animal and even mineral 
j bodies, yet it is very rarely to be met with 
in a state of absolute purity. The diamond 
is nothing but pure crystallised carbon. 
For many ages the diamond was considered 
as incombustible ; and Newton was the first 
who conjectured, from its great refractive 
potver, that it was capable of combustion. 
Graphite, or plumbago, is nearly pure car¬ 
bon. Coal consists in great part of carbon. 
By the union of carbon with oxygen, it 
produces two gaseous substances, the first 
of which is carbonic acid, formerly called 
fixed air; and the second, containing less 
oxygen, carbonic oxide. 


[CARBURETTER 


CAR'BONATE, in Chemistry, a compound 
formed by the combination of carbonic 
acid with different bases, as carbonate of 
copper, carbonate of lime, &c. 

CARBON'IC ACID, in Chemistry, a co¬ 
lourless elastic fluid, a compound of one 
atom of carbon and two of oxygen, for¬ 
merly called fixed air: it is one and a half 
times heavier than atmospheric air. It will 
neither support animal life nor combustion. 
It is liquefied by a pressure of thirty-six 
atmospheres, or 540 lbs. to the square inch ; 
and the resulting liquid solidifies by spon¬ 
taneous evaporation. It is the gas which 
is generated by fermentation, and which 
so often proves destructive to those who 
inhale it in mines, wells, or very con¬ 
fined apartments. All kinds of spring and 
well water contain carbonic acid, which 
they absorb from the atmosphere, and to 
which they are partly indebted for their 
agreeable flavour; but water is wholly de¬ 
prived of it by boiling. It renders lime 
water turbid, if transmitted through it, 
carbonate of lime being formed. The effer¬ 
vescence of the so-called soda-water is due 
to the escape of this gas which had been 
forced" into the liquid. All the limestone 
and chalk of the earth consists chiefly of a 
carbonate of lime. 

CARBONIF'EROUS SYS'TEM.in Geology, 
a series of stratabelonging to the Primary, 
or Palseozoic period. It is divisible into two 
parts. The lower portion includes the moun¬ 
tain limestone formation, rich in organic 
remains, and largely developed in the north 
of Eugland, where it sometimes attains the 
thickness of 900 feet. The upper portion con¬ 
tains the millstone grit, a coarse quartzoso 
sandstone with beds of shale, sometimes 
600 feet thick; and the coal measures, so 
important for the immense mass of vege¬ 
table remain^ they contain in England, 
North America, and elsewhere.’ - • In the 
north of England the coal measures have a 
thickness of 3,000 feet. The carboniferous 
flora abounded in coniferous trees, ferns, 
mosses, equiseta, and plants belonging to 
families that are not now existing. [See 
Coal.] 

CAB.BT7N'CLE, in Surgery, an inflamma¬ 
tory tumour, or painful gangrenous boil, 
which being seated deeply, in parts provi¬ 
ded with cellular membrane, does not soon 
discover its whole dimensions, nor the 

matter it contains.-It is also the numo 

of a very beautiful gem, of a deep red or 
scarlet colour, known to the ancients as 
the anthrax. When this is held up against 
the sun, it loses its deep tinge, and becomes 
exactly of the colour of burning charcoal, 
whence the propriety of the name given 
to it. It has, however, been supposed by 
some modern mineralogists that the car¬ 
buncle of the ancients was garnet. -Car¬ 

buncle, in Heraldry, a charge or bearing, 
consisting of eight radii, four of which 
make a common cross, and the other four 

S311id* 

CAR'BURET, in Chemistry, a substance 
formed by the combination of carbon with 
metals and other simple combustibles. 

CAR'BURETTED HY'DROGEN GAS, 
two compounds, consisting of hydrogen 
I 



























carcanet] 


^I)c ^rtcnttftc nntf 


ill 


and carbon: the one called light carbu- 
retted hydrogen is composed of six parts 
by weight of carbon and two of hydrogen. 
It is inflammable, and is the marsh gas of 
pools, and the fire-damp of mines. The 
other compound is Olefiant Gas, which 
see. 

CAR'CANET ( carcan , a collar: Fr.), in 
Archaeology, a chain for the neck. 

CAR'CASS, in Building, the shell of a 
house, before it is lathed and plastered or 

the floors laid.-In Gunnery, an iron case 

or hollow vessel, of an oval figure, filled 
with combustible and other substances, to 
be thrown from a mortar into a town, to 
set fire to buildings. It has tw r o or three 
apertures from which the fire blazes, and 
its light is sometimes used for ascertain¬ 
ing the direction in throwing shells. It is 
furnished with pistol barrels, loaded with 
powder to the muzzle, which explode as the 
composition burns down to them. 

CARCINO'MA (acancer: Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, a cancerous tumour. Also a disease in 
; the cornea of the eye. 

CAR'D AM OMS ( cardamom , a cress: Gr.), 
the seeds of several closely allied plants 
growing in India and Ceylon, and belong¬ 
ing to the nat. order Zingiberacece. They 
are aromatic and stimulating. 

CAR'DIALGIA ( Icardia , the heart; algos, 
grief: Gr.), the heartburn, a hot sensation 
in the throat arising from indigestion. 

CAR'DINAL ( cardinalis, from cardo, a 
hinge : Lat.), that on which anything turns; 
and, metaphorically, anything which is 
chief or principal. Thus Justice, Prudence, 
Temperance, and Fortitude, are called the 

four cardinal virtues. -In the Roman 

hierarchy, an ecclesiastical prince, who has 
a voice in the conclave at the election of a 
pope, and who may be advanced to that 
dignity himself. He is generally a bishop, 
though, as a cardinal, he may be only a priest, 
deacon, or subdeacon. Thus the famous 
Richelieu was a cardinal priest, and Maza- 
rin only a cardinal deacon. There are 
about seventy cardinals, and when assem¬ 
bled they compose the Sacred College. 
They form the Pope’s Council, and preside 
at special and general congregations. 
When the pontifical throne is vacant they 
govern the church. The red hat they wear 
was first given by Innocent III. in 1245; 
and their purple dress by Boniface VIII. in 
1294. A cardinal is addressed as ‘Your Emi¬ 
nence.’ [See Pope.] -The Cardinal 

Numbers are one, two, three, &c., in dis¬ 
tinction from the ordinal numbers, first, 

second, third, &c.-The Cardinal 

Points of the compass are the north, 

south, east, and west.-The Cardinal 

Signs, in Astronomy, are Aries, Libra, Can¬ 
cer, and Capricorn. 

CAR'DINAL-FLOWER, an ornamental 
garden plant belonging to the genus Lobelia. 

CAR'DING MACHINE ( carder, to comb : 
Fr.), an instrument of modern invention 
for combing and cleansing wool and cotton. 
It consists of cylinders, thick-set with 
teeth, and put in motion by the force of 
water, steam, &c. 

CAR'DIOID {Icardia, the heart: and cidos, 
form: Gr.), in Mathematics, an algebraic 


curve, so called from its resemblance to a 
heart. 

CARDI'TIS (same deriv.), in Medicine, 
inflammation of the heart. 

CAREEN'ING {carina, the keel: Lat), in 
Sea language, the bringing a ship to lie on 
one side in order to clean and caulk the 
other. 

CAR'GO {carico, a burden: Ital.), the 
goods, merchandise, and effects which are 
on board a ship, exclusive of the crew, rig¬ 
ging, ammunition, provisions, guns, &c. 
The lading within the hold is called the 
inboard cargo, in distinction from horses, 
cattle, &c., carried on deck. 

CARIBS, a race identical in outward ap¬ 
pearance with the African negro, found in 
the' Caribbean Islands, when Europeans 
first visited them. They afterwards de¬ 
creased in number, and the remainder of 
them was transported to the Bay of Hon¬ 
duras, where their descendants are still to 
be found. 

CAR'ICA (a dried fig: Lat.). [SeeP apavt.] 

CAR'ICOUS {carica, a dried fig : Lat.), in 
Medicine, an epithet given to tumours re¬ 
sembling a fig. 

CARIL'LON (a chime: Fr.), a species of 
chime frequent in the Low Countries, par¬ 
ticularly at Ghent and Antwerp, and played 
on a number of bells in a belfry, forming 
a complete series or scale of tones or 
semitones. 

CAR'INATED {carinatus, from carina, a 
keel: Lat.), in Botany, applied to anything 
provided with a keel. 

CAR'LINE, a piece of timber in a ship, 
ranging fore and aft, from one deck beam 
to another, directly over the keel, and serv¬ 
ing as a foundation for the body of the ship. 
Carline knees are timbers lying across from 
the sides to the hatchway, and serving to 
sustain the deck. 

CAB/LOCK, a kind of isinglass obtained 
from Russia, made of the sturgeon’s blad¬ 
der, and used in clarifying wine. 

CAR'MELITES, an order of mendicant 
friars, very numerous in Italy and Spain. 
Their name is founded on their assertion 
that they derive their origin, through an 
uninterrupted succession, from Elijah, 
Elisha, and the children of the prophets, 
who, they say, were the founders of their 
order on Mount Carmel. They wear a sca- 
pulary, or small woollen habit, of a brown 
colour, thrown over the shoulders. 

CARMIN'ATIVES ( carmen , a charm : 
Lat.), medicines which expel wind, promote 
perspiration, and are antispasmodic. 

CAR'MINE (Fr.), a red pigment procured 
from cochineal, employed by water-colour 
painters. Rouge is a preparation of carmine. 

CARNA'TION ( caro , flesh : Lat., from its 
colour], a beautiful plant, obtained from 
the wild Diantlius caryophyllus, having its 
bright colours equally marked all over the 
flowers.-In Painting, flesh colour. 

CARNE'LIAN (same deriv.), a precious 
stone, either red, flesh-coloured, or white. 
The finest carnelians are those of the East 
Indies: there are some beautify ones in 
the rivers of Silesia and Bohemia, and some 
of a quality not to be despised in Britain. 
They are made into seals, brooches, &c. 































115 


Jlttcravn Cmsfttrn. 


[cartoon 


CAR'NIVAL (carni vale, farewell to flesh : 
Lat.), the feast or season of rejoicing pre¬ 
vious to Lent, celebrated with great spirit 
throughout Italy, when there are numerous 
feasts, halls, operas, concerts, masquerades, 
&c. The churches are filled with choristers, 
and the streets with masks. This festival 
flourishes more particularly at Rome. It 
is celebrated during the week before the 
commencement of Lent. 

CAR'OB-TREE (karob: Arab.), the Cera- 
tonia Siliqua, a native of Spain, Italy, and 
the Levant. It is an evergreen tree, be¬ 
longing to the nat. ord. Leguminosce, and 
produces long, flat, brown-coloured pods, 
composed of a mealy succulent pulp, of a 
sweetish taste. Though not accounted very 
wholesome, these pods are often eaten by 
the poorer classes in times of scarcity; and 
form an excellent food for cattle. The 
bean-like seeds are hard and useless. This 
tree is thought by some to be that which 
bore the ‘ locusts ’ eaten by St. John in the 
wilderness. 

CAROLIT'IC COL'UMNS, in Architec¬ 
ture, columns with foliated shafts, deco¬ 
rated with leaves and branches winding 
spirally around them, or forming crowns 
and festoons. 

CA'ROLUS (Charles: Lat), a gold coin 
first struck in the reign of Charles I., and 
then valued at twenty shillings, but after¬ 
wards current at twenty-three. 

CAROT'ID AR'TERIES (karoo, I put into 
a deep sleep: Gr.), in Anatomy, two arteries 
in the neck.whicli convey the blood from the 
aorta to the brain. If these vessels are tied, 
the animal goes to sleep: hence the name. 

CARP (carpe : Fr.), the Cyprinus carpio of 
ichthyologists, a common fish in ponds. 
Carps breed rapidly, grow to a large size, 
and live to a great age ; but they are greatly 
indebted to cooks, says Yarrell, for the esti¬ 
mation in which they are held. Our petted 
gold fish is a carp introduced from China. 

CAIt'PENTER’S RULE, an instrument 
marked with a scale of feet, inches, &c., 
and with tables of figures for facilitating 
calculations. 

CAR'PENTRY (carpentum, a two-wheeled 
carriage: Lat.), the art of cutting,framing, 
and joining timber in the construction of 
buildings ; it is subservient to architec¬ 
ture, and is divided into house-carpentry 
and ship-carpentry. 

CAR'POLITE (karpos, fruit; and lithos, 
a stone: Gr.), petrified fruits, the most 
remarkable of which are nuts converted 
into silex. 

CARPOL'OGY ( karpos , fruit; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), that branch of Botany 
which treats of fruits. 

CAR'PUS (karpos, the wrist: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, the wrist. The human wrist is 
composed of eight bones,forming an arch, 
the convexity of which is next the arm. 
These bones consist of two rows of four 
each, the first row articulating above with 
the radius, and the second row with the 
metacarpal bones, i. e. those forming the 
palm of the hand. 

CAR'RACK (Port.), a large armed vessel, 
employed by the Portuguese in the East 
Indian and Brazilian trade. 


CARRA'RA, a hard white kind of marble, 
somewhat resembling the Parian ; so called 
from the town of Carrara, in Italy, where 
it is found. It is largely employed by 
sculptors. Geologists believe that the fine 
crystalline grain is the effect of subterra¬ 
nean heat. 

CAR'RICK-BITTS, in a ship, the bitts 

which support the windlass.- Carrick- 

bend, a particular kind of knot. 

CAR'RONADE (from Carron, a village in 
Stirlingshire, where it was first made), a 
short piece of ordnance, having a largo 
bore, and a chamber for the powder, like a 
mortar. 

CARTE (Fr.), in Fencing, a thrust at the 
inside of the upper part of the body. 

CARTE-BLANCHE (a white card: Fr.), 
a blank paper, signed at the bottom with a 
person’s name, and given to another with 
permission to fill it up as he pleases; ap¬ 
plied generally in the sense of unlimited 
powers being granted. 

CAR'TEL (Fr.), a challenge. Also an 
agreement between two states for the ex¬ 
change of their prisoners of war.- Car¬ 

tel-ship, a ship commissioned in time of 
war to exchange the prisoners of any two 
hostile powers ; also to bring any particular 
request from one power to another. The 
officer who commands her is ordered to 
carry no cargo, ammunition, or implements 
of war, except a gun for the purpose of 
firing* signals. 

CARTE'SIANS, those who adhere to the 
opinions of Descartes. This philosopher 
has laid down two principles, the one me¬ 
taphysical, the other physical. The meta¬ 
physical proposition is this:—‘I think, 
therefore I am the physical one—‘Nothing 
exists but substance.’ lie makes substance 
of two kinds; the one that which thinks, 
the other that which is extended; whence 
actual thought and actual extension are 
the essence of substance. 

CARTHAGI'NIAN, a native of ancient 
Carthage, or something pertaining to that 
celebrated city, vdiich was situated on the 
northern coast of Africa, about twelve miles 
from the modem Tunis. It was founded 
by the Phoenicians, and destroyed by the 
Romans. 

CARTHU'SIANS, a religious order, foun¬ 
ded in the year 1086 by St. Bruno. They 
received their name from Chartreuse, the 
place of their institution; and are remark¬ 
able for their austerity, as their rules do 
not permit them to speak to any person 
without leave, or to quit their cells. 

CAR'TILAGE (cartilago : Lat.), or, in com¬ 
mon language, Gristle, a tough flexible 
substance of the animal body. Bones first 
appear as cartilage, and then become gra¬ 
dually strengthened by the deposit of earthy 
matter therein. 

CARTILA'GINOUS FISHES ( cartilagi• 
nosus, having cartilage : Lat .),those having 
cartilaginous instead of bony skeletons. 
Many of them are viviparous, as the ray 
and shark; others oviparous, as the stur¬ 
geon. 

CARTOO'N (cartone, pasteboard : Ital), a 
design drawn upon large sheets of paper for 
the purpose of being traced upon any other 































cartouch] tKfie ^ctrntifu aufr 116 


substance, on which the subject is to be 
executed. The most celebrated cartoons 
in existence are those of Raphael, seven of 
which are at Hampton Court; they were 
originally designed for tapestry. 

CARTOTTCH' (a cartridge : Fr.), a case of 
wood holding about four hundred musket- 
balls, besides from six to ten iron balls to 
be fired out of a howitzer. Also, a portable 
box for charges.-In Architecture, car¬ 

touches are blocks or modillions used in 
the cornices of wainscoted apartments; 
also ornaments representing a scroll of 
paper. —Champollion gave this name to the 
mark cut round the hieroglyphic figures 
indicating a royal name on the sculptured 
stones of Egypt. It is now believed to be 
the outline of a signet ring. 

CAR'TRIDGE ( carte, pasteboard: Fr.) , a 
case of paper, &c., filled with gunpowder, 
and used in the charging of guns. The car¬ 
tridges for cannon and mortars are made of 
pasteboard, tin, or wood, but most fre¬ 
quently of flannel: those for small arms, 
prepared for battle, contain both powder 
and ball. Cai-tridges without balls are called 

blank cartridges. - Cartridge-box, a case 

of wood covered with leather, with cells 
for cartridges. It is worn upon a belt 
thrown over the left shoulder. 

CAR'TULARY, or CHAR'TULARY (char- 
ta, paper: Lat.), a register-book, or record, 
as that of a monastery. 

CAR'UCATE ( charrue, a plough : Fr.), in 
old deeds, as much land as one team can 
plough in a year. 

CAB/UNCLE ( caruncula , a dim. of caro, 
flesh : Lat.), in Surgery, a small fleshy ex¬ 
crescence, either natural or morbid. In 
Botany, a fleshy protuberance seen upon 
some seeds, for example, those of the com¬ 
mon milkwort, Poly gala vulgaris. 

CARYAT'IDES, in Architecture, columns 
or pillars shaped like the bodies of females. 
They were first erected as trophies, and 
were intended to represent the women of 
the city of Carym in Arcadia, who were taken 
captive by the Athenians, after the men had 
been slain for joining tbe Persians after the 
battle of Thermopylie. 

CARYOPH YL'LACEiE ( karuon, a nut; and 
phullon, a leaf : Or.), a nat. ord. of polypeta- 
lous plants, natives chiefly of the cold and 
temperate parts of the world. The majority 
are mere weeds, but it includes those fa¬ 
vourite garden flowers, the pinks, carna¬ 
tions, and lychnis, as well as the corn¬ 
cockle. 

CAS'CABEL, the knob at the end of a 
cannon : it serves for a handle. 

OASCA'DE (Fr.; from casus, a fall: Lat.), 
a small waterfall, either natural or artificial. 
The word is applied to such as are less than 
a cataract. 

CASCARIL'LA (a dim. of cascara, bark : 
Span.), originally applied to Peruvian bark, 
but now to the aromatic and tonic bark of 
various species of croton, euphorbiaceous 
shrubs growing in the West Indies and 
Mexico. 

CASE (casus, from cado, I fall: Lat.), the 
particular state, condition, or circumstances 
that befall a person, or in which he is placed. 

*-Also (casse; Fr.) any outside covering 


which serves to enclose a thing entirely, as 
a packing-case or a knife-case. In Carpen¬ 
try, the case of a door is the wooden frame 
in which it is hung. In Printing, the case 
is a frame of wood, with numerous small 
partitions for the letters.- Case, in Gram¬ 

mar, the inflection of a noun implying an 

action on the thing named.- Action on 

the case, in Law, is an action in which the 
whole cause of complaint is set out in the 
writ. 

CA'SE-HARDENING, a method of prepar¬ 
ing iron, so as to render its outer surface 
hard, by converting it into steel. 

CAS'EIN (caseus, cheese: Lat.), a compo¬ 
nent of milk and the principal part of curds. 
It closely resembles albumen, and consists 
of more than 50 per cent, of carbon with hy¬ 
drogen, nitrogen and oxygen. 

CA'SEMATE, in Fortification, a vault of 
mason’s work in the flank of a bastion, next 
to the curtain, serving as a battery to defend 
the opposite bastion and the moat. Also a 
vaulted work, to protect the troops from 
shot and shell when not on duty. 

CA'SEMENT, a window that opens on 
hinges. Also, a hollow moulding. 

CA'SE-SHOT, or CAN'ISTER-SHOT, mus- 
kct-balls, stones, old iron, &c., put into cases 
and discharged from cannon. 

CASH (caisse: Fr., literally a chest for 
keeping money), money in hand, or ready 
money, distinguished from bills and secu¬ 
rities. 

CASHEW-NUT (caju, native name), the 
produce of a Brazilian tree (Anacardium 
occulentale), belonging to the same order as 
the Pistacia of southern Europe and the 
Mango of India. The fruit of this tree is 
of a singular structure. It has an enlarged 
fleshy disk shaped like an apple, and to the 
apex of this is attached the kidney-shaped 
nut, of which the kernel is eaten, whilst 
from the shell is extracted an acrid inflam¬ 
mable oil employed in varnishes. 

CASHI'ER (caissier, from caisse, a chest: 
Fr.), a person who is entrusted with the 
cash of some public company. In a bank¬ 
ing establishment, the cashier has charge 
of the books, payments, and receipts; he 
also signs or countersigns the notes, and 
superintends all transactions, under the 
order of the directors. 

CASH'MERE (from Cashmere, in Hin- 
dostan), a delicate woollen fabric, manu¬ 
factured from the downy wool found about 
the roots of the hair of the Thibet goat. 
The fine shawls made of this material were 
first imported from Cashmere. 

CASQUE (Fr.; from cassis, a helmet: 
Lat.), defensive armour, to protect the head 
and neck in battle. 

CASSA'DA, or CASSA'VA, a coarse flour, 
prepared from the roots of two shrubs be¬ 
longing to the euphorbiaceous genus Ja- • 
tropha, growing in South America. It is 
largely consumed in that country in the 
shape of bread and cakes. Tapioca is the 
roasted starch extracted from the same 
roots. The juice of the bitter cassava plant 
(Jatropha manihot), abounds with prussic 
acid, and is poisonous, but it soon dis¬ 
appears, on exposure to the air, or on the 
application of heat. 































iLttcnu'j) Ernis'uni. [castlh 

CASSATION, Court op (casser, to quash: 
Fr.), one of the most important institu¬ 
tions of modern France, which gives to 
the whole jurisdiction of that country co¬ 
herency aud uniformity, without endan¬ 
gering the necessary independence of the 
courts. It was established by the first 
national assembly, and has been preserved, 
in every essential respect, under all the 
changes of France since the great revolu¬ 
tion. Cassation properly signifies the an¬ 
nulling of any act or decision, if the forms 
prescribed by law have been neglected or 
ju.-tice has been perverted. 

CAS'SIA (Gr.), in Botany, a genus of legu¬ 
minous plants, including many species, 
i They grow in Arabia and Africa, and yield 
various products employed in medicine. 
Senna consists of cassia leaves. The bark 
, called cassia, frequently used as a substi¬ 
tute for true cinnamon, is the bark of se- 
1 verai species of Cinnamomum, belonging 
to the laurel family. 

CAS'SIDA (a helmet: Lat.), a genus of 
beetles, often called tortoise beetles. 

CAS'SIOBERRY BUSH, the Viburnum 
levigatum of botanists, a North American 
i evergreen shrub, with white flowers and 
red berries. 

CASSIOPE'A (Gr.), a constellation in the 
northern hemisphere, situated opposite the 
Great Bear, on the other side the pole. In 
■ the year 1572, a remarkable new star ap¬ 
peared in this constellation, surpassing 
Sirius or Lyra in brightness. It seemed to 
be larger than Jupiter; but after a few 
months it declined, and in a year and a 
half entirely disappeared. 

CAS'SOCIv ( cosaque , a great coat: Fr.), 
the vestment worn by clergymen under 
their gowns. 

CAS'SOWARY, the Casuarius galeatus of 
ornithologists, belonging to the ostrich 
family. It is a native of Malacca and the 
Indian Archipelago. It is only exceeded in 
i size by the ostrich. The wings are imper¬ 
fectly developed, and it cannot raise itself 
in the air, but it runs with great swiftness. 
It carries.on its head a sort of horn. The 
j eggs are left in the sand to be hatched by 
the sun. 

CAST (kasta, to cast: Goth.), among 
[ artists, any statue, or part of a statue, of 
bronze, plaster of Paris, &c: A cast is that 
which owes its figure to the mould into 
which the matter of it has been poured 
while in a fluid state ; and thus differs from 
a model, which is made by repeated efforts 
with a ductile substance, as any adhesive 
earth ; and from apiece of sculpture, which 
is the work of the chisel. 

CASTA'NE A (a chestnut: Lat.), in Botany, 
a genus of. amentaceous trees, including 
the Spanish chestnut, .Castanea vesca. 

CASTANET'S' (castagnettes: Fr., from 
last), instruments formed of small concave 
shells of ivory or hard wood,-which are 
struck against one another, being fastened 
to the thumb and middle finger. The 
Spaniards and Moors use them as. an ac¬ 
companiment to their saraband dances and 
guitars. — 

CASTE, a name derived from the Portu¬ 
guese settlers in India, and used to indicate 

the classes into which the population of 
India is divided according to the religious 
laws of Brahma. That of Brahmins is the 
highest; and though, strictly speaking, it 
should be devoted entirely to religious ex¬ 
ercises, it mingles in the ordinary pursuits 
of life. That of kshatriya (protection) is 
the soldier class; that of the vaisya (wealth) 
is the commercial class; that of the sudra 
(labour) constitutes the tillers of the soil, 
and is so degraded that the reading.of the 
sacred books is prohibited to it. A large 
part of the population does not, however, 
belong to any of the pure castes, but are 
the offspring of marriages between persons 
of different castes. It is said that there 
has been much exaggeration as to the 
strictness of caste regulations. A learned 
writer declares that almost every occupa¬ 
tion is open to all the tribes alike. The 
limitations far from being rigorous reserve 
only one regular profession, that of the 
Brahmins, which consists in teaching the 
Vedas, and assisting at religious cere¬ 
monies. Rules of caste, however, are very 
often made an excuse for escaping the per¬ 
formance of disagreeable duties. The pa¬ 
riahs, and some others, are supposed to have 
no caste. The origin of the institution is 
unknown, but there are various absurd tra¬ 
ditions connected with the subject. It is 
said that the Egyptians, and probably the 
Assyrians, also the Athenians and Cretans, 
in early times, were divided into castes. 

CAS'TELLAIN ( castelium , a castle: Lat.), 
in feudal times, the owner, lord, or go¬ 
vernor of a cast le or fortified place. 

CASTING, with Founders, the running 
of metal into a mould; among Sculptors, 
the taking casts or impressions of figures, 
&c. [See Foundry.]—Casting, in Natural 
History, that process by which some ani¬ 
mals shed their skins, horns, &c., when the 
old fall off to make room for the new. 

CAS'TLE ( castelium, a dim. of castrum, a 
camp: Lat.), a fortress or place rendered 
defensible either by nature or by art. 
English castles, designed for residence as 
well as defence, are for the most part of no 
higher date than the Conquest. Those pre¬ 
viously erected had been suffered to fall 
into ruin; and many writers have assigned 
this circumstance as a reason for the faci¬ 
lity with which William the Norman made 
himself master of the country. It was the 
policy of this able general to build a con¬ 
siderable number; and in process of time 
the martial tenants of the crown erected 
them for themselves ; so that, towards the 
end of Stephen’s reign, we are told that 
there existed upwards of eleven hundred. 
At this period castles were an evil of the 
greatest magnitude to both the sovereign 
and the subject; considerable struggles 
appear to have taken place with regard to 
their continuance ; several were demolish¬ 
ed ; and their general decline commenced. 

A complete castle consisted of a ditch or 
moat; an outwork, called a barbican, which 
guarded the gate and drawbridge; an arti¬ 
ficial mount; an outer and inner ballium 
or enclosure; and the keep, or lofty tower, 
in which the owner or governor resided, 
and under which were the dungeons.-— 


























CASTLE-WARD, OT CASTLE-GUARD, a tax 

imposed for the purpose of maintaining 
watch and ward within a castle. 

CAS'TOR ( kastor: Or.), in Zoology, the 
Beaver. Also a reddish-brown substance, 
of a strong penetrating smell, taken from 
two oval pouches situated near the anus of 
the beaver; it is a powerful antispasmodic. 

CAS'TOR OIL, an oil obtained from the 
seeds of the Ricinus communis, or Palma 
Christ!, an East Indian tree with handsome 
palmate leaves belonging to the nat. order, 
Euphorbiacece. 

CAS'TOR AND POL'LUX, two fine stars 
in the constellation Gemini. They are the 
a and P Geminorum of astronomers. 

CAS'TORIN, or CAS'TORINE ( castorinus, 
pertaining to the beaver: Bat.), in Che¬ 
mistry, an animal principle obtained from 
castor, when it is boiled in alcohol. 

CASTRAME'TATION (castra, a camp ; 
victor, I set out: Lat.), the art of laying out 
a camp. 

CAS'UISTRY (casus, a case: Lat,), the 
science of resolving cases of doubtful pro¬ 
priety, or of determining the lawfulness or 
unlawfulness of an act, by rules and prin¬ 
ciples drawn from the Scriptures, from the 
laws of society, or from reason. 

CA'SUS BELLI (Lat.), a ground upon 
which to begin a war. 

CA'SUS FCED'ERIS (the case of the 
league : Lat.), the case stipulated by treaty, 
or which comes within the terms of compact. 

CA'SUS OMIS'SUS (an omitted case: 
Lat.), a term used by lawyers with refer¬ 
ence to a state of circumstances which has 
been unprovided for by a statute, treaty, 
&c„ apparently by an oversight. 

CAT. The wild cat, Felis catus, is found in 
the woods of Europe, but seems to be extir¬ 
pated from those of our island, except in 
the north of Scotland. It destroys poultry 
and even lambs and kids. It seems to be 
doubtful whether our domestic cat is 

descended from it.- Cat, a term for a ship 

usually employed in the coal trade.-Also 

a sort of strong tackle for drawing up the 
anchor. And a military term for a kind of 
shed under which soldiers conceal them¬ 
selves while lining up a ditch or mining a 
wall. 

CAT'-HEAD, in Marine language, a 
strong beam projecting horizontally over a 
ship’s bows.- Cat-harping s, ropes serv¬ 

ing to brace in the shrouds of the lower 

masts behind their respective yards.- 

Cat’s-paw, a light breeze perceived in a 
calm, by a rippling on the surface of the 
water. 

CAT'’S-EYE, in Mineralogy, a sub-species 
of quartz, penetrated with fibres of asbestos. 
It is very hard and transparent, of a glis¬ 
tening grey, with a tinge of green, yellow, 
or white, much resembling the mutable 
reflections from the eye of a cat; and hence 
the name. It is found in Ceylon and Malabar. 

CAT’S-TAIL GRASS, or BULRUSH, a 
water plant allied to the sedges, and belong¬ 
ing to the genus Typlia. The common name 
has been suggested by the brown cylin¬ 
drical heads forming the inflorescence. 

CATACHRE'SIS (Or., from katachrao- 
viai, I abuse), in Rhetoric, a trope which 


borrows the name of one thing to express 
another. Thus Milton, in describing Ra¬ 
phael’s descent from the empyreal heaven, 
says— 


‘Down thither prone in flight 
He speeds, and thro’ the vast ethereal sky 
Sails between worlds and worlds. ’ 


So in Scripture we read of the ‘blood of 
the grape.’ A catacliresis, in fact, is the 
abuse of a trope, or when a word is too far 
wrested from its original signification. 

CATACLA'SIS (Or., from kataclao, 1 
break in pieces), in Medicine, a breaking 
dr distortion in general, but particularly 

flint" nf flip PVPCJ 

CAT'ACOMB (kata, down; and kumbos, a 
hollow place: Or.), a grotto or subterraneous 
place for the burial of the dead. The term is 
generally applied to a vast number of sub¬ 
terraneous sepulchres, in the Appian Way, 
near Rome, supposed to be the cells in 
which were deposited the bodies of the 




primitive Christian martyrs. But there are 
many other catacombs, as those in Paris, 


Naples, &c. 

CATACOUS'TICS (kata, against; and 
akoustikos, belonging to hearing: Or.), that 
branch of science connected with the laws 
of reflected sound, called also catapfionics 
(from kata, against; andpftonc, a voice: Or.). 

CATAGM AT'IC (kata, against; and agmos, 
the fracture of a bone: Or.), in Anatomy, an 
epithet for that lvliich has the quality of 
promoting the union of fractured bones. 

CATALEP'SIS or CAT'ALEPSY ( katalep - 
sis, from katalambano, I seize: Or.), a kind 
of apoplexy, in which the patient is speech¬ 
less, senseless, and fixed in one posture, 
with his eyes open, though without seeing 
or understanding. 

CAT'ALOGUE RAISONNEE' (a methodi¬ 
cal catalogue : Fr.), a catalogue of articles 
carefully classed, and accompanied -with ex¬ 
planatory notes. 

CATAL'PA (Did), in Botany, a genus of 
trees belonging to the Bignouia order. The 
C. Syringes folia, a native of North America, 
is an ornamental tree in English pleasure- 
grounds. 

CATAL'YSIS ( katalusis, dissolution : Or.), 
in Chemistry, the action possessed by some 
substances, of decomposing others with 
which they are in contact, without change 
to themselves. Thus, if binoxide of man¬ 
ganese be heated in contact with chlorate 
of potash, oxygen will be given oil by the 
decomposition of the chlorate, whilst the 
manganese remains unaltered. 

CATAMARAN', a sort of floating raft 
originally used as a fishing boat by the In¬ 
dians on the Coromandel coast.-Also the 

floating batteries with udiich the French, 
at the commencement of this century, me¬ 
ditated the invasion of England. 

CAT'AMOUNT, in Zoology, the wild cat, 
or cat of the mountain, of North America. 

CAT'APIIRACT (katapliractes, a coat of 
mail; from kataphrasso, I shelter: Or.), in 
the ancient military art, a piece of heavy 
defensive armour, formed of cloth or leather, 
strengthened with scales or links, and used 
to defend the breast or whole body, or even 
the horse as well as the rider. 





































119 


Eitercrg Cvcasurn. [caterpillar 






CAT'APLASM ( kataplasma, from lcata- 
plasso, I spread over: Gr.), a poultice applied 
to some part of tlie body, to excite or repel 
lieat, or to relax the skin, &c. When mustard 
is an ingredient, it is called a sinapism. 

CATAPUL'TA, or CAT'APULT ( catapulta : 
Lat.; from katapallo, I shake down: Gr.), 
in Antiquity, a military machine used for 
throwing arrows, darts, and stones upon 
the enemy. Some of these engines projected 
6tones of a hundred weight. Josephus 
takes notice of their surprising effects, 
and says that the stones cast out of them 
heat down the battlements, knocked off the 
angles of the towers, and levelled a whole 
file of men from one end to the other. The 
catapulta differed from the balista, inas¬ 
much as the former threw stones only, 
whereas the latter threw darts and javelins. 
Both were strong cross-bows. 

CAT'ARACT ( katarraktes , from katarreg- 
nnmi, I break down: Gr.), a great fall of 
water over a precipice in the channel of a 
river, caused by rocks or other obstacles to 
the course of the stream; as that of Nia¬ 
gara, those of the Nile, the Danube, and 

the Rhine. -Cataract, in Medicine, an 

affection of the crystalline lens of the eye, 
or its capsule, which becomes so opaque as 
to prevent the rays of light from passing 
to the optic nerve. Incipent cataract is only 
a suffusion of the eye, when little clouds 
seem to float before it. Confirmed cataract 
is when the front of the eye is either 
wholly or in part covered, so that the rays 
of light cannot pass to the retina. 

CATARRH' ( kattarrheo, I flow down: 
Gr.), commonly denominated a cold, is an 
increased secretion of mucus from the nose, 
fauces, and bronchi®, with fever, cough, 
lassitude, &c. When a catarrh is epidemic, 
it is called an influenza. 

CAT'ARRHINE (kata, downwards ; rhin, 
the nose: Gr.), a term applied by zoologists 
to the monkeys of the old world, which 
have the division between the nostrils 
wedge-shaped. It is in contradistinction 
to platyrrhine (platus, broad ; rhin, the nose: 
Gr.), a term applied to the monkeys of the 
new world, which have the nasal septum 
hour-glass shaped. In the former the lower 
angles of the nostrils rapidly converge over 
the mouth ; in the latter they diverge. 

CATAS'TASIS (Gr., from kathistemi, I 
arrange). In Poetry, the third part of the 
ancient drama: being that in which the 
plot, or action, is supported, carried on, 
and heightened till it is ripe for unravelling 
in the catastrophe. 

CATAS'TROPHE (Gr., from katastrepho, 
I bring to an end), in Dramatic Poetry, the 
fourth and last part in the ancient drama, 
or that immediately succeeding the catas- 
tasis. It consists in the unfolding and 
winding up of the plot, clearing up diffi¬ 
culties, and closing the play. A fall from 
grandeur to extreme misery, banishment, 
death, &c., form a catastrophe, in tragedy; 
marriage, in comedy. 

CATCH (cacciare, to pursue: Ital.), in 
Music, a piece for three or four voices, 
one of which leads, and the others follow 
in the same notes. But perhaps it may be 
more correctly described as a fugue in the 


unison, in which, to humour some conceit 
in the words, or to give them a different 
meaning, the melody is broken, and the 
sense is interrupted in one part, and caught 
and supported by another. 

CAT'ECHISM (katecliismos, from katecheo, 

I instruct: Gr.), a form of religious instruc¬ 
tion conveyed in questions and answers. 
The catechism of the Church of England 
originally consisted of no more than a re¬ 
petition of the baptismal vow, the 'creed, 
and the Lord’s Prayer; but James I. ordered 
the bishops to add to it a short and plain 
explanation of the sacraments. 

CAT'ECHIST ( katechistes, from same : 
Gr.), an officer in the primitive Christian 
church, whose business was to instruct the 
catechumens in the flrst principles of re¬ 
ligion, and thus prepare them for the re¬ 
ception of baptism. 

CAT'ECHU, an inspissated juice with as¬ 
tringent properties, employed in medicine, 
and obtained in India chiefly from an 
acacia. It consists chiefly of tannin. 

CATECHU'MENS (katcchoumenoi, from 
katecheo, I instruct: Gr.), a name formerly 
given in the Christian church to such as 
were prepared to receive the ordinance of 
baptism. They were anciently the chil¬ 
dren of believing parents, or pagans not 
fully instructed in the principles of the 
Christian religion; and were admitted to 
this state by the imposition of hands and 
the sign of the cross. 

CATEGO'RIOAL (see the next), in Logic, 
a proposition that makes an absolute state¬ 
ment, and without any hypothesis, is said 
to be categorical. 

CAT'EGORY (lcatagoreuo, I give informa¬ 
tion of : Gr.), in Logic, a general term in 
reference to a less general, included under 
it. The school philosophers distributed all 
the objects of our thoughts and ideas into 
certain genera or classes, which classes the 
Greeks called categories, and the Latins 
predicaments. Aristotle made ten cate¬ 
gories, viz. substance, quantity, quality, 
relation, action, passion, time, place, con¬ 
dition, and habit. 

CATE'NA PA'TRUM (a chain of the fa¬ 
thers: Lai), in Ecclesiastical Literature, a ! 
book containing the sentiments of the an- | 
cient Christian fathers, with respect to doc¬ 
trines ; the separate passages being brought 
together so as to form one work. 

CATENA'RIA, or CATE'NARY ( catena - 
rius, belonging to a chain: Lat.), in Geo¬ 
metry, the curve which a rope or chain 
suspended at each end forms by its own 
weight. It differs very little from a para¬ 
bola, 

CAT'ERPILLAR, in Entomology, the 
larva of lepidoptcrous insects, produced 
from the egg. it is transformed flrst into 
the chrysalis flr nympha, and afterwards 
into the butterfly. Caterpillars generally 
feed on leaves or succulent vegetables, and 
are sometimes very destructive: they are 
composed of thirteen distinct segments, 
the flrst of which is a strong horny head, 
armed with a mouth and powerful jaws. 
The flrst three segments are invariably 
provided with short legs, and frequently 
some of the other segments have eggs 





































CTIje ^rtrnttftc antr 


120 


catgut] 


Caterpillars moult at least three times, and 
those of some species moult as many as 
ten times. Many caterpillars are gaily co¬ 
loured; others are adorned with tufts of 
hair. In this state insects eat voraciously, 
and do immense damage to vegetation. 
When about to change into the pupa form, 
they retire to some place where they may 
remain undisturbed until the final meta¬ 
morphosis. [See Lepidoptera.] 

CAT'GUT, the name for the strings made 
from the dried and twisted peritoneal co¬ 
verings of the intestines of sheep and other 
animals. They are used for musical instru¬ 
ments, for lathe-bands, whips, bows, &c. 
Great quantities of catgut are imported 
from Lyons and Italy. 

CATHARTICS ( kathartikos , fit for puri¬ 
fying ; from' kathai.ro, I purify: Gr.), medi¬ 
cines which cleanse the stomach and bowels 
by acting as purgatives. 

CATH'EDRA ( kathedra , a seat; Gr.), in 
Archaeology, a term used to denote the 
pulpit,“or the professor’s chair. It origi¬ 
nally signified any chair.-Among Eccle¬ 

siastical writers it signifies a bishop’s see 
or throne.' Hence, eg cathedra is a phrase 
much used among the clergy of the Roman 
Catholic church, in relation to the solemn 
decrees of the pope.' 

CATHE'DRAL (same deriv.), the episco¬ 
pal church, or a church where there is a 
bishop’s seat or see. 

CATH'ERINE-WHEEL (from the wheel 
on which St. Catherine of Alexandria is 
said to have been martyred), in Architec¬ 
ture, a large circular Gothic window. Also 
a firework constructed in the form of a 
wheel, which revolves when it is let off. 

CATH'ETER ( katheter , from kathiemi, I 
send down : Gr.), in Surgery, a tubular in¬ 
strument, usually made of silver, and in¬ 
troduced into the bladder, in order to 
search for a calculus, or draw off the urine 
when suppressed; also a bougie made of 
silver or caoutchouc. 

CATH'ETUS ( kathetos , a perpendicular; 
from same: Gr.), in Geometry, a line or 
radius falling perpendicularly on another 
line or surface ; as the two sides of a right- 
angled triangle.-In Architecture, a per¬ 

pendicular line, supposed to pass through 

the middle of a baluster, column, &c.- 

Cathetus of Incidence, in Catoptrics, a 
right line drawn from a point of the object, 

perpendicular to the reflecting linp_ 

Cathetus of Obliquation, a right line 
drawn perpendicular to the speculum, in 

the point of incidence or reflection_ 

Cathetus of Reflection, or of the eye, 
a right line drawn from the eye, perpen¬ 
dicular to the reflecting line. 

CATH'OLIC ( lcatholikos, universal: Gr.), 
an epithet properly signifying universal. 
Originally this appellation was given to the 

Christian church in general.- Catholic 

Emancipation was the abolition of those 
civil and ecclesiastical restraints to which 
the Roman Catholics of Great Britain and 
Ireland were formerly subjected. The first 
step towards this took place in 1793, when 
an act of parliament was passed, which 
conferred upon them the elective fran¬ 
chise, and threw open to them all employ¬ 


ments in the army, and all offices in the 
navy. In 1801, the legislative union of I 
Great Britain and Ireland took place; but 
though full emancipation was said to have ; 
been promised as a consequence of this j 
union, it was not conceded ; and many un¬ 
successful attempts were afterwards made j 
to obtain it. At length, in 1829 (April 10), 
a relief bill, abolishing the civil disabilities 
of Roman Catholics, by repealing the oaths ! 
of supremacy, &c., was carried by the Wei- I 
lington administration. By this bill, they are 
eligible to all offices of state, excepting the 1 
lord-chancellorships of England and Ireland, 
the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, the office of 
regent or guardian of the united kingdom, ‘ 
and that of high commissioner to the church 

of Scotland.^- Catholic Majesty, the 

title given to the king or queen of Span;, 

CATHOL'ICOH (same deriv.), a remedy for 
all diseases ; a soft purgative electuary, so 
called, as being - supposed a universal and 
efficacious purge of all humours. 

CAT'KIN ( katteken: Dut.), in Botany, or 
amentum, a kind of inflorescence consisting 
of a spike of unisexual flowers, each with a 
protecting scale, the whole separating from 
the stem at an articulation. The male flow¬ 
ers of the willow and hazel are in catkins. 
The resemblance to a cat’s tail suggested 
the name.-Thenat. order, Amentacea:, is 
founded on the possession of male catkins. 

CAT'ODON (kata, down; and odous, a 
tooth : Gr.), a genus of cetaceans, the char¬ 
acters of which are, that they have no teeth 
in the upper jaw, nor any fin on the back. 

It includes the Sperm Whale, which see. 

CATOP'SIS (a sight; Gr.), in Medicine, an 
acute and quick perception, particularly 
that acuteness of the faculties which ac¬ 
companies the latter stages of consumption. 

CATOPTRICS (kata, against; and optikos, 
belonging to sight: Gr.), that part of optics 
which treats of reflected light, and of the 
images found by reflecting surfaces whether 
plane or curved. 

CAU'DA (a tail: Lat.), in Astronomv, a 
term prefixed to the names of several con¬ 
stellations, to denote certain stars in their 
tails: as cauda Capricorni, cauda Leonis, &c. 

CAU'DEX (Lat.), in Botany, the stem of 
a shrub. 

CAUK, a name given by miners to certain 
specimens of the compact sulphate of ba¬ 
rytes. The same word is sometimes applied 
to masses composed of concentric lamellar 
concretions. 

CAUL ( kulle: Goth.), in Anatomy, a mem¬ 
brane in the abdomen, covering the greatest 
part of the lower intestines, and usually 
furnished with a large quantity of fat. It 
is more properly termed the omentum, or, 

from its net-like structure,the retzcuhm_ 

The word Caul is also used for a membrane 
which encompasses the head of many new¬ 
born children, to which vulgar superstition 
absurdly annexes the charm of preservation 
from drowning. 

CAULES'CEXT (kaulos, a stem : Gr.), in 
Botany, having a stem different from that 
which produces the flower. 

CAULIF'EROUS (kaulos, a stem; and 
phero, I bear; Gr.),an epithet given to such 
plants as have a perfect caulis or stem. 











121 


Htfettirt) Ercas'urj). 


CAU'LIFLOWElt ( caulis , a cabbage: 
Lat.), a much-esteemed species of Brassica, 
or cabbage. 

CAU'LINE (from next), in Botany, grow¬ 
ing immediately on the stem, without the 
Intervention of branches; as a cauline 
leaf, bulb, peduncle, &c. 

CAU'LIS {Lat.), in Botany, the stalk of her¬ 
baceous plants: this in shrubs is called the 
caudex; and in grasses the culmus, or stem. 

CAUSAL'ITY or CAUSATION , (causa, a 
cause: Lat.), among Metaphysicians, the 
action or power of a cause in producing its 
effect. 

CAU'SALTY, among Miners, the light 
earthy parts of ore, carried off by washing. 

CAUSE (causa: Lat.), that from which 
anything proceeds, or by virtue of which 
anything is done: it stands opposed to 
effect. That which produces is the cause; 
that which is produced, the effect. Accord¬ 
ing to some, we derive the idea of cause and 
effect from experience: according to others, 
it is an innate Jdea independent of expe¬ 
rience. ..Causes are distinguished, by the 
schools,’into efficient, material, final, and 

formal.- Efficient Causes arc the 

agents employed in the production of any¬ 
thing. Material Causes, the subjects on 
which the agents work, or the materials of 
which the thing is produced. Final Causes 
are the motives inducing an agent to act, 
l or the design; and purpose for which the 
j thing was done.' Formal Causes are those 
which must supervene to matter, in order 
to give the thing its precise individual exist¬ 
ence as that thing, and no other.- Cause, 

among civilians, is the same as,action; de¬ 
noting any legal process which a party in¬ 
stitutes to obtain his demand, or by which 
he seeks his supposed right. 

CAU'SEWAY, or CAU'SEY (chaussee: 
Fr.), a way raised above the natural level 
of the earth, by stones, stakes, clay, or fas¬ 
cines ; serving either as a road in wet 
marshy places, or to prevent a river from 
overflowing the lower grounds. It is also 
very generally used for a raised way or path 
in any ordinary road. 

CAUSTIC ( kaustikos , corrosive; from 
Icaio, I burn: Gr.), in Medicine, any sub¬ 
stance that, being applied, it corrodes and 
destroys the texture of the parts. Caustics 
differ from cauteries in performing their 
effects more slowly, and with less force and 

pain.- Caustic Curve, in Geometry, a 

curve, to which the rays of light reflected 
or refracted by another curve are tangents. 
- Lunar Caustic, a preparation of ni¬ 
trate of silver, obtained by fusing it and 
then casting it in cylindrical moulds. 

CAUTERY ( kauterios, corrosive, from 
same : Gr.), in Surgery, amedicinefor burn¬ 
ing, eating away, or corroding any solid part 
of the body. The act of burning or searing 
some morbid part is termed cauterization. 

CAVALCA'DE (Fr.; from caballus, a 
horse: Lat.), a pompous procession of horse¬ 
men, equipages, &c., by way of parade to 
grace a triumph, public entry, or the like. 

CAV'ALIER (a horseman: Fr., from 
same), a gallant armed horseman. It was 
also an appellation given to the partisans of 
Charles I. to distinguish them from the 


[CAVIN 


parliamentarians, who were called Round- 

heads.-In Fortification, a work raised 

within the body of a place, above the other 
works, to defilade them from the fire of an 
enemy on an adjacent height, or to com¬ 
mand the trenches of the besiegers. 

CAV'ALRY ( cavalerie: Fr.), a body of 
soldiers on horseback; a general term for 
light-horse, dragoons, lancers, and all other 
troops who are armed and mounted. The | 
chief use of cavalry is to make frequent j 
excursions to disturb the enemy, and inter- ’ 
cept his convoys ; in battle to support and ' 
cover the infantry, and to break through 
and disorder the enemy; and its application 
to this purpose is probably almost as ancient 
as war itself. At the present day, the ca¬ 
valry is divided into light and heavy horse, 
which are employed for different'purposes. 1 
The heavy cavalry, sometimes equipped with 
defensive armour, and then termed cuiras¬ 
siers, is generally used where force is re¬ 
quisite ; the lighter, in small detachments 
where swiftness and continued effort are 
necessary. 

CA'VEAT (let him take care: Lat.), an 
entry made in certain courts and offices, 
after which no proceedings are taken in the 
matter to which it relates, without notice 
to the person making the entry. 

CA'VEAT EMP'TOR (let the buyer be on 
his guard : Lat.), a legal maxim, the mean¬ 
ing of which is that a man entering into a 
bargain is bound to exercise a proper 
amount of caution. 

CAV'ERN (caverna, from cavus, hollow : 
Lat.), a natural cavity, or deep hollow place 
in the earth.' Among the grandest natural 
caverns known is Fingal’s cave, in StafEa, 
one of the western islands of Scotland. The j 
grotto of Antiparos, in the Archipelago, is 
remarkable for its magnificence. In some 
parts of it, immense columns of stalactites 
descend to the floor; in others are the ap¬ 
pearances of trees and brooks turned to 
marble. The Peak Cavern, in Derbyshire, is 
also a celebrated curiosity of this kind. It 
is nearly half a mile in length, and, at its 
lowest part, six hundred feet beneath the 
surface. In the Cevennes mountains, in 
France, are caverns and grottoes of great 
extent. But the largest known is the cav¬ 
ern of Guacliaro, in South America, which 
is said to extend for leagues. 

CAVET'TO (the dim. of cavo, hollow: Ital.), 
in Architecture, a hollow member, or round 
concave moulding, containing the quadrant 
of a circle, and used as an ornament in cor¬ 
nices. 

CAV'EZON ( cavezzone: Ital.), a sort of 
nose-band, either of iron, leather, or wood, 
sometimes flat, and at other times hollow 
or twisted. It is put on the nose of a horse, 
to wring it, and thus to forward his break¬ 
ing and training. 

CAVIA'RE ( caviar: Fr.), the spawn or 
hard roes of sturgeon, which, being made 
into cakes, is salted and dried in the sun. 
It is much used in Russia, and other parts 
of the continent. 

CAV'IN (cavus, hollow : Lat.), in Military 
affairs, a natural hollow, sufficiently capa¬ 
cious to lodge a body of troops, and facili¬ 
tate their approach to a place. 






















CClje Scientific anil 


122 


cavolinite] 

CAV'OLINITE ( cavolino, a cabbage : Hal.), 
a mineral, occurring in the interior of cal¬ 
careous balls, &c. 

CAYENN'E PErPER. [See Capsicum.] 

CAY'MAN, a species of alligator inhabit¬ 
ing Brazil, the Caiman palpcbrosus of natu¬ 
ralists. It is less in size, and not so ferocious 
as the alligator. On the eyebrows are large 
bony knobs which give it a peculiar appear- 
ance. 

CEDAR OP LEBANON, the Cedrus Li- 
bani of botanists ( kedros: Or.; from liedcr, 
to mourn: TIeb.), is an evergreen coniferous 
tree, growing to.a large size, and having a 
noble appearance. Its timber is very du¬ 
rable, but wanting in strength. Cedar 
wood in good preservation was found in 
the temple of Apollo at Utica, where it had 
been for 2,000 years. Solomon employed 
the wood in the building of the temple of 
Jerusalem. The cedars on Mount Lebanon 
in Syria are now much reduced in number, 

! only about 400 being now remaining, and 
j there are far more specimens of the tree 
in England, where it is much planted as an 
ornament on lawns, than on its native hill. 
The cedar of the Atlas mountains, and that 
of the Himalayas, though they have re¬ 
ceived distinct names from botanists, on 
account of differences in their habits, are 
suspected to belong to the same species as 

the Lebanon cedar.-The term cedar is 

popularly applied to various species of ju¬ 
niper and cypress. The cedar-wood used 
for pencils is obtained from juniperus Ber- 
mudiana, J. Virginiana, and other species. 

( In North America, the Thuja occidentals is 
i called white cedar. The cedar of Goa is 
Cupressus lusitanica, a handsome tree, but 
too tender for our climate. 

CE'DRAT ( Fr .), a variety of the lime, 
from the fruit of which a perfume is ob¬ 
tained. 

CEIL'ING {del, the heaven: Fr.), in Ar- 
! chitecture, the upper part or roof of a 
room, being a layer or covering of plaster 
over laths, nailed on the bottom of the 
joists which bear the floor of the room 
next above, or on joists put up for that 
purpose where there is no upper room— 
hence called ceiling joists. 

CEL'ESTINE ( ccelestis, heavenly : Lat.), 

: in Mineralogy, native sulphate of stron- 
tian; it receives its name from its occa¬ 
sionally being of a delicate blue colour. 

CELES'TINS, a religious order, reformed 
from the Bernardins by Pope Celestin V. 
The Celestins rise two hours after mid¬ 
night to say matins: they eat no flesh, 
except when sick, and fast often. Their 
habit is a white gown, a capuche, and a 
black scapulary. 

CE'LIBACY {ccelebs, unmarried: Lat.), an 
unmarried or single state of life. Among 
the ancient Romans, men who remained 
unmarried were subjected to certain dis¬ 
abilities. In the early Christian church, 
the ministers of religion were not obliged 
to observe celibacy. An attempt was made 
at the council of Nice, in a.d. 325, to render 
, it obligatory on the clergy, but without 
J success; it was adopted, however, at that 
of Arles, in a.d. 340, and at the end of the 
sixth century its observance had become 


common; the council of Trent confirmed 
the obligation. In the Greek church, clerics 
under the degree of bishops are allowed to 
marry; and hence the higher dignities in 
that church are filled by monks. 

CELL {cella : Lat.), in its first and obvious 
sense, a small, close apartment; in a less 
restricted sense, it denotes any small cavity 

or hollow place.-In Physiology, cells are 

the vesicles or sacs of which animal and 
vegetable structures are composed, under 
various forms and modes of connection. 
The structure and development of cells 
occupy a large portion of the physiolo¬ 
gist’s attention, and the study can only 
be pursued with the assistance of the 
microscope. 

CEL'LULAR TISSUE, a white fibrous 
tissue, generally diffused throughout the 
bodies of vertebrate animals. It fills up 
the spaces between the different organs, 
and forms part of most of them. It con¬ 
sists chiefly of gelatine. 

CEL'LULOSE (same deriv.), the proxi¬ 
mate principle composing the cell mem¬ 
brane of plants. Sulphuric acid readily 
dissolves it. It becomes blue when treated 
with iodine, and this is the ordinary test 
for it. 

CELTIC {Keltai, the Celts : Gr.), a branch 
of the great Indo-European or Aryan fa¬ 
mily of languages. The Kymric and Gad- 
helic are the only remaining dialects. To 
the former belong the Welsh, Cornish, and 
Armorican (Brittany); to the latter, the 
Irish and Gaelic. The ancient Celts lived ; 
in Britain, Belgium, Gaul, Switzerland, 
Northern Italy, and Spain. 

CEMENT', amongst builders, signifies a 
binding material which hardens quickly 
under water. It is made by calcining lime¬ 
stones, which contain from 40 to 00 per 
cent, of silicates, or it is prepared by cal¬ 
cining a mixture of slaked lime and blue 
clay. In the latter case, the cement is 1 
called artificial. 

CEMENTATION, in Chemistry, the act ’ 
of surrounding any substance with the pow- i 
der of some other, and exposing them, in a 
close vessel, to a heat not sufficient to fuse i 
them. The formation of steel from iron, 
by means of the application of charcoal, is 
effected in this way. Layers of bars of 
malleable iron and of charcoal being ar- j 
ranged one upon another, out of contact 
with the air, they are placed iu a suitable 
furnace ; the fire is then rendered very in¬ 
tense, and kept up for a certain time; 
after which the bars are allowed to cool 
gradually. The result is 'blistered steel, so 
called from the appearance of its surface. 
And this, broken iu pieces, and melted, is 
cast steel. 

CEM'ETERY ( koimeterion, from Jcoimao, 

I put to sleep: Gr.), a repository for the 
dead. Among modern improvements, per¬ 
haps few are moro deserving of commenda¬ 
tion than the custom, recently introduced, 
of appropriating an eligible spot of ground, 
at a convenient distance from populous 
towns, for the purpose of human inter¬ 
ment. 

CEN'OTAPII (kenotaphion: from kenos, 
empty; and taphos, a tomb: Gr.), in Anti- 
































123 


Etternrj) Crfjtfuri?. 


[century 


quity, an empty tomb, erected in honour of 
the deceased, and differingfrom a sepulchre, 
in which the body was actually deposited. 

CEN'SER {encensoir: Fr.), in the religious 
rites of the ancients, a vase containing the 
incense to be burned in sacrificing to the 
gods. Censers were likewise in use among 
the Jews as we find in 1 Kings vii. 50. So¬ 
lomon, when he prepared furniture for the 
temple of the Lord, among other things 
made censers of pure gold. Censers are 
used in Roman Catholic churches. 

CEN'SOR ( Lat ., from censco, I reckon), 
the name of two magistrates at ancient 
Rome. Their office was regarded as sacred, 
and higher than all others except the dic¬ 
tatorship ; but they were not allowed lictors, 
the sign of imperial authority. They bad 
i an irresponsible control of a general nature 
over the conduct and morals of the citi- 
I zens. It was part of their duty to keep a 
| register of the citizens and their property, 
and they were concerned in the manage- 
| merit of the finances of the state. The cen¬ 
sorship existed from b.c. 443 to n.c. 22, a 
period of 421 years. 

CEN'SURE (censura, a severe judgement: 
Lat.), a sentence which condemns some 
book, person, or action, or more particu¬ 
larly a reprimand from a superior.-Ec- 

; clesiastical Censures, penalties by 
which, for some striking misconduct, a 
member of a church is deprived of its com¬ 
munion, or prohibited from executing the ! 
j sacerdotal office. 

CEN'SUS (Lat., from censeo, I reckon), in 
Roman Antiquity, an authentic declaration 
made before the censors, by the several 
subjects of the empire, of their respective 
names and places of abode. This declaration 
: was registered by the censors, and contained 
an enumeration of all their estates, lands, 
and inheritances — including their quan¬ 
tity and quality, with the wives, children, 
domestics, tenants, and slaves of each 
citizen. The census was held every five 
years. The - word Census is still used to 
signify an enumeration of the inhabitants 
; of any kingdom or state, taken by the 
government. 

CENT, an abbreviation of the Latin word 
centum, a hundred, used in giving the ratio 
of anything with reference to that number. 
Thus a profit of ten per cent, means a profit 
on the capital employed at the rate of ten 
\ pounds in a hundred. 

CEN'TAUR (kentauros: from kenteo, I 
goad; and tauros, a bull: Or.), in Classic 
[ i Antiquity a monster, half man and half 
horse. A savage race dwelling between 
Pelion and Ossa, in Thessaly, and extirpated 
I jn a war with the neighbouring Lapithm. 

* ! A favourite subject with ancient poets and 
sculptors ; Ovid and others have described 
i it, and Phidias represented it in marble, 
i Hercules and Theseus were the leaders of 
the Lapithae. 

CEN'TAURY(7c<2Micmrio?i: Cr.), the English 
name of the genus Centaurea,winch includes 
a large number of species of composite 
plants. It is said to have derived its name 
from Chiron the Centaur having cured him¬ 
self with it, after wounding himself with 
one of the arrows of Hercules. The Lesser 


Centaury. ( Erythrcea ), is an English wild 
plant belonging to the Gentian order. 

CEN'TIPEDE (centipes: from centum, a 
hundred; pes, a foot: Lat.), a name given 
to the species of the annulose genus Scolo- 
pendra, on account of their numerous feet. 

CEN'TO (a garment made of patchwork: 
Lat.), in Poetry, a work wholly composed of 
verses or passages, taken from various 
authors, and disposed in a new order. 

CEN'TRE, or CEN'TER ( centrum: Lat,; 
from kentron, a point: Gr.), a point equally 
distant from certain other points in a line, 

figure, or body.- Centre of Gravity, 

that point about which all the opposite 
points of a body exactly balance each other, 

in any situation.- Centre of Motion, 

the point which remains at rest, while all 
the other parts of a body move round it. 

CENTRIF'UGAL FORCE ( centrum, a cen¬ 
tre ; and fugio, I fly: Lat.), the tendency 
with which bodies, forced to move in a 
curve, endeavour to fly off in a tangent to 
its periphery. This property of matter has 
been taken advantage of to effect several 
useful pui-poses. Watt’s pendulum governor 
is one of its applications. Centrifugal pumps 
of great power have been constructed, their 
principle being that as the water is thrown 
off above by the rapid revolution of arms, 
or a cylinder, a fresh supply of the liquid 
is forced upwards by the pressure of the at¬ 
mosphere into the revolving parts. Centri¬ 
fugal machines have also been invented 
for driving the moisture out of wet textile 
fabrics, and from concentrated cane syrup 
in the manufacture of sugar, the fabrics 
and sugar being made to revolve with 
great rapidity, whilst the moisture escapes 
through a close net-work of wire which 
forms the periphery of the revolving cy¬ 
linder. 

CENTRIP'ETAL FORCE ( centrum, a cen¬ 
tre ; and peto, I go towards : Lat.), the ten¬ 
dency with which bodies move, or endeavoui 
to move, towards the centre of a system of 
bodies. Such is gravity, or that force by 
which bodies tend towards the centre of the 
earth; and that by which the planets are 
continually drawn back from rectilinear 
motions, and made to move in curves. 

CENTUM'VIRI (one hundred men : Lat.), 
in Roman Antiquity, judges appointed to 
decide common causes among the people. 
They formed a definite body or collegium. 

CENTU'RION ( ccnturio, from centum, a 
hundred: Lat.), among the Romans, an 
officer in the infantry, who commanded a 
century. This should, from its name, con¬ 
sist of a hundred men, but it rarely did so, 
as the legion was seldom complete. Two 
centuries constituted one maniple; three 
maniples, one cohort; and ten cohorts, one 
legion. The centurion of the first century 
of the first maniple of the Triarians pre¬ 
sided over all the others; had charge of the 
eagle, or chief standard ; and ranked with 
the knights. The badge of a centurion was 
a vine rod. 

CEN'TURY ( centuria, from same : Lat.), 
in a general sense, denotes a hundred, or 
anything divided into or consisting of a 
hundred parts. The Roman people, when 
they were assembled for the electing of 































Elje J?ricntrttc antt 


124 


cephalic] 


magistrates, enacting of laws, or deliberat¬ 
ing upon any public affair, were always di¬ 
vided into centuries, which were supposed 
to contain one hundred, though this was 
not necessarily the case ; and voted by cen¬ 
turies, in order that their suffrages might 
be the more easily collected ; whence these 
assemblies were called comitia centuriata. 

.__in Chronology, a century means the space 

of one’hundred years, and this is the most | 
common signification of the word. As we 
begin our ordinary computation of time 
from the incarnation of Christ, the word is 
generally applied to some term of a hundred 
years subsequent to it. 

CEPH'ALIC ( kephale , the head : Gr.), an 
epithet for medicines which are good for 
the head-ache. 

CE'PHALOPOBS {keyhole, a head; and 
pons, afoot: Gr.), the highest class of mol¬ 
luscs, including the Cuttle Fishes and the 
Nautilus. Around the head are placed a 
number of muscular arms, which, in several 
species, are of great length, and beset with 
sucking disks. The class is divided into 
two orders : 1. Dibranchiata, with two 
bran chi®, sessile eyes, and an internal shell; 
here are placed the sepia, poulp, octopus, 
Calamary, paper nautilus (the last having 
an external shell) and the animals of which 
I the fossils known as belemnites have been 
the internal shells—2. Tetrabranchiata, with 
fourbranchi®, stalked eyes, and an external 
shell. Of 1400 extinct species there is only 
one living representative, the nautiluspom- 
pilius, which inhabits the Chinese seas and 
Indian Ocean. 

CE'PHEUS (GV.),in Astronomy, a constel¬ 
lation of the northern hemisphere. 

CERA'MIC {keramos, potter’s clay : Gr.), 
a term applied to articles formed of baked 
clay, such as pottery and fictile vases. 

CER'ASIN {kerasos, a cherry-tree : Gr.), 
a gummy substance which swells in cold 
water, but does not readily dissolve in it. 

CERAS'TES ( kerastes, a horned serpent; 
from keras, a horn : ffr.),in Zoology,a genus 
of venomous vipers, natives of Africa. The 
C. nasicomis has a very repulsive appear- 
j ance, and carries a pair of horns on its snout. 

CE'RATE ( ceratum, from cera, wax : Lot.), 

J in Medicine, a composition made of oil, wax, 
and other ingredients ;used externally in se¬ 
veral'diseases, where plasters are necessary. 

CERATI'TES {keras, a horn: Gr.), a ge¬ 
nus of fossil nautili found in the muschel- 
kalk of Europe. 

CE'RATOGLOS'STTS {keras, a horn; and 
glossa, the tongue: Gr.), in Anatomy, the 
name of a pair of muscles serving to draw 
the tongue directly into the mouth. If 
only one of them acts, it draws the tongue 
to one side of the mouth. 

CERATOTDES {keras, a horn; and eiclos, 
appearance: Gr.), in Anatomy, a name for 
the tunica cornea of the eye. 

CER'BERUS {Gr.), Pluto’s three-headed 
dog, the issue of the serpent-woman 
Echidna, by the giant Typhon. He was 
placed at the entrance of hell, to keep 
living mortals from entering, and the dead 
from escaping. He was, however, appeased 
with cakes by those heroes who visited ! 
Pluto’s realm when alive. Orpheus, in 


search of Eurydice, lulled him to sleep 1 
with his lyre. Hercules,going for Alceste, 
dragged him away. 

CEREBEL'LUM (a dim. of cerebrum, the 
brain : Lat.), the part of the brain in the 
back of the skull, divided into two lobes ; 
its removal, or injury, deprives the animal 
of the power of volition. 

OER'EBRUM (the brain : Lat.), that part 
of the brain which occupies the front and 
top of the skull; its removal, or injury, 
deprives the animal of sensation. [See 
Brain.] 

CER'EMONY {ccerimonia: Lat.), an as- 
semblage of several actions, forms, and 
circumstances, serving to render a thing 
more magnificent and solemn ; particularly 
used to denote the external rites of reli¬ 
gious worship, the formality of introducing 

ambassadors to audiences, &c..- Master 

of the Ceremonies, an officer instituted 
by James I. for the more honourable re¬ 
ception of ambassadors and strangers of 
quality, and for the regulation of all mat¬ 
ters of etiquette in the assemblies over 
which they preside. 

CE'RES, a small planet, which revolves 
round the sun in four years, seven months, 
and ten days, at the distance of 250,000,000 
of miles. It is only 160 miles in diameter. 

CE'RETIS, in Botany, a genus of Cac- 
tace®, including the torch thistle, night¬ 
blowing Cereus, and other plants with 
beautiful flowers. 

CE'RIN {kerinos, waxen: Gr.), in Che¬ 
mistry, one of the two proximate princi¬ 
ples of bees’-wax, the other being myricin. 
They are separated by boiling alcohol, and 
are both white crystalline substances, 
which chemists consider compound ethers. 

CERIN'THIANS, the followers of Ce- 
rinthus, one of the first lieresiarclis in the 
church. They denied the divinity of Christ, 
but they held that a celestial virtue de¬ 
scended on him at his baptism in the form 
of a dove, by which he was ’ consecrated 
and made Christ. 

CE'RITE,-the silicious oxide of cerium, 
a rare mineral, of a pale rose-red colour, 
with a tinge of yellow, found in Sweden. 

CE'RIUM (from the planet Ceres), a metal, 
of a flesh-red colour, obtained from Cerite. 

It becomes friable from heat, but does not 
melt. Its equivalent is 47. - It is of no 
known use. Cerium combines with several 
acids, and forms salts. ' ■ 1 

CERO'MA(ker5mn, from keros, wax : Gr.), 
an ointment made of oil and wax, with 
which the ancient wrestlers rubbed them¬ 
selves, to render their limbs more supple. 

-Also, that apartment in the bath where 

the ointment was used. ! 

CER'THIA ( kerthios: Gr.), in Ornitho¬ 
logy, the name of a genus of birds in the 
Passerine order, including the European j 
Certhia familiaris, a very small bird, that 
ascends tree trunks, searching the crevices 
for insects. 

CERTIFICATE {certus, certain; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), in a general sense, a 
| testimony given in writing to declare or 
certify the truth of anything. 

CERTIORA'RI (pas. infin. pres, of cer- 
tioro, I give information : Lat.), a writ issip 




















125 


Etterary tErras'iitt). 


[CHALCEDONY 


frig out of some superior court, to call up 
the records of an inferior court, or remove 
a cause there depending, that it may be 
tried in the superior court. 

CERU'MEN ( cent,, wax: Lat.), the wax, 
or viscid yellow liquid which collects in the 
ear, and hardens on exposure to the air. 

CE'RUSE, CE'RUSS ( cerussa: Lat. ; from 
razaz: Arab.), or white lead, a carbonate of 
lead, usually made by exposing plates of 
that metal to the vapour of vinegar, as¬ 
sisted by the high temperature of ferment¬ 
ing tan. The vinegar vapour only acts as 
a carrier between the carbonic acid evolved 
by the fermenting tan and the oxide found 
under the influence of the acid vapour. 

CER'YUS (a stag : Lat.), in Zoology, a 
genus of deer, including the red deer, the 
\ Wapiti deer, and other species. [See Deer.] 

CER'VUS VO'LANS (the flying stag: 
Lat.). [See Stag Beetle.] The French 
apply the name Cerf-Volant both to this 
beetle and to a boy’s kite. 

CESSATION OF ARMS, an armistice, 
or occasional truce, agreed to by the com¬ 
manders of armies, to give time for a ca¬ 
pitulation, or for other purposes. 

CESSA'VIT (he has ceased: Lat.), in Law, 
a writ formerly used to recover lands, when 
! the tenant or occupier had ceased for two 
years to perform the service which consti¬ 
tuted the condition of his tenure, and had 
not sufficient goods or chattels to be dis¬ 
trained. 

CES'SION ( cessio: Lat.), in a general 
sense, a surrender; but particularly a sur¬ 
render of conquered territory to its former 
; proprietor or sovereign by treaty.- Ces¬ 

sion, in the Civil Law, is a voluntary sur¬ 
render of a person’s effects to his creditors, 

| to avoid imprisonment.-In the Ecclesi¬ 

astical Law, when an ecclesiastical person 
is created a bishop, or when a parson of a 
; parish takes another benefice without dis¬ 
pensation, their first benefices become void 
by cession, without resignation. 

CES'TUS ( kestos, embroidered; from ken- 
teo, I prick: Gr.), a girdle said to be worn by 
Venus, to which Homer ascribes the power 
of exciting love towards the wearer. It was 
also a marriage girdle, richly studded, with 
, which the husband girded his wife at the 
wedding, and afterwards loosed. 

CE'TACEA ( cetos, a whale: Gr.), an order 
of mammals living in water, and harfing 
more or less the appearance of fishes, from 
which, however, they are broadly distin- 
j guished by having warm blood, which is 
oxygenated by means of lungs, not gills; 
and by bringing forth living young, which 
are nourished with milk secreted by the 
j mother. The windpipe opens at the top of 
the head by one or two blow-lioles, through 
which the water taken into the mouth is 
ejected. There are six families:—1. Balce- 
nidce, true Whales. 2. Catodontidce, or 
PhyseteridcB, or Sperm Whales. 3. Bel- 
phinidce. Dolphins. 4. Manatidce, Ma¬ 
natees. 5. Halichoridce, Dugongs. 6 . Ithy- 
tinidce. 

CE'TUS (the whale : Lat.), in Astronomy, 
the Whale, a large constellation of the 
southern hemisphere, containing 97 stars. 

CHABA'SITE, in Mineralogy, a precious 


stone, white, and sometimes transparent: 
a kind of zeolite. 

CHA'FERY ( chauffer, to warm : Fr.), a 
forge in an iron mill, where the iron is 
hammered into bars, and finished. 

CHA'FE-WAX (same deriv.), an officer of 
the court of chancery, who prepares the 
wax for sealing writs, &c. 

CHAF'FINCH, the English name of the 
Fringilla ccelebs, a well-known bird, with 
an iron-coloured breast, and black wings 
spotted with white. 

CHAIN ( chatne: Fr.), a series of connected 
rings or links fitted into one another. 
Chains are made of various metals, and 
their different sizes and forms are suited 
to different purposes.-In Nautical lan¬ 

guage, chains are strong links or plates 
of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted 

through a ship’s sides to the timbers.- 

Chain-boat, a large boat adapted for get¬ 
ting up mooring chains, anchors, &c.——A 
Chain-pump consists of a long chain fitted 
with a sufficient number of plates, that 
are moved through a tube, and over two 
wheels, one above the other, by a long 
winch, on which several men may he em¬ 
ployed at the same time.- Chain-shot, 

two half-balls of metal connected by a 
chain : they are used at sea for cutting the 

shrouds and rigging of a ship.- Chain- 

wales, of a ship, are broad and thick planks 
projecting from a ship’s side, abreast of and 

behind the masts.- Chain-work, work 

consisting of threads, cords, and the like, 
linked together in the form of a chain, as 

tambour or net-work, &c.-A Surveying 

chain is a measure of length, made of a 
certain number of links of iron wire, serv¬ 
ing to measure land, &c. Gunter’s chain 
consists of a hundred such links, each 7 92 
inches in length, and consequently, it is 

equal to 66 feet or 4 poles.-A Top-chain, 

on board a ship, is a chain to sling the sail- 
yards, to prevent their falling, when the 
ropes that support them are shot away. 

CHAIR ( chaise: Fr.), anciently the sug- 
gestum, or pulpit, whence the priest or 
public orator spoke to the people. [See 
Cathedra.] The word is still applied to 
the place whence professors in universities 
deliver their lectures; thus we say the j 
professor’s chair. It is commonly used i 
with reference to the speaker or president J 
of a public council or assembly, as the ! 
speaker’s chair; and, by a metonymy, means 
the speaker himself, as to address the chair. 

-Curule Chair, in Roman Antiquity, 

an ivory seat appointed to be used by the 
chief magistrates of Rome, and those to 
whom the honour of a triumph was granted. 

-Chair, in railway engineering, is tbe 

iron box into which the rails are wedged 
at intervals, and by means of which they 
are secured to the sleepers. 

CHALA'ZA (hail: Gr.), among Natural¬ 
ists, the white knotty string at each end of 
an egg, which connects the yolk and white 

together.-In Medicine, a disorder in the 

eyelids, well known by the name of a stye. 

-In Botany, the organic base of the 

nucleus of seeds, indicating the cotyle¬ 
donary extremity of the embryo. 

CIIAL'CEDONY, or CAL'CEDONY (from 





























ohalcedonyx] )s J^rfenttftc <mtf 126 

Chalcedon, where it was originally found), in 
Mineralogy, the name given to some forms 
of quartz which agree in being in uncrystal- 
lizcd masses, which have frequently a bo- 
tryoidal, reniform, or nodular shape. It is of 
many colours, is usually semi-transparent, 
and is found all over the world. It occurs 
in small veins, or in cavities of other mine¬ 
rals, and appears to have been formed by 
the infiltration of silicious matter. Helio¬ 
trope, Onyx, Sard, and Sardonyx, are 
considered varieties of Chalcedony, and 
Jasper is nearly allied. 

CHAL'CEDONYX ( chalcedony , and onyx'), 
a variety of agate, in which white and grey 
layers alternate. 

CHAL'CITE, sulphate of iron, of a red 
colour, so far calcined as to have lost a 
considerable part of its acid. 

CHALDEE', or CHALD A'lC, the language 
spoken by the Chaldeans, or people of 
Chaldea: it is a dialect of the Hebrew. 

CHAL'ICE ( calix: Lat. ; from leulix : Or.), 
the communion cup, or vessel used to ad¬ 
minister the wine, in the sacrament of the 
eucharist. 

CHALI'ZA (a disengaging : ITeb.), in He¬ 
brew Antiquity, the ceremony by which a 
woman, left a widow, pulled off the shoes of 
a brother-in-law, who should have espoused 
her; after which she was at liberty to marry 
whom she pleased. 

CHALK (calx, limestone: Lat.), a well- 
known calcareous earth of an opaque white 
colour, cal Ed in pharmacy creta and terra 
crcta. It forms immense deposits of the 
secondary period of geologists. [Creta¬ 
ceous System.] It consists of carbonate of 
lime, and the whole of it consists of animal 
remains in a more or less minute state of 
division. England is thought to derive its 
name Albion (albus, white) from its chalk 

cliffs.- Black Chalk, a kind of ochreous 

earth, of a close structure and fine black 

colour, used in drawing.- Red Chalk, an 

indurated clayey ochre employed by painters 
and artificers. 

CHAL'LENGE, in a general sense, a sum¬ 
mons to fight, whether in a duel or in a 

pugilistic contest.-In Law, an exception 

i to jurors, made by one who is put on his 
trial: or the claim of a party that certain 
jurors shall not sit in trial upon his cause. 

! The right of challenge is given both in civil 
i and criminal cases, and extends either to 
the whole panel, or only to particular jurors. 
In criminal cases, a prisoner may challenge 
twenty jurors, without assigning a cause; 
which is called a peremptory challenge. 

CHALY'BEATE ( chalybeius, belonging to 
steel: Lat.; from dialups, steel: Gr.), an 
epithet for waters in which iron forms the 
principal ingredient, as those of Tunbridge 
Wells. Chalybeates act chiefly as absorb¬ 
ents and deobstruents. 

CHAM, or KHAM, the title of the sove¬ 
reign prince of Tartary. It is likewise ap¬ 
plied to the principal noblemen of Persia. 

CHA'MA (Lat.; from clierne, a gaping: 
Gr.), a genus of marine conchiferous mol¬ 
luscs, the species of which are attached by 
one of the valves to rocks and stones. They 
are abundant in tropical seas, especially 
amongst coral reefs. 

CHAMA'DE (a parley: Fr.), in War, a sig¬ 
nal made by beat of drum or sound of 
trumpet, for a conference with the enemy, 
either to invite to a truce, or to propose a 
capitulation. 

CHAM'BER (chambre: Fr.), in Polity, the 
place where certain assemblies are held; 
also the assemblies themselves. Of these | 
some are established for the administration j 
of justice, others for commercial affairs, i 
In many languages, chamber is used to de¬ 
signate a branch of government whose 
members assemble in a common apartment. , 

-Chamber, in Gunnery, that part of a 

mortar or cannon which contains the i 

powder when it is loaded.- Chamber of 

a Lock, the space between the gates of 
a canal lock, in which the barge rises' and 
sinks, so as to pass to a different level.-;— 
Chamber of a Mine, a place, generally of 
a cubical form, where the powder is con¬ 
fined.— -Powder-chamber, a place under¬ 
ground for holding powder, &c., that it may 

be secure from the rain, &c.- Privy- 

Chamber. Gentlemen of the privy-chamber 
are servants of the sovereign, who are to 
wait and attend at court. 

CHAM'BERLAIN (chambellan: Fr.), in 
a general sense, a person who has the 
management and direction of a chamber, or 

chambers.- Lord Great Chamberlain 

of England, not of the household, the 
sixth great officer of state, to whom belong 
various duties on the coronation day, and 
to whom also appertain many privileges— 
such as serving the sovereign with water 
before and after dinner, and having the 
basin and towels for his reward. The office 
was made hereditary by Henry I., in the 

family of De Yere, Earl of Oxford.- 

Chamberlain of the Household, one of 
the three great officers of the royal house¬ 
hold. He has the control of all the officers 
above stairs, except those within the pre- ! 
cinct of the sovereign’s bedchamber, which 
is under the government of the Groom of 
the Stole. In virtue of his situation, he pre¬ 
cedes dukes. The emblem of the office of 
chamberlain, in European courts, is a gold 
key, generally worn suspended from two 
gold buttons.- Chamberlain of Lon¬ 

don, an officer of the corporation, who 
keeps the city money, presides over the 
affairs of citizens and their apprentices, 
and presents the freedom of the city to 
those who have faithfully served their 
apprenticeships. 

CHAM'BERS, rooms or apartments be¬ 
longing to the inns of court.-In Anatomy, 

two spaces between the crystalline lens and 
the cornea of the eye, divided by the iris. 

CHAM'BRE Alt'DENTE (burning cham¬ 
ber : Fr.), a chamber hung with black cloth, 
in which state prisoners in France, if of 
high rank, were tried by torchlight. When 
Francis II., in the 10th century, established 
a court to try the Protestants, who were 
usually condemned to be burned, the people 
called this court by the same name, in allu¬ 
sion to its awful sentences. 

CHAME'LEONS (chamailedn, literally the 
earth-lion: from chamai, on the earth ; and 
leon, a lion: Gr.), reptiles of the lizard order, 
forming the family of chamcelionidce, aud 




























127 


Uftcvarn Creagurn. 


distinguished from the other members of 
the order by having a long prehensile tail, 
a long slender protrusile tongue, and the 
toes arranged in two groups, three pointing 
forwards and two backwards, forming an 
apparatus for grasping. Their lungs are 
capable of great extension. The common 
chameleon {G. vulgaris ), an animal about 
12 inches long, including the tail, is a native 
of Asia, Africa, and the south of Spain. 
Tradition has assigned fabulous properties 
to it. The change of colour for which it is 
remarkable is supposed to arise from the 
rete mucosum, containing two differently 
' coloured layers, the interior movable, and 
therefore capable of modifying the exterior. 
The chameleon is exceedingly slow, dull, 

; and almost torpid. Its long: tongue is 
covered at the extremity with a viscid 
mucus, and is darted out for the purpose of 
capturing the insects upon which it sub¬ 
sists. Its eyes are capable of being moved 
independently of each other. 

| CHAM'OIS {Fr.), the Bupicapra tragus 
of naturalists, a species of antelope, ap¬ 
proaching the goats in structure. It lives 
on the Alpine ranges of Europe and Western 
Asia. It is very agile, and of difficult access, 
so that only the most daring sportsmen can 
succeed in killing it with their rifles. It is 
about three feet in length, and two in 
height. Its head resembles that of the 
common goat, but it has no beard. Its skin 
is made into soft leather, called shammy. 

CHAM'OMILE ( chaniaimelon , literally 
earth-apple : from chamai, on the earth; 
and melon, an apple: Gr.), a plant belonging 
to the order of Compositce, well known for 
its medicinal virtues. 

CHAMPA'GNE, a fine brisk kind of wine, 
so called from the district in France where 
it is produced. 

CHAMTERTY {champ, a field; and parti, 
divided: Fr.), in Law, an illegal bargain 
made with either plaintiff or defendant in 
any suit, for giving part of the land, debt, 
&c., sued for, to the party who undertakes 
the process at his own expense. 

CIIAM'PION {campione, from campo, a 
field : Ital.), a person who undertakes a 
combat in the place of another; sometimes 
the word is used for him who fights in his 
own cause. In ancient times, when two 
champions were chosen to maintain a cause, 
it was always required that there should be a 
decree of the judge to authorize the combat. 
When the judge had pronounced sentence, 
the accused threw down a gage or pledge, 
originally a glove or gauntlet, which being 
lifted up by the accuser, they were both 
taken into safe custody till the day appointed 
for battle. Before the champions took the 
field, their heads were shaved to a kind of 
crown, which was left at the top : they then 
made oath that they believed the persons 
who retained them to be in the right, &c. 
They always presented an offering to the 
church, that God might assist them in the 

battle.- Champion op the Kino, an 

officer who rides armed into Westminster 
Hall on the coronation day, while the sove¬ 
reign is at dinner, and by herald makes 
proclamation, ‘That if any man shall deny 
the king’s (or queen’s) title to the crown, he 


[chancellor 


is there ready to defend it in single combat.’ 
The sovereign drinks to him, and afterwards 
presents him with the cup for his fee. 
The manor of Scrivelsby in Lincolnshire is 
held by the tenure of fulfilling the duties of 
the sovereign’s champion, and the champion¬ 
ship is annexed to the manor, so that who¬ 
ever is its owner has the privilege of acting 
as the royal champion. This arose by ex¬ 
press grant to a Marmion by the Conqueror. 
The manor passed by a female heir to the 
Dymoke family in which it is still vested. 
At George IV.’s coronation one of this fa- 
milyappeared as the king’s champion. Since 
then there has been no coronation banquet. 

CHAN'CEL. The choir of a church is 
called chancel from the cancelli {Lat.), the 
screen or lattice-work partition dividing it 
from the body of the church, but not inter¬ 
cepting the sight. 

CHAN'CELLOR (cancellarius: Lat.), un¬ 
der the Roman emperors, a chief notary 
or scribe; but in England an officer invested 
with high judicial powers. The Lord High 
Chancellor of Great Britain is one of the 
principal officers of the civil government, 
created without writ or patent, by the mere 
delivery of the king’s great seal into his 
custody. lie has precedence next after the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, who comes next 
after the royal family. He is a privy-coun¬ 
cillor by his office, and prolocutor of the 
House of Lords by prescription. He ap¬ 
points all the justices of the peace through¬ 
out the kingdom. Persons exercising this 
office in former times having been ecclesi¬ 
astics, and superintendents of the royal 
chapel, the Lord Chancellor is styled keeper 
of the king's conscience; and for the same 
reason he is visitor, in right of the king, of 
all hospitals and colleges of the king’s 
foundation, and is patron of all the king’s 
livings rated under the value of 201. per 
annum in the king’s books. He is the ge¬ 
neral guardian of all infants, idiots, and 
lunatics; has a control over all public cha¬ 
rities, and a jurisdiction of vast extent, a3 
the head of the law, in his court of chan¬ 
cery ; but there is an appeal from his deci¬ 
sion to the House of Lords.- Chancellor 

op a Cathedral, an officer who hears les¬ 
sons read in the church, inspects schools, 
hears causes, writes letters, applies the 
seal of the chapter, keeps the books, &c. 

-Chancellor of a Diocese, a lay officer 

under a bishop, versed in the canon and 
civil law, and judge of his court.- Chan¬ 

cellor op a University, an officer who 
seals the diplomas, or letters of degree, &c. 
The chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge 
are generally selected from among the ; 
prime nobility or highest personages in 
the country, and hold office for life. Their 
duties are generally performed by vice-chan- | 

cellors.- Chancellor op the Duchy | 

op Lancaster, an officer appointed chiefly 
to determine controversies between the 
king and his tenants of the duchy land, 
and otherwise to direct all the king’s af- ; 
fairs referable to his court. The holder of 

the office is a member of the cabinet.- 

Chancellor op the Exchequer, an 
officer who holds the highest place in that 
court, and takes care of the interests of 





































| chance-medley] djc J^rtVittttfc antf 125: 

the crown. He is always a member of the 
House of Commons, and has a seat in the 
cabinet. The financial measures of the 
government are in his charge. He has 
jiower, with the lord-treasurer, to lease the 
crown lands, and with others to compound 
for forfeiture of lands, on penal statutes; 
ae has also great authority in managing 
the royal revenues, and in all matters re¬ 
lating to the finances of the state.- 

Chancellor of the Order of the 
! Garter, and other military orders, an 
officer who seals the commissions and man¬ 
dates of the chapter and assembly of the 
knights, keeps the register of their pro¬ 
ceedings, and delivers their acts under the 
seal of their order. 

CHAN'CE-MEDLEY (a corruption of 
chaude m6lee, an eager conflict: Fr.), in 
Law, the accidental killing of a person, not 
altogether without blame, though without 
any evil intention. 

CHAN'CERY.- According to Lord Coke, 
the name is derived from Cancellarius, the 
judge of the court, who is so styled a can- 
cellando, because part of his duty is to 
cancel the royal letters patent when 

1 wrongly granted. In this court are two 
tribunals: the legal, or common law court, 
and the court of equity. The former has 
jurisdiction in scire facias, to repeal letters 
patent, and out of it issue all original 
writs which pass under the great seal, all 
commissions of uses, sewers, idiotcy, lu¬ 
nacy, &c. The equity side of the court is 
that great court of equity and conscience, 
whose object is to moderate the rigour of 
the other courts that are bound by the 
strict letter of the law. In this court, also, 
is administered relief which the common 
law courts are unable to give, or in which 
the relief given by them is inadequate, as 
in cases of contracts, for instance, when the 
courts of law can only give damages for the 
| breach of them, the court of chancery will 
enforce specific performance. So, also, the 
latter court will grant injunctions to re¬ 
strain wrongful acts, while the courts of 
common law, for the'most part, can only 
give damages for the injury done by the 
wrongful act when committed. The court 
of chancery has also larger powers than are 
possessed by other courts,*-of causing the 
defendant to make discovery of matters 
known only to him, and which may be ma¬ 
terial to'tlie plaintiff's case. Cases of trust 
and mortgage are cognizable only in the 
court of chancery, so also, practically 
speaking, are the administration of the as¬ 
sets of deceased persons, cases of partner¬ 
ship, accounts, &c. The judges of this 
court, as now constituted, are the lord- 
chancellor, the master of the rolls, two 
lords justices of appeal, and three vice- 
chancellors. The decisions of the master 
of the rolls and the vice-chancellors may 
be reviewed either by the lord-chancellor 
or by the court of appeal in chancery, which 
is a court composed of the lord-chancellor, 
and both or either of the lords justices, 
or of the lords justices sitting by them¬ 
selves. From the decisions of the lord- 
chancellor, or of the court of appeal, there 
is an appeal to the House of Lords. 

CHAN'CES, Doctrine of, a branch of 
Mathematics, which estimates ratios of 
probability. 

CHANGEABLE ROSE, the Hibiscus mu- 
tabilis of Linnams, or Martinico Hose. Its 
flowers are white at their first opening; 
they then change to a blush-rose colour. 

CHANGES, in Mathematics, the permu¬ 
tations or variations which any number of 
things may undergo, in regard to posi¬ 
tion or order, &c.; as, the different ways 
letters may be transposed, the changes 
that may be rung on a given number of 
bells, &c. 

CHAN'NEL ( canalis , a canal: Lat.), the 
deeper part of a *strait, bay, or harbour, 
where the principal current flows, either of 
tide or fresh water, or which is most con¬ 
venient for the track of a ship.-Also, a 

narrow sea between two continents, or a 
continent and an island ; as the British, or 
Irish channel. 

CHAN'SONS, or CHAN'ZOS, the amatory 
poems of the Provencals. They usually 
consisted of five stanzas and an envoy. 

CHAN'TRY (canto, I sing : Lat.), a place 
in which to say mass for souls, or sing in 
divine worship. 

CIIA'OS (Gr.), that confusion in which 
matter is supposed to have existed before 
the world was produced by the creative 
power of Omnipotence ; or, in other words, 
the unformed primeval matter of which 
everything was made. 

CHAP'EATJ (Fr.), in Heraldry, an ancient 
cap of dignity worn by dukes, made of 
scarlet velvet and lined with fur. 

CHAP'EL (chapelle: Fr.), a place of divine 
worship, served by an incumbent under the 
denomination of a chaplain. There are va¬ 
rious kinds of chapels ; as parochial chapels, 
distinct from the mother church ; chapels of 
ease, built in large parishes for the accom¬ 
modation of the inhabitants ; free chapels, 
which were founded by different kings; 
chapels belonging to particular colleges; 
domestic chapels, erected by noblemen or 
gentlemen for the use of their families; 
and dissenting meeting-houses, which are 
sometimes denominated chapels. 

CHAP'ELRY (chapellerie: Fr.), the pre 
cinct belonging to a chapel, in distinction 
from a parish, or that belonging to a church. 

CHAP'LAIN (chapelain: Fr.), an eccle¬ 
siastic who performs divine service in a 
chapel; but it more'commonly means one 
who attends upon a king, prince, or other 
person of quality, for the performance of 
clerical duties in the private chapel. 

CHAP'LET (chapelet: Fr.), in a general 
sense, a garland or wreath to be worn on 
the head.-In Architecture, a small mould¬ 
ing, carved into beads, pearls, &c.- Chap- 

let, a string of beads used by the Roman 
Catholics, for counting their prayers, called 
paternosters and ave-marias. This practice 
is believed to have been introduced by 

St. Dominick. The chaplet is used also by 
Mahometans at their devotions; but their 
beads are all of the same size, and are not 
divided into decades. They have a smaller 
and a larger chaplet: the smaller contains 

GO beads, and the larger 100 divided into 
three parts. Other orientals make use of 



























CHAP'TER (chapitre: Fr .), in Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal polity, an assembly for the transaction 
of such business as comes within its cogni¬ 
zance. Every cathedral is under the super¬ 
intendence of its dean and chapter. A 
meeting of the members of an order of 
knighthood is also called a chapter. 

CHA'RACTER ( charalcier, from charasso, 
I mark : Or.), in its most obvious sense, de¬ 
notes a mark or sign made by writing, en¬ 
graving, &c. Characters are literal, as the 
letters of an alphabet; numeral, as the ari th- 
metical figures; and emblematical, when 
they represent things or ideas. 

I CHARA'DE {Fr.), a riddle, said to be 
named from its inventor; and made upon 
a word the syllables of which, when sepa¬ 
rately taken, are themselves words. It 
I consists of two parts — the first describing 
the syllables separately, the second allud¬ 
ing to the entire word ; and it may be con¬ 
sidered complete if the whole unites in an 
epigrammatic point. 

CHAR'COAL, an artificial fuel, consisting 
of wood deprived of its volatile consti¬ 
tuents. It is usually prepared in the fol¬ 
lowing manner: the wood is cut into 
proper lengths, and duly arranged in piles 
or stacks ; and tlieso being coated over 
with turf, and the surface covered with 
plaster made of earth and charcoal-dust 
well tempered together, to exclude the 
air almost entirely, and prevent waste by 
combustion, are set on fire. In two or 
three days, when the wood is known to be 
i sufficiently charred, the apertures, which 
had been left to give vent to the flames, are 
closed up; and, all access of the external 
air being excluded, the fire goes out of it¬ 
self. The vapour of burning charcoal is 
highly noxious : it is carbonic acid, and is 
found to possess many remarkable proper¬ 
ties. Charcoal is black, brittle, light, and 
inodorous, and resists decay for an indefi¬ 
nite period. That made from a dense wood 
has the curious property of condensing 
gases and vapours in its pores. The great¬ 
est part of charcoal consists of the element 

carbon.- Animal Charcoal, or charred 

bones, is extensively employed as a filter, 
in the purification of saccharine juices. 

CHARGE {Fr.), in a general sense, that 
which is enjoined, committed, intrusted, or 
delivered to another, implying care, cus¬ 
tody, superintendence, or fulfilment of duty 
on his part.- Charge, in Law, the in¬ 
structions given by the judge to a jury.- 

In Ecclesiastical Law, the instructions 
given by a bishop to the clergy of his dio¬ 
cese.-In Electricity, the accumulation 

of electric matter on the coatings of electric 

jars.-In Gunnery, the quantity of powder 

and ball, or shot, with which a gun is loaded. 

-In Heraldry, whatever is borne on 

coats of arms.-In Military affairs, a 

signal to attack; as to sound the charge. 
Or the attack itself, which consists in rush¬ 
ing on an enemy with fixed bayonets, &c.; 
and the word is used for an onset of .ca¬ 
valry as well as of infantry. 

CHA'RIOT {carrhod : Wei.), in Antiquity, 
a car or vehicle used formerly in war, and 


called by the several names of biga, triga, 
quadriga, &c., according to the number of 
horses which drew it. When the warriors 
came to an encounter in close fight, they 
alighted and fought on foot; but as soon as 
they were weary they retired into their 
chariots, and thence annoyed their enemies 
with darts and missive weapons. We find 
also frequent mention of currus falcati, or 
chariots armed with hooks or scythes, with 
which whole ranks of soldiers were cut 
down together: they were used not only 
by the Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, &c., 
but even by our British ancestors. The 
Roman triumphal chariot, generally made 
of ivory, was of a cylindrical figure, some¬ 
times gilt at the top and ornamented with 
crowns; and, to represent a victory more 
naturally, it was even stained with blood. 
It was usually drawn by four white horses, 
but often by lions, elephants, tigers, bears, 
leopards,'&c. 

CHAR'LATAN {Fr.), one who makes un¬ 
warrantable pretensions to skill, and talks 
much in his own favour. The word origi¬ 
nally meant an empiric, or quack, who 
retailed his medicines on a public stage, 
and drew the people about him by his 
buffooneries. 

CHARLES'S WAIN, in Astronomy, seven 
stars in the constellation called Ursa Major, 
or the Great Bear. 

CHAR'LOCK, the English name of a 
plant called by botanists Baphanus Bapha- 
nistrum, nat. ord. Cruci/erce. It is a weed 
very pernicious among grain. 

CHARM {carmen, a verse : Lat.), magical 
words, characters, verses, &c., imagined to 
possess some occult and unintelligible 
power; by which some have pretended to 
do wonderful things. 

CHART {charta: Lat.; from cliartes, a leaf 
of paper : Gr.), a hydrographical map, drawn 
for the use of navigators, and showing the 
situation of coasts, rocks, sand-banks, and 
sea-marks; also the course of currents, the 
depth of soundings, and the direction of 
regular winds.-—G lobular Chart, a me¬ 
ridional projection, in which the distance 
of the eye from the plane of the meridian, 
upon which the projection is made, is sup¬ 
posed to be equal to the sine of an angle 
of 45 degrees.——H eliographic Charts 
{helios, the sun; and grapho, I write: Gr.), re¬ 
presentations of the sun, and of the macula 
or spots observed on its disk.- Merca¬ 

tor’s Chart, one on which the meridians 
are straight lines, parallel and equidistant; 
the parallels are also straight lines, but the 
distance between them increases from the 
equator towards either pole, so as to bear 
always the same ratio to the degrees of 
longitude which they do on the sphere itself. 
——Selenographic Charts {selene, the 
moon ; and grapho, I write: Gr.), represen¬ 
tations of the moon. 

CHAR'TER (same deriv.), in Law, a writ¬ 
ten instrument, executed with certain 
forms, by which the sovereign bestows 
privileges on towns, corporations, &c. 
Magna Charta is the name applied to the 
Great Charter of Liberties granted to the 
people of the whole realm by King John. 

CHAR'TER-PARTY {parti, divided: Fr.), 
K 


[CHARTER-PARTY 


chaplets, termed chains, consisting either 
of beads or links. 

















chartists] 


EIjc Jbrienttfic anti 


130 


In Commerce, an agreement respecting the 
hire of a vessel and the freight. 

CHAR'TISTS, a political party in Eng¬ 
land, composed chiefly of the working 
classes, who have embodied their principles 
in a document called the ‘ People’s Char¬ 
ter,’ the leading points of which are uni¬ 
versal suffrage, vote by ballot, annual par¬ 
liaments, electoral districts, abolition of 
property qualification, and payment of 
members of parliament. 

CHAR'TULARY. [See Cartulary.] 

CHARYB'DIS ( Gliarubdis: Gr.), a vortex 
at the entrance of the Sicilian straits, 
which was much dreaded by the ancients. 

CHASE (chasse: Fr.), in Law, a franchise, 
anciently granted by the crown to a subject, 
empowering him to keep wild animals for 
his diversion, within a certain precinct; 
but not authorizing the establishment of 

forest law within it.- Chase-guns, in 

Maritime language, those used to fire on a 
vessel that is pursued, in contradistinction 
to stern-clmsers, which fire on the pursuer. 

CHA'SING ( [chasser , to drive out : Fr.'), in 
Sculpture, the art of embossing, or repre¬ 
senting figures on metals by a kind of 
basso rilievo, punched out from behind, and 
carved on the front with small gravers. 

CHAS'SEURS (Fr.), a term for a select 
body of infantry, formed on the left of a 
battalion, and required to be particularly, 
light, active, and courageous.- Chas¬ 

seurs a cheval, a kind of light horse in 
the French service. 

CHAT'EAU, a French word formerly used 
for a castle or baronial seat in France, but 
now simply for a country residence. Chat¬ 
eaux en Espagne {Fr., literally castles in 
Spain), castles in the air. 

CHATOY'ANT ( chatoyer , to sparkle : Fr.), 
in Mineralogy, a hard semi-transparent 
stone, generally very small, which, when 
cut smooth, reflects an undulating or wavy 
light, and is of a yellowish grey or green 

colour.-The word chatoyant is also 

used to express a changing undulating lus¬ 
tre, like that of a cat’s eye in the dark. 

CHAT'TELS {catalla: Lat.), in Law, a term 
applied not only to movable goods but 
also to such things as rents issuing out of 
land. 

CHECK'-MATE (tehees, chess: Fr.), the 
termination of a game of chess, when the 
adversary’s king is in such a position that 
although it is threatened with capture at 
the next move it cannot escape. 

CHECK'Y (same deriv.), in Heraldry, a 
term for the shield, or any part of it, when 
it is divided into checks or squares. 

CHEEKS, a general name among me¬ 
chanics for those pieces of timber, &c., in 
any machine which form corresponding 
sides, or which are double and alike. 

CHEESE ( caseus: Lat.), the curd of milk 
coagulated by rennet, and separated from 
the whey, then pressed or hardened in a 

vat, hoop, or mould.- Cheese-press, a 

machine for pressing curd in the making of 

cheese.- Ciieese-vat, the case in which 

curds are pressed into the form of a cheese. 

CHEF-D'CEUVRE (principal work: Fr.), 
a masterpiece, or best performance of any 
artist. 


CHE'GOE, or JIGGER (Ind.), a species of 
flea, the Pulex penetrans of naturalists, 
which in warm countries bores into the 
human foot and lays its eggs, which as they 
increase in size cause painful irritation 
and inflammation if not extracted. 

CHEE'TAH, or Hunting Leopard, the 
Felis jubata of naturalists. It is a native of 
both Asia and Africa. In India it is trained 
to hunt antelopes. It stands rather higher 
than the leopard, with the same length. 

CIIEIROP'TERA ( clieir , the hand : pteron, 
a wing: Gr.), the scientific name for the 
family of bats. [See Bat.] 

CHELO'NIA ( clielone, a tortoise : Gr.), an 
order of shielded reptiles, comprising the 
turtles and tortoises, which have horny 
jaw r s, something like a bill, destitute of 
teeth. Bony plates above and below'form ! 
a sort of box, which has holes through i 
v'hich project the head, tail, and legs. 
More than 130 species have been discovered, 
divided into five families :—1. Testudi- 
nidee, land tortoises feeding on vegetables. | 
3. Emydidce. 3. Chclydidce. The species of 
both these families inhabit ponds of fresh 
water, and feed on an animal diet. 4. Tri- 
onycidce, inhabiting rivers, and feeding on 
both animals and vegetables. 5. Chelonidce, i 
the true turtles, dwelling in the warmer ^ 
seas : some species feed on marine plants; 
others on mollusca. 

CHEM'ISTRY, or CHYM'ISTRY, the sci¬ 
ence which investigates the intimate na- ; i 
ture of bodies, their composition and pro- ! 
perties, together with the changes they j 
undergo. As an art, it is very ancient; as i 
a science, it may be considered to have had ! 
its origin in the beginning of the 17th 
century. The alchemists were the first who j 
cultivated it, expecting to find a means for 
the transmutation of metals into gold, and 
a universal remedy for disease. They, of 
course, failed in these objects ; but we owe 
to them many important discoveries, and 
the invention of much of the chemical ap¬ 
paratus still in use. To chemistry, more or 
less scientifically pursued, numerous arts 
owe their birth and progress; and to it v 
also, the physiologist must resort for { 
the explanation of phenomena that, with¬ 
out its aid, can only be spoken of by con¬ 
jecture, although on a correct knowledge I 
of them our health and happiness emi¬ 
nently depend. To facilitate the study of 
tiiis important science, it is considered J 
from, different points of view, and thrown { I 
into divisions and subdivisions. It in- [ 
eludes all that relates to chemical affinity, ; 
and the circumstances by which it is modi¬ 
fied. It also considers the effects of light, i 

heat, and electricity ; the nature cf simple ] 
and compound bodies, and the laws of their 
combination. The chemist distinguishes 
bodies into simple and compound sub¬ 
stances. Simple substances comprehend 
such as have not hitherto been decom- f 
posed. Compound substances are formed by 
the union of simple or compound sub¬ 
stances with each other. Chemical union 
is not simply a mixture of the components, 
such as would take place if we were to J 
shake together a quantity of white and 
black sand. An entirely new substance is 




































131 


Uiterarj) Creas'tiry 


[chess 


formed with properties quite different from 
any of the constituents. When the con¬ 
stituent parts of bodies are separated from 
each other, the bodies are said to be de¬ 
composed, and the act of separating them 
is called decomposition ; on the other hand, 
when bodies are so intimately united as to 
form new and distinct substances, their 
union is distinguished by the name of com- 
I bination. The chemical investigation of 
bodies, therefore, proceeds in two ways: 
by analysis, the separation of bodies by a 
series of decompositions, that we may ar¬ 
rive at the knowledge of their constituent 
parts; and by synthesis, a series of pro¬ 
cesses giving rise to new compounds ; and 
these two forms of investigation may ac¬ 
company and assist each other. Chemical 
combinations take place in definite propor¬ 
tions, the ratio of the elements being con¬ 
stant ; and when a body is capable of uni¬ 
ting in several proportions with another, 
these proportions bear a simple numerical 
relation to each other. It has, moreover, 
been found, that if a body A unites with 
other bodies x Y z, the quantity of any of 
the latter which unites with A will repre¬ 
sent the quantity of it which will unite 
with the others, in case any union takes 
place. Lastly, the combining quantity of 
a compound is represented by the sum of 
the combining quantities of its compo¬ 
nents. Upon these laws, which have been 
ascertained by experiment, have been 
founded the equivalents of simple and 
compound bodies, that is, the numbers 
which represent the relations in which 
they unite one with another to form com¬ 
pounds. [See Equivalent.] When gases 
combine, the combination between equal 
volumes, or between volumes which bear a 
simple relation to each other, it generally 
happens that a body unites with another 
in more than one proportion ; thus, oxygen 
unites with nitrogen in five different pro¬ 
portions, and in one compound there is five 
times as much oxygen as in another. Each 
of these compounds has different proper¬ 
ties from the others. What is very singular 
is, that the same constituents combined in 
the same proportions sometimes form com¬ 
pounds of different properties. [See Iso¬ 
meric.] As to the nomenclature of che¬ 
mical substances, it must be explained, 
that whilst the elementary bodies receive 
arbitrary names (those of newly discovered 
metals, however, being made to terminate 
in um), the names of compounds areframed 
according to definite rules. When non- 
metalljc elements unite with metallic 
bodies, or with other non-metallic bodies, 
the compound is known by a name ending 
in ide, taken from the non-metallic element, 
or from that one which is most opposed in 
character to a metal. Thus, compounds 
formed by oxygen and the metals are 
termed oxides, those of iodine and the 
metals, iodides, &c. The oxides, however, 
are divided into three groups. Those which 
resemble potash and soda, or the oxides of 
6ilver and lead, are termed alkaline, or 
basic oxides. Those which possess proper¬ 
ties opposed to the former, and have a 
strong tendency to unite with them, are 


termed acids, such as sulphuric acid. The 
third group consists of oxides, which show 
little disposition for forming combinations, 
and are styled neutral oxides. When two 
acids are formed by oxygen and another 
element, the name of that which has the 
less proportion of oxygen terminates in 
ous, and that with the greater proportion 
of oxygen in ic ; thus sulphurous and sul¬ 
phuric acids. The salts which these acids 
form, when combined with bases, are dis¬ 
tinguished as sulphites and sulphates. For 
a list of the elementary bodies, see Equi¬ 
valent. 

CHENOPODI'ACEiE, in Botany, anatural 
order of apetalous exogens, composed of 
herbaceous plants or small shrubs. Many 
weeds belong to this order, but other mem¬ 
bers of it are of great value to man. Shore 
plants of the genera Salicornia, Salsola, and 
Suceda, were formerly the sources from 
which soda was obtained. Common spinage 
tSpinacia oleracea), mangold wurzel, and 
beet (both belonging to the genus Beta), 
and garden orach ( Atriplex hortensis), belong 
to the order. The seeds of Chenopodium 
quinoa are extensively employed as food in 
Peru, under the name of rice. Another 
Chenopodium is cultivated as a grain crop in 
the western Himalayas. The common weed 
goose-foot is a species of the same genus. 

CHER'ItY ( cerise: Fr., from Cerasus, a 
city in Pontus, whence it was first brought 
to Rome), the Prunus Cerasus, a fruit, the 
original stock of which is the wild cherry. 
The gradual effect of cultivation has been 
the production of several varieties, all 
superior to the fruits of the parent stock. 
The wood of the cherry tree is much used 
by turners, cabinet-makers, &c. The gum 
that exudes from its bark is said to be, in 
many respects, equal to gum arabic. 

CHER'RY-LAUREL, the name popularly 
given to the Cerasus Laurocerasus, a shrub 
belonging to the same nat. ord. as the 
almond, plum, and cherry. It is not related 
to the true laurels. The leaves abound 
with prussic acid. 

CHER'SONESE ( chersonesos: Gr.), a tract 
of land, of any indefinite extent, which is 
nearly surrounded by water, but is united 
to a larger tract by a neck of land or 
isthmus: a peninsula. The peninsula of 
Greece was called the Chersonese. 

CHERT, in Mineralogy, a sub-species of 
rhomboidal quartz, which often occurs in 
metallic veins. It is somewhat translucent, 
and of various colours. 

CHER'UBIM (Heb., the plural of cherub), 
an order of angels, two of which, by the 
command of God, were represented as over¬ 
shadowing the propitiatory or mercy seat. 
The form usually given to them by painters 
and sculptors is a child’s head between 
wings. In the celestial hierarchy they are 
placed next in order to the seraphim. 

CHESS ( echecs: Fr.), a game played by two 
persons sitting opposite to each other, and 
having between them a chequered board, 
containing sixty-four squares, alternately 
white and black. It is a game of Asiatic 
origin, but it has become a favourite with 
all civilized nations. The Chinese pretend 
to have known it 200 years before the 





































)t Jjctcnttfk anti 


132 


chest] 


Cliristian era. In the 6th century it was 
brought from India to Persia, whence it 
was spread by the Arabians and the Cru¬ 
saders all over the civilized world. The 
chess-board is so placed that each player 
has a white square at his right hand. Each 
side has eight men, consisting of a king, 
queen, two knights, two bishops, and two 
rooks or castles, besides eight pawns or 
foot-soldiers. The object of the game is to 
bring the adversary’s king into such a situ¬ 
ation that he would be taken at the next 
move, which is called checkmating. [See 
CheckmateJ 

CHEST ( cista: Lat.; from kiste, a chest: 
Gr.), in Anatomical language, the thorax, 
that cavity of the body which is between 
the neck and the belly, and contains the 
lungs, heart, &c. 

CHESTNUT, or CHES'NUT (chdtaigne : 
Fr .). The Spanish-Chestnut is a noble 
tree, the Castanea vesca of botanists. It 

produces a well-known edible fruit.-The 

Horse-Chestnut, a tree of the genus 
JEsculns, the fruit of which is hot eaten. 
The common kind is a native of the north 
of Asia, and admired for the beauty of its 
flowers. The scarlet-flowering horse-chestnut 
is a native of Carolina and Brazil. 

CHEVAL'-1)E-FRISE (a Friesland horse : 
Fr.), generally used in the plural, Chevaux- 
de-erise, spikes of wood, pointed with iron, 
live or six feet long, fixed in a strong beam 
and used as a fence against cavalry, or to 
stop a breach, &c. 

CHEVALI'ER (Fr.), a foreign title; a 
cavalier or knight.-In Heraldry, a horse¬ 

man armed at all points. 

CHEVET (Fr.), in Architecture, apeculiar 
form of apse, almost exclusively confined 
to French-Gothic churches, but something 
like it is to be seen in Henry VII.’s chapel, 
Westminster Abbey. It has been defined 
as an apse enclosed by an open screen of 
columns, and opening into an aisle which 
is in connection with apsidal chapels. 

CHEVRETT'E (an andiron : Fr.), a mili¬ 
tary term for a kind of gin, or machine, for 
raising guns or mortars into their carriages. 

CHEV'IiON (a rafter: Fr.), in Heraldry, 
an honourable ordinary, representing two 
rafters of a house joined together, or meet¬ 
ing at the top.- Per Chevron, a division 

of the field by two single lines, rising from 
the two base points, and meeting in a point 
above, in the same way as the chevron. 

CHIAROSCU'RO (the clear obscure: 
Ital.), the art of distributing lights and 
shadows in painting, so as to give effect to 
the composition. It is of the highest im¬ 
portance, and is one of the most difficult 
branches of an artist’s study, because of 
the want of precise rules for its execution. 
Rembrandt has rendered himself famous 
for the striking effect of his chiaro-oscuro. 

CHIAB'TOLITE (cliiastos, marked with 
the Greek x, a cross; and lithos, a stone: 
Gr.), a curious kind of crystallized mineral, 
sometimes called made. It consists chiefly 
of silex and alumina, with a little oxide of 
iron. 

CHICA'NERY ( chicanerie: Fr.), mean or 
unfair artifices used to perplex a cause or 
cbscure the truth; applied either in a legal 


sense, when justice is intended to be per* 
verted, or to disputatious sophistry. 

CHI'CORY, the popular name of the plant 
known to botanists as Cichorium intybus, 
nat. ord. Compositce. The root is roasted, 
reduced to powder, and mixed with ground 
coffee. 

CHIEF (chef: Fr.), in Heraldry, one of 
the honourable ordinaries, which occupies 
the upper part of the escutcheon. As the 
head is the chief part of a man, so is the 
chief the principal part of the escutcheon: 
it contains a third part of the field. 

CHIL'BLAIN, a tumour occasioned by 
suddenly warming a cold part, or suddenly 
cooling a heated part: hence the portions 
of the body most subject to chilblains are 
the toes, fingers, ears, &c. 

CHIL'IAD ( chilias, a thousand: Gr.), the 
sum or number of one thousand. Hence 
Chil'iarch denotes the military commander 
or chief of a thousand men; Chil'iarchy, a 
body consisting of a thousand men ; Chilia- 
he'dron, a figure of a thousand equal sides; 
and Chil'iagon, a figure of a thousand angles 
and sides. 

CHILL'ED IRON, iron cast in metal 
moulds, in consequence of which its surface 
is rapidly cooled, and it is rendered harder 
than when cast in ordinary moulds. 

CHIL'TERN-HU'NDREDS, a range of 
chalky hills, extending through parts of 
Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, belong¬ 
ing to the crown, and having the office of 
Steward of the Chiltern Hundreds attached 
to it. As it is an established rule that a 
member of parliament receiving a place 
under the crown cannot continue to sit 
unless re-elected, the acceptance of the 
stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds is a 
formal manner of resigning a seat. The term 
Chiltern is applied, generally, to hundreds 
that lie in the hilly part of a county. 

CHIME'RA ( chimaira: Gr.), in its modern 
acceptation, a vain or idle fancy; a creature 
of the imagination, full of contradictions J 
and absurdities. In fabulous history, a 
monster with three heads, that of a lion, a 
goat, and a dragon, vomiting flames. The 
fore parts of the body were those of a lion, 
the middle was that of a goat, and the hinder 
parts were those of a dragon. 

CHIMES ( chiamare, to call: Ital.), the 
musical sounds of bells struck with ham¬ 
mers, often arranged, and set in motion by 
clockwork. In a clock, a kind of periodical 
music, produced at certain hours by a par¬ 
ticular apparatus. 

CHIM'NE Y {cheminUe: Fr.; from kaminos, 
a furnace: Gr.), in Architecture, a structure 
of brick or stone containing a funnel to I 
convey smoke and other volatile matter 
through the roof of a building, from the 
grate or hearth. 

CHIMPAN'ZEE, the Troglodytes niger, a 
large ape, inhabiting the western coast of 
Africa from about 10° N. to 10° S. of the 
equator. It attains the height of four feet, 
and its body is clothed with long coarse 
black hair, but the hands, face, and large 
ears are naked. The teeth resemble those 
of man. The head is flattened above, and 
has a retiring forehead, and a high bony 
crest over the high brows. The facial angla 















133 


3Utcrarj) Crcatfurtn 


Is 35°. The fore-fingers, when the animal is 
upright, do not quite reach the knee. In 
walking, they tread on the outer edge of the 
foot. It is said that they live in societies 
In the wood. Specimens have been brought 
alive to this country, and, though good- 
tempered when young, they become fero¬ 
cious as they grow older. 

CHINA, GREAT WALL OP. This won¬ 
derful work was erected about 2000 years 
ago, for the purpose of protecting the 
Chinese people from the attacks of the 
northern Tartars. Its length is computed 
at 1250 miles, and it proceeds up the hills 
and through the valleys, regardless of the 
difficulties of the way. There are square 
towers, about 37 feet high, at irregular inter¬ 
vals. The interior of the wall is earth or 
rubbish, cased on each side with stone 
or brick, and having on the top a platform 
of square tiles. Its height is about 20 feet, 
with a thickness of 25 feet at the base, and 
23 feet at the top. Millions of labourers 
were employed upon it, by the first uni¬ 
versal monarch of China, for ten, or, as 
some think, for only five years. It is now 
falling to ruin. 

CHI'NA-WARE, takes its name from 
China, whence the Dutch and English mer¬ 
chants first brought this species of ceramic 
manufacture into Europe ; and is also called 
; porcelain , from the Portuguese porcellana, a 
; cup or vessel. [See Porcelain.] The Japan 
china is considered superior to all other, 
of oriental manufacture, in its close and 
compact granular texture, its sonorous¬ 
ness when struck, its extreme hardness, 
its smooth and shining appearance, and its 
capability of being used for boiling liquids. 
With the Chinese potters, the preparation 
of the clay is earned on constantly, and 
it usually remains in the pits from ten to 
twenty years prior to being used; for the 
longer it continues there, the greater is its 
value. The Dresden china has some qua¬ 
lities which render it decidedly superior to 
the oriental. It exhibits a compact, shining, 
uniform texture, resembling white enamel, 
while it possesses firmness, solidity, and 
non-fusibility by heat. The manufacture of 
china has been carried to a pitch of great 
excellence in France and England. The 
requisite materials for the best hard china 
are sparingly supplied by nature ; but mo¬ 
dern chemistry has thrown much light on 
the ceramic art, not only in enabling the 
manufacturer to analyze more perfectly the 
bodies which constitute these wares, but 
also in determining the exact proportions 
in which they combine; and if proper atten¬ 
tion is paid to the proportions of the several 
components, there is seldom any failure. 
Silica obtained from flints, and alumina, are 
the indispensable ingredients; and when 
these substances are properly combined by 
means of water, their reciprocal tendencies 
! cause so strong a union that, although 
hardened merely by evaporation, they re¬ 
sist decomposition by the atmosphere. China 
is either painted by the hand, which is the 
most beautiful, but most expensive way; 
or the designs are very ingeniously trans¬ 
ferred from an engraved copper plate, by 
means of paper. The colours or enamels 


[chivalry 


with which these designs are executed on 
the glazed surface of ware, with substances 
so vitriflable as readily to acquire lustre at a 
moderate heat, have not yet been in use 
quite a century. 

CHINTZ, a peculiar pattern on calico, in 
which flowers and other devices are printed 
in five or six different colours, on a white or 
coloured ground. 

CHIRA'GRA {Gr.: from clieir, the hand; 
and agra, a catching), in Medicine, a name 
for gout in the hand. 

CHI'ROGRAPH {cheirographon: from 
clieir, the hand ; and grapho, I write : Gr.), 
among the Anglo-Saxons, any public instru¬ 
ment of gift or conveyance, attested by 
the subscription or crosses of witnesses. A 
deed requiring a counterpart was engrossed 
twice on the same piece of parchment, with 
a space between, on which was written chiro¬ 
graph ; and the parchment being cut through 
this word, one portion was given to each 
party. The chirograph was also anciently 
used for a fine ; and this manner of engross¬ 
ing fines, and cutting the parchment in two 
pieces, was, until recently, retained in the j 
chirographer’s office, in the Court of Com- j 
mon Pleas. 

CHIROL'OGY ( cheir , the hand ; and logos, 
speech : Gr.), the art or practice of com- j 
municating thoughts by signs made with | 
the hands and fingers, as a substitute for 
language. 

CHI'ROMANCY {clieir, the hand; and 
manteia, prophecy : Gr.), a species of divi¬ 
nation, drawn from the different lines and 
lineaments of a person’s hand. The modern 
word is palmistry. Several books which 
rank amongst the curiosities of.literature 
have expounded the mysteries of chiro¬ 
mancy. When credulity was more general 
than at present, chiromancy was much 
practised. Sir Thomas Browne had evi¬ 
dently an inclination to it, from the way 
he spoke of ‘ certain mystical figures in our 
hands.’ 

CHIRON'OMY {cheironomia: from cheir, 
the hand; and nemo, I manage : Gr.), in 
Antiquity, the art of representing any trans¬ 
action by the gestures of the body, more 
especially by the motions of the hands. This 
made a part of liberal education; it had the 
approbation of Socrates, and was ranked by 
Plato among the political virtues. 

CHIS'LEU, the ninthmonth of the Jewish 
year, answering to the latter part of Novem¬ 
ber and the beginning of December. 

CHI’TON (a coat of mail: Gr.), a genus of 
marine mollusca, remarkable for the eight 
plates with which the upper part of the 
body is protected. The under part forms the 
disk-like foot by which the animal moves. 
The genus is placed amongst the Gasteropo¬ 
da, and more than 200 species are distributed 
throughout the world. Ten species are 
known on our own shores. 

CHIV'ALRY {chevalerie: Fr.), the name 
anciently given to knighthood; also the 
martial exploits and qualifications of a 
knight. Chivalry, as a military dignity, is 
supposed by some to have been first esta¬ 
blished soon after the death of Charlemagne, 
and by others to have arisen out of the 
crusades, because in these expeditions many 























chiamts] &i)C itilXf 134 

chivalrous exploits were performed, and a 
proud feeling of heroism was engendered. 
In describing the origin, object, and cha¬ 
racter of this military institution. Gibbon, 
the historian, thus speaks of a successful 
candidate for the honour of knighthood, 
and eulogises the profession : ‘ He was 
created a knight in the name of God, of 
St. George, and of St. Michael the Arch¬ 
angel. He swore to accomplish the duties 
of his profession : and education, example, 
and the public opinion, were the inviolable 
guardians of his oath. As the cha mpion of 
God and the ladies, he devoted himself to 
speak the trpth ; to maintain the right; to 
protect the distressed; to practice courtesy, 
a virtue less familiar to the infidels; to 
despise the allurements of ease and safety; 
and to vindicate in every perilous adven¬ 
ture the honour of his character. The 
abuse of the same spirit provoked the illi¬ 
terate knight to disdain the arts of luxury 
and peace; to esteem himself the sole 
judge and avenger of his own injuries; 
and proudly to neglect the laws of civil so- 
! ciety and military discipline. Yet the be¬ 
nefits of this institution, to refine the 
temper of barbarians, and to infuse some 
principles of faith, justice, and humanity, 
were strongly felt, and have been often 
observed. The asperity of national pre¬ 
judice was softened; and the community 
of religion and arms spread a similar colour 
and generous emulation over the face of 
Christendom. Abroad in enterprise and 
pilgrimage, at home in martial exercise, 
the warriors of every country were per¬ 
petually associated; and impartial taste 
must prefer a Gothic tournament to the 
Olympic games of classic antiquity. In¬ 
stead of the naked spectacles which cor¬ 
rupted the manners of the Greeks, and 
banished from the stadium the virgins and 
matrons, the pompous decoration of the 
lists was crowned with the presence of 
chaste and high-born beauty, from whose 
hands the conqueror received the prize of 
his dexterity and courage. 

CHLA'MYS (Lat., from chlamtts : Gr.), in 
Antiquity, a broad woollen upper garment, 
or scarf, worn by Grecian horsemen, parti¬ 
cularly by those belonging to the army. 

CHLO'RAL (an abbreviation formed from 
the clilor of chlorine, and the aloi alcohol), 
a chemical substance, consisting of chlo¬ 
rine, carbon, and oxygen, obtained by the 
action of chlorine on alcohol. It is a lim¬ 
pid, colourless liquid, similar in odour and 
appearance to the oily fluid which chlorine 
forms with olefiant gas; but differing from 
it essentially in density and volatility. 

CHLO'RATE, in Chemistry, a compound 
of chloric acid with a salifiable base. 

CHLO'RIDE, in Chemistry, a compound 
of chlorine with another substance, as the 
chloride of azote, chloride of calcium, &c. 

CHLO'RINE (chldros, green: Gr.), a 
greenish gas, discovered by Scheele in 1774. 
It is not only irrespirable, but produces 
the most injurious effects when incau¬ 
tiously inhaled. It is an elementary body, 
and is nearly twice as heavy as water. Sub¬ 
mitted to pressure,it forms a liquid. Phos¬ 
phorus, and some of the metals, in a finely 

divided state, take fire spontaneously in it. 
Its most remarkable property is its power 
of bleaching ; and it has rendered the old 
and tedious method of exposure to the air 
unnecessary. It is liberated from sea salt 
by sulphuric acid and peroxide of manga 
nese. It combines with hydrogen to form 
a powerful acid, the hydrochloric. 

CHLO'RITE, a mineral of a grass-green 
colour, opaque, and composed of small shin- | 
ing grains. It is usually found in small ! 
masses in schist, and it. is considered a . 
form of mica. 

CHLORO-CARBOH'IC ACID, a compound 
of chlorine and carbonic oxide, formed by j 
exposing a mixture of the two gases to the : 
direct solar rays. 

CHLO'ROFORM ( chlorine and formyle), j 
called also chloro-formyle, or the percliloride 
of formyle ; a new anesthetic agent, used as 
a substitute for sulphuric ether in surgery. 
Its constituents are two atoms of carbon, 
one of hydrogen, and three of chlorine. 

It is a dense, limpid, colourless liquid, 
readily evaporating, and possessing an 
agreeable, fragrant, etlierial odour, and a 
saccharine pleasant taste. When poured 
upon water the greater part sinks in glo¬ 
bules, which are of a milk-white appearance 1 
if the chloroform is not perfectly free from 
alcohol. It is prepared, on the large scale, 
by cautiously distilling a mixture of good 
commercial chloride of lime, water, and al¬ 
cohol. The whole product passes over with 
the first portion of the water. When its 
vapour is inhaled, it induces insensibility 
m ore rapidly and effectually than the vapour 
of ether; hence its use in the performance 
of painful surgical operations. Alittleofthe 
liquid diffused upon the interiorof ahollow- 
shaped sponge, a pocket-handkerchief, or a 
piece of linen or paper, and held over the 
mouth and nostrils so as to be fully inhaled, 
generally suffices in about a minute or two 
to produce the desired effect, but from its 
action on the heart, it ought never to be ad¬ 
ministered except under the superintend¬ 
ence of a medical man. 

. CHLOROTAIj (chldros, green ; and op al¬ 
lies, the opal: Gr.), a greenish-yellow mine¬ 
ral, associated with the opal of Hungary. 

It is a hydrated silicate of iron. 

CHLO'ROPIIANE ( chloros, green ; and 
phaino, I make to shine: Gr.), in Mineralogy, 
a variety of fluor spar, found in Siberia. 
When placed on a heated iron it gives a 
beautiful emerald green light. 

CHLO'ROPHYL (chloros, green; and phul- 
lon, a leaf: Gr.), the green matter of the 
leaves of vegetables. 

CHLORO'SIS ( chloros, green : Gr.), a dis¬ 
ease incident to females, characterized by a 
pale or greenish hue of the skin. 

CHOC'OLATE, a cake or paste, made from 
the kernel of cocoa, mixed with suvar and 
some aromatic substance, such as cinna¬ 
mon or vanilla. 

CHOIR (choros: Gr.), that part of a ca¬ 
thedral where the service is performed. 
Also, the body of singers there assembled. 
Hence the word chorister is used for a 
singer whose vocal powers are exercised in 
divine service. 

CHO'KE-DAMP, the miner’s name for 

























135 


Httcrary Crcatfurg. 


[CIIOLESTERINH 


carbonic acid gas, 'which is frequently found 
in mines and is irrespirable. [See Damps.] 
CHOL'AGOGUES ( cholos , bile ; and ago, I 
conduct; Gr.), medicines which expel or 
evacuate bilious faeces. 

CHOL'ERA (Gr., from thole, bile), a dis¬ 
ease of which there are two species: Cho¬ 
lera spontanea, which happens in hot seasons 
without any manifest cause : and Cholera 
accidentalis, which occurs after the use of 
food that digests slowly and irritates. In 
warm climates it is met with at all sea¬ 
sons of the year, and its occurrence is 
very frequent; but in England and other 
cold climates it is prevalent in the middle 
of summer, particularly in the month of 
August, and the severity of the disease 
| has usually been greater in proportion to 
I the intensity of the heat. It is charac¬ 
terized by an evacuation of bile, attended 
with anxiety, painful gripings, vomitings, 
spasms of the abdominal muscles, and 
those of the calves of the legs. The disease 
sometimes proceeds with violence, and, if 
unchecked in its early stages, great depres¬ 
sion of strength ensues, and it may quickly 
terminate in death. But it must not be 
confounded with the 
CHO'LERA MOR'BUS ( cholera and mor¬ 
bus, a disease: Lat .), the Asiatic, or spas- 
| modic cholera. In Hindostan, spasmodic 
i cholera has probably always existed as a 
comparatively mild disease; but there is no 
evidence to show that the Indian cholera 
j ever bore the epidemic character, or was 
entitled to rank with pestilential scourges 
| of the worst description, till August, 1817, 

| when it suddenly broke out with unpre- 
! cedented malignity, attacking the natives 
iirst, and manifesting itself among the Euro¬ 
peans in the following month. It raged 
with great violence, from January to May, 
1818, extending its destructive influence 
across the country from the mouth of the 
Ganges to its confluence with the Jumna. 
It appeared in its most malignant form at 
Benares, where in two months 15,000 per¬ 
sons perished. In the district of Gorrakpore 
30,000 were carried off in a month. By No¬ 
vember the epidemic had reached the grand 
array, commanded by the Marquis of Hast¬ 
ings, consisting of 10,000 troops and 80,000 
followers: and in twelve days nearly 9000 
men had fallen victims to it. Previous to 
the 14th, it had overspread the camp, sparing 
neither age nor sex; from the 14tli to the 
20th, the mortality had become so extensive 
that the stoutest hearts were yielding to 
despair, and the camp wore the aspect of 
a general hospital. The noise and bustle 
almost inseparable from the presence of a 
multitude of human beings had nearly sub¬ 
sided into stillness : and nothing was to be 
heard but the groans of the dying, or the 
i wailing for the dead. In 1819 it reached the 
kingdom of Arracan: it then extended i tself 
into Siam, and after destroying 40,000 in 
Baku, the capital, it passed into the penin¬ 
sula of Malacca. From thence it travelled 
to China, Canton was attacked in 1820; and 
at Pekin the mortality was so frightful that 
the government was obliged to have the 
dead interred at its own expense. From 
China it passed to the Philippine and Spice 


Islands. Thus, in little more than two 
years, did it traverse a space, in Eastern 
Asia, of 1300 leagues from north to south, 
and about 1000 leagues from west to east. 
During the next two years Arabia, Persia, 
Mesopotamia, and Syria, were overrun by 
the dreadful pestilence. In September, 1823, 
it entered Astracan, a large and populous 
town on the northern shore of the Caspian. 
As soon as this became known to the Rus¬ 
sian government, a medical commission, 
composed of six physicians, was despatched 
to investigate its character, and every pre¬ 
ventive measure v/as resorted to. How far 
these precautions were connected with the 
result it may be difficult to decide; but cer¬ 
tain it is, the disease got no farther in that 
direction that year than Astracan, and did 
not again visit Russia until towards the 
close of 1828, when it unexpectedly appeared 
at Orenburg, and in 1830 it again made its 
insidious entrance at Astracan. At length j 
it reached Moscow, where a cordon sanitaire 
was speedily established, temporary hos¬ 
pitals erected, and the emperor himself 
visited the town when the disease was at 
its height. At first the mortality was as 
great as nine-tenths of all who were at¬ 
tacked, but the number who were infected 
gradually decreased, and the mortality pro¬ 
portionately diminished. Poland, Prussia, i 
and other parts of Germany, soou after felt 
its devastating effects: in November, 1831, 
itreached England; in March, 1832, it broke 
out at Paris, where 20,000 fell a sacrifice to 
it in a short time; and in June, 1832, it 
appeared at Quebec, in Canada, and subse¬ 
quently spread over the whole American 
continent. In 1849 and 1854 it reappeared in 
all its terrors, and, as in 1832, made the 
tour of the globe; the main points in which 
it differed from the former visitation being 
the longer continuance of the disease in the 
places visited, the greater tendency to sub¬ 
side and reappear, and the higher mor¬ 
tality it occasioned. The most remarkable 
feature of this disease is the suddenness 
of its attack. It begins with watery diar¬ 
rhoea, or other generally slight indisposi¬ 
tion, which is followed by vomiting or j 
purging of a white or colourless fluid, 
violent cramps, and great prostration and 
a collapse, Avhich occur at the same time 
with the vomiting and cramps, or shortly 
after them. Should the patient survive the 
last train of symptoms, a state of excite- j 
ment and fever supervenes. For a con¬ 
siderable time the medical world was much 
divided in opinion as to the contagious or j 
non-contagious nature of cholera; the dis¬ 
putes on this subject, however, have now ! 
nearly subsided, the great majority of | 
medical men being persuaded that the 
disease is epidemic, and not contagious in 
its character 

CHOLESTERIC ACID (chole, bile; and 
stereos, solid: Gr.), a peculiar acid, formed 
from cholesterine and nitric acid. It is in 
crystals of a yellowish-white colour, scarcely 
soluble in water, but perfectly so in boiling 
alcohol. 

CHOLESTERINE (same deriv.), a pearly 
substance, found abundantly in human 
biliary calculi. 



































HLX)t fi'ctrnttffc autr 


136 


chondrology] 


CIIONDROL'OGY ( chondros, a cartilage; 
and logos, a discourse: Or.), a description of 
cartilages. 

CHOP'STICKS, the Chinese substitutes 
for our knife and fork at meals. They are 
thin pieces of ivory, ebony, or bamboo, and 
J are used with extraordinary dexterity in 
carrying food to the mouth, the smallest 
pieces being readily laid hold of and con¬ 
veyed to the lips. More than 400 millions 
of the human race employ these simple 
j implements. 

CHORD ( chorde, the string of a lyre: Gr.), 

J In Music, the combination of two or more 
I sounds heard at the same time, and forming 
j a concord or discord; as a third, fifth, and 

I eighth.-In Geometry, a right line drawn 

from one part of the arc of a circle to an¬ 
other. 

CHORE'A ( choros, a dance: Gr.), a disease 
which manifests itself in convulsive mo- 
| tions of the limbs, face, head, and trunk, 
i and is called St. Vitus's dance. It is most 
common in early life, from ten or twelve to 
j puberty. The early stages should be atten- 
j lively watched, and great care should be 
: taken in the cure, lest relics of it be re¬ 
tained through life. 

CHORE'US ( Lat from choreios, literally, 
belonging to a dance : Gr.), in Ancient 
Poetry, afoot of two syllables, the first long, 
and the second short; the Trochee. 

CHORIAM'BUS, in Ancient Poetry, a 
compound foot, consisting of a choreus and 
an iambus. 

CHOROG'RAPHY ( chorographia, from 
chora, a district; and grapho, I write: Gr.), 
the art of delineating or describing some 
particular country or province. It differs 
from geography as a description of a parti¬ 
cular country differs from that of the whole 
earth, andfromtopography as the description 
of a country from that of a town or district. 

CHO'ROID ( chorion, leather; and eidos, 
appearance: Gr.), in Anatomy, the coat of 
the eye immediately under the sclerotica; 
also the inner membrane investing the 
| brain, the pia mater, &c. 

| CHO'RUS ( choros: Gr.), in ancient dra¬ 
matic poetry, one or more persons present 
on the stage during the representation, 
uttering an occasional commentary on the 
j piece, preparing the audience for events 
[ that are to follow, or explaining circum¬ 
stances that cannot be distinctly repre- 
| sented. Several examples of its use may be 
referred to by the English reader in the 
plays of Shalcspeare. In Tragedy, the chorus 
| was at first the sole performer; at present 

it is wholly discontinued on the stage.- 

| Chorus, in Music, those parts of a song at 
which the whole company are to join the 
singer in repeating certain couplets or 
l verses. 

CHOUGH (ceo: Sax.), or red-legged crow, 
the Fregilus graculus of naturalists. It is 
nearly of the size of the common crow, and 
mischievous like the magpie. In this 
country it builds in cliffs and old buildings 
near the sea, and is chiefly found in Corn¬ 
wall, but it is an inhabitant of various parts 
of Europe,and has been met with iu the 
Himalayas. Its plumage is black, the bill, 
legs, and feet red. 


CHRISM, or CHRIS'OM (chrisma, an 
ointment: Gr.), in the Romish and Greek 
churches, the oil used in the administration i 
of baptism, confirmation, ordination, and 
extreme unction. It is consecrated in Holy 
Week, with many ceremonies. 

CHRIST'MAS-ROSE, the Helleborus niger 
of botanists, a plant belonging to a poison¬ 
ous genus. It takes its common name from 
putting forth its white flowers about 
Christmas. 

CHRIST’S-THORN, the Paliurus aculeatus ! 
of botanists, nat. order, Rhamnacece, a deci¬ 
duous thorny shrub, which grows in the 
south of Europe andJudma. It is thought 
that the crown of thorns at the crucifixion 
was taken from this plant. The fruit is 
curious, somewhat resembling a head with 
a broad-brimmed hat. 

CHRO'MATE, in Chemistry, a salt or 
compound formed by the union of chro/riic 
acid and a base. 

CHROMAT'IC ( Jerome, colour: Gr.), in 
Music, a term indicating that which pro¬ 
ceeds by several consecutive semitones. 

CHROMAT'ICS (same deriv.), that part of 
optics which explains the several properties 
of light and colour. Rewton showed that 
colour is not a quality inherent in bodies. 

If viewed in light of any particular colour, 
they are of that colour. Every substance, 
however opaque in ordinary circumstances, 
if sufficiently thin, is capable of transmit¬ 
ting light: thus gold. Hence, all ponderable 
matter absorbs some light: the rest is re¬ 
flected,or, if not extinguished in its passage, 
is transmitted. A portion of the light which 
falls on every body passes through its sur¬ 
face, and is to some extent reflected back j 
by its particles. But the different coloured 
rays are unequally absorbed, which gives 
rise to the production of colours with that 
portion of the absorbed rays which are re- i 
fleeted back, and reach the eye of the spec¬ 
tator. Colour is produced by the inter- j 
ference of rays [see Interference], and ! 
also when white light is decomposed by 
means of a refracting body of appropriate 
shape. [See Spectrum.] 

CHRO'MIUM (same deny.), in Mine¬ 
ralogy, a metal which in its highest de¬ 
gree of oxidation is an acid (chromic acid) 
of a ruby red colour. It takes its name 
from the various and beautiful tints which 
its oxide and acid communicate to the min¬ 
erals into whose composition they enter. 

Thus chrome gives a fine deep green to the i 
enamel of porcelain, &c. Chrome yellow, 
the artificial chromate of lead, is a beauti¬ 
ful pigment. Chromium itself is obtained 
from the oxide by exposing it along with 
charcoal, to the highest heat of a powerful 
furnace. It is hard, brittle, and of a greyish 
white colour. It is very difficult to melt, 
and the strongest acids have little effect 
upon it. Its specific gravity is 59; its | 
equivalent 2G7. Bichromate of potash, ! 
which forms fine red tabular crystals, is 
largely manufactured for the use of dyers, 
photographers, and others. 

CHRO'MO-LITHOG'RAPHY. The obtain¬ 
ing lithographic impressions by means of 
coloured inks. [See Lithog'r'apht.] 

CIIRONTC ( chronos, time : Gr.), in Medi- 













































137 


Httcrary Crcatfurjn 


[CICADA 


cine, a term applied to inveterate diseases 
or those of long duration; in contradistinc¬ 
tion to those which make more rapid pro¬ 
gress, and are termed acute. 

CHRON'OGRAM ( chronos, time; and 
gramma, a writing : Gr.), an inscription in 
which a certain date or epoch is expressed 
by some of the letters. They are some¬ 
times in alarger character. Thus, in amedal 
of Gustavus Adolphus, ‘ chrlstVs DVX, ergo 
trIVMphYs,’ ‘Christ was our leader, hence 
our success.’ ‘ MDXVVVII ’ indicates the 
year MDXXVII. 

CHRONOL'OGY ( chronologia : from chro¬ 
nos , time; and logos, a discourse : Gr.), the 
science which determines the dates of 
events and the civil distinctions of time. 
The divisions of time are either natural or 
artificial; the natural are the year, month, 
week, day, and hour, deduced from the mo¬ 
tions of the heavenly bodies and suited to 
the purposes of ordinary life ; the artificial 
are the various eras, commencing with ar¬ 
bitrary epochs, or im portan t events. Tli e con¬ 
fusion and doubt attending chronological 
research arise not only from the number of 
eras, but from tlieirsubdivision. The natu¬ 
ral divisions of time are not always em¬ 
ployed. Thus, the lapse of time has been 
frequently estimated by generations, or the 
reigns of kings. And even when the solar 
year was used, as neither its beginning nor 
end is marked by any striking event, its 
precise length was not at first accurately 
ascertained. Sometimes the solar year 
was adopted, and sometimes the lunar; 
at others, as among the Jews, a combina¬ 
tion of both. Hence there is little agree¬ 
ment between chronologers regarding the 
most important events of antiquity. There 
have been upwards of 200 different calcu¬ 
lations of the number of years between the 
creation and the commencement of the 
Christian era; and there are 3501 years of 
difference between the longest and shortest 
period assigned. 

CHltONOM'ETER {chronos, time; and ma¬ 
tron, a measure : Gr.), a watch of a peculiar 
construction, or any instrument that mea¬ 
sures time with great exactness. Chrono¬ 
meters are at present much employed by 
navigators in determining the longitude at 
sea. They differ from watches chiefly in 
the principle of their escapement, which is 
so constructed, that the balance is entirely 
free from the wheels during the greater 
part of its vibration, and is compensated 
for changes of temperature: also the balance 
spring, unlike that of a watch, is a spiral, 
whose coils are all of the same size, and not 
in the same plane. 

CHRYS'ALIS ( clirusallis , from chrusos, 
gold : Gr.), or Aure'lia {aurum, gold: Lat.), 
the second metamorphosis of a lepidopte- 
rous insect, after which it becomes a butter¬ 
fly or moth. 

CHRYSAN'THEMUM ( chrusos , gold; and 
anthos, a flower: Gr.), in Botany, a genus 
of plants with handsome flowers appearing 
in autumn, nat. ord. ComposiUe. 

CHRYS'OBERYL ( chrusoberullos: from 
chntsos, gold; and berullos, a beryl: Gr.), a 
yellowish gem, generally found in small 
round pieces, or crystallized in eight-sided 


prisms. It is used in jewellery, and is next 
to the sapphire in hardness. Its chief con¬ 
stituents are alumina and glucina. It has 
been found in Brazil and North America. 

CHRYS'OLITE ( chrusos, gold; and lithos, 
a stone : Gr.), a mineral of a greenish hue, 
often transparent. It is sometimes gra¬ 
nular, and at other times occurs in small 
crystals. It is found in Upper Egypt, and 
is employed in jewellery. It is composed 
of magnesia, silica, and oxide of iron. 
Olivine is considered a variety of it. 

CHRYSOM'ELA ( chrusos, gold; and me- 
las, black: Gr.), a genus of phytophagous 
beetles. The elytra usually possess a me¬ 
tallic lustre. 

CHRYSOPCETA ( chrusos , gold; and poieo, 
I make: Gr.), in Alchemy, that part of the 
art which professes to teach the making of 
gold out of less perfect metals. 

CHRYS'OPRASE ( chrusos , gold; and 
prason, a leek: Gr.), in Mineralogy, an 
amorphous quartz, coloured light green by 
oxide of nickel. It has been found in Si¬ 
lesia and North America. 

CHRYSOSPLE'NITJM (chrusos, gold ; and 
splen, the spleen : Gr., from its supposed 
power in diseases of the spleen), a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Saxifragacece, including 
the golden saxifrage, a herb wild in Britain. 

CHURCH ( kirche: Germ.), in religious 
affairs, a word which is used in several 
senses. It means:—1. The collective body of 
persons professing one and the same reli¬ 
gion ; or that religion itself : thus, we say 
the Church of Christ. 2. Any particular 
congregation of Christians associating to¬ 
gether; as the Church of Antioch. 3. A 
particular sect of Christians; as the Greek 
Church, or the Church of England. 4. The 
body of ecclesiastics, in contradistinction 
to the laity. 5. The building in which a 
congregation of Christians assembles, &c. 

CHURCHWAR'DENS, officers annually 
chosen by the minister and vestry to su¬ 
perintend the church, its property, and 
concerns. 

CHYLE ( chulos: Gr.), a white or milky 
fluid in the stomach, consisting of the liner 
and more nutritious parts of the food, which 
is received into the lacteal vessels, assimi¬ 
lated into blood, and gradually converted 
into the different substances which consti¬ 
tute the animal body. 

CHYLIFAC'TION (chulos, chyle: Gr.; 
and facio, I make: Lat.), the process of di¬ 
gestion by which the aliment is converted 
into chyle. 

CHY'LO'POIE'TIC ( chulos, chyle; and 
poieo, I make: Gr.), having the power to 
convert into chyle. - 

CHYME ( cliumos, juice: Gr.), the result 
of the action of the stomach upon the food 
conveyed to it before its conversion into 
chyle. 

CICA'DA (a tree cricket: Lat.), a genus 
of homopterous insects, allied to the grass¬ 
hoppers and locusts. They feed on the 
juice of shrubs and trees, having a peculiat 
apparatus for piercing the bark. The organ 
of sound is peculiar to the male, and is 
situated on each side of the lower and an¬ 
terior part of the abdomen. In warm re¬ 
gions, such as the south of France and 


































cicjltricula] 


] taly, these insects, in summer, make a loud 
and continual noise. This chirping song 
has been celebrated by the ancient poets of 
Greece and Rome. The manna of the shops 
is the inspissated juice of the Fraxinus 
Ornus, poured out from wounds inflicted 
by the Cicada Orni. 

CICATRIC'ULA (a dim. of cicatrix, a 
scar: Lat), a small whitish speck in the 
yolk of an egg, supposed to bo the germi¬ 
nating point or first rudiment of the chick. 
Whatever way the egg is turned, the part of 
the volk containing it is always uppermost. 

CIC'ATRIX, or CIC'ATRICE ( cicatrix: 
Lat), in Surgery, a scar, or elevation on 
the skin, caused by callous flesh, and re¬ 
maining there after a wound or ulcer has 
healed. 

CICATRI'ZANT (same dcriv.), a medicine 
or application that promotes the formation 
of a cicatrix, called also an escharotic, ag- 
i glutinant, &c. 

CICERO'NE (probably from the Italian 
guides having been ironically compared, 
on account of their garrulous eloquence, 
with Cicero), an individual who acts as a 
guide. 

CICERO'NIANS, epithets given by Mu- 
retus, Erasmus, &c., to those moderns who 
were so ridiculously fond of Cicero as to 
reject every Latin word, as obsolete or in¬ 
correct, that could not be found in some 
one or other of his works. The word Cice¬ 
ronian is also used as an epithet for a dif¬ 
fuse and flowing style, and a vehement 
m miner. 

CICISBE'O ( Ital. ), one who dangles about 
females. It was formerly the custom for 
almost every fashionable Italian lady to 
have a cicisbeo in her train. 

CID, Romances of the, a number of an¬ 
cient Spanish poems, celebrating the mar¬ 
tial deeds and love adventures of Rodrigo 
Laynez, who was born in the reign of 
Sancho, King of Castille, towards the be¬ 
ginning of the 11th century, and died in 
1099. He was surnamed by some Moorish 
; generals whom he had conquered, Es 
i Sayd, or My Lord, corrupted by his country- 
! men into Cid, who also shortened his Span¬ 
ish name to Ruy Dias. He is the hero of 
many poems and dramas of a later age, 

| written in the Spanish and other languages, 
j The Cid was more instrumental, says Sis- 
mondi, than even the princes whom he 
served, in founding the monarchy of Cas¬ 
tille, and he is intimately connected with 
all our ideas of the glory, the love, and the 
chivalry of the Spanish nation. In the 
j foreground of their history and their 
poetry, the Cid stands conspicuous, while 
the renown of his name Alls the age in 
which he lived. 

CI'DARIS, in Antiquity, the mitre used 

by the Jewish high-priest,-In Zoology, 

a genus of sea-urchins. 

CIL'ERY ( cilium, the eyelid : Lat), in 
Architecture, a term applied to ornaments 
of foliage and drapery on the capitals of 
columns. 

CIL'IA (Lat), in Anatomy, the eyelashes; 
certain rigid hairs situated on the arch or 
tarsus of the eyelids, and bent in a very 
singular manner. Their object is to keep 


external bodies out of the eye, and mode¬ 

rate the influx of light.—Also certain mi¬ 
croscopic threads, attached by one end to 
the surfaces of some parts of animals and 
plants. Tney have a vibratory or rotatory 
motion, by means of which certain objects 
arc effected. In man there are cilia in the 
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and other internal 
parts. The heads of wheel animalcules 
possess rings of them. 

CIL'IARY (same deriv.), in Anatomy, an 
epithet for several parts belonging to the 
cilia, or eyelashes; as the ciliary glands, &c. 

CIL'IATED (same deriv.), in Botany, fur¬ 
nished or surrounded with parallel fila¬ 
ments, somewhat like the hairs of the 
eyelids. 

CILI'CIUM (Lat; from kilikion, made 
from Cilician goat’s hair : Or.), in Hebrew 
Antiquity, a sort of habit of coarse stuff, 
formerly in use among the Jews in times 
of mourning and distress. It is the same 
with what the Septuagint and Hebrew ver¬ 
sions call sackcloth. 

OIM'BRIC, pertaining to the Cimbri, the 
inhabitants of the CimbricChersonese, now 
Jutland. 

CIMME'RIAN, pertaining to the country 
of the Cimmerians, whose chief town was 
Cimmerium, at the mouth of the Pains 
Mseotis. The ancients pretended that its 
unexplored portion was involved in dark¬ 
ness; whence the phrase ‘Cimmerian 
darkness,’ to denote a deep or continual 
obscurity. The country is now called the 
Crimea. 

CIM'OLITE (from Oimolus, now Argen- 
tiera, where it abounds; and lithos, a stone : 
Or.), a species of earth, of which there are 
several varieties ; one, of a purple colour, 
is the steatite, or soap rock : and from an¬ 
other, found in the Isle of Wight, tobacco 
pipes are made. It is chiefly composed of 
alumina. 

CINCHO'NA. [See Quinine.] 

CINC'TURE (cinctura, from ctngo, I bind * 
round : Lat.), in Architecture, a ring, list, 
or orlo, at the top and bottom of a column, 
separating the shaft at one end from the 

base, and at the other from the capital.- 

Also, the cord used in the Roman Catholic 
church to tic up the alb, or linen garment, 
of the priest, &c., and fasten other por¬ 
tions of his dress. 

CINEMATICS, or KINEMATICS (kinema, 
a movement: Gr.), a branch of Geometry 
having for its subject the comparison of 
motions with each other without reference 
to their causes. 

CINERI'TIOUS (cinericius, similar to 
ashes: Lat), an appellation given to differ¬ 
ent substances, on account of their resem¬ 
bling ashes, either in colour or consistence. 

CIN'NABAR (kinnabari: Gr.), a compound 
of mercury which is either native or fac¬ 
titious. Native cinnabar, the only valuable 
ore of that metal, a sulphuret, is mode¬ 
rately compact, very heavy, and of a fine 
striated red colour, chiefly found in New 
Castile and Carniola. It is called native ver¬ 
milion, and when used by painters is ren¬ 
dered more beautiful by grinding with 
gum-water and a little saffron. It is found 
amorphous, or under some imitative form, 





























139 


Httcran) Crns'ury. 


[circle 






and crystallized. Factitious cinnabar, the 
bisulphuret of mercury, is purified by sub¬ 
limation, and thus rendered of a fine red 
colour. 

CIN'NAMON ( kinamon: Ileb.), a fragrant 
spice, the bark of the Cinnamomum Zeylani- 
cum, a Ceylon tree, belonging to the nat. 
ord. Lauracece, -which yields, by distillation, 
an extremely pungent and volatile oil. 
There is an inferior and insipid kind, often 
found in commerce; but the true cinnamon 
is a most grateful aromatic, and one of the 
best cordial carminative spices. The leaves 
resemble those of the olive, and the fruit 
has neither the smell nor taste of the bark; 
both yield an essential oil. 

CINQUECEN'TO ( Ital.) , in the Pine Arts, 
an expression applied to architectural 
■works, carvings, &c., executed in Italy in 
the 15th century, or afterwards in imitation 
of them. The chief architects of that time 
were Brunelleschi and Bramante ; Michael 
Angelo, Sansovino, and Palladio, adopted 
the same style, and are classed with the 
cinquecentists. The words cinque cento 
literally mean five hundred: they are an 
abridgement of the Italian phrase for one 
thousand five hundred. 

CINQ'UEFOIL (cinq, five; and fcuille, a 
leaf: Fr.), five-leaved clover, a leguminous 
perennial. This plant is sometimes borne in 
coats of arms.-In Architecture, an orna¬ 

mental foliation used in arches, the tracery 
of windows, panellings, &c. It is formed 
by projecting points, or cusps: so arranged 
that the intervals between them resemble 
five leaves. 

CINQUE-PORTS (five harbours: Fr.), the 
five ancient ports on the east coast of Eng¬ 
land, opposite to Prance: namely, Dover, 
Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich, 
to which were afterwards added, as appen¬ 
dages, Winchelsea, Seaford, and Rye. As 
places where strength and vigilance were 
necessary, and whence ships might put to 
sea in cases of sudden emergency, they for¬ 
merly received considerable attention from 
government. They have several privileges, 
and are within the jurisdiction of the 
Constable of Dover Castle, who is called 
Warden of the Cinque-Ports. Until the 
time of Henry VIII. the crown seems to 
nave had no permanent navy; the Cinque- 
Ports having always furnished nearly the 
whole of the shipping required for the pur¬ 
poses of the state. The jurisdiction of the 
Cinque-Ports extends along the coast con¬ 
tinuously from Birchington, which is to 
the north-east of Margate, to Seaford in 
Sussex; and each of them includes one or 
more ports or towns, some of which are cor¬ 
porate, and others not. 

! CI'PHEli, or CY'PHER ( saphar , to num¬ 
ber: Ileb.), one of the Arabic characters 
used in computation, formed thus, 0. A 
cipher standing by itself signifies nothing; 
but when placed at the right-hand side of a 
digit in the integers place, it increases the 
value of the digit tenfold; thus 500 is ten 
times greater than 50. But, placed at the 
left-hand side of a digit in the decimal's 
place, it decreases its value tenfold : thus, 

*005 is ten times less than - 05.- Cipher, a 

secret or disguised manner of writing; in 


which certain characters arbitrarily in¬ 
vented and agreed on by two or more per¬ 
sons are made to stand for letters or words. 
It was not unknown to the ancients : for 
we learn from Suetonius, that when Julius 
Caesar wrote to Cicero, and other friends, 
regarding his domestic affairs, he used a 
kind of cipher. 

CIP'OLIN( cipolla , an onion: Ital.), a green 
marble containing white zones, something j 
like those in the section of an onion. 

CIP'PUS (Lat.), in Antiquity, a low column 
either round or rectangular, erected on the 
high roads or in other places, to show the 
way to travellers, to serve as a boundary 
mark, or as a monument over a grave. In 
the latter case the letters STTL were fre¬ 
quently cut upon it, signifying Sit tibi terra 
Icevis, ‘may the earth be light upon thee.’ 
Examples of cippi maybe seen in the British 
Museum, and other collections of anti¬ 
quities. 

CIRCE'AN, pertaining to Circe, the 
fabled daughter of Sol and Perseus, who 
was supposed to possess a knowledge of 
magic and venomous herbs, which enabled 
her to charm and fascinate. Ulysses, ac¬ 
cording to Homer, was detained a whole 
year by Circe on her island. 

CIRCEN'SIAN GAMES (Circenses ludi), 
a general term, under which were compre¬ 
hended all combats exhibited in the Roman 
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games 
in Greece. Most of the feats of the Romans 
were accompanied with Circensian games : 
and the magistrates and other officers of 
the republic frequently presented the people 
with them, in order to gain their favour; 
but the great games were held for five days, 
commencing on the 15th of September. 

CIR'CINATE (circino, I make round: 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet applied to plants 
whose leaves are rolled in, spirally, and 
downwards, the tip occupying the centre, 
as in ferns. 

CIR'CLE ( circuhis : Lat.), in Geometry, a 
plane figure bounded by a curved line, 
which is called its circumference, and is 
everywhere equally distant from a point 
within, called its centre; also, the circum¬ 
ference or periphery itself. A circle is de¬ 
scribed with a pair of compasses, by fixing 
one foot in the centre and turning the other 
round to trace out the curved line. The 
circumference of every circle is supposed j 
to be divided into 360 equal parts, which 
are called degrees, and are marked 0 ; and ! 
each degree into 60 minutes, marked '. 
The rectification of the circle, or the deter¬ 
mination of the ratio of the circumference 
to the diameter, is a problem which has 
exercised ignorance in all ages. In a rough 
way, the diameter maybe considered as onc- 
third of the circumference. But more ac¬ 
curately, and in ordinary measurements, it 
may be assumed to have the ratio of 113 to 
355; that is, to find the circumference mul¬ 
tiply the diameter by 355, and divide the 
result by 113. These numbers are easily re¬ 
membered, since they are the threeflrstodd 
numbers repeated twice, 113 355. The areas 
of circles are as the squares of their diame¬ 
ters. Thus the areas of two circles, one two 
feet in diameter and the other three, are as 







































circuits] Ojc ^ctcuttftc antf ho 

4 is to 9 ; 4 and 9 being the squares of 2 and 3. 

-Circles op Latitude are great circles 

perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, 
passing through its poles, and through the 

different stars and planets.- Circles op 

Longitude are lesser circles parallel to the 
ecliptic, and diminishing as they recede 

from it.- Diurnal Circles are circles 

apparently described by the several stars 
and othqr points in the heavens during 

the rotation of the earth on its axis.-- 

Horary Circles, in Dialling, are the lines 
■which show the hour on dials. 

CIR'CUITS ( circuitus , a going round : 
Lat.), certain districts or divisions of the 
kingdom, in which the judges hold courts 
and administer justice, usually during the 
vacations after Hilary and Trinity terms. 
The six jurisdictions into which England is 
divided by the judges are called the Home, 
Norfolk, Midland, Oxford, Western, and 
Northern circuits. Wales is divided into 
North and South circuits; and Scotland into 
South, West, and North. 

CIRCULA'TION ( circulatio , from circulor, 

I go round : Lat.), in Anatomy, the natural 
motion of the blood in a living animal, by 
which it proceeds from the heart to all parts 
of the body by the arteries, and returns to 
the heart by the veins. The circulation of 
the blood is performed in the following 
manner. It is returned to the right auricle 
of the heart, by the descending and ascend¬ 
ing vena cava, which, when distended, con¬ 
tracts and sends it into the right ventricle ; 
from the right ventricle it is propelled 
through the pulmonary artery, to circulate 
through and undergo a change in the lungs, 
being prevented from returning into the 
right auricle by the closing of valves. 
Having Undergone this change in the lungs, 
it is brought to. the left auricle of the heart 
by the four pulmonary veins, and thence is 
evacuated into the left ventricle. The left 
ventricle, after having been distended, con¬ 
tracts, and throws the blood through the 
aorta to every part of the body, by the 
arteries, to be returned by the veins into 
the vena cava. It is prevented from pass¬ 
ing back from the left ventricle into the 
auricle by a valvular apparatus ; and the 
beginning of the pulmonary artery and 
aorta is also furnished with similar organs 
which prevent its returning into the ven¬ 
tricles. [See Auricle.] 

CIR'CULUS (Lat.), in Anatomy, any round 
or annular part of the body : as the circulus 
oculi, the orb.of the eye. 

CIRCUMAM'BIENT ( circum , about; and 
ambio, I encompass : Lat.), an epithet given 
to anything that surrounds or encompasses 
another on all sides: it is chiefly used in 
speaking of the air. 

CIRCUMCIS'ION ( circumcisio, from cir- 
cumcido, I cut round : Lat.), a ceremony in 
the Jewish and Mahometan religions, per¬ 
formed by cutting off the prepuce, or fore¬ 
skin. The time for performing this rite, 
according to the Judaical law, was the 
eighth day, that is, six full days after the 

1 child was born. The Jews distinguished 
i their proselytes into two sorts, according 
as they had been circumcised or not: those 
i who submitted to this rite were looked 

1 

upon as children of Abraham, and obliged 
to keep the laws of Moses ; the uncircum¬ 
cised were only bound to observe the pre¬ 
cepts of Noah, and were called Noachidce. 
Circumcision was practised very generally 
in ancient times by the eastern nations; 
but not perhaps as a religious ceremony. 

It is enforced by the Koran on all the 
disciples of Mahomet. 

CIRCUMFERE'NTOR (circumfero, I carry 
round : Lat.), a mathematical instrument 
used by land-surveyors for taking angles 
by the magnetic needle. It consists of a 
graduated brass circle, with an index, all of 
one piece, and a magnetic needle, suspended 
above the centre of the circle. The index 
is first directed to one object, and the angle 
which it makes with the magnetic meridian 
is noted : it is then directed to the second 
object, and the angle it makes with the 
same meridian is also noted. The sum or 
difference of these angles gives the angle 
between the objects. The circumferentor is 
much used in surveying in and about wood¬ 
lands, commons, harbours, sea-coasts, and 
in the working of coal-mines, &c., where 
great accuracy is not necessary. 

GIR'CUMFLEX ( circumflexus, from cir- 
cumflecto, I bend : Lat.), in Grammar, an ac¬ 
cent said to be a combination of the grave 
and acute, as used by the French and the 
ancient Greeks : it lengthens the syllable, 
and is generally employed where a contrac¬ 
tion has taken place, or to distinguish one 
word from another which is spelt in the 
same way. 

CIRCUMGYRA'TION ( circum, around ; 
and gyrus, a circle : Lat.), in Anatomy, the 
turning a limb round in the socket. 

CIRCUMLOCU'TION ( circumlocutio, from 
circumloquor, I use a periphrasis : Lat.), a 
periphrastical method of expressing one’s 
thoughts, or the saying in many words that 
which might have been said in few. 

CIRCUMPO'LAR ( circum, around ; and 
polus, the pole : Lat.), an appellation given * 
to those stars which, from their vicinity to 
the pole, seem to revolve round it without 
setting. 

CIRCUMSTAN'TIAL EV'IDENCE (cir- 
cumstantia, a circumstance : Lat.), in Law, 
indirect and inferential evidence. Its value 
varies from absolute proof to a case of 
vague conjecture. 

CIRCUMVALLA'TION ( circumvallo, I sur¬ 
round with a rampart: Lat.), or Line oe 
Circumvallation, in the art of War, is a 
trench bordered with a parapet, thrown up 
round the besiegers’ camp, or a besieged 
city. It is composed of earth dug from the 
ditch, and is rendered more effective by 
sharp stakes planted in it. 

Cllt'CUS (Lat.; from kirkos, a circle: 
Gr.), in Antiquity, a long narrow building, 
rounded at the ends, its length being gene¬ 
rally four times its breadth. It was divided 
down the centre by an ornamental barrier, 
called the spina, and was used by the 
Romans for chariot races, &c. : the Circus 
Maximus, at Rome, was nearly a mile in 

circumference.-In modern times, th6 

word is applied to designate u,-circular en¬ 
closure for the exhibition of feats of horse¬ 
manship, and is often termed a hippodrome. 



























141 


Htteravj) Cwatfurji. [crm 


CIR'RI ( cirrus , a tendril: Lat.), in Botany, 
the fine strings or thread-like filaments, by 
which some plants fasten themselves to 
walls, trees, &c., such as those of the vine 
and passion-flower.- Cirri, in Ichthyo¬ 

logy. certain soft appendages, not unlike 
little worms, hanging from the under jaws 
or mouths of some Ashes, and commonly 
called beards. Amongst fresh-water fishes, 
the barbel and gudgeon—amongst marine 

fishes, the cod and haddock, have cirri_ 

Cirri, in Meteorology, light thin clouds at 
a considerable elevation in the air: they 
are often curved, and present an appear¬ 
ance of fibres like a lock of hair. 

CIRRIF'EROUS ( cirrus , a tendril; and 
fero, I bear: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for 
a plant bearing tendrils. 

OIRRI'PEDIA, CIRRI'PEDES (cirrus, a 
tendril; pedes, feet: Lat.), a class of in¬ 
vertebrate animals, allied in structure to 
the crustaceans. [See Barnacles.] 

CISAL'PINE (cisalpinus: from cis, on 
this side; and Alpes, the Alps: Lat.), on 
this side the Alps, as regards Rome. It 
must be observed, however, that what was 
Cisalpine with respect to the Romans is 
Transalpine with reference to us. 

CIS'PADANE (cispadanus; from cis, on 
this side; and Padus, the Po : Lat.), on this 
side the river Po, with regard to Rome— 
that is, on the south side. 

CISTER'CIANS ( Citeaux, near Dijon, in 
France), in Church History, a religious 
order founded in the 11th century by St. 
Robert, a Benedictine. 

CIS'TUS ( cista, a chest: Lat.), from the 
seeds being enclosed in a capsule), in Bo¬ 
tany, a genus of plants, nat. order Cistacece, 
including the rock rose. Many of the 
species are beautiful evergreen flowering 
shrubs, and most of them natives of the 
southern parts of Europe. 

CITA'TION ( cito, I summon: Lat.), in 
Ecclesiastical Courts, the same with sum¬ 
mons in Civil Courts.-In the Civil Law, 

reference to an authority or precedent in 
the course of pleading is termed a citation: 
and hence the same term is applied to a 
quotation of some law, authority, or passage 
from a book. 

CITH'ERN (same deriv.), an ancient 
stringed instrument, supposed to bear a re¬ 
semblance to the guitar. 

CIT'RATE ( citreum, the citron : Lat.), in 
Chemistry, a neutral salt, formed by the 
union of citric acid with a base. 

CIT'RIC ACID (same deriv.), in Chemistry, 
an acid which is found in the juices of 
lemons and limes, and gives them a sour 
taste. It is a compound of carbon, hydro¬ 
gen, and oxygen. The crystallized form of 
the acid contains water. This is one of 
the acids employed to make effervescing 
draughts. 

CIT'RINE (same deriv.), a species of 
crystal, of a beautiful yellow colour. It is 
found in columns, which terminate in an 
hexangular pyramid. 

CIT'RON (same deriv.), the fruit of the 
citron-tree (the Citrus medica of botanists), 
which has an upright smooth stem, rising 
from five to fifteen feet, with a branching 
head, and large oval spear-shaped leaves. 


The tree is a native of Upper Asia, from 
whence it was brought into Greece, and 
afterwards transplanted into Italy. The 
citron is cultivated on account of its rind, 

which is candied or otherwise preserved_ 

Citron, a species of melon, used in America, 
for making a preserve, which resembles j 
the ordinary preserved citron of Europe. 

CITY (tilt: Fr.). The word signifies in 
England a town which is or has been the 
seat of a bishop, or the capital of his see. It 
differs from a borough, merely in being of j 
superior dignity. Some cities and a few 
boroughs, are counties in themselves. War 
having rendered it requisite that cities 
should be defensible posts, the smallness of 
the space they occupied became a conside¬ 
ration of importance. Their inhabitants, 
therefore, were obliged to crowd themselves 
together as much as possible; and among 
the expedients resorted to was that of build¬ 
ing apartments over one another, to multi¬ 
ply the number of dwellings without increas¬ 
ing the superficial magnitude of the place. 
Trade, by collecting a multitude of persons 
on one spot, has been the origin of many 
cities. They usually possess, by charter, a 
variety of peculiar privileges which, though 
now apparently the result of a narrow policy, 
were, in their institution, grants of free¬ 
dom at that time possessed nowhere else ; 
and by them the spell that maintained 
feudal tyranny was gradually broken. 

CIY'ET ( civette: Fr.; from zibetta, a 
scent: Arab.), a brown soft unctuous sub¬ 
stance, like musk, and resembling it in 
smell. It is contained in a bag, growing 
from the lower part of the belly of the civet- 
cat, the Viverra civetta, a carnivorous ani¬ 
mal, a native of North Africa. Civet was 
formerly in high repute for its medicinal 
qualities, but is now used only as a per¬ 
fume. 

CIVTC CROWN (corona civica), in Anti¬ 
quity, a crown or garland composed of oak- 
leaves, given by the Romans to any soldier 
who had saved the life of a citizen. Various 
marks of honour were connected with it: 
the person who received it wore it at the 
theatre, and when he entered, the audience 
rose up as a mark of respect. 

CIV'IL ( civilis, pertaining to citizens: 
Lat.), an epithet applicable to whatever 
relates to the community as a body, or to the 
policy and the government of the citizens 
and subjects of a state. It is opposed to 
criminal: thus, a civil suit is between ci¬ 
tizens alone, and not between the state and 
a citizen. It is also distinguished from ec¬ 
clesiastical, which relates to the church; 
and from military, which includes only 

matters relating to the army and navy.- 

Civil Architecture, that which is applied 
to buildings constructed for the purposes of 
civil life, in distinction from military and 

naval architecture.- Civil Death, in 

Law, that which cuts off a man from civil 
society, or its rights and benefits (thus 
banishment, outlawry, &c.), as distin¬ 
guished from natural death.- Civil Law 

is properly the peculiar law of each state, 
country, or city; but, as a general term, it 
means a body of laws which was composed 
out of the best Roman laws, and is com- 





















ciyilian] 


CTIjc Jracnttftc antt 


1411 


prised in the Institutes, Code and Digest 
of Justinian, &c., and, for the most 
part, was received and observed through¬ 
out all the Roman dominions for above 
1200 years. The civil law was formerly 
used under certain restrictions in our 
ecclesiastical courts, as also in the univer¬ 
sity courts and the court of admiralty. 

■—Civil List, the revenue appropriated 
to support the civil government, also those 
officers of the civil government who are 
paid from the public treasury. It is the 
sum granted to every British monarch, at 
the beginning of his reign, for the sup¬ 
port of his court and household, of ambassa¬ 
dors, and of the civil government in general. 
The amount of the civil list, settled ou Her 
Majesty for life, is 3S5,000i. per annum, pay¬ 
able quarterly, of which 60,000?. is assigned 
for Her Majesty’s privy purse. The sovereign 
is empowered to grant pensions, to the 
amount of 12001. per annum, to those who by 
their services or discoveries, have merited 

the gratitude of their country.- Civil 

War, a war between people of the same 

state, or citizens of the same city.- Civil 

Year, the legal year, or that form of year 
which each nation has adopted for the com¬ 
putation of time. The civil year in England 
and other countries of Europe consists of 
365 days for the common, aud 366 for leap 
year. 

CIVIL'IAN (same deriv.), a doctor or pro¬ 
fessor of the civil law ; or, in a more ex¬ 
tended sense, one who is versed in law and 
government. 

CLAIR'VOYANCE (clear sightedness : 
Fr.), a peculiar mode of sensation, or second 
sight, brought on when the patient is sup¬ 
posed to be in what is called the mesmeric 
trance, or artificial catalepsy. The reality of 
this state has been much disputed ; and it 
is certain that great imposture has been 
practised in simulation of it. 

CLAMP ( klammer , from klammem, to 
hold fast: Germ.), in general, something 
that fastens or binds; as a piece of iron 
screwed on the corners where boards meet, 

&c.-In brick-making, a pile of bricks, 

arranged for burning, in which the end of 
one is laid over another, and a space is left 

between them for the Are to ascend.-In 

ship-building, a thick plank on the inner 
part of a ship’s side, used to sustain the ends 

of the beams.-In joiner’s work, a piece of 

board fastened across the end of another. 

CLAN (claim, descendants: Gael.), a family 
or tribe, living under one chief. This ap¬ 
pears to have been the original condition 
of the savages of northern Europe. All the 
members of a clan held their lands of the 
chief, followed him to war, and were ex¬ 
pected to obey him in peace. It is probable 
that, in time, several clans united into one: 
the name of the whole henceforward being 
that of the most powerful or the most 
respected portion. 

CLAR'ENCIEUX, the second king-at- 
arms.an officer in Herald’s College. Lionel, 
third son to Edward III., having by his 
wife the honour of Clare, in the county of 
Thomond, was declared duke of Clarence. 
But this dukedom afterwards escheating to 
Edward IV., he made its herald king-at- 


arms. The office of this functionary is to 
marshal and arrange the funerals of all 
baronets, knights, and esquires on the 
south side of the Trent. 

CLAR'ENDON, Constitutions op, cer¬ 
tain ecclesiastical laws drawn up at Claren¬ 
don, near Salisbury, A.D. 1164. They were 
sixteen in number, and all of them tended 
to restrain the power of the pope and clergy. 
The prelates and barons readily assented 
to them, except Archbishop Becket, who 
opposed them at first, but was afterwards 
prevailed upon to sign them. Pope Alex¬ 
ander III., however, annulled most of them. 

CLARE-OBSCURE ( claims, clear ; aud 
obscurus, obscure: Lat.). [See Chiaro¬ 
scuro.] 

CLAR'ICHORD, or CLAV'ICHORD ( Cla¬ 
ris, a key ; and chorda, a musical string : 
Lat.), an instrument of music, in the farm 
of a spinnet. It is now out of use, all such 
instruments having been superseded by the 
pianoforte. 

CLARIFICATION ( clariflcatio: from cla¬ 
ms, clear; and facio, I make : Lat.), the 
process of clearing or fining any fluid from 
all heterogeneous matter or fmculence. It 
is often effected by involving the matters 
producing turbidity in some other, which 
causes them to be so heavy as to sink down. 
Coffee is cleared with isinglass by this 
method. It differs from filtration, which is 
merely a straining through paper, cloth, &c. 

CLAR'ION (clams, clear: Lat.), a kind of 
trumpet whose tube is narrower, and its 
tone more acute and shrill, than that of the 
common kind. 

CLASS ( classis, a division : Lat.), a term 
applied in the scientific distribution of any 
subject. Classes are natural or artificial, 
according as they are founded on natural 
relations or resemblances, or are formed 
arbitrarily. 

CLAS'SICAL ( classicus, a citizen of the 
first class : Lat.), a term signifying excellent 
or of the highest order. It is said to owei» 
origin to the division of the Roman people 
into classes, the first of which was called, by 
way of eminence, the classic. The word clas¬ 
sical is also applied to authors of standard 
authority, and particularly to the chief 
writers among the Greeks and Romans. 

CLAUSE ( clausula, from claudo, I shut: 
Lat.), in Law, an article in a contract or 
other writing: a distinct part of a contract, 
will, agreement, charter, &c_In Gram¬ 

mar, a subdivision of a sentence, in which 
the words are inseparably connected with 
each other in sense, and cannot with pro¬ 
priety be separated by a point. 

CLAUS'TRAL ( claustra, an enclosure : 
Lat.), relatiug to a cloister or religious 
house ; as a claustral prior. 

CLA'VATE ( clava , a club: Lat.), in 
Botany, an epithet for parts of plants which 
are club-shaped, or grow gradually thicker 
towards the top. 

CLAV'ICLES ( clavicula, a dim. of clavis, 
a key: Lat.), in Anatomy, two bones situ¬ 
ated transversely and a little obliquely 
opposite to each other, at the superior and 
anterior part of the thoiax, between the 
scapula or slioulder-bone, and the sternum 
or breast-bone. 
































143 


Htteravg Cvcas'ury. 


CLAY (klcy: Teut.), a species of earth 
which Is firmly coherent, weighty, compact, 
and hard when dry, hut stiff, viscid, and 
ductile to a great degree when moist: 
smooth to the touch, not easily diffusible in 
water, and when mixed with it not readily 
subsiding from it. Clays become soft by 
absorbing water, but so tenacious as to be 
capable of being moulded into any shape : 
and hence they are the materials of bricks, 
pottery-ware, &c. They consist essentially 
of alumina, with variable quantities of 
silica. 

CLE'AVAGE (kleben, to cleave : Germ.), in 
Mineralogy, a term used in relation to the 
fracture of minerals which have natural 
joints and possess a regular structure. 

CLECHE, in Heraldry, a kind of cross, 
charged with another cross of the same 
figure, but of the colour of the field. 

CLEDGE, in Mining, a thin stratum of 
clay, or fuller’s earth. 

CLEF, or CLIFF {clef, a key : Fr.), a cha¬ 
racter, in Music, placed in the beginning of 
a stave, to determine the degree of eleva¬ 
tion occupied by that stave in the general 
claviary or system, and to point out the 
name of the notes which are in the line of 
that clef. 

CLE'MATIS (Gr.,from klSma, a vine twig, 
because it climbs trees with its slender 
twigs), a genus of climbing shrubs, nat. ord. 
Itanunculacece, including Virgin's Bower and 
Traveller's Joy, the latter a wild plant in 
English hedges, the Clematis Vitalba of 
botanists. 

CLEPSAM'MIA (klepto, I steal; and psam- 
mos, sand : Gr.), an ancient instrument for 
measuring time by sand, like an hour-glass: 
it obtained its name from the stealthy mo¬ 
tion of the sand. 

CLEPSY'DIt A {Jclepsudra: from klepto, I 
steal; and hudor, water: Gr.), a Roman and 
Grecian time-piece, or water-clock: an in¬ 
strument to measure time by the fall of a 
certain quantity of water. [See Clep- 

SAitMIA.) 

CLERE'STORY, a row of windows in a 
Gothic church above the arches of the nave 
and choir. 

CLER'GY {Jcleros, literally an inheritance : 
Gr., because clerics were supposed to take 
the ‘portion of the Lord’as their inheri¬ 
tance), a general name given to the body 
of ecclesiastics of the Christian church, in 
distinction from the laity. Ethelwulf, in 
Sob, gave the Anglo-Saxon priests a tithe of 
all the goods, and a tenth of all the lands in 
England, free from all secular services, 
taxes, &c. The charter in which this was 
granted to them was confirmed by several 
of liis successors; .and 'William the Con¬ 
queror, finding the bishoprics so rich, made 
them baronies, each of which contained at 
least thirteen knights’ fees. 

CLERK ( klerikos, from same deriv.), a 
word originally used to denote a learned 
man, or man of letters. The term after¬ 
wards came to be appropriated to ecclesias¬ 
tics. In legal documents the clergymen of 
the Church of England are styled clerks to 
this day. 

j CLEW'-LINES, and CLEW'-GARKETS, 
in Marine language, a sort Df tackle fastened 


[clinometer 


to the clews of the sails, to truss them up 
to the yard. 

CL I'ENT ( cliens, Lat.), a person who seeks 
advice of a lawyer, or commits his cause to 
the management of one, either in prose¬ 
cuting a claim, or defending a suit in a 

court of justice.-Among the Romans, a 

citizen who put himself under the protec¬ 
tion of a man of distinction and influence 
called his patron. 

CLIMAC'TERIC (klimalderikos, from kli- 
max, a ladder: Gr.), in Astrology, a critical 
year or period in a person’s life. The super¬ 
stitious distinction of years is said to have 
originated in the doctrines of Pythagoras. 
According to some, every seventh year is 
climacterical ;• but others allow only those 
years produced by multiplying 7 by the odd 
numbers 3, 5, 7, 9, to be such; for these, 
they say, bring with them some remarkable 
change with respect to health, life, or for¬ 
tune : the grand climacteric is the sixty- 
third year. 

CLPMATE (Jdima, the slope of the earth 
from the equator towards the pole; Gr.), 
in a popular sense the term climate is given 
to any country or region differing from 
another in the temperature of the air, or 
with respect to the seasons, without any 
regard to the length of the days, or to geo¬ 
graphical position. Thus we say a warm 
or cold climate, a genial climate, &c. Cli¬ 
mate depends chiefly on distance from the 
equator, and height above the level of the 
sea: but the effect of these is greatly modi¬ 
fied by other circumstances, such as the 
configuration and extent of the country, its 
inclination and exposure, the direction of 
the chains of mountains by which it is in¬ 
tersected, or which are in its neighbour¬ 
hood, the nature of its soil with reference 
to radiation and evaporation, its distance 
from the sea, the action of winds having 
the temperature of different latitudes, the 
quantity of forest land, and the degree of i 
cultivation. The diminution of forest and 
increase of tillage have, since the time of 
the ancient Romans, improved the climate 
in the neighbourhood of the Rhine, which 
is not now, as formerly, intensely frozen 
during winter. 

CLI'MAX (klimax, a ladder: Gr.), a figure 
in Rhetoric, consisting of an assemblage of 
particulars, rising, as it were, step by step. 
The word is sometimes erroneously em¬ 
ployed instead of acme, the highest step of 
the climax. An anticlimax is a descent. 
For an accidental example, see the article 
Elys i ax Fields. 

CLIN'ICAL ( klinikos, from kline, a couch : 
Gb\),in its literal sense, anything pertaining 
to a bed. Thus, a clinical lecture is a dis¬ 
course from notes taken at the bedside of a 
patient by a physician, with a view to prac¬ 
tical instruction in the healing art. Clinical 
medicine is the practice of medicine on’those 
in hospital or in bed. And the term clinic 
convert was applied by the ancient eccle¬ 
siastical historians to one who received 
baptism on his death-bed. 

CLINOM'ETER {kline, a bed; metron, a 
measure: Gr.), an instrument employed by 
geologists and miners for ascertaining the 
strike and angle of dip of stratified rocks. 























cloaca] &Ijc J?rmtttftc nntf 144 


CLOA'CA (a common sewer: Lat.), the 
sewer of ancient Rome. It was constructed 
before the establishment of the republic, of 
immense blocks of stone, in such a solid 
manner, that it remains to the present day, 
and continues to fulfil the purpose for which 
it was intended. It was so spacious that a 
wagon loaded with hay might pass through 

it.-This name is applied also to the ex- 

crementitious cavity, in birds, &c. 

CLOCK ( cloche, a bell: Fr.), a machine for 
measuring time. Its invention has been 
attributed to Paciflcus, archdeacon of 
Verona, in the 9th century; and even to 
Boethius, in the early part of the 6th. The 
first clock made in England was construct¬ 
ed about the year 1288, and remained until 
the time of Elizabeth. The most ancient 
clocks, of which we have any distinct ac¬ 
count, were that erected in a tower of the 
palace of Charles V. of France, about the 
year 1364, and that made at Strasburg about 
the year 1370. In the following century 
public clocks became very common in 
Europe. The first method used for regu¬ 
lating clocks was by a fly-wheel; but this, 
being affected by the variable resistance of 
the air, acted very imperfectly. The great 
improvement in clockmaking was the appli¬ 
cation of the pendulum in the 17th century; 
but it is uncertain by "whom it was first em¬ 
ployed. Some attribute it to Galileo, who 
first announced its isochronism; and others 
to Huygens, who first explained its prin¬ 
ciple. The compensation pendulum was in¬ 
vented by Hooke in 1715; and the method 
of compensation by the unequal expansion 
of different metals by Graham. A clock J 
consists of wheels moved by weights, and 
is so constructed that, by a uniform vibra- [ 
tion of a pendulum, the hours, minutes, 
and seconds are measured with great exact¬ 
ness ; and it indicates the hour, not only by 
a dial, but by the stroke of a hammer on a 
bell. Sometimes, also, it strikes the half- 
hours and quarters. The clock measures 24 
mean hours, but the solar day is of various 
lengths, according to the situation of the 
earth in its orbit, and to the declination 
of the sun. Hence the clock is sometimes 
a few minutes faster or slower than the 
sun. 

CLOIS'TER ( clottre; Fr.; from claustrum, 
an enclosure: Lat.), part of a regular mo¬ 
nastery, consisting of an arcade or colon¬ 
nade, surrounding an open court. It served 
for exercise in wet weather, and sometimes 
for the transcription of books, &c. The 
word is used also to signify the convent 
itself. In a general sense, cloisters mean 
covered passages, such as were formerly 
attached to religious houses. 

CLOTH ( cloeth: Ang. Sax.), any kind of 
stuff that is woven or manufactured in the 
loom, whether made of wool, hemp, flax, or 
cotton. 

CLOTHING. It has been very justly said 
thatnothing is more necessary to a comfort¬ 
able state of existence than that the body 
should be kept in nearly a uniform tempera¬ 
ture. The chief end proposed by clothing 
ought to be protection from the cold; and it 
never can be too deeply impressed on the 
mind (especially of those who have the care 


of children) that a degree of cold amounting 
to shivering cannot be felt under any cir¬ 
cumstances without injury to the health, 
and that the strongest constitution cannot 
resist the benumbing influence of a sensa 
tion of cold constantly present, even though 
it be so moderate as not to occasion imme¬ 
diate complaint, or to induce the sufferer to 
seek protection from it. Such a degree of 
cold often lays the foundation of the whole 
host of chronic diseases, foremost amongst 
which are found scrofula and consumption; 
and persons engaged in sedentary employ¬ 
ments must be almost constantly exposed to 
it, unless the apartment in which they work 
is heated to a degree that subjects them, on 
leaving it, to all the dangers of a sudden 
transition, as it were, from summer to 
winter. The inactivity to which they are 
condemned, by weakening the body, ren¬ 
ders it incapable of maintaining the degree 
of warmth necessary to comfort, without 
additional clothing or fire. To heat the air 
of an apartment much above the ordinary 
temperature of the atmosphere, we must 
shut out the external air; and the air within 
becoming extremely rarefied and dry, it is 
doubly dangerous to pass from it to the cold, 
raw external air. But in leaving a mode¬ 
rately warm room, if properly clothed, 
the change is not felt; and the full advan¬ 
tage of exercise is derived from any oppor¬ 
tunity of taking it that may occur. The only 
kind of dress that can give the protection 
required by the changes of temperature to 
which high northern climates are liable, is 
woollen; and those who would receive the 
advantage which the wearing of it is ca¬ 
pable of affording must place it next the 
skin; for it is in this situation only that 
its health-preserving power can be felt. 
The great advantages of woollen cloth are 
briefly these the readiness with which it 
allows the escape of the matter of perspi- 
j ration through its texture; its power of 
| preserving the sensation of warmth to the 
| skin under all circumstances, from the 
slowness with which it conducts heat; and 
j the softness, lightness, and pliancy of its 
texture. Cotton cloth must be esteemed the 
next test material of which clothing can be 
made ; but linen is the worst of all the sub¬ 
stances in use. 

CLOUD, a collection of vapour suspended 
iu the atmosphere ; a congeries of watery 
particles, arising in the first instance by 
evaporation from the land and seas, and 
afterwards condensed into 3 , visible shape. 
Clouds are of various kinds, according to 
their peculiar form, or the quantity of elec¬ 
tric fluid they contain. Massive round 
clouds, increasing upwards from a hori¬ 
zontal base, are termed cumulus ( cumulo, I 
heap up; Lat.); horizontal layers, which 
include fogs and mists, are termed stratus 
(stratus, scattered : Lat.) ; and fibres or curl¬ 
ing streaks, which diverge in all directions, 
are termed cirrus (cirrus, a lock of hair: 
Lat.). From these are formed four other 
varieties, the Cirro-cumulus, the Cirro- 
stratus, the Cumulo-stratus, and the Oil- 
mulo-cirrostratus, or nimbus ( nimbus, a 
sudden shower : Lat ), into which the others 
resolve themselves when rain falls. The 





























145 ilttcrarji Crca^ury. [cobalt 

compound names of these clouds suffi¬ 
ciently indicate their nature. It is pro¬ 
bable that, when the watery vapour is 
separated by decreased temperature from 

1 the air in which it is dissolved, it becomes 
highly electrical, in accordance with one 
of the electrical laws ; and that this state 
of electricity, by its repulsive tendency, 
keeps the aqueous particles from uniting 
suddenly and forming heavy l'ain. When 
this electricity is gradually dissipated, or 
suddenly during thunderstorms, rain falls. 
Clouds are likewise screens interposed be¬ 
tween the earth and the scorching rays of 
the sun, which are often so powerful as to 
destroy the more tender vegetables. 

CLOVE, a very pungent aromatic Indian 
spice; the unexpanded flower-bud of the 
Caryophyllus aromaticus, a tree twenty feet 
high, belonging to the myrtle order, and 
growing in the Moluccas, 

CLO'VER, the common name of legu¬ 
minous plants belonging to the genus Tri- 
folium. They are also called trefoil. R,ed 
clover is generally cultivated for fodder, 
and for enriching land. White clover is an 
excellent food for cattle, and the bee col¬ 
lects no small amount of honey from its 
flowers. 

CLYS'TER (Muster, from kluzo, I wash: 
Gr.), in Medicine, a liquid substance in¬ 
jected into the lower intestines, usually 
for the purpose of promoting alvine dis¬ 
charges, but sometimes for the support 
and nourishment of patients who cannot 
swallow aliment. 

COACH ( coche , a caravan: Fr.), a vehicle 
of pleasure, distinguished from others, 
chiefly by being a covered box hung on 
springs. The oldest carriages were used 
by the ladies in England, and were termed 
wliirlicotes: we find that the mother of 
Richard II., who, in 1360, accompanied him 
in his flight, rode in a carriage of this sort. 

1 But coaches, properly so called, were intro- 
j duced into England from Germany, or 
France, in 1580, in the reign of Elizabeth. 
In 1601, the year before the queen’s death, 
an act was passed to prevent men from 
riding in coaches, as being effeminate: 
twenty-five years afterwards, however, 
hackney-coaches were in use. 

COAD'UNATE ( coaduno , I join together: 
Lot.), in Botany, an epithet for several 
leaves united at the base. 

COAL, a solid inflammable mineral sub¬ 
stance, capable of being used for fuel. 
There are several kinds, the principal being 
anthracite, true coal, lignite, and bitu¬ 
minous shale. Of these, true coal is the 
most abundant and most valuable. 1'here are 
many varieties of it, from steam coal, which 
approaches anthracite, to jet, which some 
consider a variety of lignite. Analysis 
shows that it is composed of carbon and hy¬ 
drogen, with oxygen, nitrogen, and sul¬ 
phur, combined with an earthy basis, which, 
when burnt, forms ash. Steam coal has 
little hydrogen, and it is useless for gas¬ 
making. The coals best suited for this are 
deficient in heating power : such is Cannel 
coal. Coal is found in the Liassic and 
Oolitic members of the secondary forma¬ 
tion, but chiefly in the carboniferous beds 

which derive their name from this circum¬ 
stance. These belong to the Primary or 
Palasozoic formation. There are very large 
deposits of it in these beds in England, 
Wales, and Scotland ; in Belgium, Prussia, 
France, and Spain. The coal fields of North 
America are of enormous extent. It has 
been ascertained, by the aid of the micro¬ 
scope, that coal consists almost entirely of 
vegetable remains, and from the class of 
plants discovered, it has been inferred that 
they grew in a v'arm damp climate. The 
manner in which these deposits were 
brought together and fossilised, has been 
much discussed by geologists, but the diffi¬ 
culties of the question are not yet cleared 
away. The total area of the English and 
Welsh coal fields is estimated at 3,000 square 
miles, and the Scotch coal fields comprise a 
further area of 1,600 square mjles. Not¬ 
withstanding this extent, such is the large 
quantity excavated, and so great is the 
waste, that apprehensions are entertained 
of their being worked out within a short 
period. In 1862, there were 3,088 collieries 
in Great Britain, and in the preceding year 
about 235,600 colliers were employed. The 
quantity of coals produced and sold in 1862 
amounted to 84,500,000 tons, and the coals 
exported the same year amounted to 
7,670,000 tons. The most remarkable mines 
in our island are those of Whitehaven and 
Newcastle. The former are worked under 
the sea; the latter have been excavated to 
the depth of 1,500 feet. 

COAT, in Anatomy, the membranous co¬ 
ver of any part of the body: as the coats 

of the eye, the stomach, &c.- Coat of 

Arms, in the modern acceptation, a device, 
or assemblage of devices, supposed to be 
painted on a shield, which, in the language 

of heraldry, is called the field. - Coat of 

Mail, armour made in the form of a shirt, 
and consisting of a kind of network of 
iron rings. 

COATI-MONDI, a carnivorous animal, 
with a long snout, belonging to the bear 
family, and nearly allied to the racoon. It 
is a native of Brazil and Central America, 
and is called by naturalists Nasua rufa. 

COAT'ING, in Chemistry, what is used for 
the purpose of defending certain vessels 
from the immediate action of fire; thus, 
the inside of some furnaces is covered with 
fire-clay, &c. 

COBALT' (kobold, a devil: Germ.), a metal 
thus named by the miners, before its value 
was known, and when it was hated, on ac¬ 
count of its presence being considered un¬ 
favourable to that of other metals. It is of 
a greyish-white or reddish-grey colour, is 
verv brittle, and easily reducible to powder. 

It is strongly magnetic, and has a specific 
gravity of 8‘5. It requires a high tempera¬ 
ture to melt it. Its equivalent is 29'5. It is 
never found in a pure state, but usually as a 
metallic oxide, combined with a large quan¬ 
tity of arsenic. The impure oxide of cobalt 
is called zaffer; but when fused with three 
parts of silicious sand and an alkaline flux, 
it is converted into a blue glass,called smalt. 
This metal is used principally to give a per¬ 
manent blue colour to glass, and enamels. 
The chloride of cobalt in solution affords a 

L 

















blue sympathetic ink. Characters written 
with this ink are invisible until exposed to 
heat. If the paper is laid aside for some 

time, the writing will again disappear..- 

Cobalt Bloom, acicular arseniate of cohalt. 

_Cobalt Crijst, earthy arseniate of 

cobalt. . , , , 

CO'BRA DE CAP'ELLA (the hooded 
cobra: Port.), the Naja tripudians of natu¬ 
ralists, a very venomous snake of India, 
which, when irritated, puffs out its neck in 
the form of a hood, and this is marked with 
a streak resembling a pmr of spectacles. 

CO'CA, the native name of a tree (the 
Erythroxylon coca of botanists), the leaves 
of which when dried, powdered, and mixed 
with chalk or the ashes of other leaves, are 
chewed by the inhabitants of Peru and 
parts of Brazil, upon whose nervous system 
they produce such a stimulating effect that 
they are rendered capable of continued 
laborious work, without taking food, to an 
extraordinary degree. 

COC'COLITE ( kokkos , a kernel; and lithos, 
a stone: Or.), in Mineralogy, a variety of 
ciugite or pyroxene. It is of a greenish 
hue, and is composed of granular concre¬ 
tions. 

COC'CTJLUS IN'DICTJS, an Indian berry, 
the fruit of a climbing shrub belonging to 
the genus Anamirta, nat. ord. Menisperma- 
cece. A preparation of it is said to be em¬ 
ployed in communicating a narcotic quality 
to intoxicating drinks. A few handfuls of 
it, ground to a coarse powder, and thrown 
into a fish pond, will in a few hours bring 
the fish to the surface in a poisoned or 
Intoxicated state; but putting them into 
fresh water recovers them. A poisonous 
principle called picrotoxine has been ex¬ 
tracted from cocculus indicus. 

COO'CUS ( lcolckos , the kermes berry: Gr.— 
what was considered by the ancients a berry, 
is now known to be an insect), in Entomo¬ 
logy, a genus of homoptcrous insects, of 
which only the male has wings. One of the 
species affords the cochineal of commerce. 
Other species infest valuable plants to such 
an extent, forming what gardeners call 
scale, that great injury is done to them. 
[See Cochineal and Kermes.] 

COC'CYX (GV.), the lowest portion of the 
vertebral column, which in man consists of 
four small bones soldered together. They 
form the rudiments of a tail. The upper 
end joins the sacrum. [See Yertebrje.] 

CO'CHINEAL ( cochenille: Fr., from coccl- 
neus, of a scarlet colour: Lat.), the Coccus 
Cacti of entomologists, an insect which in 
hot countries feeds upon various species of 
cactus. It has a plump wrinkled body, and 
somewhat resembles a seed cut in two. 
The female, after selecting a spot on a juicy 
leaf, thrusts in its beak and there remains 
sucking for the remainder of its life. Plan¬ 
tations of cactus are made for them, to 
which the insects are carefully removed 
when young. When fully grown they are 
brushed off, and killed either in a hot oven 
or by boiling water. Cochineal is employed 
for dyeing scarlet and crimson, and car¬ 
mines and lakes are prepared from it. It 
takes about 70,000 insects to make up a 
pound weight. In some years 1400 tons of 


cochineal have been imported; but the de¬ 
mand lias much lessened of late, in conse¬ 
quence of the introduction of the dyes of 
aniline. . 

COCII'LEA ( kochlias, a snail: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, a portion of the internal ear; so 
called from its shape in mammals, being 
similar to that of a snail’s shell. 

COCHLEA'RIA ( cochleare , a spoon : Lat., 
from their leaves being hollowed out, 'ike 
the bowl of a spoon), in Botany, a genus 6f 
plants, nat. ord. Cruciferce. The species 
chiefly consist of various kinds of scurvy 
grass. 

COCKATOO'S, a tribe of parrots forming 
the Cacatuince of ornithologists. They pos¬ 
sess beaks that arc much curved, and crests 
on the head which they can elevate or de¬ 
press at pleasure. The white cockatoos, 
which are sometimes brought alive to this 
country from India and Australia, belong 
to the genus Cacatua. 

COCK-CHA'FER, known also by the name 
of May-bug, a species of coleopterous in¬ 
sect. It is the Melolontha vulgaris, and is 
remarkable for the length of time it con¬ 
tinues in the grub or larva state, as also 
for the injury it does to vegetation. It lives 
only about a week in the perfect state : but 
the grub remains in the earth for three 
years before it is transformed into the per¬ 
fect insect, and, in the mean time, is very 
destructive to the roots of plants. Each 
female produces about two hundred eggs. 

COCK'-PIT, in ships of war, an apartment 
situated near the after hatchway, under 
the low T er gun-deck, in which wounds are 
dressed. The fore cock-pit, vdien there is 
one, is a place leading to the magazine pas¬ 
sage and the store-room of the boatswain, 
gunner, and carpenter. 

COCK'-ROACH, a name given to orthop¬ 
terous insects of the genus Blatta. The B. 
orientalis is the ‘ black beetle ’ of our houses, 
an insect which is very active by night, 
when it devours whatever food may lie in 
its way: it is also very destructive to 
woollen cloths, &c. 

COCK'SWAIN (contracted into coxon), an 
officer who has charge of the boat belong¬ 
ing to a ship, and the boat’s crew. 

(JOCK'ET, a seal belonging to the cus¬ 
tom-house : likewise a scroll of parchment, 
sealed and delivered by the officers of the 
custom-house to merchants, as a proof that 
their merchandise is entered. 

COC'KLE ( coquille , a shell: Fr.), the com¬ 
mon name of marine shell-fish belonging to 
the genus Cardium, several species of which 
are known on our coasts. 

CO'COA, a palm tree, the Cocos nucifera of 
botanists. It grows in both the East and 
West Indies, is about sixty feet in height, 
and produces a fruit called the cocoa-nut. 
The shell of the latterisawoody substance; 
it contains a white fleshy kernel and a 
sweet refreshing liquor. These nuts, which 
are from three to seven inches long, hang 
in clusters on the top of the tree; their 
kernels yield a considerable quant-ty of oil, 
wdiich is now made available in the manu¬ 
facture of candles and soap ; and the fila¬ 
ments of their outer coat are made iDto 
cables. If the body of the tree be bored, 































147 


Ettcnmi Crwrftmn 


[COHORT 


there exudes from the Wound a white 
liquor called palm wine or toddy. The leaves 
are wrought into sacks, hammocks, &c. 
The Cingalese have a saying that this tree 
serves for ninety-nine known things, the 

hundredth, man is not able to discover.- 

Cocoa, more correctly Cacao, the chief in¬ 
gredient in chocolate, is obtained from a 
small.tree growing abundantly in Dcmerara 
and the region of the Amazons. This is 
the Tlieobroma cacao, which is allied to the 
baobab and silk cotton trees, nat. ord. Bytt- 
neriacece. The fruit has an oblong form, 
and is about five inches long. It grows from 
the stem and larger branches. Within a 
hard shell lie the oily seeds, nestling in 
white pulp, and these being dried, are manu¬ 
factured into chocolate. 

COCOO'N, the fibrous case which some 
caterpillars weave around themselves, when 
they assume the pupa or chrysalis form. 
The threads being unwound afford the silk 
of commerce. 

COD, or COD'-FISH (codde: Sax.), the 
English name of the Morrhua vulgaris, one 
of the most valuable.of fishes. The abdo¬ 
men is thick and prominent; the head and 
eyes are large. It has dusky fins, the dorsal 
and anal being rather large, the pectoral 
and ventral rather small. The Upper jaw is 
longest, and the lower is bearded at the tip 
by a single cirrus. It inhabits the northern 
seas, particularly the banks of Newfound¬ 
land, and sometimes attains a very large 
size. 

COD'-LIVER OIL, an oil which is ob¬ 
tained from the liver of the cod-fish, and 
has lately acquired much reputation for its 
remedial powers. It is used in the dose of 
a tablespoonful three or four times a day, 
in pulmonary phthisis, in various scrofu¬ 
lous affections, in chronic gout and rheu¬ 
matism, and in some skin diseases. 

CODE (codex, a book : Lat.), a collection 
or system of laws. The collection of laws 
and constitutions made by order of the 
Emperor Justinian is termed a code by way 

of eminence.-The Code Napoleon, or civil 

code of France, drawn up during the 
government of Napoleon, effected great 
changes in the laws of France. 

COD'ICIL ( codicillus, a dim. of codex, a 
book: Lat.), a supplement to a will, con¬ 
taining anything which the testator wishes 
to add, or any explanation, alteration, or 
revocation of what his will contains. 

COEFFI'CIENTS, in Algebra, such num¬ 
bers, or given quantities, as are put before 
letters, or unknown quantities, as multi¬ 
pliers : thus, in 3 a, & x, and c\x y, 3 is the 
coefficient of a, b of x, and cot xy. 

CCE'LIAC (Jcoilia, the belly : Gr.), an epi¬ 
thet for what pertains to the belly, or the 
intestinal canal. Thus, the cceliac artery is 
that artery which issues from the aorta 
just below the diaphragm ; the cceliac vein 
is a vein of the intestinum rectum; and 
cceliac passion is a flux or diarrhoea of undi¬ 
gested food. 

CCE'NA (Lat.), the principal meal among 
the Greeks and Romans. The time of the 
ccena, or supper, was the ninth hour, an¬ 
swering to three o’clock in the afternoon 
with us; and it usually consisted of three 


courses. A libation was made both before 
•and after it; and the evening was con¬ 
cluded with much'festivity. 

COF'FEE TREE, an evergreen shrub, 
growing in Arabia, the West Indies, and 
Ceylon. It is the Coffea Arabica of bota¬ 
nists, nat. ord. Cinchonacece. It is seldom 
more than sixteen or eighteen feet high : 
the flowers are of a pure white, and the 
berries red when ripe. The use of coffee is 
said to have been introduced into England 
in 1652. What is called Mocha coffee, from 
Arabia Felix, is accounted the best; but 
that of Java, Bourbon, and the West In¬ 
dies, is what we usually obtain, and consti¬ 
tutes an important article of commerce. 

COF'FER ( coffre: Fr.), a chest or trunk. 
—In Architecture, a square depression or 
sinking in each interval between the mo- 
dillions of the Corinthian cornice.—In 
Fortification, a trench cut in the bottom of 

a dry ditch.-In Mineralogy, a trough in 

which tin ore is broken to pieces. 

COF'FER-DAM, in Bridge-building, a 
water-tight case of piling, fixed in the bed 
of a river, for the purpose of rendering dry 
the place on which a pier is to be erected; 
and sometimes the enclosure is double, clay 
being rammed in between. When finished, 
the water is pumped out of it, and the pier 
is built up inside. 

COF'FIN, in the Veterinary art, the whole 
hoof of a norse’s foot above the coronet. 

COGNATION ( cognatio , relationship by 
birth : Lat.), in Civil Law, natural relation¬ 
ship, or that line of consanguinity which 
is derived through either males or females, 
descended from the same father ; in oppo 
sition to agnation, which is derived through 
males only. 

COG'NIZANCE ( connaissance: Fr.; from 
cognitus, known : Lat.), in Law, the hearing 
j of a thing judicially. Also, the acknowledg¬ 
ment of a fine.- Cognizance oe Pleas, 

a privilege granted by the king to a city 
J or town, to hold pleas of all contracts, 
&c. 

COGNO'MEN ( co-gnomen: Lat.), the sur¬ 
name or family name among the Romans. 
Thus, in Publius Cornelius Scipio, Publius 
is the preenomen, Cornelius the nomen, and 
Scipio the cognomen. 

COGNO'VIT (he has confessed : Lat.), in 
Law, a writing by which the defendant ad¬ 
mits that the plaintiff’s cause of actio* 
against him is just; and suffers judgment 
to be entered against him without trial. 
Cognovits must be witnessed by the de¬ 
fendant’s attorney. 

COHE'SION ( cohcereo , I adhere to: Lat), 
as distinguished from adhesion, in Natural 
Philosophy, is that species of attraction 
which, uniting the particles of homogene¬ 
ous bodies, retains them in the same mass. 
It depends on the amount of cohesion, 
whether a body shall be in«a solid, liquid, 
or gaseous state. The attraction of cohesion 
acts only at exceedingly small distances 

COHOBA'TION, in Chemistry, the opera¬ 
tion of repeatedly distilling the same liquor, 
or returning it back again upon the same 
substance, and redistilling it. 

CO'HORT ( cohors: Lat.), a military body 
among the Romans, consisting of the tenth 
























tCTjc Jrctmttftc 


148 


coif] 


of a legion, or from three to six hundred 
men. The Prcetorian cohort was a body of 
picked troops who attended the general: it 
was first formed by Scipio Africanus. The 
Prcetorian cohorts were established by Au¬ 
gustus, in imitation of the Praetorian 
cohort; and were intended to protect his 
person. They were originallylO.OOO men, hut 
Yitellius increased the number to 16,000. 

COIF ( coiffe, a hood: Fr.), the badge of 
serjeants-at-law, who are called serjeants 
of the coif, from the lawn coif they wear 
under their caps, when they are created 
serjeants. 

COIN (TV.), a piece of metal stamped with 
certain marks, and made current at a cer¬ 
tain value. Strictly speaking, coin differs 
from money, as the species differs from the 
genus. Money is any matter, whether 
metal, paper, heads, shells, &c., which has 
currency as a medium in commerce. Coin 
is a particular species always made of 
metal, and formed by a process called coin¬ 
ing. The British coinage of gold and sil¬ 
ver is wholly made at an establishment 
called the Mint, near the Tower of Loudon. 
[See Mint.] 

COINDICA'TION ( co , along with ; and 
indicatio, a pointing out: Lat.), in Medi¬ 
cine, a sign or symptom, which, with other 
signs, assists to show the nature of the 
disease, and the proper remedy. 

COIR, a fibrous material, formed from 
the husk of cocoa-nuts. It is used for 
making ropes, matting, &c. 

COL'CIIICUM {Lat.; from Colchis, in Ar¬ 
menia, where it is said to have abounded). 
Meadow Saffron, a herbaceous plant, which 
grows in various parts of Europe. It be¬ 
longs to the nat. ord. Melanthacece. Pre¬ 
parations of it are used as a remedy for 
the gout. 

COL'COTHAR. (Aral).), called also Crocus 
Martis, an impure hrownisli-red oxide of 
iron, which remains after the distillation of 
the acid from sulphate of iron, and is used 
in polishing glass and metals. The best 
sort of polishing powder, called jeiceller's 
red rouge, or plate powder, is the precipi¬ 
tated oxide of iron. 

COLD (Sax.). Great degrees of cold are 
produced by mixing together substances 
which dissolve rapidly. The reason of this 
will appear when It is recollected that in 
the conversion of solid bodies to fluids, 
caloric is always absorbed. Mixtures to 
produce artificial cold are generally made 
by mingling saltwith snow, or with diluted 
acid and powdered ice. Ice has now become 
so much in request, either as a luxury or 
as a remedy, that various machines have 
been constructed for making it. [See Ice¬ 
making Machines.] 

COLEOP'TERA ( koleos, a sheath ; and 
pteron, a wing: Gr.), in Entomology, the 
order of Beetles. 

COL'IC ( IcOlikcs, suffering in the colon: 
Gr., from the part to which the pain is 
referred), an appellation given indiscrimi¬ 
nately to almost all pains in the abdomen ; 
but it is chiefly known as that disease which 
is characterized by a spasmodic sensation in 
the intestines, bilious vomiting, and obsti¬ 
nate costiveness.- Painters’ Colic, a 


very painful and dangerous disease, arising 
from the absorption of lead into the system. 
"Without proper attention it ends in em» 
ciation, paralysis, and death. 

COLISE'IJM, an elliptical amphitheatre, 
at Rome, built by Vespasian. This unri¬ 
valled monument of ancient grandeur was 
1612 feet in circumference, contained eighty 
arcades, and would hold 100,000 spectators. 
It was decorated with statues representing 
all the provinces of the empire ; and in the 
middle stood tliatof Rome, holding a golden 
apple in her hand. Down to the thirteenth 
century, it remained almost uninjured ; af¬ 
terwards Pope Paul II. took all the stones 
from it, which were used for the construc¬ 
tion of the palace of St. Mark; and in later 
times some other palaces were erected from 
its fragments. But Benedict XVI. caused a 
cross to be erected in the centre of the 
arena, where Roman Catholic worship is oc¬ 
casionally performed; and, at present, care 
is taken not to injure its venerable ruins. 
The great object of this magnificent build¬ 
ing was to exhibit the brutal spectacles of 
the gladiators contending with wild beasts, 
&c. On the triumph of Trajan over the 
Dacians, 11,000 animals were killed in the 
amphitheatres at Rome; and 1000 gladiators 
fought during 123 days. The gladiators at 
first were malefactors who contended for 
victory and life, or captives and slaves, who 
were made to fight for their freedom : but 
after a time many lived by it as a profession; 
and these exhibitions continued, with mo¬ 
difications, for above 500 years. 

COLLAP'SE ( collapsio, from collahor, I 
shrink together: Lat.), to close by falling 
together, as the fine canals or vessels of the 
body collapse in old age, or as a balloon col¬ 
lapses when the gas escapes from it.-In 

Medicine, a sudden and great depression of 
its energy and strength. 

COL'LAll ( collare, from collum, the neck : 
Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, a chain put 
round the neck of slaves who had run away. 
-In a modern sense, it denotes an orna¬ 
ment for the neck, consisting of a chain of 
gold, frequently containing ciphers or other 
devices with a badge hanging in front, 
and worn by the knights of several military 
orders. 

COLLAT'ERAL (com, along with ; and 
lateralis, belonging to the side: LatA, in 
Genealogy, a term applied to kindred with 
reference to other kindred, when they are 
younger children, or have descended from 
younger children of the same common an¬ 
cestor ; used in opposition to lineal de¬ 
scendants.^— Collateral Security, in 
Law, security for the performance of cove¬ 
nants or the payment of money, given in 
addition to the principal security. 

COLLA'TION ( collatio, a bringing to¬ 
gether : Lat.), in the Canon Law, the pre¬ 
sentation to a benefice, by a bishop, who 
has it.in.his own gift or patronage. When 
the patron of a church is not a bishop, lie 
presents his clerk for admission, and the 
bishop institutes him ; but collation includes 
both presentation and institution.- Col¬ 

lation, in Law, the comparison of a copy 
with its original,to ascertain its conformitv 
or the report of the officer who made tllo 
















149 


Httcrary Crratfury. 


comparison. Hence, a collator is one who 
compares copies or manuscripts. And by 
collating, among printers, is meant examin¬ 
ing the whole number of sheets belonging 
to a book, to see if they are all gathered 
properly. 

COL'LECT ( collectus , from colligo, I col¬ 
lect : Lat.), a short comprehensive prayer, 
such as those appointed to be repeated 
before the epistles and gospels in the pub¬ 
lic service of the Church of England. 

CO ELECT A 'IS' E A ( collectaneus , gathered 
together; from the same: Lat.), in Litera¬ 
ture, notes, observations, or any matter col¬ 
lected from a variety of works. 

COLLECTIVE ( collectivus , gathered to¬ 
gether; from the same : Lat.), in Grammar, 
an epithet for any noun which comprehends 
many persons or things ; as a multitude, a 
company, a congregation, an army, &c. 

COL'LEGE ( collegium, from collega, a com¬ 
panion : Lat.), in its usual, though some¬ 
what limited sense, a public place endowed 
with certain revenues, where the several 
departments of learning are taught, and 
where the students reside, under a regular 
discipline. The schools in cathedrals and 
monasteries were confined chiefly to the 
teaching of grammar, and there were only 
one or two masters employed for that pur¬ 
pose : but in colleges, professors are ap¬ 
pointed to teach all the branches of science. 

-In the more extended signification of 

the word, the ancient Romans had colleges, 
which were a species of corporate body, 
as that of the augurs; and others whose 
members had no bond of union but that of a 
common occupation, as the Collegia opifi- 
cium (colleges of workmen). And, in this 
country, many corporate bodies are termed 
colleges, which have little or no reference 
to education; thus the College of Physi¬ 
cians, the College of Heralds, &c.-In the 

Academical sense, a college is a society 
established for scholastic purposes, en¬ 
dowed with revenues, and subject to a code 
of laws. When one body imparts instruc¬ 
tion in all the branches of knowledge, it is 
both a college and a university: ihus, Tri¬ 
nity College, Dublin. On the other hand, a 
number of colleges, united under the same 
discipline, constitute a university. In such 
a case, while each college is governed by 
its own superiors, there are powers which 
are wielded by the university at large. As 
the Scotch universities have not a body of 
fellows and scholars receiving stipends, 
they are not in the strict sense colleges. 
When universities were first instituted, 
the students who came to them for instruc¬ 
tion lodged where they pleased, and had 
no common bond of union, except that of 
study. Boarding houses were then esta¬ 
blished; and being ultimately endowed by 
munificent persons for the benefit of the 
students who were receiving instruction at 
the university, they became colleges. These 
consist of a head under some name, as 
provost, of a body termed fellows, who—as 
these institutions originally had reference 
to supplying the church with ministers— 
were not allowed to marry, and, lastly, of 
graduates, named scholars. Afterwards, 
members who did not share the benefit of 


[cologne 


the foundation, were allowed to reside 
within them, and were subjected to their 
rulers. Every student is under the care of 
some tutor, who is generally one of the resi¬ 
dent fellows, to whom he is assigned in 
charge. The university confers degrees, 
&c., but each college prepares its students 
to receive them ; and every member of the 
university must now belong to some col¬ 
lege. Individual colleges sometimes im¬ 
part instruction in every branch of know¬ 
ledge-some of those, for example, belong¬ 
ing to the University of Paris. But even 
there the most important are devoted to 
special subjects; as that of the Sorbonne, 
to theology, &c. The oldest colleges in Ox¬ 
ford and Cambridge are supposed to have 
been founded about the middle of the 13th 
century. 

COLLE'GIATE CHURCHES, those that, 
without being cathedrals, have, with the 
exception of the episcopacy, the dignitaries 
usually attached to such. Westminster 
Abbey is formally styled ‘the Collegiate 
Church of St Peter’s.’ 

COLLIMA'TION, LINE OP, in a tele¬ 
scope that which passes through the tube, 
and cuts both the focus of the eye-glasSand 
the centre of the object-glass. 

COLLIQ'UATIVE ( colliquesco, I become 
liquid : Lat.), an epithet indicating a morbid 
discharge of the animal fluids ; as a colliqua¬ 
tive fever, which is accompanied with pro¬ 
fuse sweating, &e. 

COLLISION ( collisio, from collido, I dash 
one thing against another: Lat.), in Me¬ 
chanics, the meeting or mutual striking of 
two or more bodies, one of which, at least, 
is in motion. 

COLLO'DION ( Jcolla, glue: Gr.), a solution 
in ether, containing a little alcohol, of 
xyloidin, a substance formed by treating 
starch, and other things of the same class, 
with nitric acid. On account of its adhe¬ 
sive properties it is employed in pharmacy, 
but its chief use is in coating plates of 
glass for photographic images. [See Photo¬ 
graphy.] 

COLLU'SION ( collusio , from colludo, I act 
in fraudulent union with : Lat.), in Law, an 
illegal compact between two or more per¬ 
sons. 

COLLYRTUM (Lat.; from kollurion: 
Gr.), in Medicine any fluid application for 
the eyes. 

COLOBO'MA ( Icoloboo, I shorten : Gr.), in 
Medicine, the growing together, or gluey 
adhesion, of the eyelids. 

COL'OCYNTH, or COLOQUIN'TIDA 
(kolon, the colon ; and kineo, I move: Gr.), 
the Bitter apple. It is the fruit of a wild 
gourd (the Citrullus Colocynthis of botan¬ 
ists), the pulp of which is light, spongy, 
and white; and is remarkable for its in¬ 
tense bitterness. Coloquintida has been 
known in medicine from the earliest times 
as one of the most powerful cathartics : it 
is sent us from Syria, particularly from 
Aleppo. 

COLOGNE-EARTH, a substance used in 
painting, of a deep brown colour, approach¬ 
ing amber. It is supposed to be a prepa¬ 
ration of the remains of wood long buried 
in the earth. 
















&[)t ^ctcnttftc antf 


150 


colon] 


CO'LON (kolon, a member of anything: 
Or.), in Anatomy, the greater or upper por¬ 
tion of the large intestine.-In Grammar, a 

point marked thus (:), and used to divide a 
sentence. 

COLONEL (Fr.), the chief commander of 
a regiment, whether infantry or cavalry. 

COLONNA'DE (Fr. ; from columna, a co¬ 
lumn : Lat.), a range of pillars running 
along or quite round a building. 

COL'ONY ( colonia , from colonus, a hus¬ 
bandman : Lat), a body of people removed 
from their mother-country to a distant 
region, where they form a settlement under 
the sanction of the home government. 

COL'OPHON (something llnislied : Lat.; 
from kolophon, the summit: Gr.), in Biblio¬ 
graphy, the name given to the postscript in 
the last sheet of au early printed work, con¬ 
taining the printer’s name, date, &c. 

COL'OPHONITE (kolophonia, resin : Gr.'}, 
in Mineralogy, a variety of garnet, of a red¬ 
dish yellow or brown colour, occurring in 
small amorphous granular masses. 

COLOPH'ONY ( kolophonia: Gr., from a city 
of that name), black resin, or turpentine 
boiled in water and dried: or the residuum 
after the distillation of oil of turpentine. 

COL'ORATURE (color at as, variegated : 
Lat.), in Music, all kinds of variations, 
trills, &c., intended to heighten the effect of 
the melody, or show the skill of the vocalist. 

COLOS'SUS ( kolossos: Gr.), a statue of 
enormous or gigantic proportions. That to 
which this name has been specially applied 
was an Apollo in brass, upwards of 100 feet 
in height, erected at Rhodes, the Avorkuian- 
sliip of Chares, who devoted himself to it 
during twelve years. It was placed at the 
entrance of the harbour, Avith the right 
foot on the land at one side, and the left 
on that at the other; and is said to liaA T e 
stood nearly fourteen centuries before the 
period in which it fell by the shock of an 
earthquake. When the Saracens became 
possessed of Rhodes, they found it in a 
prostrate state, and sold it to a Jew, by 
whom 900 camels were laden Avith its ma¬ 
terials. The largest colossus of modern 
times is that of S. Carlo Boromeo, on the 
Lago Maggiore. It is a hollow statue of 
bronze, nearly sixty feet in height. 

COL'OIJR (color: Lat.), in Physics, a pro¬ 
perty inherent in light, and not, as Avas for¬ 
merly supposed, in the coloured substance. 
It arises from only a portion of the coloured 
rays, which form white light, being trans¬ 
mitted to the eye so as to produce sensation, 
the rest being absorbed or turned in a dif¬ 
ferent direction by reflection or refraction. 
The principal colours are red, orange, yel¬ 
low, green, blue, indigo, and violet. They are 
all reducible to red, yellow, and blue : and the 
others are formed by some combinations of 
these, as green by yellow and blue, orange 
by red and yellow, &c. ; and all the colours 
admit of many shades of difference. White is 
not properly a colour, since a white body re¬ 
flects the rays of light without separating 
them ; nor black, since a black body, on the 
contrary, absorbs nearly all the rays. [See 

COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS.]-COLOURS, 

in Heraldry, the tinctures Avith Avliicli the 
field or any part of the escutcheon is distin¬ 


guished : they are red, blue, black, green, 
and purple; which the heralds call yules, 
azure, sable, vert, and purpure. Teuue and 
tawny, or sanguine, are not so common, j 
The yellow and Avhite, called or and argent, j 
are metals, not colours. The metals and 
colours are expressed in blazon by the names 
of precious stones, with reference to the I 
arms of noblemen, and by those of planets 
or stars, Avith reference to the arms of royal 

personages.- Colours, in Military affairs, 

the banners, flags, ensigns, &c., of all kinds 
borne in the army or fleet. 

COL'OURIISG, in Painting. The effect of 
a picture depends far more upon the Avay in 
Avliicli the colours are harmonized and con- ( 
trasted than on the exact imitation of the 
real colours of objects. Painters use the Avoi d 
hue Avith reference to the peculiar quality of 
a colour, distinguishing it from another co¬ 
lour throughout all shades and variations, 
as green from purple. Tint signifies the i 
degree of the intensity of hue from the 
greatest depth to the lightest wash. Tone ! 
means the degree of illumination or shade 
in Avliich the hues and tints are seen. Local 
colour is the true colour of an object Avith- 
out regard to tone or tint. Broken colours 
are hues composed of several others, so as 
to make a mixture quite distinct from the 
prismatic red, blue, and yellow, and the 
typical browns, purples, and greens. Colour¬ 
ing, says Mrs. Jameson, is generally cold 
in Poussin, delicate in Guido, Avarm in Do- 
menichino, glotving and golden in Titian, 
fervid and fiery in Giorgione, florid in 
Rubens, powerful in Rembrandt. 

COLOUR TOP, a philosophical toy in¬ 
vented by Mr. John Gorham, for the purpose 
of slioAving the effect of mingling different 
colours. This is done by giving pieces of 
coloured paper a motion of rapid rotation. 

COL'UBER (a snake : Lat.), in Zoology, 
a genus of snakes Avhich includes the com¬ 
mon or ringed snake of our island. Coluber 
natrix, a timid inoffensive animal. 

COL'UMBINE (columbinus, do/ve-coloured: 
Lat.), the common name of plants belong¬ 
ing to the genus Aquilegia, nat. order Ra- 
nunculacece, a genus of plants of seA r eral 

species.-Also the chief female dancer in 

a pantomime. 

COLUM'BIUM (from Columbia in Ame¬ 
rica), the name of a very rare metal, some- I 
times called Tantalum, first discovered in 
a mineral from Massachusetts in North I 
America. It has a grey colour. So far no 
use has been discovered for it. 

COLUMEL'LA (the dim. of columna, a co¬ 
lumn : Lat.), in Botany, the central pillar in 
some capsules from which the A'alves sepa¬ 
rate when the fruit is ripe. In Conchology, 
the upright pillar in most univalve shells, 
round which the whorls twist. 

COL'UMN (columna; Lat.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a cylindrical pillar, or long round body 
of Avood, stone, or iron, Avhich serves either 
for the support or ornament of a building. 

It consists of a capital, which is the top or 
head: a shaft, which is the cylindrical 
part; and a base, on which it rests. It 
differs from the pilaster, Avliicli is square. 
Columns arc distinguished as to their form 
into the Tuscan, Boric, Ionic, Corinthian, 



















lai Httmvy Crntfurj). [comet 

and Composite. The Tuscan is characterized 
by being rude, simple, and massive; the 
Doric is next in strength and massiveness 
to the Tuscan; the Ionic is more slender 
than the Tuscan and Doric; the Corinthian 
is still more delicate in its form and pro¬ 
portions, and is enriched with ornaments; 
and the Composite is a species of the Corin¬ 
thian. The proportions of a column are 
stated in terms of the radius of the bottom 
of the shaft, which radius is termed a mo¬ 
dule, and is divided into 30 equal parts called 
minutes. The Tuscan column has a total 
height of 14 modules, the capital and the 
base having each one module. The Doric 
column has a height of 16 modules, the 
base having one module, and the capital 
32 minutes. The Ionic column has a 
height of 18 modules, the capital 21 min- 
; utes, and the base 30 minutes. The shaft 
i may be plain or fluted: if the latter, it 
should have 20 or 24 flutings. This column 
is frequently used for porticoes. The Corin¬ 
thian column has more delicacy and orna¬ 
ment than the others, the shaft being 
slender, and the capital rich. It is 20 mo¬ 
dules in height, the base having one mo¬ 
dule and the capital 70 minutes. The shaft 
may be fluted. The capital is adorned with 
olive leaves. The Composite or Roman 
column has a height of 20 modules, the base 
having one module, and the capital 70 min¬ 
utes. The shaft may be fluted.-The word 

Column has also many other significations. 
Thus it means the division of a page, which 
may contain two or more columns; a large 
i body of troops drawn up in order; any body 
of the same diameter as its base—thus, a 
column of water, air, or mercury. 

COLUM'NA (a column :Lat.), in Anatomy, 
a term applied to different parts: thus the 
columna nasi is the lowest and fleshy por¬ 
tion of the nose, which forms a part of the 
septum; and the columna oris is the same 
with the uvula. 

COLU'RES ( kolos, clipped; and oura, a 
tail: Gr.), in Astronomy, two great circles 
supposed to intersect each other at right 
angles in the poles of the earth. They 
pass through the solstitial and equinoctial 
points of the ecliptic, and are hence called 
the Solstitial and Equinoctial colures. It is 
believed that this name was given to them 
on account of their lower parts being al¬ 
ways cut off by the horizon. 

CO'MA, or COMA-VIGIL ( lcoma , a le¬ 
thargy : Gr.), a preternatural propensity to 
sleep, or lethargic drowsiness. It is a 
symptom which often attends acute and 
malignant fevers.——C oma somnolentum, 

' is when the patient continues in a profound 
sleep, and, if awaked, immediately relapses, 
without being able to keep his eyes open. 
- Coma Bereni'cis (koine, hair: Gr.), Be¬ 
renice's hair, in Astronomy, a constellation 
of the northern hemisphere, composed of 

stars near the tail of Leo.-The word Coma 

also denotes the hairy appearance that sur¬ 
rounds a comet, when the earth is between 
it and tbe sun. 

COMA'TULA ( comatus, hairy: Eat.), a 
genus of marine radiate animals allied to 
the star fishes. In their young state they 

1 are at tached by a jointed stalk to rocks, 

and they then resemble the Pentaorintjs. 
But when fully grown the stalk disappears, 
and a number of jointed legs, armed with 
claws, take its place. The animal consists 
of a central disk, in which is the mouth on 
the underside, and from which radiate live 
pairs of plumose arms, whence it has re¬ 
ceived the name of feather star. By the 
flapping of these arms it can move slowly 
through the water. 

COMBINATION (combinatio, a joining 
two by two: Eat.), in its general and most 
popular sense, a league or association formed 

for good or bad purposes.-In Chemistry, 

the intimate union of two or more bodies, 
from which results a new compound differ¬ 
ing in its properties from any of the con¬ 
stituents. Thus, an acid uniting with an J 
alkali, forms a salt, and furnishes a good 
instance of combination.— Combination, 
in Mathematics, the variation or alteration 
of any number of quantities, letters, sounds, 
or the like, in all the different manners 
possible. 

COMBUSTION (covibustio, from comburo, 

I consume: Eat.), in Chemistry, a term 
which denotes the union of a supporter of 
combustion, which is generally the oxygen 
of the air, with a combustible substance, or 
its elements. When this combination is 
energetic, it is always accompanied by heat 
and light. In popular language, combustion 
is the effect of fire in apparently consuming 
anything and producing heat. It was for- i 
merly supposed that a body was annihilated 
either wholly or partially by combustion ; 
but we now know that this mistake is due 
to the products of combustion being gene¬ 
rally invisible. Of all bodies capable of 
being procured in large quantities, none 
throws off light so abundantly during its 
combination with oxygen as the elemen- 
tary gas, hydrogen, when united to the ele¬ 
mentary solid, carbon. This gas and solid 
may be combined in various proportions, 
and a combination of the same proportions 
will assume various external appearances, 
according to the varying conditions under 
which the union has taken place. The gas 
of our street lamps exhibits one form of the : 
compound; the liquid oils that we burn in 1 
our lamps another form; and a third form 
of it is afforded by the solid fats which we 
obtain from a wide range of animal and 
vegetable substances. 

COM'EDT ( komodia, from Icorne, a village : 1 
and ode, a song: Gr.), because the first 
comedies consisted of rustic dialogues), a 
dramatic representation of the light, humo¬ 
rous, and pleasant kind, particularly intend¬ 
ed to ridicule the follies of men. Scaliger 
defines comedy to be a dramatic poem, 
representing the business of life, whose 
event is fortunate and style familiar. With 
us, comedy is distinguished from farce, as 
the former represents nature as she is, the 
latter distorts and overcharges her; but 
whether it be to recommed virtue, or to 
render folly ridiculous, the real intention 
and effect are amusement. 

COM'ET (kometes, from home, hair: Gr.), 
in Astronomy, a nebulous star, accompanied 
with a train of light, and performing revo¬ 
lutions about the sun in an elliptical orbit, 1 

1 


















&l)t ‘gictcuttftc nutf 


152 


cometarium] 


which has the sun in one of the foci. 
Several comets are suspected of describing 
parabolas and not ellipses, in which case 
they will never again visit our system. The 
head has usually a nucleus or denser part, 
surrounded by a faint light or nebulosity. 
Some comets have appeared without tails, 
whilst others have had several tails; that 
of 1744, for instance, had six, which spread 
out like a fan. These tails are frequently of 
extraordinary extent. The comet of 1680, 
one of the most celebrated of modern times, 
had a tail that was calculated at twenty 
millions of leagues immediately after its 
perihelion passage, and yet it was emitted 
in two days. It subsequently became more 
than twice as long. The matter of these 
tails must he of incalculable tenuity, and it 
• is supposed that on account of the distance 
j to which they are sent, much of it can 
! never be reabsorbed. Even the heads of 
! many comets are composed of matter of 
' extreme thinness, for a star of the fifth 
magnitude was observed through the den¬ 
sest part of one without undergoing any 
diminution of lustre. ‘ The most unsub¬ 
stantial clouds,’ says Sir John Herschel, 
‘which float in the highest regions of our 
atmosphere, and seem at sunset to be 
drenched in light, and to glow throughout 
their whole depth as if an actual ignition 
without any shadow or dark side, must be 
looked upon as dense and massive bodies 
compared with the filmy and all but spirit¬ 
ual texture of a comet.’ 

COMETA'RIUM ( kometes , a comet: Gr.) 
a machine constructed to represent the re¬ 
volution of a comet about the sun. 

COMETOG'RAPHY ( kometes, a comet; 
and grapho, I write : Gr.), a description of, 
or discourse upon, comets. 

COM'FREY, the common name of Sym¬ 
phytum officinale, a wild herbaceous plant, 
nat. ord. Boraginacece, whose root abounds 
with a mucilaginous juice, which made it 
esteemed as an emollient. 

COMITA'TIS CAUSA (on account of 
courtesy: Lat.). At the universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge, persons who are 
masters of arts, or bachelors, or doctors of 
civil law, medicine, or divinity, of one uni¬ 
versity, or of Dublin, may be admitted to 
the same degree at the other comitatis 
causd. 

COMI'TIA (Lat.: from cum, with; and 
itus, a going), in Roman Antiquity, an as¬ 
sembly of the people, either in the Comi- 
tium, or Campus Martins, for the election 
of magistrates, or consulting on the im¬ 
portant affairs of the republic. 

COM'MA ( Jcomma, a piece cut off: Gr.), in 
Grammar, a point or character marked thus 
(,), denoting the shortest pause in read¬ 
ing, and separating a sentence into divi¬ 
sions or members. In Music, the smallest 

of all the subdivisions; being about the 
ninth part of a tone. 

COMMANDANT' ( Fr .), the commanding 
officer of a place, or of a body of forces. 

COMMAN'DER ( commander , to command: 
Fr.), the chief officer of an army, or one 
who has the command of a body of men. 
The Commander-in-Chief in the British 
army is he who has the supreme command 


over all the land forces in Great Britain. 
In the Naval service, the chief admiral in 

any port or station is so called.-The 

Commander of a ship, in the Royal Navy, 
is an officer next in rank to a post-captain, 
and corresponds to a major in the army ; he 
has the command of a ship of war under 
18 guns, a sloop, &c. 

COMMEN'CEMENT (a beginning : Fr.), j 
an annual public assembly of the university i 
of Cambridge ; or the day on which degrees 
are publicly conferred. 

COMMEN'DAM ( commcndo, I give in 
Charge: Lat.), in Ecclesiastical Law, the 
trust or administration of the revenues of 
a benefice, formerly given to a layman to 
hold as a deposit for six months, in order 
to repair, &c.; or to an ecclesiastic to per- j 
form the pastoral duties till the benefice 
was provided with a regular incumbent. In 
England, the right of granting benefices 
in commendam was vested in the crown by 
a statute of Henry Till. When a benefice 
was given in commendam, the profits ought 
not to have been received by the party to 
whom it was committed : the restriction 
on this point was, however, evaded, and it 
became a mode of enjoying pluralities. 
But no spiritual person can now hold two 
benefices, some few cases excepted; nor 
can a bishop hold any office, benefice, &c., 

in commendam.-One who holds a living 

in commendam is called a commendatory. 
Commendatory Letters, those sent from ; 
one bishop to another in behalf of any of 
the clergy, &c. 

COMMEN'SURABLE (com, together with; 
and mensurabills, measurable: Lat.), among 
Geometricians, an appellation given to such 
quantities as are measured by the same 
quantity ; thus, a yard and a foot are com¬ 
mensurable, as both may be measured by 
inches. 

COM'MENTARY (commentarius, from 
commentor, I meditate thoroughly : Lat.), an 
explanation of the obscure passages in an 
author; sometimes applied to an historical 
narrative, as the Commentaries of Csesar. 

COM'MERCE (commercium, from commer- 
cor, I traffic with : Lat.), in a general sense, 
the intercourse of nations for the purchase 
of each other’s produce or manufactures, 
the superfluities of one being given for 
those of another, and then re-exchanged 
with other nations according to their se¬ 
veral wants. 

COMMISSA'RIAT (commissaire:Fr.; from 
committo, I entrust with : Lat.), the whole 
body of officers in the commissary’s depart¬ 
ment. 

COM'MISSARY (Fr.; same deriv.), in a 
general sense, one who is sent or delegated 
to execute some office or duty, as the repre¬ 
sentative of his superior.- In Military 

affairs, an officer who has the charge of 
furnishing provisions, clothing, &c., for an 

army.-In Ecclesiastical Law, an officer of 

the bishop who exercises spiritual jurisdic¬ 
tion in distant parts of the diocese. 

COMMISSION (commissio, from committo, 

I give in charge: Lat.), in Law, the warrant, 
or letters-patent, by which one is authorized 
to exercise jurisdiction.-In Military af¬ 

fairs, the warrant or authority by which one 


































153 


Ettcrarji dTrcatfury. 


[commons 


holds any post In the army; in distinction 
from the inferior or non-commissioned offi¬ 
cers.-In Commerce, the order hy which 

anyone traffics or negotiates for another; 
also the percentage given to factors and 
agents for transacting the business of 
others. 

COM'MISSURE ( [commissura, a joint: 
Lat), in Anatomy, any suture or juncture, 
particularly the corners of the lips where 
they meet together, and also certain parts 
of the brain. 

COMMIT'MENT ( committo , I give in 
charge: Lat.), the sending a person to 
prison by warrant or order, either for a 
crime or contumacy. 

COMMIT'TEE (same deriv.), certain per¬ 
sons elected or appointed, to whom any 
matter of business is referred, either by a 
legislative body, or by any corporation or 

society.-A Committee of Parliament 

signifies a certain number of members ap¬ 
pointed by the house to proceed on some 
specific business. The -whole house fre¬ 
quently resolves itself into a committee, in 
which case each member has a right to 
speak as often as he pleases. When the 
house is not in committee, each gives his 
opinion regularly, and is only allowed to 
speak once, unless to explain himself. 
Standing committees are such as continue 
during the existence of the parliament. 
Select committees are appointed to consider 
and report on particular subjects. 

COMMOD'ITY ( commoditas , advantage : 
Lat.), in Commerce, any merchandise in 
which a person deals.—S taple Commodi¬ 
ties, such wares and merchandises as are 
the proper produce or manufacture of the 
country. 

COM'MODORE, a captain in the British 
navy, who is invested with the temporary 
command of a detachment in some par¬ 
ticular enterprise. In the North American 
navy, a commodore corresponds with our 

admiral.-The Commodore of a Convoy 

is the leading ship in a fleet of merchant¬ 
men, and carries a light in her top to con¬ 
duct the other ships. 

COM'MON ( communis: Lat.), a tract of 
ground, or open space, the use of which is 
not appropriated to any individual, but 
belongs to the public, or to a number. The 
right which a person has to pasture his 
cattle on the land of another, to dig turf, 
catch fish, cut wood, or the like, is called 
common of pasture, of turbary, of piscary, 
and of estovers. 

COMMON COUN'CIL, the council of a 
city or corporate town, empowered to make 
by-laws for the government of the citizens. 
The term is generally used in speaking of a 
court in the city of London, composed of the 
lord mayor, aldermen, and a certain num¬ 
ber of citizens called common-councilmen. 
The city of London is divided into 24 wards; 
the chief magistrate of each ward has the 
title of alderman; the 24 aldermen, with 
the lord mayor, form the court of aldermen ; 
and certain inhabitants, chosen out of each 
ward, for the purpose of assisting the aider- 
men with their advice in public affairs, form 
the court of common council. 

COMMON LAW, the law that receives 


its binding force from immemorial usage, 
in distinction from the statute law. 

COMMON-PLACE BOOK, one in which 
extracts from books and reflections are 
written. 

COMMON-PLEAS', or COMMON BENCH, 
one of the superior courts at Westminster- 
hall. It was originally that branch of the 
Aula Regia, or King’s bench, in which civil 
causes between subjects were tried, and, 
like that court, followed the person of the 
sovereign. But it was fixed by the charters, 
both of John and Henry III., that it should 
be held in a determined place. It has con¬ 
current jurisdiction with the Queen’s bench 
and Exchequer, the two other superior 
courts in personal actions and ejectments; 
but has no cognizance in criminal matters, 
nor in matters relating to the revenue. It 
has exclusive jurisdiction in such real ac¬ 
tions as still exist, and over the forms of 
conveyance substituted for fines and reco¬ 
veries ; also in appeals from the decisions 
of the barristers appointed to revise the 
lists of parliamentary voters, as well as in 
cases under the railway and canal traffic 
act. It has one chief, styled Lord Chief 
Justice, and four puisne judges; and from 
their decisions, proceedings in error may 
be taken into the Exchequer Chamber. 

COMMON PRAY'ER, the liturgy, or pub¬ 
lic form of prayer prescribed by the Church 
of England to be used in all churches and 
chapels, and which the clergy are enjoined 
to use, under a penalty. 

COM'MONS ( communis, common': Lat.), 
the lower house of Parliament, consisting 
of the representatives of cities, boroughs, 
and counties, chosen by those possessed of 
the property or qualification required by 
law. This body is called the House of Com¬ 
mons, and may be regarded as the basis of 
the British constitution. In the 15th year of 
King John, writs were issued to the sheriffs, 
commanding them to return four knights 
for each county ‘ ad loquendum cum rege 
de negotio regni’ (to confer with the king 
concerning the affairs of the realm), at Ox¬ 
ford. And in the 48 Henry III. four knights, 
from every county but nine, were sum¬ 
moned to attend with the barons, by the 
rebellious Earl of Leicester. No subsequent 
writs, for the purpose of county elections, 
earlier than 18 Edward I., nor for borough 
elections earlier than the 23rd of the same 
reign, are in existence; but it is not unlikely 
that these examples were occasionally fol 
lowed. Though each member is elected bj 
a distinct body of people, he is, from the 
moment of his election, the representative 
not of those particular persons only, but of 
the kingdom at large; and is to consider 
himself not merely as the organ through 
which his constituents may speak, but as 
one who having been entrusted with a 
general charge, is to execute it to the best 
of his judgment. In performance of this 
great function, his liberty of speech is 
bounded only by those rules of decency of 
which the house itself is the judge; and 
while, on the one hand, he isfree to propose 
what laws he pleases, on the other, he is 
exposed, as a private man, to the operation 
of the laws he makes. The acceptance of 




























commonwealth] 


Cfje J?ricnttfic antf 


154 


any office of profit from the Crown, hy a 
member, vacates his seat. And there are 
two places of no profit, the acceptance of 
which is considered to have this effect:— 
the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, 
and the stewardship of the Manor of East 
Hendred. Officers of the army and navy 
receiving new commissions, and those, such 
as ambassadors, who obtain a foreign em¬ 
ployment, are excepted from this law. A 
member becoming a bankrupt is incapable 
of sitting or voting for a year, unless within 
that time the commission is superseded, or 
the creditors paid; and if either of these 
does not take place within the year, the sent 
is lost. By a resolution dated 1607, and now 
strictly adhered to, any proposition for tax¬ 
ing the subject must be first examined by 
a committee of the whole house, and their 
opinions reported. And when a bill of sup¬ 
ply has received the concurrence of the 
Lords, it is returned to the Commons, aud 
by them presented to the throne. The 
House of Commons consists of G58 mem¬ 
bers, 500 for England, 53 for Scotland, and 
105 for Ireland. Though many small bo¬ 
roughs were disfranchised by the Reform 
Bill, the elective franchise was given to 
several places of rising importance; and a 
variety of alterations took place, by adding 
to the number of representatives of coun-t. 
ties, &c., so that the total number of mem¬ 
bers remains the same. No one can vote on 
the election of a knight of the shire except 
he be seized of a freehold estate of inhe¬ 
ritance of 40s. a year value, or of a freehold 
estate for life of 10Z. annual value, or of a 
freehold estate for life of less value when 
he actually occupies the premises, and in 
some other cases, or of an estate other than 
freehold tenure of inheritance, or for life 
of the annual value of 101 ., or of a chattel 
interest of a certain value and duration in 
land. No one can vote in the election of a 
member for a city or borough unless he 
shall be the occupant of some building 
which, with or without land, has the yearly 
value of 101 . 

COM'MONWEALTH, a free state or body 
politic. 

COM’MUNISM. [See SOCIALISM.] 

COMMU'NITY ( [communitas, from commu¬ 
nis, shared by several: Lat.), a society of 
people living in the same place, under the 
same laws and regulations, and who have 
common rights and privileges. History 
shows that the establishment of communi¬ 
ties has been one of the greatest advances 
in human improvement; and they have 
been, in different ages, the cradle and the 
support of freedom. 

COMMITTA'TION (commutatio, from com- 
muto, I alter: Lat.), in Law, the change of 
a penalty or punishment from a greater to 
a less; as when death is commuted for 
transportation or imprisonment. 

COMTANY ( compagnie: Fr.), in a com¬ 
mercial sense, a society of persons joined 
together for trading purposes. When com¬ 
panies do not trade upon a joint stock, but 
are obliged to admit any person properly 
qualified, upon paying a certain fine, and 
agreeing to submit to the regulations of 
the company, each member trading upon 


his own stock and at his own risk, they are 
called regulated companies; when they trade 
upon a joint stock, each member sharing in 
the common profit or loss, in proportion to 
his share in the stock, they are called joint- 
slock companies. Thesemay beordinary part¬ 
nerships, in which each member is liable 
for the whole debts of the firm; or they 
may be companies with limited liability, 
registered under the Joint-Stock Companies’ 
Act, 1862, which contains many provisions 

regulating these companies.-In the City 

of London are many associations, relics of 
old trading companies, of which twelve are 
known as the Great Livery Companies. 
Some of these are wealthy bodies, with 
fine halls, where splendid banquets are oc¬ 
casionally given. Before any person can 
hold office in the Corporation, he must be 
a member of some one of these companies. 

- Company, in Military affairs, a small 

body of foot, consisting, in the guards and 
artillery, of 120 men ; but in other infantry 
regiments, of 100 , commanded by a captain, 
who has under him a lieutenant and ensign. 
A company, in the infantry, corresponds to 

a troop in the /cavalry.-Also, the whole 

crew of a ship, including the officers. 

COMPAR'ATIVE ANAT'OMY, is so called 
because in it the organization of all the 
members of the animal kingdom are studied 
with reference to each other. The objects 
in A'iew are to trace the modifications and 
disappearance of different organs, in the 
descending series; to determine the rela¬ 
tive degrees of complexity in the structure 
of different animals, and the points of re¬ 
semblance which different species manifest 
to each other, in the totality of their or¬ 
ganization ; and to trace the history of the 
development of the embryo. The ultimate 
aim of comparative anatomy and physio¬ 
logy is to ascertain the laws of vital phe¬ 
nomena. 

COMPAllT'MENT (compartment: Fr.; 
from compartior, I divide: Lat.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a proportionable division in a 
building; or some device marked in an or¬ 
namental part of the building.- Com¬ 

partments, in Heraldry, are partitions 
and quarterings of the escutcheon, when 
the arms of several families are borne in 
one and the same coat, in consequence of 
marriages, &c. 

COM'PASS, or the Mariner’s Compass 
(compas: Fr.), an instrument used by ma¬ 
riners to point out the course at sea. It 
consists of a magnetic needle, freely sus¬ 
pended, in connection with a circular card, 
the circumference of which is divided into 
thirty-two equal parts. This is inclosed in 
a box with a glass top by way of protec¬ 
tion from the elements, allowance being 
made for the ‘variation’ of the needle: the 
true direction of north and south is thus 
ascertained. Since iron ships have come 
into use, it has been necessary to have re¬ 
course to various contrivances to neutralize 
the effect of the attraction upon the needle 
of the iron of the vessel. A pair of com¬ 
passes is an instrument used in describing 
circles, measuring figures, &c.; and con¬ 
sists of two pointed legs or branches, made 
of iron, steel, brass, &c., united at the top 



























155 Httcrary 

hy a joint, on which they move. There are 

also compasses of three legs, cylindrical, 
spherical compasses, &c. 

COMPENSATION PEN'DULUM ( compen- 
satio, the rendering of an equivalent; from 
j compenso, I weigh one thing against an¬ 
other : Lat.). The efficacy which a pendu¬ 
lum has inregulatinga clock depends upon 
its being of the same length at all times— 
if it becomes longer, its vibrations are 
slower, and vice versd. But the effect of 
increased temperature is to lengthen it, 

I and of diminished temperature to shorten 
| it; and, as the temperature scarcely ever 
remains for any space of time the same, 
the rate of vibrations must vary, unless 
some means are devised to remedy this 
defect. The mercurial and the gridiron 
pendulums are tho best contrivances that 
have been devised for the purpose. The 
j mercurial pendulum consists of a rod, at 
the lower extremity of which is a cylin¬ 
drical vessel partially lined with mercury, 
i When the rod expands, the centre of 
gravity of the mercury descends — this 
lengthens the pendulum : but when by the 
very same increase of temperature the mer¬ 
cury expands, its centre of gravity is raised 
—this pi-actically shortens the pendulum; 
and thus by proper management the two 
effects neutralize each other: the centre of 
gravity remains stationary, and the length 
of the pendulum is not altered. The grid¬ 
iron pendulum corrects itself on the same 
principle: a portion of its rod consists of 
parallel bars of different metals, so ar¬ 
ranged that, while one set raise the bob by 
expanding upwards, the others lower it by 
expanding downwards. The compensation 
balance used to regulate chronometers is 
constructed also on the same principle. 
While one portion tends to make it vibrate 
! slowly, the same change of temperature 
| causes the other portion to produce an 
opposite effect. 

COM'PLEMENT ( compleo, I fill up : Lat.), 
what is required to fill up some quantity. 
Tlius, the complement of an angle is what it 
wants of 90°. Hence, in Astronomy, the 
complement is the distance of a star from 
the zenith, or what it wants of being 90 
above the horizon. The complement of a 
number Is what it wants of 1 , 10 , 100 , &c.; 
j that is, what it wants to make unity with 
one or more ciphers. 

COMPLEMENTARY COL'OURS. Every 
prismatic colour is capable of being con¬ 
verted into white light by the addition to it 
of all the other prismatic colours. Thelatter 
; colours are called complementary. Take 
| blue, for instance; the complementary 
t colour is that arising from a mixture of 
i red and yellow. A mixture of yellow and 
I blue, making green, is the complementary 
colour of red. M. Chevreul has prepared a 
I chromatic table, by which the complemen- 
tary colour of any of the 13,480 colours, 
which he has distinctly classed, can be as¬ 
certained. It is of great importance to 
| artists, house decorators, and dealers in 
coloured goods, to know at once the exact 
colour, shade, and tint, which will produce 
l the greatest effect when placed beside an- 
! other colour. 


5nV£a£>Ut 4 y. [composite 


COM'PLEX TERMS, and COM'PLEX 
IDEAS ( complexus , folded together: Lat.), 
in Logic, are such as are compounded of 
several simple ones. 

COMPLEX'ION ( complexio , a combina¬ 
tion, from same: Lat.), among Physicians, 
the temperament, habitude, and natural 
disposition of the body; but, in general 
use, the word means the colour of the skin. 

COMPO'SING (compono, I place together: 
Lat.), that branch of the art of printing 
which consists in taking the types or let¬ 
ters from the cases, and arranging them in 
such an order as to lit them for the press. 
The instrument in which they are adjusted 
to the length of the lines is called a com¬ 
posing-stick. 

COMPOS'ITiE, ( compositus, compounded, 
Lat.), a very large nat. order of plants, 
having numerous small flowers, called 
florets, collected into dense heads upon 
a disk or common receptacle, which is 
surrounded by an involucre or external 
calyx, composed of leaves or scales. The 
anthers are syngenesious, that is, are joined 
together, round the forked pistil. Fre¬ 
quently the florets of the middle part of the 
head are smaller than, and have a colour 
different from, those of the margin, then 
called the ray. The common daisy may be 
taken as an example. The calyx closely 
adheres to the fruit, and its upper part 
forms a ring of hairs or feathers, by means 
of which the ripe seed is carried away by 
the wind. No large trees belong to this 
order, which is made up of more than 8,000 
species of herbaceous or shrubby plants, 
distributed all over the world. Many beauti¬ 
ful garden flowers are placed amongst tho 
Composite—for example, the dahlia, aster,, 
chrysanthemum, zinnia, sun-flower, and 
gazania. Some species yield bitters and 
tonics, such as wormwood and chamomile 
Tansy, arnica, elecampane, centaury, colt’s- 
foot, and tai'axacum, have more or less 
celebrity medicinally. The artichoke, en¬ 
dive, succory, lettuce, common artichoke, 
and Jerusalem artichoke, afford aliment to 
man. This order is divided into three sub¬ 
orders 1. Tubuliflorce, in which the herma¬ 
phrodite florets are tubular : the asters and 
the daisy may be taken as examples. 2 . 
Labiatiflorce, in which the hermaphrodite 
florets, or at least the unisexual ones, are 
divided into two lips; no British wild- 
flower falls into this sub-order. 3. Liguli- 
florce, in which the corollas are slit or strap 
shaped; the dandelion, chicory, and sow¬ 
thistle are examples. 

COM'POSITE NUMBERS (same deriv.), 
numbers which can be measured exactly by j 
a number exceeding unity, as 6 by 2 or 3; 
so that 4 is the lowest composite number, j 
Composite numbers between themselves, ! 
are those which have a common measure 
besides unity ; thus 12 and 15, both of which 
are measured by 3. 

COM'POSITE ORDER (same deriv.), in 
Architecture, the last of the five orders of 
columns, so called because its capital is 
composed out of those of other columns. 
It is also called the Roman or Italic order, 
from having been invented by the Romans. 
The angular volute of the Ionic capital was 

































composition] 


Ef)c jjrctenttGc antf 


15(5 


added to the proportions and enrichments 
of the Corinthian order. The base measures 
the same as in the Ionic order. The height 
of the column is 20 modules, that of the en¬ 
tablature 5 modules, and the capital has 70 
minutes in height. The shaft may he either 
plain, or enriched with 20 or 24 flutings. 

COMPOSITION (compositio, from compono, 
I place together: Lat.), in a general sense, 
the putting together and uniting of several 
things, so as to form of the whole one mass 

or compound.- Composition op Ideas, 

an act of the mind, by which it unites 
several simple ideas into one conception or 

complex idea,-In Literature, the act of 

inventing or combining ideas, furnishing 
them with words, arranging them in order, 

and committing them to writing.-In 

Logic, a method of reasoning, by which we 
unite together the qualities of anything, 
one after another, until we have distin¬ 
guished it from everything else. Thus, 
‘man is an animal: he is a hot-blooded ani¬ 
mal : he is a hot-blooded viviparous animal: 
he is a hot-blooded viviparous rational ani¬ 
mal.’ Composition, or synthesis, is exactly 
the opposite of analysis: one puts together, 

the other takes in pieces.-In Music, the 

art or act of forming tunes, to be performed 

either vocally or instrumentally.-In 

Painting, the putting together the several 
parts of a picture, so as to set oif the whole 

to the best advantage.-In Commerce, an 

agreement entered into between an insol¬ 
vent debtor and his creditor, by which the 
latter accepts a part of the debt in compen¬ 
sation for the whole.-In Chemistry, the 

combination of different substances, from 
which results a compound substance, dif¬ 
fering in properties from any of its com¬ 
ponent parts. Thus water is a compound of 
hydrogen and oxygen, which are invisible 

gases.- Composition op Forces : when 

two forces simultaneously act upon the 
same body, so as to set it in motion, it will 
obey neither of the forces taken separately, 
but will move along the diagonal of a 
parallelogram, the two adjacent sides of 
which will bo represented by the two forces. 
And thus, centripetal force, which tends to 
draw the earth towards the sun, combined 
with the force of projection, which is at 
right angles to it, causes the earth to re¬ 
volve in its orbit. 

COM'POST (compositus, compounded; 
from compono, I place together: Lat.), in 
Husbandry, several sorts of soils or earths, 
and other matters, mixed together, in order 
to make a compound suitable for fertilizing 
land. 

COM'POUND ( compono, I place together : 
Lat.), a term in Botany, variously applied. 
Thus, a compound flower consists of several 
distinct florets, upon a common receptacle, 
surrounded by a common involucre; a 
compound stem is one that divides into 
branches : a compound leaf consists of se¬ 
veral leaflets on a common petiole: a com¬ 
pound umbel is one which has all its rays 
or peduncles bearing small umbels at the 
top- Compound Interest, in Computa¬ 

tion, is interest upon interest; when the 
interest of a sum is added to the princi¬ 
pal, and then itself bears interest.- Com¬ 


pound Quantities, in Algebra, are such 
as are joined by the signs + and — (plus 
and minus), and expressed by more letters 
than one, or by the same letters unequally 
repeated : thus, a+b-c, and ab—b, are com¬ 
pound quantities.- Compound, a word 

employed by Anglo-Indians to signify the 
enclosure within which their houses, offices, 
and outbuildings stand. Some derive the 
word from the Portuguese campainha, but 
it may originate from the Malay campong, a 
village. 

COM PItES'SIBIL'ITY(c 0 ?npressi&; 7 is, from 
comprimo, I squeeze together: Lat..), in 
Physics, that property in a solid or fluid of 
yielding to the pressure of another body or 
force, so as to be brought into a smaller 
compass. All bodies may be compressed, 
since all have pores ; but liquids resist com¬ 
pression with enormous force. 

CON, in Language, a Latin inseparable 
preposition or prefix, joined to other words. 
Con and cum have the same signification, 
except that cum is used separately, and con 

in composition.-In the phrase pro and 

con (pro and contra), for and against, con 
denotes the negative side of a question. 

CONCATENATION (concatenatio, "from 
concateno, I link together: Let.), a term ! 
chiefly used in speaking of the mutual 
dependence of second causes upon each I 
other. 

CON'CAVE GLASSES (concavus, hollow : 
Lett.), in Optics, such as are ground hollow : 
they are usually spherical, though they may 
be of any other figure. A concave lens 
renders rays of light divergent, or less con- ( 
vergent. Hence it is used with short sight, 1 
which arises from the rays being brought i 
to a focus, by the crystalline lens of the ! 
eye, too soon—that is, before they reach 
tliG rctiim * 

CONCA'VO-CON'CAVE (same deriv.), hol¬ 
low or concave on both surfaces. 

CONCA'VO-CON'VEX ( concavus, hollow ; 
and convexus, arched : Lat.), concave on 
one side, and convex on the other. 

CONCEN'TH ATE (con, together with ; and 
centrum , a centre : Lat.), to bring nearer to 
each other ; as, to concentrate particles of 
salt by evaporating the water that holds 
them in solution ; or to concentrate rays of 
light into a focus. 

CONGE P'TACLE (conceptaculum, a recep¬ 
tacle: Lat.), in Botany, the cases contain¬ 
ing the reproductive organs of plants, 
which, like ferns, have them at the back of 
the leaves. Also, a pericarp of one valve, 
opening longitudinally on one side, and 
having the seeds loose in it. 

CONCEPTION (same deriv.), in Logic, 
the simple apprehension or perception 
which we have of anything, without pro¬ 
ceeding to affirm or deny anything about 
if. An act of the mind, by which we com¬ 
bine individuals together, through some 
character common to them all. Thus, all 
kinds of triangles resemble each other, in 
having three sides. 

CONCERTO (harmony: Ltal.), in Music, 
a piece composed specifically for a particular 
instrument, which is, however, at times ac¬ 
companied by others. Concerto-g ROSSI, 

the grand chorus of a concert, or those 



















157 Ettcrarji 


places where all the several parts perform 
or play together. 

CON'CHA ( konch?, a shell: Gr.), In Ana¬ 
tomy, the larger cavity of the external ear, 
situated before the vieatus auditorius, or 
passage into the internal ear. 

CONCIIIF'ERA ( konche , a shell; and 
phero, I bear: Gr.), a class of molluscs, liv¬ 
ing in bivalve shells. They are divided into 
two sections, those with and those without 
siphonal tubes for respiration. The cockle 
! is an example of the first, the oyster and 
scallop of the second section. 

CON'CHOID (konche, a shell; and eidos, 

\ form: Gr.), in Geometry, the name of a 
| curve invented by Nicliomedes, for the so- 
i lution of two celebrated geometrical pro- 
! blems, ‘the duplication of the cube,’ and 
! * the trisection of an angle.’ Sir Isaac 
| Newton observes that he prefers it before 
| other curves, or even the conic sections, 
in the construction of cubic and biquadratic 
equations, on account of its simplicity. 

CONCHOID'AL (same deriv.), in Minera¬ 
logy, a term applied to the fracture when 
there is a convex elevation and a concave 
depression, like the valve of a shell-fish. 

CONCHOL'OGY (konche, a shell; and 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), is to be considered 
as a branch of the science of Malacology, 
or the study of the Mollusca, one of the 
great subdivisions of the animal kingdom. 

I Conchology has reference only to the struc- 
| ture and shape of the shells with which the 
| bodies of many mollusca, but not all, are 
j protected. The study of the animals be- 
| longs to the malacologist. Carbonate of 
I lime is the basis of shell, with a small 
1 j quantity of animal matter. It is secreted 
I by the mantle of the animal, and added 
layer by layer to that which has been al¬ 
ready formed. Shells vary in texture, some 
! being porcellanous, others nacreous or 
pearly, whilst fibrous, horny, and glassy 
structures may be seen in others. In some 
| shells there are two layers, the outer one 
i| composed of solid prismatic cells, some¬ 
times resembling minute crystals placed 
side by side, and the inner one a nacreous 
layer, which, in certain large shells, yields 
the mother of pearl of commerce. The 
lustre which is peculiar to mother of pearl 
has been found to arise from the undula¬ 
tions of an extremely thin membrane, 
which alternates with layers of carbonate 
of lime. In a few cases the shell is in¬ 
ternal ; in the great majority it is external. 

| Of the shell-bearing mollusca, three-fourths 
have only one shell, that is, are univalve. 

* I Another large section have two shells, and 
1 are therefore termed bivalves. A few have 
more pieces, and the chitons, which are 
1 very unlike other shell-bearing mollusca, 

1 have as many as eight. Shells are usually 
covered with a skin, epidermis, or perios- 
tracum, sometimes very thin, at others 
thick; whilst occasionally it is covered 
i with hair. As to the Univalves, the shells 
are usually spiral, but sometimes conical, 
like the limpet’s, or tubular. The cavity is 
always a single chamber, except amongst 
the nautili, when it is camerated, that is, 
divided into several chambers, and the 
mouth is frequently closed when the animal 


CrcaSurji. [conclave 


has withdrawn into its shell, by a horny or 
calcareous plate, called the operculum. The 
upper part of the shell is the spire, and the 
point of this the apex. The whorls twist 
round a central axis, or columella, which is 
sometimes open or hollow, when the shell 
is said to be perforated, the hollow itself 
being termed the umbilicus. The mouth of 
the shell is termed the aperture, and this is i 
often produced into a canal below, whilst 
the margin, with its outer and inner, or 
columellar lips, is styled the peristome. In 
some shells, the apex is broken olf, and then 
the shell is styled decollated. Bivalves 
are either equivalve, when the two valves 
are of the same size and shape, or inequi- 
valve, the latter being the case when one of 
the valves adheres to a foreign substance. 
Most bivalves are inequilateral, that is, one 
side is shorter than the other side. The 
beak, or umbo, near the hinge, is the apex 
or point from which the valve begins to 
grow. The umbones are either straight, 
curved, or spiral; and sometimes one valve 
is spiral and the other flat. The surface of 
the valves is often marked with ridges 
which radiate from the beaks to the mar¬ 
gin ; or with concentric ridges, which re¬ 
present the stages of growth. In front of 
the beaks there is an oval space, called the 
lunule. The valves are fastened together 
by an elastic ligament, which causes them 
to open when the adductor muscles inside 
the shell relax. The hinge is furnished with 
teeth, which differ in shape and number, 
and afford characters for distinguishing 
genera. The teeth on one side fit into pits 
on the other. The teeth placed immediately 
under the umbo are called hinge or car¬ 
dinal teeth : those to the side are termed 
lateral. Looking at the interior of the 
valves, there is usually to be seen either a 
single rounded depression (when the shell 
is termed monomyary), or two such depres¬ 
sions, when it is termed dimyary. These 
are the sites of the attachments of the ad¬ 
ductor muscles. There is also to be seen a 
line,which more or less follows the direction 
of the margin of the shell. This is the paZZiaZ 
line, and is produced by the margin of the 
mantle. When the animal possesses retrac¬ 
tile siphons, this pallial line usually makes 
a bend inwards, which bend is termed the 
pallial sinus. In describing a shell, it must 
be understood that the anterior or front 
side is that to which the beaks turn, whilst 
the ligament is on the posterior side. When 
the shell is placed with the hinge down¬ 
wards, the beaks being turned towards the 
observer, and the ligament therefore away 
from him, the valve on his left hand is the 
left valve, and the other the right valve. 

CONCHOM'ETER (konche, a shell; and 
metron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring shells. 

CON'CLAVE (conclavium, literally shut 
up with one key: from con, together with; 
and clavis, a key: Lat.), the place in which 
the cardinals of the Romish church meet 
for the election of a pope: also the assembly 
of cardinals. The latter are locked up in' 
separate apartments, and meet once a day 
in the chapel of the pontifical palace in 
which they are assembled, where their 


































concoction] 


dTfie !§ftentt(tc ruitf 


158 


votes, given on a slip of paper, are exa¬ 
mined. This continues until two-thirds of 
the votes are in favour of one person. [See 
Adoration.] The ambassado ;s of France, 
Austria, and Spain, have a right, on the 
part of their respective courts, to put in a 
veto against the election of one cardinal. 

CONCOC'TION ( concoctio , from concoquo, 
I digest : Lat.), in Medicine, the process by 
which food is turned into chyle, or other¬ 
wise prepared to nourish the body. 

CON'CORD ( concordia , from concors, har¬ 
monious : Lat.), in Music, the union of two 
or more sounds pleasing to the ear. The 
words concord and harmony are, in fact, 
the same thing, though custom has applied 
them somewhat differently.-In Gram¬ 

mar, that part of syntax which treats of 
the agreement of words in a sentence.—- 
In Law, an agreement between the parties 
in a flue, made by leave of the court. 

CONCOR'DANCE ( concordo, I harmonize 
with : Lat.), a dictionary of the Bible, in 
which the leading words used in scripture 
are arranged alphabetically, and reference 
is made to the various places in which they 
occur; that the student may determine the 
meaning of any passage, by collating it with 
another. The first Concordance was com¬ 
piled in 1262. The best English Concordance 
is that of Cruden, published in 1737. 

CONCOR'DAT ( concordo, I agree with: 
Lat.), a treaty or public act of agreement 
between the pope and any prince, relative 
to ecclesiastical matters. 

CON'CRETE ( concretus, grown together: 
Lat.). In Logic, a concrete term expresses the 
notion derived from the view taken of any 
object, with reference to, or as in conjunc¬ 
tion with, that which furnished the no¬ 
tion:—thus, foolish, or fool. When the 
notion is expressed without any such refer¬ 
ence, it is an abstract term .-—thus, folly.— 
A builder’s term for a mixture of mortar 
and gravel, frequently employed on laying 
the foundation of a building. 

CONCRE'TIONS(concrefio,from concresco, 
I grow along with : Lat.), Morbid, in ani¬ 
mal economy, hard substances that occa¬ 
sionally make their appearance in different 
parts of the body, as well in the solids as in 
those cavities destined to contain fluids: in 
the former, they are denominated ossifica¬ 
tions; in the latter, calculi. 

CONCUS'SION OF THE BRAIN ( concutio, 
I shake: Lat.), in Surgery, an injury sus¬ 
tained by the brain, in consequence of 
sudden and violent pressure upon it. The 
effect Is generally termed a stunning. It 
must be watched with great care; since the 
patient may seem to recover from the in¬ 
sensibility, &c., while dangerous inflam¬ 
mation is going on. 

CONDENSA'TION ( condensatio , from con- 
denso, I press close together: Lat.), the act 
by which a body is rendered more dense, 
compact, and heavy. Hence condensation 
stands opposed to rarefaction. The term is 
generally applied to the conversion of va¬ 
pour into a fluid. 

CONDEN'SER ( condenso , I press close to¬ 
gether: Lat.), a pneumatic machine by 
which a volume of air may be reduced into 
a much smaller space. It is like an air 


pump, except that the valves are reversed, 
opening inwards instead of outwards; and 
is used to force a large quantity of air into 
a given space.—Also, that part of a steam 
engine to which the steam passes from the 
cylinder, and where it is reduced to the 
liquid state by cold water. 

CONDITION ( conditio: Lat.), in Law, a 
restraint annexed to a thing, so that by 
non-performance, the party shall receive 
loss, and by the performance, advantage. It 
is most generally used to signify a term, on 
which a grant is made. Conditions are pre¬ 
cedent when anything is obtained by per¬ 
formance of them: subsequent, when they 
are not to be performed until after acquisi¬ 
tion. If the breach of a condition can be 
compensated for, the party breaking it will 
generally be relieved from the consequences 
in equity.— Conditional Proposition, 
in Logic, that which asserts the dependence 
of one categorical proposition on another. 
Thus, ‘if the child falls, it will be hurt.’ 
'Tlie proposition from which the other re¬ 
sults is the antecedent: the result is the 

consequent. -conditional Syllogism, a 

syllogism, in which the reasoning depends 
on a conditional proposition. It is of two 
kinds, constructive and destructive. ‘ If a 
is equal to n, 0 is equal to D, but a is 
equal to n, therefore c is equal to d,’ is con¬ 
structive. ‘If A is equal to B, c is equal to D, 
but A is not equal to b, therefore c is not 
equal to d,’ is destructive. 

CON'DOR, a very large kind of vulture, 
(the Sarcoramphus gryphus of ornitholo¬ 
gists), the size of which, however, was 
greatly exaggerated by the earlier writers. 
It is about four feet in length, and the 
expanded wings measure about nine feet. 
The condor selects its breeding place at a 
height of more than 10,000 feet on the 
Andes. It feeds chiefly on dead carcases ; 
but two will occasionally unite in over¬ 
powering and bearing away even large 
animals. 

CONDOTTIE'RI ( Ital .). These were men 
who, in the middle ages, raised corps of 
soldiers at their own expense, and then 
entered the service of some prince or 
government. Such soldiers of fortune 
were turbulent and rapacious, and fre¬ 
quently robbed their employers. An Eng¬ 
lishman, Sir John Hawkwood, who died at 
Florence in 1393, was one of the last. 

CONDUCTOR (Lat., from conduco, I 
lead), in Electrical experiments, a body 
capable of transmitting the electric fluid. 
It is called also anon-electric; for, unless in¬ 
sulated, it will not exhibit electrical excite¬ 
ment, the electricity being carried off along 
it as fast as it is communicated to or excited 
upon it. The metals are the best conduc¬ 
tors : resinous substances are very bad ones. 
Bodies incapable of transmitting electricity 
are called non-conductors; and, because 
electricity may be communicated to or ex¬ 
cited upon them, without artificial insu¬ 
lation, they are termed electrics. There 
is no body a perfect conductor, or a perfect 
non-conductor. The non-conducting power 
depends very much on the extent of non¬ 
conducting surface.- Lightning Con¬ 

ductor, a pointed metallic rod fixed to tha 






























159 Siterarj) 

upper parts of buildings to secure them 
from the effects of lightning. It is con¬ 
nected with the earth, or, what is better, 
the nearest water, by a good conductor, 
which is sufficiently thick not to be melted 
in transmitting the electricity ; and which 
where attached to the wall, is insulated by 
non-conductors, so that the electricity may 
not be diverted to the building, instead of 
passing harmlessly away. 

CON'DUIT ( Fr .), a subterraneous or con¬ 
cealed aqueduct. The ancient Romans ex¬ 
celled in them, and formed the lower parts, 
through which the water ran, with a ce¬ 
ment of such an excellent quality, that it 
has_ become as hard as the stone itself 
which it was employed to join.- Con¬ 

duits, in modern times, are generally pipes 
of wood, iron, or pottery, for conveying the 
water from the main spring, or reservoirs, 
to the different places where it is required. 

CONDU'PLICATE ( conduplico, I double 
together: Lat.), in Botany, a leaf is said to 
be conduplicatc when it is folded laterally 
in the bud, like an oak leaf. The term is 
also applied to the embryo in a section of 
cruciferous plants, where the cotyledons 
are bent and the radicle is enclosed between 
their folds. 

CON'DYLE ( Jcondulos , a knuckle : Or.), in 
Surgery, a rounded protuberance on the end 
of a bone ; a knuckle. 

CON'DYLOID ( kondulos , a knuckle; and 
eidos, form : Gr.), in Anatomy, the condy¬ 
loid process, or Condyle, is the posterior 
of the two protuberances which are placed 
at the upper side of the back of the under 
jaw. By this the jaw is articulated to the 
glenoid cavity of the temporal bone. The 
anterior of the protuberances is called the 
coronoid process. 

CONE (konos: Gr.), in Geometry, a solid 
figure having a circle for its base, and its 
top terminating in a point or vertex, like a 
sugar-loaf. A right cone has its axis per¬ 
pendicular to its base, and its sides equal. 
It is supposed to be formed by the revolu¬ 
tion of a right-angled plane triangle about 
one of its perpendicular sides. Any other 
cone is oblique. To find the curve surface 
of a cone, multiply half the product of the 
circumference of the base by the slant side. 
If the area of the base be added to this, the 
sum is the whole surface. The solidity of 
a cone is ascertained by multiplying one- 
third of the product of its base by its alti¬ 
tude. The frustum of a cone is that part 
which remains after cutting off the upper 
portion by a plane parallel to the base. To 
ascertain the solidity of such a frustum add 
the squares of the diameters of the two ends 
to the product of the two diameters, and 
multiply the sum by the height and by ’2618. 

.-Cone, in Botany, the fruit of several 

trees forming the order of Coniferce. It is 
composed of woody scales, variously shaped, 

each having a seed at the base.-In Con- 

chology, a univalve shell, some specimens 
of which bring very large prices, on account 

of their beauty and rarity.- Cone op 

Rays, in Optics, the aggregate of the rays 
which proceed from a luminous point, or 
from a single point of a luminous object. 

CONFECTION (confectio, a composing: 


Creaj>urt|. [ccnfessok 


Lnt), a sweetmeat or anything prepared 
with sugar. It also signifies a liquid or soft 
electuary, of which there are various sorts 

CONFED'ERACY ( confcederatio , an agree 
ment: Lat.), in Law, a combination of two 
or more persons to do some damage or 
injury to another, or to commit some un¬ 
lawful act-In Politics, the alliance of in¬ 

dependent states, for some common object. 

CONFERVA'CEtE, a large division of Al- 
gm, principally microscopical plants, which 
abound wherever there is water or damp air. 
They are composed of articulated threads, 
and are usually of a green colour. What has 
been called ‘meteoric paper’ consists of a 
matted sheet of some species formed on the 
surface of a poolwhich afterwards dries up. 
Closely allied plants sometimes occur in the 
sen, in such abundance that they discolour 
it. These are of a red colour, and sailors have 
given the name of sea-sawdust to them. 
The Red sea is supposed to acquire its 
name from the tinge communicated to it 
by such plants. The word Conferva comes 
from confervere, to boil, from the bubbles 
given off by the plants. 

CONFES'SION (confessio, from' conflteor, I 
acknowledge: Lat.), in a Legal sense, the 
acknowledgment of something prejudicial 

to the person making the declaration.- 

In Theology, a public declaration of one’s 
faith, or the faith of a public body. Also a 
part of the Liturgy, in which an acknowledg- ! 
ment of guilt is made by the whole emigre- • 
gauon. Among the Jews, itwas a custom, 
on the annual feast of expiation, for the 
high-priest to make confession of sins to 
God in the name of the whole people.—. 
Auricular Confession, a private confes¬ 
sion or acknowledgment of sins, made by 
each individual in the Romish and Greek 
churches to the priest. [See Auricular 
Confession.] 

CONFESSION OF FAITII, a formulary, 
detailing the opinions held by a religious 
community. The Apostles’, Athanasian, 
and Nicene creeds, are the most ancient of 
such formularies. In addition to these, 
Roman Catholics refer to the decrees and 
catechism of the Council of Trent, and the 
creed of Pius IV., as of primary authority, 
to the rule of faith of .Verronius, and the 
exposition of Bossuet, &c., as of secondary. 
The symbol of Mogila is the most authentic 
exposition of the doctrines of the Greek 
Church. The 39 Articles, the 3 articles of 
the 36th canon, the Book of Common Prayer, 
and the Homilies, are authorized state¬ 
ments of the doctrines of the Church of 
England. The confession of Augsburg, 
the articles of Smalcald, Luther’s great 
and little catechisms, and the ‘form of 
concord,’ detail the doctrines of the Lu¬ 
theran church. The confession of the 
Westminster assembly is the formula of 
the Scottish church, last drawn up. 

CONFES'SOR (.Lat., from conflteor, I ac¬ 
knowledge), in Church History, one who 
has proclaimed his faith in difficult and 
trying circumstances, without his zeal hav¬ 
ing been tested to the extent of martyrdom. 

-In the Roman Catholic church, a priest, 

who hears confessions, and is empowered 
to grant absolution to those who confess, 























configuration] SHfjc Jj'CteUMtC HIlCJ 


The person whose confession he hears is 
called his penitent; and the seat, or cell, in 
which he sits to hear confessions is called 
the confessional. 

CONFIGURATION ( configuratio , from 
configuro, I fashion after: Lat.), in Astro¬ 
logy. the aspects of the planets at a certain 
time. The astrologers pretended that the 
stars, in a given configuration, aided or op¬ 
posed each other in their influence on the 
destinies of individuals. 

| CONFIRMATION ( conftrmatio , from con- 
firmo, I strengthen : Lat), the act or cere¬ 
mony in the Christian church of the laying 
on of hands, by which baptized persons are 
confirmed in their baptismal vows. The 
ceremony is performed by the bishop ; and 
the antiquity of it is, by all ancient writers, 
carried as high as the apostles, upon whose 
example and practice it is founded. In the 
Romish church it is considered a sacrament. 

-Confirmation, in Law, an assurance 

of title, by the conveyance of an estate or 
right in esse, from one person to another, 
by which a possession is made perfect, &c. 
---Confirmation, in Rhetoric, the thii-d 
part of an oration, in which the orator un¬ 
dertakes to prove the truth of the proposi¬ 
tion advanced in his narration. 

CONFISCATION ( conflscatio, from con- 
fisco, I seize for the public treasury: Lat.), 
in Law, the condemnation and adjudication 
of goods or effects to the public treasury. 

CON'FLUENT ( confluens, flowing into: 
Lat,), in Botany, a term for parts that have 
grown together, so that the line of junction 

is not visible.-In Anatomy, two bones 

are said to be confluent, when, having been 
originally separate, they have become 

blended together.-In Medical Science, 

running together, and spreading over a 
large surface of the body, as the confluent 
small-pox. 

CONFORM'ABLE, in Geology, a term ap¬ 
plied to a stratum that lies upon another 
parallel wise. If a stratum lies upon the 
edges of the strata below, it is said to be 
unconformable. Unconformity shows that 
the lower strata had been disturbed, and 
probably denuded, before the upper stratum 
had been deposited. 

CONFORMATION (conformatio, from 
conformo, I put together: Lat.), the par¬ 
ticular texture or structure of a body, or 
disposition of the parts which compose it. 

-Mal-conformation, or Malformation, 

in Anatomy, denotes some defect in the 
first rudiments, by which a person is born 
either crooked, or with some part of the 
body unduly proportioned, &c. 

CONFOR'MIST ( conformis, similar: Lat.), 
m Ecclesiastical concerns, one that con¬ 
forms to the Established Church ; the sece- 
ders or dissenters from ■which are called 
Non-con for mists. 

CONFU'CIUS, DOCTRINES OF. These 
relate to morals and politics, and are the 
foundation of the ethics and system of go¬ 
vernment of the Chinese, who have built 
innumerable temples to him, where they do 
him service. The philosopher’s real name 
was Koong-foo-tse, which has been Lati¬ 
nised into its present form by Europeans. 
The date of his birth is uncertain, some 


placing it four and a half centuries, others 
three and a half centuries before our era. 
His writings, which form nine works, liavo 
become the sacred books of the Chinese. I 
They inculcate the duty of entire submis¬ 
sion of children to parents. As a ruler 
stands in the relation of a father to his 
subjects, the doctrine of submission lias 
been extended from families to the nation, 
and hence the memory of Confucius has al¬ 
ways been revered by the emperors. He 
laid down the excellent rule that xve ought 
to treat others as we would have them to 
treat us. That he leaned towards predesti¬ 
nation, and the prediction of events, is not 
wonderful. He thought that the human 
body is composed of two principles, one of 
which, at the period of their separation, 
descends into the earth, the other is in¬ 
visible, and ascends into the air. The spi¬ 
ritual part of the good man is permitted to 
visit its former abode on earth, or rather 
the hall or temple which it is the custom of 
the Chinese to erect, and wherein they per¬ 
form sacred rites to the memory of their 
ancestors. He seems not to have conceived 
of a Deity with a personal being or form. 
He maintained that out of nothing there 
cannot possibly be produced anything ; that 
material bodies must have existed from all 
eternity ; that the cause or principle of 
things must have had a co-existence with 
the things themselves; that therefore this 
cause is also eternal, infinite, indestructible, 
without limits, omnipotent and omnipre¬ 
sent. Since the time of Confucius, the 
Buddhist religion has entered China, and 
brought with it idols and images, objects 
always needed to fix the attention and ex¬ 
cite the devotion of the mass of the people. 

CON'GE ( conger, to take leave of : Fr.), in 
Architecture, the small curvature at each 
end of the shaft, termed also the apopliyge 
(apofugo, I fly away : Gr.). When the conge 
is in the form of a quarter round, or echinus, 
it is called a swelling conge.; but when in 
the form of a cavetto, a hollow congt. 

CONGE' D’ELIRE (Fr.), in Ecclesiastical 
affairs, the king’s permission to a dean and 
chapter, in the time of a vacancy, to choose a 
bishop. It is a mere matter of form, for the 
person named in the writ must be chosen. 

CONGELATION (congelatio, a freezing : 
Lat.), such a change produced by cold in a 
fluid body, that it quits its liquid state and 
becomes a solid. 

CON'GER (Lat.), a voracious marine eel, 
the Conger vulgaris of naturalists.. Il has 
been taken on the Cornish coast, more than 
ten feet long, and weighing 130 lbs. 

CONGE'RIES (Lat.), a collection of several 
particles or bodies united into one mass or 
aggregate. 

CONGESTION (congero, I accumulate: 
Lat), in Medicine, an unnatural accumu¬ 
lation of blood in the capillary vessels, or 
any part of the sanguiniferous system. Con¬ 
gestion of the brain, liver, or lungs, is often 
the effect of fevers, though usually conse¬ 
quent on a previous morbid state of these 
organs. 

CONGLOM'ERATE (conglomero, I heap 
together : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for 
flowers growing on a branching peduncle or 

















161 _ Etterary 

foot-stalk, upon short pedicles closely com¬ 
pacted together.-In Mineralogy, a sort 

of pudding-stone composed of pebbles of 
quartz, flint, silicious slate, &c., cemented 

together- Conglomerate Gland, in 

Anatomy, a gland composed of many smaller 
glands, whose excretory ducts unite in a 
common one, as the salivary glands. 

CONGREGA'TIONALISTS ( congregatio , an 
association: Lat.), in Church History, a 
sect of Protestants who reject all church 
government, except that of a single congre¬ 
gation, which, they maintain, has the right 
to choose its own pastor and govern itself. 
They have been called Broivnists, from their 
founder: and,latterly, Independents. They 
believe in the Trinity, predestination, total 
depravity, particular redemption, effectual 
grace, and Anal perseverance. 

CON'GRESS ( congressio , from congreclio, I 
meet: Lat.), an assembly of envoys, com¬ 
missioners, deputies, &c., from different 
courts, who meet to concert measures for 
their common good, or to adjust their 
mutual concerns. Having exchanged their 
credentials, the envoys of the different 
powers carry on their negotiations directly 
with each other, or by the intervention of 
a mediator, either in a common hall, or at 
their own residences, by turns, or, if there 
is a mediator, in his residence. These ne¬ 
gotiations are continued, either by writing 
or by verbal communication, until the com¬ 
missioners can agree upon a treaty, or until 
one of the powers dissolves the congress 

by recalling its minister.- Congress of 

the United States of America. The 
assembly of senators and representatives of 
the several states of North America, form¬ 
ing the legislature of the United States, is 
designated, in the constitution of the gene¬ 
ral government by this title. It consists 
of a senate and a house of representatives, 
each constituting a distinct and independent 
branch.— The house of representatives is 
chosen every two years, by the people of the 
several states; and the voters and electors 
are required to have the same qualifications 
as are requisite for choosing the members of 
the most numerous branch of the legis¬ 
lature of the state in which they vote. 
Each state, however small its population, 
is entitled to at least one representative ; 
but upon the whole population there cannot 
be more than one for every 30,000 persons, 
and the number of representatives appor¬ 
tioned to each state is altered every ten 
years. No person can be a representative 
who has not attained the age of twenty- 
five years, and been seven years a citizen 
of the United States, and who is not, 
when elected, an inhabitant of that state 
in which he has been chosen. No other 
qualifications are required.—The senate is 
composed of two senators from each state, 
who are chosen by the legislature of the 
state for six years; and are divided into 
three classes, so that one-third of them is, 
or may be, changed by anew election every 
second year. No person can be a senator 
who is not thirty years of age, and has not 
been nine years a citizen of the United 
States, and is not, when elected, an in¬ 
habitant of the state for which he is chosen. 


Cl'filStiry, [CONIFER2E 

The times, places, and manner of holding 
elections for senators and representatives 
are appointed by the state legislatures. 
Each house determines the rules of its own 
proceedings, and has power to punish its 
members for disorderly conduct. Neither 
house, during the session of congress, can, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn | 
more than three days, nor to any other place 
than that in which the two houses shall be 
sitting. Tlte senators and representatives 
are entitled to receive a compensation, pro¬ 
vided by law, for their services, from the 
treasury. They are also privileged from 
arrests, except in cases of treason, felony, 
or breaches of the peace, during their at¬ 
tendance at the session of their respective 
houses, and in going to and returning 
from it. 

CON'GREVE ROCK'ET, so named from 
its inventor, Sir W. Congreve, a formi¬ 
dable weapon of destruction, consisting of a 
tubular case of copper or iron, filled with 
combustibles, which is impelled against the 
hostile ranks of an army, or the walls of a 
fortress. Congreve rockets were first used 
in the attack on Boulogne in 1806. Carcass 
rockets, as those for bombardment are 
called, are ai-med with strong iron conical 
heads, pierced with holes, and containing 
a substance as hard and solid as iron itself, 
which, when once inflamed, is inextinguish¬ 
able, and scatters its burning particles in 
every direction. When this substance is 
consumed, the ball explodes like a grenade. 
The rocket is projected horizontally, and 
whizzes loudly as it flies through the air. 
Congreve rockets were at first considered a 
most important invention, but experience 
has shown tha£ in the field they are much 
less efficient than the common artillery, and 
in sieges do less injury than red-hot shot 
and bombs. 

CON'IC SEC'TIONS, in Geometry, such 
curved lines as are produced by the inter¬ 
section of a plane and a cone. The different 
positions of an intersecting plane give rise 
to five different figures or sections, viz. 
the triangle, formed by a plane passing 
through the vertex; the parabola, by a 
plane passing through one side, and parallel 
to a plane touching the other; the hyperbola, 
by a plane passing through one side, but 
not parallel with a plane touching the 
opposite side; the circle, by a plane passing 
through both sides and cutting off a right 
cone containing the vertex; and the ellipse, 
by a plane passing through both sides 
obliquely. The parabola, hyperbola, and 
ellipse, are the only curves which are pecu¬ 
liarly conic sections. 

CONIF'ERiE {conus, a cone; and fero, I 
bear: Lat.), in Botany, a natural order of 
trees and shrubs which are found in almost 
every part of the globe. They are most 
important to mankind for their resins, 
among which are turpentine, pitch, Canada 
balsam, &c.; and for their timber, under 
the names of fir, pine, deal, cedar, &c. The 
fruit usually forms what is termed a cone, 
a more or less ovoid mass of scales, at the 
base of each of which are one or two seeds. 
The ovule has no covering, but receives 
the fertilising pollen through the foramen, 
M 













__ 

- -——- - 11 

^rmtttftc antr 162 


conidm] 


without the intervention of a stigma. 
Hence they have been placed in a class 
called Gymnogens ( gumnos, naked: Gr.). 
In tlio genera of Pinus, Abies, Larix, and 
Cedrus, the leaves are long and slender, 
whence the Germans term the species 
needle-trees. But in other genera the 
leaves are broad. Some of the loftiest trees 
in the world belong to this order; the Wel- 
lingtoniaof California, and the Douglas and 
Lambert Pines of North America, are more 
than 200 feet high. The beautiful Norfolk 
Island Pine, the Huon Pine of Tasmania, 
and the Cowrie Pine of New Zealand, are 
also lofty trees. On the other hand, there 
are some Dacrydia in New Zealand no larger 
than mosses. To this order belong the 
various species of Cedar, Juniper, Cy¬ 
press, Larch, Pine, and Fir. The great 
bulk of the vegetable remains found fossi¬ 
lised in the state of coal consists apparently 
of extinct coniferous ti'ees. 

CONI'DM (koneion, from konao, I whirl 
about: Gr., on account of its intoxicating 
effects), in Botany, a genus of plants, nat. 
ord. Umbelliferce, including the common 
Hemlock, C. maculatum, a poisonous plant, 
from which an alkaloid, conia, or corvine, 
used in medicine, is obtained. 

CON'JUGAL RIGHTS (conjugate, belong¬ 
ing to marriage : Lat). The restitution of 
conjugal rights is a species of matrimonial 
suitj which may be brought either by the 
wife or husband against the party who is 
living in a state of separation. 

CON'JUGATE ( conjugo, I join together: 
Lat.). Conjugate Axis, in Geometry, that 

which crosses another axis.- Conjugate 

Diameter, the shortest axis of an ellipsis. 

-Conjugate Hyperbolas, hyperbolas 

having the same axis, but in contrary 
order. 

CONJUGATION ( conjugatio, a combining: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, is applied to a pair of 
nerves, arising together, and serving the 

same operation, sensation, or motion.- 

Conjugation, in Grammar, the distribu¬ 
tion of the several inflections or variations 
of a verb, in their different voices, moods, 
tenses, numbers, and persons. 

CONJUNCTION C conjunctio, from con- 
jungo, I join together: Lat.), in Astronomy, 
the meeting of two or more stars or planets 
in the same point of the heavens. It is 
either true or apparent. True conjunction 
is when a right line, drawn from the centre 
of the earth through the centre of one of 
the bodies, would pass through that of the 
other. Apparent conjunction is when a line 
from the centre of the earth would not 
passthrough the centres of both bodies. The 
moon is in conjunction with the sun when 
they meet in the same point of the ecliptic, 
which happens every month ; and eclipses 
of the sun are always occasioned by the 
conjunction of the sun and moon, in or near 
the nodes of the ecliptic.— Conjunction, 
in Grammar, an indeclinable word, or par¬ 
ticle, which serves to join words and sen¬ 
tences together. 

. CON'NATE ( connatus, born at the same 
time: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for leaves, 
which are united at their bases, as in the 
garden honeysuckle.-In Anatomy, the 


term connate signifies that the ossification 
of the common fibrous or cartilaginous 
bases of two bones proceeds from one point 
or centre, and so converts such bases into 
one bone. 

CONNI'VENT ( [conniveo , I wink: Lat.), in 
Botany, a term applied to the divisions of 

a calyx when they arch inwards.- Conni- 

vent Valves, in Anatomy, a term applied 
to the valvular folds of the lining mem¬ 
brane of canals, which arc so disposed as 
to retard, while at the same time they per¬ 
mit ( connive at), the passage of the contents 
of such canals. 

CONNOISSEU'R ( Fr ., from connattre, to 
know), a critical judge or master of any art, 
particularly of painting, sculpture, and the 
belles lettres. 

CO'NOID (konos, a cone ; and eidos, form: 
Gr.), in Geometry, a solid formed by the re¬ 
volution of a conic section about its axis. 

-In Anatomy, a gland found in the third 

ventricle of the brain, called the pineal 
gland from its lesemblance to a cone or 
pine-apple. 

CON'QUEST ( conquetc: Fr.), the right over 
property or territory acquired in war. It 
presupposes a just war, and is generally ad¬ 
mitted as a part of the law of nations. Con¬ 
quest may respect either persons or things : 
it may apply to a whole nation, or to a single 
town or province; and it may be temporary 
or permanent. Where persons are not 
found in arms, but are included as inhabit¬ 
ants of a town or province which has sur¬ 
rendered, they are treated generally as sub¬ 
jects. The original allegiance to their own 
government is suspended, and they come 
under an implied obligation to the con¬ 
queror, to submit to his orders, and to 
demean themselves, for the time, as faithful 
subjects. Under such circumstances, the 
conqueror generally leaves them in posses¬ 
sion of their property, and punishes them 
only for rebellious or traitorous conduct. 
It is not usual, in modern times, to change 
the fundamental laws of a conquered 
country; but the sovereign power of the 
conqueror so to do is conceded by the law of 
nations. 

CONSANGUIN'ITY ( consanguinitas /from 
consanguineus, related by blood : Lat.), the 
relation which subsists between persons 
who are sprung from the same stock or 
common ancestor, in distinction from affi¬ 
nity, or relation by marriage. It terminates 
in the sixth or seventh degree, except in 
the succession to the crown, in which case 
it is continued to infinity. 

CON'SCRIPT (Lat., from conscribo, I write 
together), in Roman Antiquity, an appella¬ 
tion given to the senators of Rome. The 
number of senators was increased to 300 
when the Luceres were incorporated with 
the Roman people, as a third tribe. Sulla 
increased their number to 500or GOO ; Julius 
Ciesar to 900; and it afterwards became 
1000 , but was subsequently reduced to 600 . 

-Conscript, in the French armies, aii 

enrolled soldier or recruit. 

CONSCRIPTION ( conscriptio, from same), 
the enlisting those inhabitants of a country 
who are capable of bearing arms, by a com¬ 
pulsory levy, at the pleasure of the govern- 
















163 


lUterary {£rea3urg. [constable 


ment. The term i3 derived from the military 
constitution of ancient Rome. Under the 
consulship, all persons capable of bearing 
arms were obliged, under penalty of losing 
their fortune and liberty, to assemble in 
the Campus Martius, or near the capitol, 
where the consuls, seated in their curule 
chairs, made the levy, by the assistance of 
the legionary tribunes. The consuls or¬ 
dered such as they pleased to be called out 
of each tribe, and every one was obliged to 
answer to his name, after which as many 

were chosen as were wanted.-France, in 

the beginning of the revolution, declared 
it the duty and honour of all citizens to 
serve in the army of their country. Every 
French citizen was born a soldier, and ob¬ 
liged to serve in the army from sixteen to 
forty years of age; from forty to sixty he 
belonged to the national guard. Every 
year the young men of the military age 
were assembled, and distributed in the 
different military divisions: and it was 
decided by lot who, among the able-bodied 
men of suitable age, should take arms. 
Thus it was that those prodigious masses 
were so quickly raised, and sent to the field 
of slaughter. 

CONSECRATION ( consecratio , from con- 
secro, I dedicate: Lat.), the act of devoting 
and dedicating anything to the service and 

worship of God. -Consecration was also 

a religious rite among the Romans, by 
which they set any person or thing apart 
for sacred purposes, as their high-priests ; 
or made it sacred, or a fit object of divine 
worship, as the emperors, their wives, or 
children, who were in this manner enrolled 
I among their gods. This was sometimes 
called apotheosis, but on medals it isdistin- 
i guished by the word consecratio, with an 
altar, or some other sacred symbol. 

CONSEC'TARY ( consectarius, that which 
follows logically: Lat.), in Geometry, some 
i consequent truth obtained from a demon¬ 
stration. 

CON'SEQUENCE ( consequentia, from con- 
sequens, coming in order: Lat.), that which 
follows as an inference of truth and reason, 
from admitted premises or arguments. 

CONSERVATOR (a defender, from con- 
servo, I preserve: Lat.), an officer appointed 
for the security and preservation of the 
privileges of some cities, corporations, and 
communities, or for the protection of some 
places. The ancient office of conservator of 
the peace is now performed by all judges 
and magistrates, but particularly by justices 
of the peace. 

CONSER'VATORY (same deriv.), a term 
sometimes used for a greenhouse. It is, 
properly, a large glazed building for exotics, 
in which the plants are planted in beds and 
' borders, and not in tubs or pots, as in the 

common greenhouse.-In various parts of 

Italy and France there are musical schools 
called conservatories, which are expressly 
intended for the scientific cultivation of 
musical talent, and through which many 
first-rate composers, as well as vocalists, 
have attained their proficiency. 

CON'SERVE ( conservo, I preserve: Lat.), 
in Pharmacy, a form of medicine contrived 
to save the flowers, herbs, roots, fruits, or 


simples, as nearly as possible in their na¬ 
tural fresh state. 

CONSIDERATION (consideratio: Lat.), 
in Law, the material cause or ground of a 
contract, without which the party contract¬ 
ing would not be bound. A consideration 
is either express or implied : express, when 
the thing to be given or done is specified; 
implied, when no specific consideration is 
agreed upon, but justice requires it, and 
the law implies it: as when a man labours 
for another, without stipulating for wages, 
the law infers that he shall receive a reason¬ 
able consideration. Also, a consideration is 
either valuable, that is, for money, or an 
equivalent, or of natural affection, certain 
degrees of relationship being a considera¬ 
tion for a gift. 

CONSI'GNMENT OF GOODS ( consignatio, 
a document: Lat.), in Commerce, the de¬ 
livering or making them over to another : 
thus, goods are said to be consigned to a 
factor when they are sent to him for sale, 
&c. He who consigns the goods is called 
the consignor, and the person to whom they 
are sent is called the consignee. 

CONSISTO'RIUM {Lat., from consisto, I 
abide), in Antiquity, a council-house, or 
place of audience. 

CONSIS'TORY COURT, the place in which 
a court is held by the bishop or his chan¬ 
cellor. 

CON'SOLE {Ft.), in Architecture, a spe¬ 
cies of bracket; or an ornament cut upon 
the key of an arch, which has a projection. 
Sometimes it serves to support cornices, 
figures, busts, and vases. Consoles are also 
called Ancones. 

CONSOLIDATION ( consolidate, from 
consolido, I make firm: Lat.), in the Civil 
Law, the uniting the possession or profit 
of land with the property, and vice versa. 
In the Ecclesiastical Law, it is the uniting 
two benefices into one by assent of the 
ordinary, patron, and incumbent.- Con¬ 

solidation, in Surgery, the action of unit¬ 
ing broken bones, or the lips of a wound, 
by means of applications. 

CON'SOLS, funds formed by the consoli¬ 
dation (of which word it is an abbreviation) 
of different annuities, portions of the pub¬ 
lic debt of Great Britain, which had been 
severally formed. [Sec Funds.] 

CON'SONANT (consonans, from consono, I 
sound at the same time: Lat.), a letter so 
named because it requires to be sounded 
in connection with a vowel. Some con¬ 
sonants have no sound without being 
united with a vowel, and others have a very 
imperfect sound: hence some are called 
mutes, and others semi-vowels. 

CONSONAN'TE (harmonious: Ital.), in 
Music, an epithet for all agreeable intervals. 

CONSPIR/AC Y (conspiratio, from conspiro, 
I plot with: Lat), a combination of men 
for an evil purpose, or an agreement be¬ 
tween them to commit some crime in con¬ 
cert.-In Law, it signifies an illegal com¬ 

pact to do something injurious to another. 

CON'STABLE ( comes stabuli, count of the 
stable: Lat.), a civil officer, anciently of 
great dignity ; as the Lord High Constable 
of England, and also the constables or 
keepers of castles, &c. Constables of the 


























constellation] CI)C J'CtCllttftC antf 164 


Tower, Dover Castle, and a few other places, 
are still appointed by the crown. It is now 
the title of an officer under the magistrates, 
for the preservation of the peace, whose 
duty principally consists in seizing and 
securing persons guilty of tumultuary of¬ 
fences. There are both high constables 
and petty constables; the former are 
chosen at the court-leets of the hundred 
over which they preside, or, in default of 
that, by the justices of the quarter sessions, 
and are removable by the same authority 
that appoints them. The duties of a high 
constable, as far as concerns the preserva¬ 
tion of the peace, are now nominal. The 
petty constables were formerly chosen by 
the jury of the court-leet, or, if no court 
was held, they were appointed by two jus¬ 
tices of the peace. At present, when any 
are. appointed, they are chosen by the 

justices at petty sessions.- Special Cox- 

stables are householders, or others, sworn 
in to act for a limited time, if the ordinary 
officers are not considered sufficient, by 
two justices of the peace, to whom infor¬ 
mation has been given on oath that a riot 
is expected, &e.-The Lord High Con¬ 

stable of England had the care of the 
common peace, in deeds of arms, and 
matters of war. His power was so great and 
so improperly used, that it was abridged by 
Richard II., and was afterwards forfeited in 
the person of Edward Stafford, Duke of 
Buckingham, in 1521. This office is now 
filled up only for some solemn occasion, 
such as a coronation. The first Duke of 
Wellington was Lord High Constable at 
the coronations of George IV., William IV., 
and Victoria. 

CONSTELL A'TION ( constellatio: Lat.), an 
assemblage or system of several stars, 
expressed or represented under the name 
and figure of some animal or other object, 
as a bear, a ship, and the like ; whence are 
derived those appellations which are em¬ 
ployed in describing the stars. The division 
of the heavens into constellations is very 
ancient, probably coeval with astronomy 
itself. Modern astronomers divide the 
whole starry firmament into three parts, 
viz.: 1. The constellations in the zodiac; 
2. the constellations north of the zodiac; 
and 3. the constellations south of the zodiac. 
‘The constellations’ says Sir John Herschel, 
* seem to have been almost purposely named 
and delineated to cause as much confusion 
and inconvenience as possible. Innumer¬ 
able snakes twine through long and con¬ 
torted areas of the heavens where no 
memory can follow them; bears, lions, and 
fishes, large and small, northern and south¬ 
ern, confuse all nomenclature. A better 
system of constellations might have been 
a* material help as an artificial memory.’ 
[See Stars.] 

CONSTIT'UENT ( constituo, I appoint: 
Lat.), in Politics, one who by his vote con¬ 
stitutes or elects a member of parliament. 
-Constituents, in Physics, the elemen¬ 
tary or essential parts of any substance. 

CONSTITU'TION (constibutio, from same : 
Lat.), in Politics, the collective body of the 
fundamental laws of a state, either con¬ 
tained in written documents or established 


by custom. Constitutions are either demo¬ 
cratic, aristocratic, or of a mixed character. 
They are—1. Democratic, when the funda¬ 
mental law guarantees to every citizen 
equal rights, protection, and participation, 
direct or indirect, in the government; 
such as the constitutions of the United 
States of America, and of some cantons of 
Switzerland. 2. Aristocratic, when the con¬ 
stitution establishes privileged classes, as 
the nobility and clergy, and entrusts the 
government entirely to them, or allows 
them a very disproportionate share of it : 
such a constitution was that of Venice. 
3. Of a mixed character, when both the 
people and the aristocracy form integral 
aud essential portions of the government; 
as in some monarchical constitutions, which 
recognize the existence of a sovereign and 
nobility, whose power is modified by other 
branches of the state, and is of a more 
or less popular cast. Of this kind is the 
British Constitution. It assigns the 
making of Jaws to the sovereign and the 
Houses of Lords and Commons, the sove¬ 
reign being at the same time the executive 
power and personal representative of the 
nation : the House of Lords being a court 
of appeal from the courts of law, and the 
House of Commons the originator of all 
taxes and financial grants for the use of 
the executive. The constitution of Great 
Britain is a constitution of principles, not of 
articles; and however frequently it may 
have been violated by tyrants, monarchical, 
aristocratical, or democratical, the people 
have always found it expedient to restore the 
original, and from time to time they have 

been successful in improving it.-By the 

word Constitution is also meant a par¬ 
ticular law, ordinance, or regulation, made 
by the authority of any superior; as the 
constitutions of Justinian and his successors, 

the constitutions of Clarendon, &c.- 

Constitution, in Medicine, the tempera¬ 
ment of the whole body, arising from the 
quality and proportion of the parts. In this 
sense we speak of a robust or feeble con¬ 
stitution, a cold, phlegmatic, or sanguine 
constitution, &c. 

CONSTRICTOR ( constringo , I draw toge¬ 
ther: Lat.), in Anatomy an appellation 
given to several muscles on account of 
their contracting or closing some of the 
orifices of the body; as the constrictor la- 
biorum, a muscle which constitutes the 
very substance of the lips and draws them 
together; or the constrictor nasi, a muscle 
arising above the dentes incisores of the 
upper jaw, and terminating in the alee of 
the nose. 

CONSTRUCTION, in a general sense, the 
manner of putting together the parts of a 
building, or of a machine, &c.-In Gram¬ 

mar, syntax, or the proper arrangement of 
words in a sentence. Also, the manner of 
explaining the arrangement of words, or of 
understanding their purport. 

CONSU BSTAN'TI AL ( consubstantialis: 
Lat.), in Theology, an epithet signifying of 
the same substance: thus. In the articles of 
the Church of England, Christ is declared 
consubstantial, or of one substance with the 
Father. 












165 


SUterarg Crratfurg. 


CONSUBSTANTI A'TION (con, along with; 
and sicbstantia, a suostance : Lat .), a tenet 
of the Lutheran church, the members of 
which maintain that after consecration of 
the sacramental elements, the body and 
blood of Christ are substantially present, 
together with the substance of the bread and 
wine. It is termed also Ivvpanation, and 
differs from transubstantiation, in which 
bread and wine are supposed to be changed 
into the body and blood of Christ, nothing 
but their appearances remaining, a dogma 
of the Roman Catholic church. 

CON'STJL (Lat.), the title of the two chief 
magistrates of Rome, whose power was, in 
a certain degree, absolute, but who were 
chosen only for one year. The authority of 
the two consuls was equal; yet the Valerian 
law gave the right of priority to the elder, 
and the Julian law to him who had the 
greater number of children; and this one 
was generally called Consul major, or prior. 
In the first ages of the republic they were 
elected from patrician families : but in the 
year of Rome 388, the people obtained the 
privilege of electing one of the consuls 
from their own body, and sometimes both 

were plebeians.-In French History, the 

consuls were those to whom, after the dis¬ 
solution of the Directory in 1799, the pro¬ 
visional government was intrusted. Buo¬ 
naparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun were 
elected as first, second, and third consul 
respectively, with different degrees of 
authority, for ten years ; but the influence 
of the first becoming gradually augmented, 
the transition to imperial dignity became 
easy to him: indeed, he had only nomi¬ 
nally shared his authority with his col¬ 
leagues.-In modern usage, the name 

Consul is given to an officer appointed to 
reside ill a foreign country, to protect the 
interests of trade, and to aid his government 
in any commercial transactions with that 
country. 

CONSULTATION (consultatio, from con- 
snlto, I deliberate : Lat.), a meeting for de¬ 
liberation : thus, of council, for the purpose 
of considering the best way of carrying on 
a suit; of physicians, to determine the 
nature of the patient’s disease, and the 
course to be pursued regarding it. 

CONSUMPTION (consumptio, from con- 
sumo, I waste away : Lat.), in Medicine, a 
word of very extensive signification, imply¬ 
ing all disorders that bring decay or waste 
upon the constitution. But it is more par¬ 
ticularly applied to the disease called Phthi¬ 
sis pulnionalis, a disorder seated in the 
lungs, attended with hectic fever, cough, 
4c. Hence the word consumptive is used 
to denote the incipient state of that disease, 
or a constitution predisposed to it. 

CONTA'GION (contagio, from contingo, I 
touch : Lat.), that subtle matter which pro¬ 
ceeds from a diseased person and communi¬ 
cates the malady to another: as in cases of 
small-pox, malignant fevers, &c., which are 
often communicated without contact. 

CONTEXT (contextus, connected with : 
Lat.), the parts of a discourse which pre¬ 
cede or follow the sentence quoted; the 
sense of a dubious passage is often illus¬ 
trated by the context. 


[contraband 


CONTINENT (contineo, I hold together 
Lat.), in Geography, a great extent of land, 
not disjoined or interrupted by a sea; or 
a connected tract of land of great extent, 
as the Eastern or Western continent. 

-Continental Powers, those whose 

territories are situated on the continent of 
Europe. 

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, a term given 
to a plan devised by Napoleon to exclude 
this country from all intercourse with the 
continent of Europe; to prevent the im¬ 
portation of British manufactures and com¬ 
merce ; and thus to compel the English 
government to make peace upon the terms 
prescribed by him. The history of Napo¬ 
leon’s continental system begins with the 
decree of Berlin of Nov. 21, 1806, by which 
the British islands were declared to be in a 
state of blockade: all commerce, inter¬ 
course, and correspondence with them 
were prohibited; every Englishman found 
in France, or in any country occupied by 
French troops, was declared a prisoner of 
war; all property belonging to English¬ 
men was declared fair prize ; and all trade 
in English goods was entirely prohibited. 
Great Britain immediately directed reprisals 
against the Berlin decree, prohibiting all 
neutral vessels from sailing from one port 
to another belonging to France or one of 
her allies, &c. This was met by counter¬ 
reprisals, and for a long time a fierce and 
most annoying system was carried on for 
the annihilation of British commerce, the 
effects of which are still felt from the rival 
products and manufactures on the conti¬ 
nent, to which the system gave rise. 

CONTORTED (contortus, twisted : Lat.), 
a term applied to twisted roots, like those 
of bistort; and to the testivation of some 
petals, when one side of each overlaps the 
adjacent side of another. 

CONTORTION ( contortio : Lat.), in Medi¬ 
cine, a twisting or wresting of a limb or 
member of the body out of its natural situa¬ 
tion ; partial dislocation. 

CONTOUR' (contomo: Ital.), in Painting, 
Sculpture, &c., the outline, or that line 
which defines or bounds a figure. 

CONTOURNE' (turned away: Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, an epithet for a beast standing or 
running with his face to the sinister side. 

CONTRABAND (contra, against; and 
bando, an edict: Ital.), in Commerce, is a 
term applied to such goods as are prohibited 
to be imported or exported, either by the 
laws of a particular state, by special trea¬ 
ties, or by the law of nations. Contraband 
of war means such articles as can in any 

way aid in carrying on the contest.-By 

the ancient law of Europe, a ship convey- 
iug any contraband article was liable to con¬ 
fiscation as well as the article. But in the 
modern practice of the courts of admiralty 
of this and other countries, a milder rule 
has been adopted, and the carriage of con¬ 
traband articles is attended only with the 
loss of freight and expenses, unless when 
the ship belongs to the owner of the con¬ 
traband cargo, or when the simple mis. 
conduct of conveying such a cargo has been 
connected with other aggravating circular 
stances. 














contra-basso] ^ctcuttftc antf 

CONTRA-BASSO {Ital.), tlie largest kind 


of violin, termed a double bass. 

CONTRACT ( contractus, from contralto, I 
draw together: Lat.), a covenant or agree¬ 
ment between two or more persons, with a 
lawful consideration or cause which hinds 
the parties to a performance. Each party 
to a contract must be of sound mind at the 
time it was made, and, unless for neces¬ 
saries, of age; and, if a woman, generally 
speaking she must be unmarried. The con¬ 
siderations are either future marriage, since 
performed; or money, or something ca¬ 
pable of being estimated in money; or some 
act or omission of an act, undoubtedly ad¬ 
vantageous to the party in whose favour it 
was done or omitted: the act contracted 
for must not be unlawful. The agreement 
must be obtained neither by fraud nor com¬ 
pulsion ; and it is sometimes vitiated by 
fraudulent acts committed subsequently to 
it. When it relates to an interest in land 
of three years’duration or more, or to goods 
of lOi. value or upwards, there must be 
earnest, or delivery, or a memorandum in 
writing, signed by the parties or their 
agents. When it is an agreement as surety, 
or upon marriage, as a consideration, it 
must be in writing, the want of the latter 
being, however, supplied in equity by par¬ 
tial performance. 

CONTRACTILE FORCE (same deriv.), 
that property or power inherent in certain 
elastic bodies, on account of which, after 
having been extended, they reduce them¬ 
selves again to their former dimensions, if 
permitted to do so. 

CONTRACTION ( contractio , from same), in 
a general sense, the diminishing the extent 

or dimensions of a body.-In Surgery, the 

shrinking up of the muscles or arteries.- 

In Grammar, the reducing two syllables 
into one by the omission of a letter or 
syllable. 

CONTRA-INDICATION ( contra , in oppo¬ 
sition to; and indicatio, a pointing out: 
Lat.), in Medicine, an indication from some 
peculiar symptom or fact, that forbids the 
method of cure which the general tenor of 
the disease requires. 

CONTRAST {contrasts: Fr.), in Painting, 
the due placing of the different parts and 
details of a figure, that they may be suit¬ 
ably opposed to each other. 

CONTRAVALLA'TION ( contra, over 
against; and vallum, a rampart: Lat.), LINE 
OF, in Fortification, a trench guarded with 
a parapet, thrown round a place by the be¬ 
siegers, to defend themselves against the 
sallies of the garrison. 

CONTRE (against: Fr.), in Heraldry, an 
epithet given to several bearings, on ac¬ 
count of their cutting the shield contrary 
and opposite ways: thus we say contre-bend, 
contre-chevron, contre-pale, &c. 

CONTRIBUTION {contributio, from con- 
tribuo, I contribute: Lat.), in a general 
sense, the act of giving to a common stock. 
In a Military sense, money, &c., demanded 
from a country which is in the power of an 
enemy, under various pretences, and for 
various purposes, usually for the support 
of the army. 

CONTROLLER {contrdlear; Fr.), or | 


1GG 


Comptroller, an overseer or officer ap¬ 
pointed to control or verify the accounts of 
other officers. There is a comptroller of 
the household in the royal establishment, 
who carries a white staff , and has the charge 
of checking and examining all the expenses 
of the household. 

CONTUMACY {contumacia, stubborn¬ 
ness : Lat.), in Law, a refusal to appear in 
court when legally summoned, or other dis¬ 
obedience to its rules and orders. 

CO'NUS {kdnos, a cone: Gr.), an extensive 
genus of univalve molluscs, having very 
thick shells, rolled up in the form of a cone. 
They are found chiefly in the southern and 
tropical seas. Many of them afford shells 
of great beauty, which sometimes bring 
very large prices. As much as 50i. has been 
given for a single specimen of Conus gloria 
marts. 

CONYALES'CENCE ( convalescentia , from 
convalesco, I grow strong : Lat.), the insen¬ 
sible recovery of health and strength after 

disease. 

CONY ALL A'RI A (from Lilium Conval- 
lium, the lily of the valley: Lat.), in Botany, 
a genus of plants belonging to thenat. ord. 
Liliacece, and including the lily of the 
valley. 

CONYEN'TICLE {conventiculum, the dim. 
of conventus, an assembly : Lat.), a private 
assembly or meeting for the exercise of 
religion. The word was at first an appella¬ 
tion of reproach for the religious assemblies 
of Wickliffe, in the reigns of Edward III. 
and Richard II., and is now usually applied 
to a meeting of dissenters from the esta¬ 
blished church. 

CONVENTION {conventio, a meeting: 
Lat.), in Law, an extraordinary assembly of 
the estates of the realm.—In Military 
affairs, an agreement entered into between 
two bodies of troops opposed to each other; 
or an agreement previous to a definite 

treaty.- National Convention, the 

name of the assembly by which the govern¬ 
ment of France was conducted during a 
period of the revolution. 

CONVER'GING {con, together with ; and 
vergo, I incline: Lat.), tending to one point. 

■-Converging Lines, in Geometry, lines 

which continually approximate.- Con¬ 

verging Rays, in Optics, those rays that 
proceed from different points of an object, 
and incline towards one another until they 
meet.- Converging Series, in Mathe¬ 

matics, that in which the magnitude of the 
several terms gradually diminishes. 

CON'YERSE {conversus, turned round: 
Lat.), a proposition in which the terms have 
been transposed. Thus, ‘some boasters are 
cowards,’ and ‘ some cowards are boasters,’ 
are converse propositions. 

CONVER'SION {conversio, a change :Lat.), 
in Logic, conversion takes place in a pro¬ 
position when its terms are transposed..- 

Conversion op Equations, in Algebra, 
the reducing of a fractional equation into 

an integral one.- Conversion op a 

Proposition, in Logic, is a changing of 
the subject into the place of the predicate, 
and still retaining the quality of the propo¬ 
sition. 

CON'YEX {convexus: Lat.), rising or 













167 Ettcraij) Crca^ttrjj. 


swelling on the exterior surface: thus, a 
convex lens or mirror, which bulges at the 
middle. 

CONVEY'ANCE ( conveho , I carry: Lat.), in 
Law, a deed or instrument by which lands, 
&c., are conveyed or made over to another. 

CONVEY'ANCEIt (same deriv.), one who 
professes to draw deeds, mortgages, and 
; conveyances of estates. 

CON'VICT ( convaincre , to convict: Fr.), 
in Law, a person found guilty of a crime 
alleged against him, either by the verdict of 
a jury, or some other legal decision. 

CONVICTION (same deriv.), the act of 
proving an accused person guilty of an 
I oifcnce charged against him, before a legal 
tribunal. 

CONVOCA'TION ( convocatio , from con- 
voco, I call together: Lat.), an assembly of 
the clergy of England, whose powers at 
presant are little more than nominal. In 
1665, the clergy gave up the privilege of 
: taxing themselves, on condition of being 
allowed to vote at elections of members of 
parliament; and since that time, convo¬ 
cation has seldom been allowed to do any 
business. Its province is supposed to be 
| the enactment of canon law, subject to the 
licence of the king, and the examination 
and censuring of all heretical and schis- 
matical books and persons; but from its 
judicial proceedings lies an appeal to the 
king in chancery, or his delegates. It is 
held during the session of parliament, and 
consists of an upper and a lower house: in 
the upper sit the bishops, and in the lower 
the inferior clergy, who are represented by 
their proctors, and all the deans and arch¬ 
deacons. It is prorogued from time to 
time. 

CONVOLTJ'TE (convolving, from convolvo, 
I roll together: Lat.), in Botany, that which 
is rolled upon itself. 

CONVOL'VULUS (Lat., from same), in 
Botany, a genus of plants of the nat..ord. 

! Convolvidacece, including the Bindweed of 
; our hedges, and several handsome climbing 
plants cultivated in gardens. 

CON'VOY (convoi: Fr.), ships of war which 
accompany merchantmen in time of war, to 
protect them from the attacks of the enemy. 
-By land, any body of troops which ac¬ 
company provisions, ammunition, or other 
property, for protection. 

CONVUL'SION (convidsio, from convello, I 
rend: Lat.), in Medicine, a writhing and 
agitation of the limbs, and involuntary 
action of the muscles in general. Sometimes 
the whole body is attacked, in which case 
the mind is affected. The tits are often 
preceded by dizziness, double or disturbed 
vision, and coldness; and are followed by 
great languor. Their cause is not fully un¬ 
derstood ; but they are supposed to be due 
to some change in the brain, spinal marrow, 
or nerves. 

COOT, in Ornithology, a British water- 
bird, belonging to the genus Fulica, 
amongst the Orallatores. The long toes 
have membranes at the sides, forming 
roundedlobes. The plumage is black, with 
a white line across the wing. It is closely 
allied to the moor hen. 

COPA'IBA or COW'VI, BALSAM OF, a 


[COPPER 


liquid resinous juice, employed medicinally, 
flowing from incisions made in the stems of 
several South American trees, belonging to 
the genus Copaifera, nat. ord. Leguminosce. 

COPAL', improperly called gum-copal, is 
a resin, the concrete juice of various trees 
growing in tropical countries. Brazilian 
copal is obtained from some leguminous 
trees of genus Uymencea. Copal greatly re¬ 
sembles amber in appearance: it is hard, 
transparent, and odoriferous, and makes an 
excellent varnish. 

COPAR'CENERS. [See PARCENERS.] 

COPER'NICAN SYSTEM, that system of 
the universe which was anciently taught by 
Aristarchus of Samos, in the first half of 
the third century n.c., and afterwards re¬ 
vived by Copernicus, a Polish astronomer. 
According to it, the sun is supposed to be 
placed in the centre, and all the other bodies 
to revolve round it in a particular order; 
which theory is now universally adopted, 
under the name of the solar system. 

CO'PING (cop, the head: Sax.), in Masonry, 
the covering on the top of a wall. It is 
usually of stone, and projecting, to carry off 
the rain. 

COP'PER (cuprum, corrupted from Cy- 
prium; from the island of Cyprus, whence 
it was originally brought: Lat.), a metal 
known from the most remote antiquity, 
and, before iron was in use, employed as an 
■Rlloy, for swords, domestic utensils, &c. It 
is of a pale red colour ; its specific gravity 
is 8 - 6; it requires a temperature of about 
2000° Fahr. for fusion. It is usually found as 
an ore ; the most common being some form 
of pyrites, a compound of the sulphurets of 
copper and iron. It is not unfrequently 
obtained native in small and slender fibres, 
and sometimes in little globular and ir¬ 
regular masses. Next to gold, silver, and 
platina, it is the most ductile and mal¬ 
leable of the metals: it is more elastic 
than any metal except steel, and is the 
most sonorous of all the metals. Copper 
in sheets is much used for covering the 
bottoms of ships, for boilers and other 
utensils; mixed with tin, it forms bell- 
metal and bronze ; with zinc, it formsbrass, 
pinchbeck, &c. Great Britain has numerous 
copper mines, in Cornwall, Devonshire, 
Wales, &c., but particularly in the first. 
Though known long before, the Cornish * 
copper mines were not wrought with much 
spirit till the last century. From 1726 to 
1735, the Cornwall and Devon mines pro¬ 
duced, on an average, about 6-180 tons per 
year of copper ore; during the ten years, 
from 1776 to 1785, they produced, on an 
average, 30,413 tons; from 1796 to 1805, 
56,403 tons; and the quantity now amounts 
to 162,000, worth nearly 1,000,000(. sterling! 

In 1768, the famous mines in the Paris 
mountain, near Amlwch, in Anglesea, were 
discovered. The supplies of ore furnished 
by them were for a long time abundant 
beyond all precedent; but, for many years 
past, their productiveness has been de¬ 
clining, and they now yield comparatively 
little copper. At present, the entire annual 
produce of the copper mines of England, 
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, may be esti¬ 
mated at about 15,000 tons of copper. Large 






























VL\)t Jrawttfic miXf 


163 


copper-plate] 


quantities of copper are brought to us from 
Australia. The Burra Burra mines, near 
Adelaide, are the most productive in the 
world. Swansea is the great copper port, 
and there are large smelting works there. 

COP'PBR-PLATE, a plate of copper, on 
which figures are engraved; also, the im¬ 
pression taken from that plate. Copper¬ 
plate printing is performed by means of 
what is called a rolling-press. The engraved 
plate is covered with ink, made of oil and 
Frankfort black, then cleanly wiped on the 
smooth parts, and laid on wet soft paper; 
and, on being passed between two cylinders 
w'ith great force, the impression of the en¬ 
graved part is perfectly transferred to the 
paper. 

COP'PERAS, commonly called green vit¬ 
riol, is sulphate of iron, a salt of a peculiar 
astringent taste, and of various colours, 
though most usually green. If sulphuric 
acid be diluted with water, and pouredupon 
iron, much effervescence will be percep¬ 
tible; the metal will be dissolved, and the 
solution, when evaporated, will yield sul¬ 
phate of iron, or common copperas. It is 
made on a large scale by exposing iron 
pyrites, which is a bisulphuret of iron, to 
the action of the atmosphere, from which 
it absorbs oxygen, and thereby produces 
the sulphate which is dissolved out by 
water. Copperas is the basis of many dyes; 
it gives, with logwood, a fine black. 

COPTICE, or COPSE ( coupeaux , from 
couper, to cut: Fr.), a wood of small growth, 
cut at certain times for fuel, &c. 

COPltO'LITES ( kopros , dung ; lithos, 
stone : Or.), the fossil dung of extinct ani¬ 
mals. They are ground along with fossil 
bones, and employed as manure by fanners. 

COP'TIC, the language of the Copts, or 
anything pertaining to that people, a sect 
of Christians, descendants of the ancient 
Egyptians, who derive their name from 
Coptos, in Egypt. 

COP'ULA (a tie : Lat.), the word or words 
that connect the terms of a proposition. 

11 may be affirmative, as: ‘ truth is our aim ; ’ 
or negative, as: * pain is not to be desired.’ 

COP'ULATIVE PROPOSITIONS (same 
deriv .), in Logic, those in which the subject 
and predicate are so linked together, by co¬ 
pulative conjunctions, that they may be all 
severally affirmed or denied one of another. 
Thus, ‘Scienceand literature enlighten the 
mind, and greatly increase our intellectual 
enjoyments.’ 

COP'Y( copie: Fr.), in Law, the transcript 
of any original writing, as the copy of a 
patent, charter, deed, &c. A common deed 
cannot be proved by a copy or counterpart, 
where the original may be procured. But if 
the deed be enrolled, an attested copy may 

be given in evidence.- Copy is also used 

for the imitation of an original production, 
more particularly in painting and other 

branches of art.- Copy, among Printers, 

denotes the manuscript or original of a 
book, given to be printed. 

COP'YHOLD, a tenure of landed pro¬ 
perty, by which the tenant holds his laud 
by copy of court-roll of the manor, at the 
will of the lord, or rather, according to the 
custom of the manor of which such estate 


is parcel. The lands of a copyholder, 
though substantially his owm, are, nomi¬ 
nally, a part of the lord’s demesne. 

COP'YRIGHT, the exclusive right of 
printing and publishing copies of any lite¬ 
rary performance, vested either in the 
author, or in those to whom he may have 
assigned it. By a recent enactment, the 
copyright of every volume, part, or division 
of a volume, pamphlet, sheet of letter- 
press, sheet of music, map, chart, or plan, 
separately published, in the lifetime of its 
owner, shall endure for his natural life, and 
seven years longer; or, if the seven years 
shall expire before the end of forty-two 
years from the first publication, shall en¬ 
dure for forty-two years. When the work 
is posthumous, it shall endure for forty-two 
years from the first publication, and shall 
belong to the owner of the manuscript. No 
action regarding copyright can be com¬ 
menced without previous registration of 
the work at Stationers’ Hall. Under some 
recent statutes, a copyright may be secured 
by registration fn certain articles of orna¬ 
mental and useful designs, for periods va¬ 
rying from nine months to three years. The 
designs must be new, and drawings of them, 
or patterns, must be lodged in a special 
government office. 

CO'QUILLA NUT, the hard covering of 
the kernel of a Brazilian palm, Attalea fu- 
nifera. It is used for making umbrella 
handles, and other similar articles. 

COR'ACLE {Welsh), a small boat, used by 
the fishermen of Wales, constructed of 
wicker, and covered with leather. It has 
descended from the times of the ancient 
Britons to the present day. 

COR'ACOID ( korax , a crow; and eidos, 
form: Gr.), in Anatomy, a small sharp process 
of the scapula, shaped like a crow’s beak. 

COR'AL (Jcorallion: Gr.), a substance 
which is usually branched, formed by ma¬ 
rine zoophytes, soft-bodied tentacled ani¬ 
mals, bearing much resemblance to sea- 
anemones. There is a great number of spe¬ 
cies of coral, varying greatly in shape, 
texture, and colour. Some are stony and 
inflexible; others of a horny structure, 
and flexible. [See Antipatiies.] Some of 
the latter have their branches coated with 
carbonate of lime [see Gokgonia] ; others 
are naked. Of the stony species, some are 
very porous, others so compact and hard 
that they will take a good polish, and of this 
nature is the coral of commerce, which is 
wrought into ornaments of many forms. 
The Brain-stone, one of these stony corals, 
is rounded and destitute of branches. In 
many corals, the zoophytes, which secrete 
the hard substance we term coral, reside in 
hollows or cells scattered over the viiolo 
surface. In others, they live in cups at the 
ends of the branches. The exact mode in 
which the coral is produced is not known. 
To return to the coral of commerce, the 
‘fishery’ is carried on extensively in the 
Mediterranean. The coral is attached to 
submarine rocks, by the base of the main 
stem. For this kind of fishing, eight men, 
who are excellent divers, equip a felucca) 
or a small boat, commonly called a coral¬ 
line; carrying with them a large wooden 













169 Httcrcvj) Crrotiurj). [coriander 

cross, with strong, equal, and long arms, 
each bearing a stout bag-net. They attach 
a strong rope to the middle of the cross, 
and let it down horizontally into the sea, 
having loaded its centre with aweight suf¬ 
ficient to sink it. The diver follows the 
cross, pushes one arm of it after another 
into the hollows of the rocks, so as to en¬ 
tangle the coral in the nets ; after which 
his comrades in the boat pull up the cross 
and its accompaniments. Coral is usually 
of a fine red: but it is sometimes flesh- 
coloured, yellow, or white. 

COlt'AL ISLANDS, and REEFS. In the 
Pacific and Indian oceans there is an im¬ 
mense number of islands which owe their 
existence wholly or in great part to coral 
zoophytes, which have also formed exten¬ 
sive reefs, that is, sub-marine walls of the 
same calcareous material. Many fishes 
browse upon corals, and a great number of 
worms and shell-flsli bore into the stony 
mass. Thus, in process of time, much line 
mud is formed, which sinks to the bottom 
of the sea, and there constitutes beds, 
which would bear great resemblance to 
chalk if elevated into land. These struc¬ 
tures have been classed as1. Atolls, or 
Lagoon islands, circular walls of coral en¬ 
closing a piece of quiet water. [See Atoll.] 
2. Barrier reefs, which extend in a linear 
direction near land. A reef of this kind, 
1200 miles long, stands twenty or thirty 
miles from the north-east coast of Aus¬ 
tralia, and stretches almost across Torres 
Straits. Off New Caledonia is another reef 
400 miles long. 3. Shore or Fringing reefs, 
which form a ribbon or fringe round the 
shore of an island. It has been ascertained 
that the animals which form these masses 
of coral cannot work below a depth of 
thirty fathoms, nor above the surface of 
the water. They belong to the families of 
Madreporidai, Astraudie, and Oculinidae, 
and are quite different from the coral of 
commerce. It is generally believed that 
the different appearances presented by coral 
islands and reefs are connected with exten¬ 
sive subterranean movements of the earth's 
crust, and Mr. Darwin’s theory, which has 
met with the acceptance of scientific men, 
is that atolls have their foundation on land 
that has slowly subsided, and part of which 
was once above the level of the sea ; that 
barrier reefs prove that the land is also 
sinking ; whilst fringing reefs testify that 
the land is either rising or stationary. In 
many of the Sandwich islands, old reefs 
are to be seen at a considerable height 
above the sea, and these afford examples of 
fringing reefs. 

COR'AL TREE, the English name of 
some leguminous trees and shrubs, belong¬ 
ing to the genus Erythrina. They arc natives 
of India, Africa, and America, and have 
handsome scarlet flowers. 

CORAL'LIFORM ( corallium, coral; and 
forma, a form : Lat.), forked, crooked, and 
Irregular, like coral. 

COR'ALLINES ( corallium, coral: Lat.), 
small marine plants which grow on the 
shore near low water mark. They have 
many jointed branches, and their tissues 
are so charged with carbonate of lime that 

they were long thought to be of animal 
origin. The lime may be removed by means 
of weak acid, leaving the vegetable matter 
behind. Corallina and Jania are the two 

best known genera.- Coralline is also a 

small boat used in the coral fisheries. 

COR'BEIL ( corbeille, a basket : Fr.), in 
Fortification, a basket which is filled with 
earth, and set upon a parapet, to shelter 
men from the fire of besiegers. 

COR'BEL (same deriv.), in Architecture, 
a short piece of timber in a wall, jutting 
out six or eight inches, in the manner of a 
shoulder-piece, and sometimes placed for 
strength under the semi-girder of a plat¬ 
form. It is often in the form of a basket, 

or some other ornament_Also the carved 

bosses, or projecting stones, frequently 
seen in Gothic churches at the spring of 

the arches.- Corbel Table, a projecting 

battlement, parapet, or cornice, resting on 
corbels. 

COR'CULTJM, or COR'CULE (a dim. of 
cor, the heart : Lat.), in Botany, a name for 
the embryo of the seed. 

COR'DAGE, every description of ropes 
and lines used on shipboard ; but more par¬ 
ticularly that employed in the running rig¬ 
ging of a ship. 

COR'D ATE (cor, the heart : Lat.), a term 
used by naturalists for heart-shaped. Thus, 
in Botany, a cordate leaf means one which 
has a pair of rounded lobes at the base, 
with the stalk inserted between them, the 
other end of the leaf being acute. 

CORDELIE'R (corde, a rope : Fr.), in 
Church History, a grey friar, or monk of 
the order of St. Francis. The Cordeliers 
wear a white girdle, which is a rope tied 
with three knots, and called the cord of St. 
Francis. 

CORDELIE'RS. This word, as we have 
just seen, originally signified an order of 
Franciscan monks ; but it was afterwards 
applied to a society of Jacobins which 
existed in France from 1792 to 1794, and 
were so called from their place of meeting. 
They were distinguished by the violence 
of their speeches and conduct, and contri¬ 
buted not a little to the execrable crimes 
which disgraced the French name and 
nation during the early periods of revolu¬ 
tionary anarchy. 

CORDILLE'RA (Span.), a chain of moun¬ 
tains, applied to the range of the Andes. 

COR'DON (a string : Fr.), in Fortification, 
a row of stones projecting from the ram¬ 
part, at the basis of the parapet. The word 
cordon is also used to denote aline or series 
of military posts. Cordon signifies likewise 
a riband ; as, the cordon bleu, the badge of 
the French order of the Holy Ghost. 

COR'DOVAN, leather made of goatskin, 
and named from Cordova in Spain. 

CORIA'CEOUS (corium, a hide : Lat.), 
stiff, like leather ; a botanic term for leaves, 
capsules, &c., when of that texture. 

CORIAN'DER ( koris, a bug : Gr.), the 
Conundrum sativum of Linnaeus, an annual 
plant, belonging to the order of Umbelli - 
ferae, the seed of which, when dry, is an 
agreeable aromatic, but, when fresh, has 
the smell of a bug: whence its name. It 
is one of the ingredients of curry powder. 
























coriaria] (£fjc ^rtnittftc antr 170 

CORIA'RIA (corium, a hide: Lat., from 
its use in tanning), in Botany, a genus of 
shrubby plants, nat. ord. Coriariacece. The 
Toot poison of New Zealand is extracted 
from one species. The same and other 
species yield a black dye. 

CORIN'THIAN, pertaining to Corinth, a 

celebrated city of Greece.- Corinthian 

Order, in Architecture, the noblest and 
richest of the five orders. The capital of 
the column is adorned with two rows of 
leaves, between which arise little stalks, or 
caulicoles, forming sixteen volutes. [See 
Column.] 

CO'RIUM {Lat.), in Anatomy, the inner¬ 
most layer of the skin in mammals, termed 
| also the cutis vera . [See Skin.] 

CORK ( kork : Germ.), the outer covering 
( epiphlceum ) of the bark of the Qaercus 
Suber, a tree which grows abundantly in 
l Spain, Italy, and France. It is obtained by 
making an incision down the whole height 
of the trunk, and, at each extremity of this, 
another round the girth. The tree is sup¬ 
plied with this coat so abundantly that it 
not only continues to flourish uninjured by 
the act of barking, but, in its natural state, 
regularly sheds the old, and acquires a new 
covering. Cork is iight, porous, nearly 
impervious to most liquors, and elastic; 
qualities which render it superior to all 
other substances for stoppers of bottles, in 
the manufacture of which it is principally 
used. It is also employed for buoys to float 
nets, in the construction of life-boats, the 
making of waterproof shoes, and in va¬ 
rious other ways. The uses of cork were 
well known to the ancients, and were nearly 
the same as those to which it is applied 
by us. 

CORM ( kormos, a stump : Gr.), in Botany, 
an underground stem in the nature of a 
solid bulb, such as the gladiolus and tulip 
have. 

COR'MORANT ( cormoran: Fr.; from cor¬ 
pus marinus, a sea crow: Lat.), an exceed¬ 
ingly voracious genus (Phalacrocorax) of 
palmipede birds, found in every climate. 
They are excellent divers, but are very awk¬ 
ward on land, on account of their legs being 
placed far back. They fly, however, with 
great rapidity. They build on the highest 
cliffs hanging over the sea, and feed on 
fish, among which they make great havoc. 
Some of the species have been trained for 
fishing, particularly in China. There are 
two British species : the great Cormorant, 
and the Shag or Green Cormorant. 

CORN {kom: Germ.), farinaceous seed, 
as that of wheat, rye, barley, oats, and 
maize. In short, it comprehends all the 
kinds of grain which constitute the food 
of men and horses.— Corn, in Surgery, 
an excrescence, or hard tubercle, like a 
fiat wart, growing in the feet, especially 
upon the joints of the toes. Corns are 
usually produced by the pressure of tight 
or narrow-toed shoes, especially if a per¬ 
son is obliged to stand nr walk much, and 
may be cured by removingtlie pressure. 
COR'NEA {cornu, horn: Lat.), in Anatomy, 
i the transparent membrane in the forepart 
of the eye, through which the rays of light 
pass. 

COR'NET {cornelte, a dim. of corne, a 
horn: Fr.), an instrument very similar to a 

trumpet, which is used in the army.- 

Cornet {cornetta, a small flag: Ital.), the 
lowest commissioned officer in a troop of 
cavalry, answering to an ensign in a troop 
of foot. He bears the colours. His rank, 
or commission, is called a cornetcy. 

CORN-FLAG, in Botany, the wild Glad¬ 
iolus, nat. ord. Iridacece. 

COR'NICE {corniche: Fr.; from corona, a 
crown: Lat.), in Architecture, the upper¬ 
most member of the entablature ; or any 
moulded projection that crowns or finishes 
the part to which it is affixed; as, the cor¬ 
nice of a room, a door, &c. 

CORNIC'ULATE {comiculum, a little 
horn : Lat.), in Botany, bearing a little spui- 
or horn. 

COR'NTT AMMO'NIS (the horn of Ammon), 
afossil shell, belonging to the genus Ammon¬ 
ites, bearing some resemblance in shape to 
a ram’s horn. 

CORNUCO'PIA {cornu, a horn ; and copia, 
abundance : Lat.), or Horn of Plenty, the 
source whence, according to the ancient 
poets, every production of the earth was 
poured out abundantly : a gift from Jupiter 
to his nurse, the goat Amalthea. In eluci¬ 
dation of this fable, it has been said that 
in Libya, a part of ancient Africa, there was 
a small and fertile territory, somewhat re¬ 
sembling a bullock’s horn in shape, which 
Ammon bestowed on his daughter Amalthea, 
the nurse of Jupiter. Upon medals, the 
cornucopia is given to all deities, genii, and 
heroes, to mark the felicity and abundance 
procured through the goodness of the for¬ 
mer, or the care and valour of the latter. 

COR'NUS (the cornel tree: Lat.), a genus 
of shrubs and trees, nat. ord. Comacew, to 
which the dogwood, a well-known British 
shrub, belongs. 

CORO I/LA, or COR'OL {corolla, a garland : 
Lat.), in Botany, one of the whorls of leaves 
which surround the organs of fructification. 
There are usually two such whorls, the 
outer being the calyx, the inner the corolla, 
and this is frequently gaily coloured. 
Sometimes the calyx and corolla are undis- 
tinguisliable, as in the lily and iris, in which 
case perianth is the term used. Each leaf 
of the corolla is called a petal; and, accord¬ 
ing as there is one, two, or three of these 
petals, the corolla is said to be monopetalous, 
dipetalovs, tripetalous, &c. [See Botany.] 
COP/OLLAR.Y {corollarium, a deduction ; 
literally, a wreath of flowers: Lat.), a con¬ 
clusion, or consequence drawn from pre¬ 
mises, or from, what is advanced or de¬ 
monstrated. 

CORO'NA (a crown: Lat.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a large flat member of a cornice, 
very frequently called the drip, or Larmier. 

It is situated between the cymatium and 
the bed moulding, and its use is to carry off 

the water, drop by drop.-In Botany, the 

series of processes in the throat of the 
flowers of Narcissus and other allied plants. 
They are considered to be sterile stamens. 

-In Optics, a halo, or luminous circle, 

round the sun or moon.-In Zoology, the 

exposed part of a tooth, which projects be 
yond the alveolus or gum. 










































171 


HttciTcrn Cmgttrg* 


[CORREIA TITS 


CORONA'LIS SUTU'RA (the coronal 
suture : Lat.), in Anatomy, the first suture 
of the skull, which reaches transversely 
from one temple to the other, and joins the 
os frontis to the ossa parietalia. 

COR'ONARY ( coronarius , pertaining to a 
crown : Lat.), in Anatomy, the vessels, &c., 
which spread round certain viscera, hones, 
&c. Thus, Coronary Vessels are those 
which furnish the substance of the heart 

with blood.- Coronary Arteries, two 

arteries springing out of the aorta, before 

it leaves the pericardium. - Coronary 

Vein, a vein diffused over the exterior sur¬ 
face of the heart. It is formed of several 
branches arising from all parts of that 
organ, and terminates in the vena cava, 
whither it conveys the blood brought by 
the coronary arteries. 

CORONATION ( corona, a crown: Lat), 
the public and solemn ceremony of crown¬ 
ing, or investing a prince with the in¬ 
signia of royalty, in acknowledgment of 
his right to govern the kingdom ; at which 
time the prince swears reciprocally to the 
people to observe the laws, customs, and 
privileges of the kingdom, and to act in 
all things conformably to them. The form 
of the coronation oath of a British monarch 
Is as follows: ‘I solemnly promise and 
swear to govern the people of this United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and 
the dominions thereto belonging, according 
to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and 
the laws and customs of the same ; to the 
utmost of my power to maintain the laws of 
God, the true profession of the gospel, and 
the Protestant reformed religion establish¬ 
ed by the law ; to preserve unto the bishops 
and the clergy of this realm, and the 
churches committed to their charge, all 
such rights and privileges as by law do or 
shall appertain unto them or any of them.’ 
After this, the king or queen, laying his or 
her hand upon the holy Gospels, says, ‘ The 
things which I have before promised, I will 
perform and keep; so help me God.’ Our 
sovereigns, from Harold down to Queen 
Victoria, have been crowned at Westmin¬ 
ster. The actual imposition of the crown, 
by the Archbishop of Canterbury, whilst the 
sovereign is seated in the ancient wooden 
chair preserved in the abbey, has of late 
years taken place within the sacrarium in 
front of the altar before St. Edward’s 
Chapel. After being crowned, the sovereign 
receives the homage of the officers of state 
and nobility. 

COR'ONER (same deriv., because an offi cer 
of the crown), the officer presiding over a 
jury convened to inquire into the cause of 
sudden deaths. The lord chief justice of 
the Queen’s Bench is the chief coroner for 
the whole kingdom. Coroners are elected 
by the freeholders of counties, and hold 
their appointments for life. 

COR'ONET (a dim,, from corona, a crown : 
Lat.), in Heraldry, a small crown worn by 
the nobility. The coronet of a duke is 
adorned with eight strawberry leaves; that 
of a marquis has four strawberry leaves al¬ 
ternating with four pearls; that of an earl 
has eight strawberry leaves, alternating 
with eight pearls, raised on points; that of 


a viscount has sixteen pearls; and that of 
a baron only six pearls. The last does not 
appear to have worn a coronet earlier than 

the reign of Charles II. -Coronet, oi 

Coronet Bone, in Farriery, the second of 
the consolidated phalanges of the horse’s 
foot; the upper part of his hoof. 

CORO'NOID PROCESS, in Anatomy. 
[See Condyloid.] 

COR'PORAL {caporal: Fr.; from capo, a 
head: Ital,), the lowest non-commissioned 
officer in a company of foot, who commands 
one of the divisions, places and replaces 
sentinels, &c.; at drill, he has charge of a 
squad; in the ranks he does the duties of a 

private, but his pay is a little higher.-- 

Corporal, in Law, an epithet for anything 
that belongs to the body, as corporal punish¬ 
ment, or a corporal oatli —so called because 
the party taking it is obliged to lay his hand 
on the Bible. 

CORPORATION ( corpus, a body: Lat.), a 
body politic or corporate, so called because 
the persons or members are joined into one 
body, and authorized by law to transact 
business as an individual. Corporations are 
either sole or aggregate. Sole corporations 
consist of a single person : such is the par¬ 
son, in respect to his benefice. Corporations 
aggregate consist of more than one, and 
are kept up by a continued succession of 
members. Corporations are also cither ec¬ 
clesiastical or lay. Parsons, bishops, chap¬ 
ters, &c., constitute the former. The latter 
are either civil or eleemosynary. Among the 
first are trading companies, &c.; among the 
second, hospitals, colleges, &c. The chief 
incident of a corporation is the power of 
taking land by succession. Corporations 
are established either by prescription, 
letters patent, charter, or act of parlia¬ 
ment ; but most commonly by patent or 
charter. The municipal corporations of 
boroughs were established by an act of par¬ 
liament, 5 & 6 Wm. IV. cap. 76 (1835). 

CORPS (Fr.), a body of troops, any di¬ 
vision of an army; as, a corps cle reserve, the 
troops in reserve; corps de bataille, the 
whole line of battle, &c. 

COR'PUS (a body : Lat.), in Anatomy, a 
name given to several substances or parts 
of the human body. In legal phraseology, 
the corpus of a fund is the capital exclusive 
of interest. 

COR'PUS CHRIS'TI DAT ( corpus Christi, 
the body of Christ: Lat.), a festival insti¬ 
tuted by the Church of Rome in honour of 
the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, in 
which it maintains that Christ is corporeally 
present. 

CORPUS'CULAR PHILOS'OPHT ( cor- 
pusculum, an atom: Lat.), that philosophy 
which endeavours to account for the phe¬ 
nomena of nature, by the motion, figure, 
rest, position, &c., of the minute particles 
of matter. 

COR'PUSCULE ( corpusculum, a dim. of 
corpus, the body: Lat.), a minute particle or 
physical atom. 

CORREL'ATIVE (con, together and re¬ 
tains, relative: Lat.), an epithet denoting 
the having a reciprocal relation, so that the 
existence of one in a certain state depends 
on the existence of another; as, father and 

































corridor] EIjc ^cifutiftc antf 172 


son ; light and darkness; motion and rest. 
‘ Every right supposes a correlative obliga¬ 
tion, but every obligation does not create a 
right correlative to it.’ 

COR'RIDOR ( corridoro : Ital.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a gallery or long passage round a 
building, leading to several chambers at a 
distance from each other. --- In Fortifi¬ 

cation, the covered way lying round the 
whole compass of the fortifications of a 
place. 

CORROB'ORANT ( corroboro , I strengthen: 
Lat.), of a strengthening nature ; as a cor¬ 
roborant medicine. 

CORRO'SION ( corrodo, I gnaw in pieces : 
Lat.), the action of eating or wearing away 
by slow degrees, as when acids act on 
metals, &c. 

CORRO'SIVE SUB'LIMATE (same deriv.), 
bichloride of mercury ; an extremely acrid 
and poisonous preparation. White of egg 
is useful in preventing its poisonous ef- 
f 6CtS. 

COR'RUGATOR ( corrugo, I wrinkle: Lat.), 
a muscle which contracts the skin of the 
forehead into wrinkles. 

COR'SAIR ( corsaro: Ital.), a name com¬ 
monly given to the piratical cruising ves¬ 
sels of Barbary, which, from the beginning 
of the 16th century to a recent period, in¬ 
fested the Mediterranean. 

CORS'ELET (Fr.), in Natural IHstory, 
that part of the underside of crustaceans 
and insects which is between the insertion 
of the legs.-Also, a small cuirass. 

CORTE'GE (Fr.), a word signifying the 
train or retinue that accompanies a person 
of distinction. 

COR'TES, the two constitutional houses 
of peers and deputies in Spain and Portugal, 
answering to the houses of lords and com¬ 
mons in Great Bi-itain. 

COR'TEX (Lat.), the outer bark of a plant. 

COR'TICAL (same deriv.), consisting of 
bark or rind ; belonging to the external co¬ 
vering, as the cortical part of the brain. 

CORUN'DUM (Ind.), a mineral of the sap¬ 
phire kind, which is found in the East 
Indies. It is composed of nearly pure 
alumina. 

CORUSCA'TION (coruscatio, a flashing: 
from corusco, I glitter: Lat.), a sudden flash 
of light. 

CORVET'TE (Fr.), a vessel of war carry¬ 
ing less than twenty guns. 

COR'VIDiE (corvus, a crow: Lat.), a fa¬ 
mily of birds belonging to the order of 
Passeres, including the crow, raven, jay, 
nutcracker, and many other birds. 

CORVUS, in Antiquity, a military engine, 
invented by the R-omans at the time of 
their wars in Sicily, when they first engaged 
the Carthaginian fleet. It consisted of a 
strong platform of boards at the prow, mov¬ 
able as on a spindle, and thrown over the 
side of an enemy’s vessel when grappled, 
the object being to enable the Romans to 
board the Carthaginian ships. 

CORYBAN'TES (Korubantes: Gr.), in An¬ 
tiquity, priests of the goddess Cybele, ce¬ 
lebrated for their wild and extravagant 
attitudes in dancing, &c. 

COR'YMB ( koriimbe, a cluster of berries : 
Gr.), in Botany, a species of inflorescence 


in which the lower flower stalks are pro¬ 
duced, so as to rise nearly to the same height 
as the upper and middle flowers, and thus 
they are all brought almost to the same 
level. The umbel differs from the corymb 
by having all the flower stalks radiating 
from the same point. 

CORYPHAE'NA (koras, a helmet; and 
phaino, I show: Gr.), in Ichthyology, a ge¬ 
nus of acanthopterygious fishes, so called 
from the head being like a helmet. It in¬ 
cludes the dolphin, the Coryphcena Hip- 
pitrus. 

CORYPII.E'US (koruphaios, from koru- 
phe, the summit: Gr.), the leader of a 
chorus. 

COSE'CANT (abbrev. for complement-se¬ 
cant), in Geometry, the secant of an arc 
which is the complement of another, or 
what it wants of ninety degrees. 

CO'SINE (abbrev. for complement-sine), in 
Geometry, the sine of an arc which is the 
complement of another. [See Cosecant.] 

COSMET'IC ( kosmeo, I adorn: Gr.), any 
preparation that renders the skin soft and 
white, or helps to beautify and improve the 
complexion. 

COS'MICAL (kosmikos, from kosmos, the 
world: Gr.), relating to the whole system of 
the world. In ancient Astronomy, the word 
was used to denote a particular position of 
a planet or star, at its rising or setting, with 
respect to the sun. A planet is said to rise 
or set cosmically when it rises or sets at the 
same instant with that luminary. Cosmical 
is opposed to acronycal, which means that 
the planet rises when the sun sets, and vice 
versa. The cosmical and acronycal rising 
of a planet or star are invisible on account 
of the sun’s rays. 

COSMOG'ONY (kosmogonia: from kosmos, 
the world ; and gonos, birth: Gr.), in Phy¬ 
sics, the theory of the formation of the 
■world. 

COSMOG'RAFHY (kosmographia: from 
kosmos, the world; and graplio, I write: 
Gr.), a description of the world or universe : 
or the mode of describing the several parts 
of the visible world. 

COS'MOLABE (kosmos, the world ; and 
labe, a taking: Gr.), an ancient instru¬ 
ment, very similar to the astrolabe, for mea¬ 
suring distances in the heavens or on the 
earth. 

COSMOL'OGY ( kosmos, the world; and 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), a treatise relating 
to the structure and parts of creation, the 
elements of bodies, the laws of motion, 
and the order and course of nature. 

COSMOP'OLITE (kosmos, the world ; and 
polites, a citizen : Gr.), a citizen of tlieivorld; 
one who makes himself at home everywhere. 

COS'SACKS (armed warriors : Tart.), the 
tribes who inhabit the southern and eastern 
parts of Russia, Poland, the Ukraine, &c., 
paying no taxes, but performing instead 
the duty of soldiers. They form a kind of 
military democracy, and have proved highly 
serviceable, as irregular cavalry, in the 
Russian campaigns. Their principal wea¬ 
pon is a lance from ten to twelve feet in 
length; they have also a sabre, a gun, and 
a pair of pistols, and sometimes a bow and 
arrows. Their lances, in riding, are carried 









173 


[cottoin 


Hfterarg Crntsury. 


upright by means of a strap fastened to the 
foot, the arm, or the pommel of the saddle. 
Those who use bows carry a quiver over 
the shoulder. Though little adapted for 
regular movements, they are very service¬ 
able in attacking baggage or magazines, 
and in the pursuit of troops scattered in 
flight. They fight principally in small 
bodies, that attack the enemy on all sides, 
but mostly on the flanks and in the rear, 
rushing upon them at full speed, with a 
shout, and with levelled lances. 

COST-BOOK SYSTEM of carrying on a 
mining adventure. In this system, the 
mine is vested in one or more persons in 
trust for the other shareholders as well as 
for themselves, and an agent who is termed 
the purser is appointed to manage the mine. 
It is his duty to enter in the ‘cost-book’ 
the names of the shareholders, the minutes 
of their meetings, the expenses and re¬ 
ceipts, and the transfers of shares. Meetings 
of the shareholders are frequently convened, 
and those present consider the accounts 
and the purser’s report, make calls, declare 
dividends, give directions as to the working 
of the mine, and exercise a general control 
over the adventure, the majority deciding 
any question in difference. Any shareholder 
may withdraw from the undertaking on 
giving notice to the purser and settling his 
accounts. The purser will then strike his 
name out of the book, and enter the name 
of the person to whom he has sold his 
share; the transfer is thus completed. 
There is seldom any deed of settlement. 
The advantage of the system consists in 
the frequency of the general meetings, and 
the controlling superintendence exercised 
by the shareholders over the officers and 
the proceedings in the mine. The accounts 
being regularly discharged, the partners 
are acquainted with the extent of their 
several liabilities. 

COS'TUME (Fr ), in Painting and the fine 
arts generally, the observance of that rule 
by which an artist is required to make any 
person or thing sustain its proper character; 
the scene, dress, arms, manners, &c., all 
corresponding. 

COTAK'GENT (abbrev. for complement- 
tangent), in Geometry, the tangent of an arc 
which is the complement of another. [See 
Cosecant.] 

CO'TERIE (Old Fr.; from quot, how 
many: Lat.), a knot of persons forming a 
particular circle. At first, the term, accord¬ 
ing to some, was purely commercial, and 
signified an association in which each mem¬ 
ber furnished his quota, or part, and bore 
his share in the profit and loss. 

COTHUR'iNUS (Lat.; from kothornos: 
Gr.), in Antiquity, a kind of high-laced shoe, 
such as Diana and her nymphs are repre¬ 
sented as wearing. It rose above the mid¬ 
dle of the leg, and was used by horsemen, 
hunters, and men in authority ; also by 
heroes in tragedy; in which case, to give 
them height, it had a sole of cork, of con¬ 
siderable thickness. 

COT'TON (coton: Fr.), a soft, downy sub¬ 
stance, consisting of fine hairs growing 
round the seeds of plants belonging to the 
genus Qossypium, nat. ord. Malvaceae, seve¬ 


ral species of which, some herbaceous, some 
shrubby, grow in warm climates. Its che¬ 
mical characters are those of lignin, and it 
is peculiarly susceptible of combination 
with certain metallic oxides or bases. The 
chief distinction between cottons in the 
pod is that of black-seeded and green-seeded. 
The former part with the hairs very readily 
to a pair of rollers, or the human arm ; 
while the latter require to be ginned, by 
powerful machinery. The filaments vary 
in length, flexibility, tenacity, and thick¬ 
ness, in different cottons ; whence the great 
difference in their value. It appears that 
the manufacture of cotton has been carried 
on in Hindostan from the remotest anti¬ 
quity ; and there it is still continued, by 
hand labour, in all its primitive simplicity. 
In England, however, during the last half- 
century it has become of immense import¬ 
ance. It has been remarked that the rapid 
growth and prodigious magnitude of the 
cotton manufacture of Great Britain are, 
beyond all question, the most extraordinary 
phenomena in the history of industry. Our 
command of the finest wool naturally at¬ 
tracted our attention to the woollen manu¬ 
facture, and paved the way for that supe¬ 
riority in it which we have long since at¬ 
tained ; but when we undertook the cotton 
manufacture, we had comparatively few 
facilities for its prosecution, and had to 
struggle w r ith the greatest difficulties. The 
raw material was produced at an immense 
distance from our shores; and in Hindostan 
and China the inhabitants had arrived at 
such perfection in the arts of spinning and 
weaving, that the lightness and the deli¬ 
cacy of their finest cloths emulated the web 
of the gossamer, and seemed to set rivalry 
at defiance. Such, however, has been the 
influence of the wonderful discoveries 
and inventions of Hargraves, Arkwright, 
Crompton, Cartwright, and others, that we 
have overcome all these difficulties—that 
neither the extreme cheapness of labour in 
Hindostan, nor the excellence to which the 
natives had attained, has enabled them to 
withstand the competition of those who 
buy their cotton, and who, after bringing 
it 5000 miles to be manufactured, carry back 
the goods to them.-The following ac¬ 

count of a pound of cotton may not be un¬ 
interesting to our readers. There was sent 
to London, Horn Paisley, a small piece of 
muslin, about one pound weight: the wool 
came from the East Indies to London; from 
London it went to Lancashire, where it was 
manufactured into yarn; from Manchester 
it was sent to Paisley, where it was woven; 
it was next sent to Ayrshire, where it was 
tamboured; it was then conveyed to Dum¬ 
barton, w'here it was hand-sewed, and again 
returned to Paisley, whence it was sent to 
Glasgow and finished, and thence to Lon¬ 
don. It may be reckoned that it took about 
three years to bring this article to market, 
from the time when it was packed in India 
till it arrived complete in the merchant’s 
warehouse in London ; it must have been 
conveyed 5000 miles by sea, and nearly 1000 
by land, and have contributed to reward 
the labour of nearly 150 persons, whose ser¬ 
vices were necessary in the carriage and 






















cotton-grass] 


Ei )t Scientific anfi 


171 


manufacture of this small quantity of cot¬ 
ton, and by which the value has been ad¬ 
vanced more than 2000 per cent. In 1860 
there came to England the following sup¬ 
plies of cotton: United States, 2,581,000 
bales; Brazil, 103,000 bales; Egypt, 109,000 
bales ; West Indies, 1000 bales; East Indies, 
563,000 bales; total, 3,357,000 bales. After 
that year, as is well known, the quantity of 
cotton imported from America greatly de¬ 
creased in consequence of the civil war. 
When the cotton manufacture was at its 
height, upwards of 500,000 persons were 
actually employed in it, of whom 400,000 
were in Lancashire. If to this number we 
add the engineers, mechanics, and workers 
in metal and wood, the shopkeepers and 
other tradespeople supported by them, alto¬ 
gether about 250,000 persons, and then take 
into consideration the women, children, and 
old relatives of the preceding, 250,000 people 
more, we shall arrive at a total of a million 
of persons who were dependent upon the 
cotton manufacture, and of these four-fifths 
were resident in Lancashire. In 1862 the 
value of the cotton goods exported was 
42,141,0891., and the value of exported cotton 
yarn was 9,870,8751.- Cotton Gin, a ma¬ 

chine to separate the seeds from cotton. 

- Cotton Mill, a mill or building with 

machinery for carding, roving, and spin¬ 
ning cotton, by means of either water or 
steam. 

COT'TON-GRASS, the common name of 
the species of Eriophorum ( erion , wool; and 
phero, I bear: Gr.), a genus of perennial 
plants, nat. ord. Cyperacece. The fruit is 
clothed with cotton-like fibres, of which par 
per and candle-wicks have been made. 

CO'TYL A (kotule, a cavity: Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, any deep cavity in a bone, in which 
another bone is articulated ; but the word 
is generally used to express the acetabulum , 
or cavity which receives the head of the 
thigh-bone. 

COTYLE'DON ( kotuledon , any cup-shaped 
cavity: Gr.), in Botany, the seed-lobe at¬ 
tached to the embryo. It nourishes the 
plumula and radicle during their first de¬ 
velopment, before they are able to subsist 
on organizable matter, absorbed from the 
earth. The two cotyledons of exogenous 
plants usually burst through the integu¬ 
ments, and show themselves above ground 
in the shape of temporary leaves, which 
have a different form from the subsequent 
leaves of the plant. Where the seed-lobes 
are fleshy, as in the bean, they often remain 
below the surface of the ground. A plant 
called Welwitschia has been lately found 
in South Africa, which never has any other 
leaves than its two cotyledonous leaves: 
in this respect it has no parallel in the ve¬ 
getable kingdom. The seed-lobe of mono- 
cotyledonous plants never takes the shape 
of a leaf. [See Dicotyledonous.] 

COUCH (couche, a layer: Fr.), in Painting, 
a term used for each lay or coating of 
colour, either in oil or water, upon the 
canvas, wall, or other matter to be painted. 
Gilders use the term couch, for gold or silver 
leaf laid on metals in gilding or silvering. 

COUCH'-GRASS ( couclier, to lie down : 
Fr., because it creeps along), the Tnticum 


repens of botanists, a grass which spreads 
very fast in arable land, and chokes every¬ 
thing else. 

COUCH'ANT (lying down : Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, lyingdown, but with the head raised ; 
which distinguishes the posture of couchant 
from dormant, or asleep.- Levant and cou¬ 

chant, in Law, rising up and lying down, 
applied to beasts, and indicating that they 
have been at least one night on the land. 

COUCH'ING (coucher, to put lying down : 
Fr.), one of the modes of operating in cases 
of cataract, by which the opaque crystalline 
lens is removed out of the axis of vision. 

COUGH, a convulsive motion of the 
diaphragm, muscles of the larynx, thorax, 
&c.; expelling the air that was drawn into 
the lungs by inspiration, and carrying along 
with it the phlegm or irritating matter 
which causes the effort of the muscles. It 
is generally, if not always, symptomatic of 
other diseases. When it does not disappear 
within a short period it cannot be neglected 
with impunity. 

COUN'CIL (consilium , literally a sitting 
together: Lat.), in Ecclesiastical History, 
an assembly of prelates and other spiritual 
persons for the regulation of ecclesias¬ 
tical matters. It is either national or 
(ecumenical in the latter, the whole body 
of the clergy throughout the world is sup¬ 
posed to be represented. Roman Catholics 
hold the decision of a general council in¬ 
fallible; and a large number of them be¬ 
lieve it superior to the pope. But, since 
this doctrine has been asserted by councils, 
not only theoretically, but practically in the 
deposition of popes, the latter have been 
very unwilling to convene them; nor has 
there been one since the Council of Trent: 
and before making the immaculate concep¬ 
tion an article of faith, the present pope 
merely demanded the opinions of the Ro¬ 
man Catholic prelates by letter. Protestants 
attach great importance to the first fout¬ 
general councils, viz. those of Nice, Con¬ 
stantinople I., Ephesus, audChalcedon ; but 

they altogether deny their infallibility.- 

Council, in National affairs, an assembly of 
persons who meet for the purpose of con¬ 
certing measures of state. In England, the 
Privy Council is that in which the privy 
councillors meet to deliberate on affairs of 
state. When a council is composed only of 
cabinet ministers, it is called a Cabinet 

Council. -Council op War, an assembly 

of the principal officers of a fleet or army, 
called by the admiral or general to concert 
measures for requisite operations. 

COUNT (comes, a companion: Lat.), a title 
of foreign noiblity, equivalent to earl with 
us. It is very ancient, having been in ex¬ 
istence since the time of Augustus ; but in 
most of the continental states it has dege¬ 
nerated very much, and in some—for ex¬ 
ample, the papal—it may be bought very 

cheaply.-In Law, a particular charge in 

an indictment, or narration in pleading, 
setting forth the cause of complaint. There 
may be different counts in the same de¬ 
claration. 

COUN'TER-APPROACH'ES (contre: Fr.; 
from contra, against: Lat.), in Fortification, 
lines and trenches made by the besieged, in 
































175 Etteratg 


, order to attack the works of the besiegers, 
: or to hinder their approaches. 

COUNTERDRAWING, in Painting, co¬ 
pying a design or painting by means of 
lines drawn on oiled paper or other trans¬ 
parent substance. 

COUNTERGUARD, in Fortification, a 
small rampart or work raised before the 
point of a bastion, consisting of two long 
faces parallel to the faces of the bastion, 
making a salient angle to preserve the 
! bastion. 

COUNTERMARK, a mark put upon goods 
that have been marked before. It is also 
tised for the several marks put upon goods 
belonging to several persons, to show that 
they must not be opened but in the pre¬ 
sence of all the owners, or their agents. 

■-In Numismatics, a stamp frequently 

seen on ancient coins, often obliterating a 
large part of the impression. Some consider 
it intended to augment the value; others, 

to signify it was taken from an enemy.- 

The mark of the Goldsmiths’ Company, af¬ 
fixed to an article of gold or silver plate 
after assay, to show the metal to be of a 

COUNTERMINE, in Military affairs, a 
well and gallery sunk in the earth, and 
running underground: it is intended to 
prevent the effect of the enemy’s mine; or, 
in other words, is a mine made by the be¬ 
sieged, in order to blow up the mine of the 
besiegers. 

COUN'TERPALED, in Heraldry, is when 
the escutcheon is divided into twelve pales 
parted per fesse: the two colours are coun- 
terchanged, so that the upper and lower are 
of different colours. 

COUNTERPART, the corresponding part 
or duplicate. Also the part which fits 

another: as, the key of a cipher.-In 

Law, when the parts of an indenture are 
interchangeably executed by the several 
parties, that executed by the grantors is 
termed the original, and the rest are coun¬ 
terparts. If each part is signed by all par¬ 
ties, they are duplicate originals. A deed 
made by one party is not indented, but 
polled, or shaved quite even : and is, there¬ 
fore, styled a deed poll, or single deed.- 

In Music, the part to be applied to another; 
thus, the bass is the counterpart to the 
treble. 

CO UNTERPAS'SANT, in Heraldry, is 
when two lions in a coat of arms are re¬ 
presented a3 going contrary ways. 

COUNTERPOINT, in Music, the science 
of harmony, including the art of combining 
and modulating consonant sounds, or of dis¬ 
posing several parts in such a manner as to 
make an agreeable whole. 

COUNTERPROOF, an engraving taken 
from another fresh printed, which, by 
being passed through a rolling press, gives 
an inverted copy of the former. 

COUNTER-REVOLUTION, a revolution 
opposed to a former one, and restoring a 
former state of things. 

COUNTERSCARP, in Fortification, that 
side of the ditch which is next the coun¬ 
try ; but it often signifies the whole covered 
wav, with its parapet and glacis. 

COUNTER-SECU'RITY, security given 


Errantry. [course 


to one who has entered into a bond, or 
become surety for another. 

COUNTERSIGN, a military watchword; 
or a private signal given to soldiers on 
guard, with orders to let no one pass unless 

he first gives that word.-Also, to sign, 

as secretary, or other subordinate officer, 
any writing signed by a principal or su¬ 
perior, to attest the authenticity of his 
signature. 

COUNTER-TEN'OR, in Music, one of 
the middle parts, between the treble and 
the tenor. 

COUNTY {comtS, the territory of a count: 
Fr.), originally the district or territory of 
a count or earl: one of the ancient divi¬ 
sions of England, which, by the Saxons, 
were called shires, a term not applied’ to 
such counties as were anciently kingdoms, 
such as Kent, Essex, &c. England is di¬ 
vided into forty counties or shires, Wales 
into twelve, Scotland into thirty-three, and 
Ireland into thirty-two. Each county has 
its sheriff and its court, with other officers, 
employed in the administration of justice 
and the execution of the laws. The lord- 
lieutenant of a county has the command 

of its militia.- County Corporate, a 

title given to several cities, or ancient 
boroughs, on which certain kings of Eng¬ 
land have bestowed peculiar privileges; 
annexing territory, land, or jurisdiction, 
and making them counties within them¬ 
selves, with their own sheriffs and other 
officers; but all causes of action arising, 
and offences committed, in a county corpo¬ 
rate, may be tried in the next adjoining 

county at large.- County Palatine, a 

county distinguished by particular privi¬ 
leges, and named from palatium, the palace, 
because the owner had originally royal 
powers in the administration of justice. 
The counties palatine in England are Lan¬ 
caster, Chester, and Durham. 

COUP (a blow: Fr.), a term used in 
several expressions. Thus, Coup de Grace, 

the finishing blow.- Coup de Main, a 

sudden unpremeditated attack.- Coup 

dTEil, the first glance of the eye, with 

which it surveys any object.- Coup de 

Soleil, a disorder produced by the action 
of a hot sun. 

COUPE'D or COUPE' ( eoupt , cut: Fr.), 
in Heraldry, is used to express the head or 
any limb of an animal, cut off smooth from 
the trunk: distinguishing it from that 
which is called erased, or forcibly torn off. 

-Couped is also used to signify such 

crosses, bends, bars, chevrons, &c., as do 
not touch the sides of the escutcheon, but 
are, as it were, cut off from them. 

COUP'LE-CLOSE, in Heraldry, an ordi¬ 
nary, so termed from its enclosing the 
chevron by couples, being always borne in 
pairs, one on each side a chevron. 

COUP'LET, the division of a poem, con¬ 
taining two verses or two rhymes. 

COU'RANT (running : Fr.), in Heraldry, 
an epithet for any beast represented in a 
running attitude. 

COURAN'TO ( corrente, running : Ital.), 
a piece of music in triple time: also a kind 
of dance. 

COURSE {Fr.), in its general sense, a 

-- - . - - ,- -jJ 




































--'' - . - --- 

coursing] Jj>CtClltt{tC antf 17b 

motion forward, either in a direct or curv¬ 
ing line. Applied to the arts and sciences, 
it denotes a methodical series. Course, 

in Navigation, that point of the compass 

on which a ship steers.- Course, in 

Masonry, a continued range of bricks or 

stones of the same height.- Course of 

Exchange, in Commerce, is the current 
price or rate at -which the coin of one coun¬ 
try is exchanged for that of another; which, 
as* it depends upon the balance of trade and 
the political relations which subsist be¬ 
tween the two countries, is always fluctu¬ 
ating.- Courses, in a ship, the large 

square sails. 

COURS'ING, the act or sport of pursuing 
any beast of chase, as the hare, &c., with 
greyhounds. 

COURT-BAR'ON was a court incident to 
every manor. There was one, also, in every 
hundred and county. It has long fallen into 
disuse, except in manors of ancient de¬ 
mesne, the lord of which was once the king, 
and manors containing land of copyhold or 
customary tenure. 

COURT-LEET' (leod, the common people : 
Sax.), a court of record held once a year, in 
a particular hundred, lordship, or manor, 
before the steward of the leet. The busi¬ 
ness of the court-leet is now done at quarter 
sessions, except in certain manors, where 
it has been held from time immemorial. 

COURT-MAR'TIAL, a court consisting of 
military officers, for the trial of the mili¬ 
tary offences of officers and soldiers.-A 

Naval Court-martial is a similar court 
for those constituting the navy. 

COURT'-ROLL, a roll containing an ac¬ 
count of the number, &c., of lands which 
depend on the jurisdiction of the manor, &c. 

COURTESY, TENURE BY {courtoisie: 
Fr.), in Law, is where a man marries a 
woman seised of an estate of inheritance, 
and has by her issue born alive, which was 
capable of inheriting her estate: in this 
case, on the death of his wife, he holds the 
lands for his life, as tenant by courtesy. 

COURTESY TITLES. The children of 
noblemen in this country have no right by 
law to any title whatever, but courtesy has 
allowed them to assume rank according to 
the rank of their parents. Thus the eldest 
son of a duke bears a marquisate by cour¬ 
tesy, the eldest son of a marquis an earldom 
by courtesy, whilst the younger sons and 
daughters of both bear the title of lord 
and lady prefixed to their Christian and 
surnames. The eldest son of an earl has a 
viscounty by courtesy, the younger sons are 
styled honourable, and the daughters lady. 
All the sons and daughters of viscounts and 
barons are styled honourable. Although in 
the ordinary intercourse of society the ti¬ 
tles above designated are accorded, in all 
legal documents the gentlemen are styled 
esquires, with a reference to the courtesy 
title: thus, John Brown, Esquire, com¬ 
monly called Marquis of W.; or James Tay¬ 
lor, Esquire, commonly called Lord James 
Taylor. The courtesy titles of eldest sons 
are usually those of the second title of the 
father. It may, however, happen, that a 
duke has no marquisate, but only an earl¬ 
dom, in which case the eldest son takes that 

title, and yet ranks just the same as if he 
had assumed a marquisate. And so on with 
respect to lower grades of the peerage. 
When the daughters of peers marry a man 
of rank inferior to their own, they by cour¬ 
tesy retain their titles; but if a woman who 
has no title marries a man who has merely 
a courtesy title, and is left a widow, she 
loses the title she had assumed during her ( 
husband’s life, in case she marries again. 
This, however, is not the case with respect 
to the widow of a man who has a title in 
his own right. If she marries again, she 
by courtesy retains her title. 

COY'ENANT (convenio , I agree with : 
Lat.), in Law, an engagement, in writing, , 
under seal, to do or omit a direct act. There 
are many kinds of covenant. 

COW'ITCII, or COW'AGE, an Indian 
plant, the Mucuna pruricus of botanists, 
nat. ord. Leguminosce, the pods of which are 
covered with microscopic hairs, that are 
employed as a mechanical anthelmintic. 
They are very troublesome if accidentally 
brought into contact with the skin. 

COW'POX, the vaccine disease, produced 
by transferring morbific matter from the 
udder of a cow to the human body. It 
was proposed by Dr. Jenner, in 1798, as 
a substitute for and preventative of small¬ 
pox. Small bluish vesicles, surrounded by 
inflammation, elevated at the edge, and 
depressed at the centre, and containing 
a limpid fluid, occasionally appear on the 
teats of the cow, the animal being, at the 
same time, somewhat indisposed. This 
disease, transferred to the hands of the 
milkers, was found, in many cases, to pre¬ 
serve from small-pox. A disease of the 
horse’s head, called grease, communicated 
to the hands of farriers, seems to have 
produced the same effect. The matter from 
the cow is, however, the most certain; and 
that which it produces in one human sub¬ 
ject may be successfully transferred to 
another ; though it is probable that it loses 
its efficacy by being transmitted too many 
times. In doubtful cases, the vaccination 
should be repeated; its repetition, even 
though unnecessary, can be attended with 
little inconvenience. 

COW'RIE, or KAW'RIE PINE, a lofty 
coniferous tree, a native of New Zealand, 
named by botanists Dammara australis. It 
yields a hard brittle resin, like copal, and 
its timber is excellent. 

COWRY, the popular name of several 
species of marine univalve shells, belonging 
to the genus Cyprcea. One species, the C. 
moneta, or money-cowry, is used in place of 
coin on the west coast of Africa, and many 
tons weight are annually imported into this 
country from the Pacific and eastern seas, 
for the purpose of being sent to Africa. 
There are many species of this genus, some 
of which are beautifully marked and co¬ 
loured. Savages, in various parts, adorn 
their persons or indicate their rank with 
cowries. 

COW TREE, a name applied to distinct 
species of trees growing in tropical 
countries, on account of their yielding a 
milk-like innoxious fluid. One of these, 
the Massaranduba, found on the Amazons, 




































*77 Htterarg Crtttfttrg; [crisis 


grows to the dimensions of a forest tree. 
Milk can be drawn from its logs after they 
have been allowed to stand for many days 
In the hot sun. ‘ The timber (says Mr. A. 
ft. Wallace) is very hard, fine grained, and 
durable, and is valuable for works which 
are much exposed to the weather. The 
fruit is eatable, and very good, the size of 
a small apple, and full of a rich and juicy 
pulp. The milk, which exudes in abundance 
when the bark is cut, has the consistence of 
thick cream, and, but for a very slight pecu¬ 
liar taste, could scarcely be distinguished 
from the genuine product of the cow. It is 
also used for glue, and is said to be as du¬ 
rable as that made use of by carpenters. As 
the milk hardens by exposure to the air, it 
becomes a very tough, slightly elastic, sub¬ 
stance, much resembling gutta perclia.’ 

CRAB (crabba: Sax.), the popular name 
for the species of a considerable group of 
invertebrate animals, whose bodies are 
j covered by a calcareous crust, with ten 
articulated limbs. They belong to the 
Decapoda brachyura, or ten-legged short¬ 
tailed Crustacea; and include a great num¬ 
ber of species, differing in size, colour, and 
habits. The large and small edible crabs 
of our coasts may be taken as examples. 
Their sight is very acute, and their masti¬ 
catory apparatus is exceedingly compli¬ 
cated. Some of them are exclusively aqua¬ 
tic, and remain on the sands or rocks, at 
great depths in the sea; others inhabit 
excavations formed in the soft coral reefs 
or bars on certain coasts; some spend their 
life altogether on shore, in burrows or 
dens; others live on rocky beaches, bask¬ 
ing in the sun, and only retiring into the 
sea when alarmed; while some species 
are completely terrestrial, inhabiting holes 
upon the highest hills and mountains of 
the West Indies. The most remarkable are 
the crabs which are found in the less densely 
peopled or uninhabited West Indian islands. 
When the season for spawning arrives, they 
proceed to the sea in a body of many mil¬ 
lions, a journey which employs them some 
weeks. Having deposited their eggs in the 
sand, they return, travelling only by night, 
and arrive emaciated and exhausted. 

CRACKLE CHI'NA is a ware much prized 
i by collectors, the surface of which is every¬ 
where marked by cracks which give the 
vessel the appearance of being composed of 
small pieces cemented together. 

CRAMP Qcrampe: Ger.), a convulsive 
\ contraction of a muscular part of the body, 

[ with pain. 

CRAN'BERRY, the fruit of the Oxycoccus 
palustris, nat. ord. Vacciniacece, a creeping 
plant, growing only on peat bogs or swampy 
i land, and bearing small bright red berries, 
[) which have a pleasant acid flavour, and are 
I much used in tarts. 

I CRANE {cran: Sax.), a migratory bird of 
the family Gruidcc, which is an occasional 
1 visitor to England. It is the Grus cinerea 
| of naturalists, and it soars high in the air, 
t and performs journeys of immense extent; 
i nas blackish or black wing-feathers, with an 
ash-coloured body. The Grus gigantea, or 
1 Siberian crane, is of great size, being four 
feet six inches in height: the male and 


female watch the nest alternately during 
incubation_ Crane, a machine for rais¬ 

ing great weights, consisting of an arm, 
or piece of timber, projecting from a post, 
either horizontally or at some angle, and 
furnished with a pulley. It is also made of 
iron, on the principle of the wheel and 
pinion ; by which it is rendered very com¬ 
modious, and capable of raising immense 
weights. 

CRA'NE-LINES, in a ship, are lines going 
from the upper end of the spritsail-top- 
mast to the middle of the forestays. They 
serve to keep the spritsail-topmast upright 
and steady in its place, and to strengthen it. 

CIIA'NE’S-BILL, the popular name of the 
wild species of the genus Geranium, these 
plants having their seed vessel in the 
shape of a crane’s beak. 

CRANIOL'OGY ( kranion, the skull; and lo¬ 
gos, a discourse: Gr.), that branch of science 
which is concerned with the structure and 
uses of the skull in various animals, partic¬ 
ularly in relation to their characters and in¬ 
tellectual powers. One who is versed in 
this science is termed a craniologist. 

CRANIOM'ETER (kranion, the skull; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring the skulls of animals. The art 
of measuring them, for the purpose of dis¬ 
covering their specific differences, is called 

rvrmin vyi pfvi / 

CRANIOS'COPY ( kranion , the skull; and 
slccrpeo, I examine : Gr.), the science of dis¬ 
covering, by the eminences produced by 
the brain on the cranium, the particular 
parts in which reside the organs that in¬ 
fluence certain passions or faculties. 

CRA'NIUM ( kranion: Gr.), the skull; the 
assemblage of bones which enclose the 
brain. They consist of the frontal bone 
forming the forehead; the two parietal 
bones occupying the sides and roof of the 
skull; the two temporal bones forming the 
walls at the temples ; and the occipital bone 
situate at the posterior and inferior part. 
These bones are joined together by means 
of interlocking serratures called Sutures. 
The fore part of the skull is termed the 
sinciput, the hinder part the occiput, and 
the top, the vertex. Wedged in between 
the bones at the base of the skull are the 
two bones termed ethmoid and sphenoid, 
which may be considered as common to 
the cranium and the face. No cranium of 
an adult man has been found with a less 
capacity than 62 cubic inches: whilst the 
contents of the largest gorilla skull hi¬ 
therto measured did not exceed 34J cubic 
inches. 

CRANK, a bend in an axle upon which 
the piston of a steam-engine acts, and thus 
a back and forward motion is converted 
into a circular motion. A ship is said to be 
crank-sided when she caii bear but little 
sail, for fear of oversetting: and when a 
ship cannot be brought on the ground with¬ 
out danger, she is said to be crank by the 
ground. 

CRAPE (crepe: Fr.), a light transparent 
stuff, resembling gauze. It is made of raw 
silk, gummed and twisted in the mill, and 
is much used in mourning. 
























croises] )t Scientific aitTJ 180 


calcined to a red or deep yellow colour.- 

In Botany, a genus of plants with pretty 
j flowers, belonging to the nat. ord. Iridaceoe. 

CROIS'ES (crusaders: Fr.), in English 
Antiquity, pilgrims bound for the Holy 
Land, or such as had been there; so called 
from a badge they wore in imitation of a 
cross. The knights of St. John of Jeru¬ 
salem, created for the defence and protec¬ 
tion of pilgrims, were particularly called 
croises; and so were all those of the Eng¬ 
lish nobility and gentry, who, in the reigns 
j of Henry II., Richard I., Henry III., and 
| Edward I., were cruce signati, that is, de- 
\ voted to the recovery of Palestine. 

CROM'LECH (crwmlech; Wei.; from ca¬ 
l'em luach, p devoted stone : Heb.),in British 
i Antiquity, large broad flat stones raised 
! upon other stones set up to support them, 
j They are common in Wales, Devonshire, 
and Cornwall, and are thought to be remains 
j of altars. 

CROSS, in Antiquity, an instrument of 
torture, consisting of two pieces of timber 
i crossing each other, one part being vertical 
and the other horizontal, or both oblique. 
Tliis punishment was only inflicted on ma- 
| lefactors and slaves, and was thence called 
servile supplicium. The most usual method 
was to nail the criminal’s hands and feet to 
I this gibbet, in an erect posture; though 
| there are instances of criminals so nailed 

with their head downward.- Cross, the 

; symbol of the Christian religion; and 

j lienee, figuratively, the religion itself.- 

Also, a monument with a cross upon it, to 
excite devotion, such as were anciently set 

I up in market-places.-In Theology, the 

! doctrine of Christ’s sufferings, and of the 

| atonement.-A Latin cross has one arm 

j longer than the others; a Greek cross has 
equal arms.- Cross, in Heraldry, an ordi¬ 

nary formed by lines drawn palewise and 
fessewise; and, if bounded by the es- 
j cutclieon, enclosing one-flfth of the shield, 

; or one-tliird if charged. A cross gules, one 
bar being vertical, the other horizontal, is 
[ called the cross of St. George. The cross of 
j St. Andrew has both bars oblique. The ex- 
j tremities of a plain cross are ‘ couped,’ that 
[ is, do not reach the circumference of the 
escutcheon. There are other crosses also 
! which do not reach the circumference: 
thus, a cross crosslet, termed a Jerusalem 
cross when between four plain crosses : it 
is crossed on each arm. A cross fleury has 
three points at each end. A Maltese cross 
has arms increasing in breadth’towards the 
ends, which terminate with double points. 
A cross fitchy has the lower limb pointed. 
A patriarchal cross is plain, and has two 
horizontal bars, the upper shorter. A cross 
violine terminates in representations of the 
millrind : it is the difference of the eighth 
son of a family. 

CROSS-BAR-SHOT, a bullet with an iron 
bar passing through it, and standing out a 
few inches on each side; used in naval ac¬ 
tions for cutting the enemy’s rigging. 

CROSS'-BILL, the common name of birds 
allied to the finches, and belonging to the 
genus Loxia. They are distinguished by 
having the mandibles crossing each other 
at the point, Buifon called this curious 


structure an error and defect of nature, 
arid a useless deformity, but it has been 
found to enable them easily to obtain their 
usual food, the seeds of pine trees. The 
common cross-bill rarely breeds in England. 

CROSS'-BOW, amissive weapon formerly 
much used, which was strung and set in a 
shaft of wood, with a trigger, &c. 

CROSS'-EXAMINATION, in Law, a close 
and rigid examination of a witness by the 
counsel of the adverse party, after he has 
been examined in chief by the counsel of 
the party producing him. 

CROSS'-STAFE, an instrument to take 
the altitude of the sun or stars. 

CROSS'-STONE, a mineral of a greyish- 
white colour, called also liarmostone , occur¬ 
ring in double and single crystals. 

CROSS'-TREES, pieces of timber in a 
ship, supported by the cheeks and trestle- 
trees, at the upper ends of the lower masts, 
to sustain what is above, and to extend 
the top-gallant shrouds. 

CIIOSS'LET ( croisette: Fr.), in Heraldry, 
a little or diminutive cross: the shield is 
frequently seen covered with crosslets. 
Also, fesses, and other honourable ordi¬ 
naries, are charged or accompanied with 
crosslets 

CROT'CHET ( crochet: Fr.), in Music,half 

a minim-In Printing, this mark [ ], to 

separate what is not a necessary part of the 
sentence. 

CRO'TON OIL, one of the most valuable 
of the late additions to the materia medica, 
is expressed from the seeds of the Croton 
tiglium, an East Indian plant, belonging to 
the nat. ord. Fuphorbiacece. It is so strongly 
purgative, that one drop is a full dose, and 
half a drop will sometimes produce apower- 
ful effect. 

CROUP (Fr.), in Medicine, the disease 
called Cynanche tracliealis, an affection of 
the throat, accompanied by a peculiar shrill¬ 
ness of voice, wheezing, difficult respira¬ 
tion, &c. It most usually attacks young 
children, who are suddenly seized with a 
difficulty of breathing and other symptoms. 
Exposure to cold seems to be the general 
cause of the disease, and it is consequently 
more prevalent in winter and spring than 
in summer. 

OROUPA'DE, in the Manege, a leap in 
which the horse pulls up his hind legs, as if 
he drew them up to his belly. 

CROUT, KROUT, or SOUR-CROUT (saner, 
sour; and kraut, an herb: Germ.), cabbage 
chopped fine and pickled. It is made by 
placing chopped cabbage in layers in a 
barrel, with salt and carraway seeds sprin¬ 
kled between the layers; then pressing it 
down, and suffering it to remain till it has 
undergone fermentation. It is considered 
an efficacious preservative from the scurvy, 
and is used at sea, particularly in the Rus¬ 
sian navy. 

CROW (craye: Sax.), or Carrion Crow, 
the Corvus corone of naturalists, a well- 
known bird belonging to the Corvidce. It 
is a carrion feeder, and is distinguished 
from the raven by its beak, voice, and 
habits, and from the rook by having the 
basal third of its beak covered with fea¬ 
thers. The Hooded Crow (C. cornix) has 



















the plumage of the hack and uuder-surface 
of the body coloured grey. 

CROW'-BAR, in Mechanics, an iron lever, 
with a claw at one end, and a sharp point 
at the other ; used for raising and moving 
weights. 

CROW'-FOOT, a complication of small 
cords, spreading out from a long block; 
used on board ships for suspending the 
awnings, or keeping the topsails from 
striking against the tops. 

CROW’S'-BILL, in Surgery, a kind of for¬ 
ceps for extracting bullets and other things 
from wounds. 

CROWS'-FEET, or Caltrops, in the art 
; of War, an iron instrument with four 
points, which was formerly thrown upon 
| breaches, or in passes where the enemy’s 
; cavalry were expected, for the purpose of 
| injuring the feet of the horses, and throw- 
j ing them down. 

CROWN ( /crone: Germ.), an ornamental 
I badge of regal power, W'orn on the head by 
sovereign princes. Among the various 
i crowns and wreaths peculiar to the Greeks 
i and Romans vtere the followingThe Co¬ 
rona aurea, a golden crown, the reward of 
! remarkable bravery. Corona vallaris, or 
castrcnsis, given to him who first entered 
the camp of an enemy. Corona civica, a 
garland of oak-leaves, one of the highest 
military rewards: it was given to him who 
saved the life of a citizen. Corona convi- 
vialis, the wreath worn at feasts. Corona 
muralis, given by the general to the soldier 
j who first scaled the enemy’s wall. Corona 
! navails, given to him who first boarded an 
enemy’s vessel: it was next in rank to the 
i civic crowm. Corona nuptialis, a crown or 
! wreath worn by brides. Corona obsidionalis, 
a reward given to him who delivered a be- 
| sieged town or a blockaded army. It was 
| one of the highest military honours, and 
very seldom obtained. Corona triumphalis, 

: a wreath of laurel which was given by the 
j army to the imperaior, who wore it on his 

j head at the celebration of his triumph.- 

The Imperial Crown of Great Britain is kept 
i at the Tower of London, where the public 
; is admitted to see it. The following de¬ 
scription of it was written by Professor 
J Tennant* It was made by Messrs. Rundell 
and Bridge, in the year 1838, with jewels 
taken from old crowns, and others. It con¬ 
sists of diamonds, pearls, rubies, sapphires, 
and emeralds, set in silver and gold ; it has 
a crimson velvet cap, with ermine border, 

| and is lined with white silk. Its gross 
j weight is 39 oz. 5 dwts. troy. The lower 
part of the band, above the ermine border, 

: consists of a row of 129 pearls, and the 
I upper part of the band of a row of 112 
|! I pearls, between which, in front of the 
crown, is a large sapphire (partly drilled), 
purchased for the crown by George IV. At 
the back is a sapphire of smaller size, and 
six other sapphires (three on each side), 
between which are eight diamonds. Above 
and below the seven sapphires are fourteen 
diamonds, and around the eight emeralds, 
128 diamonds. Between the emeralds and 
sapphires are sixteen trefoil ornaments, 
containing 160 diamonds. Above the band 
jire eight sapphires, surmounted by eight 



[crown-wheel 


diamonds, between which are eight fes 
toons, consisting of 148 diamonds. In front 
of the crown, and in the centre of a dia 
mond Maltese cross, is the famous ruby, 
said to have been given to Edward, Prince 
of Wales, son of Edward III., called the 
Black Prince, by Don Pedro, king of Cas¬ 
tile, after the battle of Najera, near Vit- 
toria, a.d. 1367. This ruby was worn in the 
helmet of Henry V., at the battle of Agin- 
court, a.d. 1415. It is pierced quite through, 
after the eastern custom, the upper part of 
the piercing being filled up by a small ruby. 
Around this ruby, to form the cross, are 75 
brilliant diamonds. Three other Maltese 
crosses, forming the two sides and back of 
the crown, have emerald centres, and con¬ 
tain respectively 132,124, and 130 brilliant 
diamonds. Between the four Maltese crosses 
are four ornaments in the form of a French 
fleur-de-lis, with four rubies in the centres, 
and surrounded by rose diamonds, contain- j 
ing respectively 85, 86, 86, and 87 rose dia¬ 
monds. From the Maltese crosses issue 
four Imperial arches, composed of oak- 
leaves and acorns, the leaves containing j 
728 rose, table, and brilliant diamonds, 32 i 
pearls forming the acoi-ns, set in cups con¬ 
taining 54 rose diamonds and one table dia¬ 
mond. The total number of diamonds in 
the arches and acorns is 108 brilliants, 116 
table, and 559 rose diamonds. From the 
upper part of the arches are suspended four 
large pendant pear-shaped pearls, with rose 
diamond caps, containing twelve rose dia¬ 
monds, and stems containing 24 very small 
rose diamonds. Above the arch stands the 
mound, containing in the lower hemi¬ 
sphere 304 brilliants, and in the upper 244 
brilliants; the zone and arc being composed 
of 33 rose diamonds. The cross on the 
summit has a rose cut sapphire in t he cen¬ 
tre, surrounded by four large brilliants, and 
108 smaller brilliants. Summary of jewels 
comprised in the crown 1 large ruby, ir¬ 
regularly polished, 1 large broad-spread 
sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 
1,363 brilliant diamonds, 1,273 rose dia- 1 
monds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped 

pearls, 273 pearls.’-In Architecture, 

the uppermost member of a cornice__ 

Among jewellers, the upper work of the 

rose diamond.-An English silver coin of 

the value of five shillings. 

CROWN'-GLASS. [See Glass.] 

CROWN-IMPE'RIAL, the popular name of 
some species of Fritillaria, nat. ord. Liliacece. 

CROWN-IMPERIAL-SHELL, a beautiful 
species of Valuta, the head of which is 
surrounded with a series of sharp-pointed 
tubercles, so as to resemble an open crown: 
it has also two broad and very beautiful 
zones running round it. 

CROWN'-OFFICE, an office belonging to 
the court of Queen’s Bench, in which the 
attorney-general exhibits informations for 
crimes and misdemeanors. 

CROWN'-POST, in Building, a post which 
stands upright in the middle between two 
principal rafters. 

CROWN'-WHEEL, in common watches, 
the wheel which drives the escapement 
wheel, or that which acts on the pallets. 
[See Wheel.] 









































CE OWN-WORK] 


CROWN'-WORK, in Fortification, an out¬ 
work running into the field, consisting of 
two demi-bastions at the extremes, and an 
entire bastion in the middle, with curtains. 
It is designed to gain some advantageous 
post, and cover the other works. 

CRU'CIAL ( co~ux , a cross: Lat.), in Sur¬ 
gery, an epithet for transverse, or in the 
form of a cross ; as, a crucial incision. Cru¬ 
cial instances, a phrase of Bacon, signifying 
phenomena brought forward to decide be¬ 
tween two apparent causes. Chemical tests 
are generally crucial instances or experi¬ 
ments. ‘A well-chosen and strongly-marked 
crucial instance,’ says Sir John Herscliel, 
‘is sometimes of the highest importance, 
when two theories, which run parallel with 
each other in their explanation of great 
classes of phenomena, at length come to bo 
placed at issue on a single fact.’ 

CRU'CIBLE ( creuset , from creuser, to 
hollow: Fr.), a vessel or melting-pot used 
in chemical operations, and frequently made 
of clay, and so tempered and baked as to 
endure great heat. Silver, platina, and iron 
crucibles are occasionally used. For melt¬ 
ing gold and silver, crucibles are made in 
great part of plumbago. 

CRU'CIFERAE (crux, a cross ; and faro, I 
bear: Lat.), a large nat. ord. of plants, so 
named from the four petals which are ar¬ 
ranged crosswise. There are six stamens, 
of which four are longer than the others 
(upon which character Linmeus founded 
the class Tetradynamia). The fruit is a kind 
of pod, called a siliqua or silicula, according 
as it is long and narrow, or broad and short. 
The shapes of these pods is curiously varied. 
To this order belong, amongst garden 
flowers, the stock, wall flower, rocket, 
honesty, and candy tuft. Here are placed 
a number of food-plants ; cabbage (with its 
garden varieties, cauliflower, broccoli, and 
savoys), turnip, mustard, cress, sea-kale, 
horse-radish, water-cress, and radish. 

CRU'CIFORM ( crucis , of a cross; and 
forma, a form: Lat.), an epithet for any¬ 
thing having four arms or rays disposed in 
the form of a cross. 

CRU'DITY (cruditas, from crudus, raw: 
Lat.), among Physicians, is applied to un¬ 
digested substances in the stomach, to 
humours in the body which are imperfectly 
formed, &c. 

CRU'ISER ( croiscur: Fr.), a small armed 
vessel that sails to and fro in quest of the 
enemy, to protect the commerce of its own 
nation, or for plunder. 

CRU'OR (gore : Lat.), the crassamentum, 
or clot of the blood which consists of fibrin 
and red corpuscles. 

CRU'RAL (crus, the leg: Lat.), in Anato¬ 
my, an epithet given to the artery which 
conveys the blood to the legs, and to the 
vein by which this blood returns towards 
the heart. 

CRUSA'DES (croisade: Fr.; from crux, a 
cross : Lat.), the name by which the wars or 
military expeditions were distinguished, 
that were carried on by the Christian na¬ 
tions of the West, from the end of the 
eleventh to the end of the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury, for the conquest of Palestine. They 
were called crusades, because all the 


warriors fought under the banner of the 
cross, and wore that emblem on their clothes. 3 
The pope considered the invasion of Asia 
as the means of promoting Christianity I 
amongst the infidels, and of winning whole I 
nations to the bosom of the church; , 
monarclis expected victory and increase of 
dominion ; and their subjects were easily 
persuaded to engage in the glorious cause I 
Yet army after army was destroyed; an,d 
though some brilliant victories served to j 
exhibit the soldiers of Christendom as 
heroes of a valorous age, and the holy city of 
Jerusalem was more than once under their j 
dominion, the Christian empire on the con¬ 
tinent of Asia was eventually overthrown, 1 
and the dominion of the Mamelukes and 
Sultans established. But by means of these 1 
joint enterprises, the European nations be- j 
came more connected with each other; 
feudal tyranny was weakened; a commercial I 
intercourse took place throughout Europe, 
which greatly augmented the wealth of the 
cities; the human mind expanded; and a 
number of arts and sciences, till then un¬ 
known by the western nations, were intro¬ 
duced. These advantages were accompanied, ! 
undoubtedly, by great evils. There have 
been six crusades. The first, in 1096, was 
excited by Peter the hermit, and encouraged 
by Urban II. It was commanded by Godfrey 
of Boulogne, and Jerusalem was taken. In 
the second, which took place in Ilia, 
Conrad III. of Germany, and Louis VII. of 
France, were leaders, but were unsuccessful. 
The third, in 11S9, was occasioned by the 
Saracens taking Jerusalem : Frederick II. 
of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, 
and Richard Cceur de Lion of England were 
leaders: the only successful exploit was the 
taking of Acre. The fourth was conducted 
by Andrew, king of Hungary, in 1217. The 
fifth, by Frederick II. of Germany, who for 
a short time recovered possession of Jeru¬ 
salem. The sixth was led by St. Louis, king 
of France, against Egypt, but was unsuc¬ 
cessful.—The wars carried on against the 
Albigenses and others who dissented from 
the Roman Catholic church, have sometimes 
been called crusades. 

CRUSTA'CEA or CliUSTA'CEANS ( crusta, 
a shell: Lat.), an extensive class of the 
sub-kingdom Articiildta, including the 
crab, lobster, and prawn. The class takes 
its name from the crust in which the ani¬ 
mals are encased ; an integument streng¬ 
thened with carbonate of lime. The body 
is divided into several segments, to some 
of which articulated limbs are attached. 
There are three principal divisions of the 
body, head, thorax, and abdomen. The 
thorax is covered by a large shield called 
the carapace. The abdomen is sometimes 1 
small, and soldered to the under side of the 
thorax; at others it is elongated, and an 
important agent of locomotion, as in the 
lobster, when it is furnished with swimming 
plates at the end. There are usually two 
pairs of antennm, one pair being considered 
by some naturalists the organs of hearing, 
the other of smell. The great majority of 
crustaceans are aquatic, some living in 
freshwater, but the greatest number in the 
sea, and their blood is aerated by means of 


























133 


llttentty Crnttfurji. [crystallography 


gills. All the species lay eggs, which the 
female usually carries about with her until 
the time for hatching arrives. They pe¬ 
riodically cast their cases as they grow in 
size, a new case having been prepared be¬ 
neath the old one, and this is at first amere 
soft skin, but it soon becomes as hard as 
the preceding integument. The forms of 
these animals are very curiously varied, 
now one and now another part being trans¬ 
formed or suppressed. They consequently 
afford very interesting studies to those 
naturalists who are fond of tracing mor¬ 
phological changes. 

CRY'GLITE ( cruos , frost; lithos, a stone: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, is a substance of a 
white or yellowish grey colour, occurring 
in masses of a foliated structure. It is a 
double fluoride of aluminum and sodium, 
and there are large deposits of it in Green¬ 
land. It is employed as a raw material in 
the manufacture of aluminate of soda, which 
is available instead of caustic soda in the 
saponification of fatty matters. Other use¬ 
ful chemical products are also obtained 
from the mineral. 

CRYOPH'OILUS (Icruos, frost; and pltcro, 

I bear: Gr.), an instrument invented by Dr. 
Wollaston for freezing water by its own 
evaporation. 

CRYPT (krupte, a vault—literally a secret 
place: Gr.), a subterranean chapel or oratory, 
or a vault under a church for the interment 
of bodies. 

CRYPTOG'RATIIY (krupto, I conceal; and 
graphs, a writing: Gr.), the art of writing 
in cipher, or secret characters. 

CRYPTOL'OGY ( krupto , I conceal; and 
logos, a discourse : Gr.), secret or enigmati¬ 
cal language. 

CRYS'TAL ( krustallos: Gr.), in Chemistry 
and Mineralogy, an inorganic body, which 
has assumed the form of a regular solid, 
terminated by a certain number of plane 
and smooth surfaces. Crystals may be 
formed in various ways. Some are formed 
by the evaporation of a fluid holding crys¬ 
talline substances in solution; or by the 
passage of a body from the fluid to the solid 
state, as in the case of most metals; or they 
may be deposited by the vapour of a vola¬ 
tilized body.- Crystal Glass, a sub- 

stanco more perfect in its manufacture 
than common glass. It is frequently cut; 
and vases, lustres, and other ornaments are 

made of it.- Iceland Crystal, a variety 

of calcareous spar, or crystallized carbonate 
of lime, brought from Iceland, which is 
remarkable for its double refraction. 

CRYS'TALLINE ( krustallinos, from last: 
Gr.), transparent and pure, resembling 
crystal.- Crystalline Heavens, in an¬ 

cient Astronomy, two spheres imagined 
between the primum mobile and the firma¬ 
ment in the Ptolemaic system.- Crys¬ 

talline Humour (of the eye), a colourless 
transparent, firm substance, adapted like a 
glass lens, to converge rays of light; it is 
situated behind the iris, in the vitreous 
humour of the eye. 

CRYS'TALLITE ( kruslallos, a crystal; and 
lithos, a stone: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a name 
given to whinstone, cooled slowly after 
fusion. 


CRYSTALLIZA'TION ( krustallos, a cry» 
tal: Gr.), the act or process of forming 
crystals. 

CRYSTALLOG'RAPHY ( krustallos, a cry s- 
tal; and grapho, I write : Gr.), that branch 
of science which treats of the forms of 
crystals. Theformsassumed by crystallized 
bodies are very numerous. Of the single 
substance carbonate of lime some hundreds 
of forms of crystals have been described 
and drawn, some of them having more than 
a hundred facets. A great number of forms, 
however, are derived from one principal 
type, and this is one of the polyhedra of 
geometry, either the cube, the tetrahedron, 
or the regular octahedron. The tetrahedron 
is a solid with four faces, forming equi¬ 
lateral triangles, and this is the form as¬ 
sumed by copper pyrites and the diamond 
The cube has six equal square faces; alum 
and common salt, and fluor spar afford 
instances of cubic crystals. The regulai 
octahedron is a solid with eight faces 
forming equilateral triangles which may 
be considered as two pyramids placed 
base to base; alum, copper pyrites, and 
fluor-spar, exhibit this form. The rhom¬ 
bic dodecahedron is a solid with twelve 
rhombic faces. It may be regarded as two 
right liexahedral pyramids. Galena, pro¬ 
toxide of copper, and fluor-spar afford exam¬ 
ples of this form. These forms, with their 
modifications, compose the cubical system. 
Another system is founded on the Rhom¬ 
boid, or Rhombohedron, a solid with its 
faces forming six lozenges, or rhombic 
figures, each with two acute and two obtuse 
angles. Nitrate of soda, carbonate of lime, 
and many other minerals, have crystals of 
this form. The modifications are infinite, 
the form passing into the regular hexagon 
with six sides and six edges, the hexagonal 
prism with rhomboliedral ends, the hexago¬ 
nal prism with six-sided pyramids at the 
ends, &c. A third type of crystallization is 
the right prism with square bases, a solid 
of equal thickness at the two ends, which 
are parallel and alike, the four other sides 
being equal parallelograms. Sulphate of 
magnesia and sulphate of zinc offer exam¬ 
ples of this form, which also is susceptible 
of numerous modifications, e.g. the end 
edges may be cut away, but still leaving a 
square median base (Apopbyllite, Mcso- 
type); or a regular octagonal right prism 
with square bases (Ido erase); or a double 
octahedral pyramid (oxide of tin), &c. A 
fourth system is that of the right rectangu¬ 
lar prism, a solid with square bases, which 
are larger than the other sides, and every 
face parallel and equal to the opposite one. 
Of this form, Cryolite, Peridote, and Stilbite 
afford instances. There are, again, a large 
number of modifications. The fifth type is 
the right prism, with oblique-angled paral¬ 
lelograms for the bases ; Sulphate of Lime, 
Borate of Soda, and White Felsparaffording 
instances. Without stopping to notice the 
numerous secondary forms, we pass to the 
sixth type, an oblique prism with rectangu¬ 
lar bases. There are certain irregular forms 
of crystals which must be briefly noticed. 
Sometimes, instead of all the angles of a 
regular solid being truncated, as would be 































ctenoid] 


El )t Jpttentttfc autf 


184 


the case in arriving at a regular secondary- 
form, only some are truncated, and these 
give what are called liemiforms, or defec¬ 
tive crystals. Again, two individual crys¬ 
tals are sometimes so united that one is 
turned a half-revolution with reference to 
the other. These are termed hemi-trope, or 
twin crystals. There is another class of 
crystals named pseudo-morphous, which 
have been formed by one body filling up a 
mould made by another belonging to a dif¬ 
ferent type. To measure the angles of crys¬ 
tals, an instrument called a Goniometer is 
made use of. Crystallography cannot be 
studied without having models of the prin¬ 
cipal forms of crystals, and without some 
knowledge of geometry. 

CTENOID ( ktenoeicles, comb-like : Gr.), in 
Ichthyology, a term applied to those fish- 
scales which are composed of horny or un¬ 
enamelled bony material with spines at the 
exposed edge; such as those of the sole, 
red mullet, and perch. 

CU'BATURE ( kubos , a cube: Gr.), in Geo¬ 
metry, the finding exactly the solid or cubic 
contents of a body. 

CUBE (same deriv.), in Geometry, a regu¬ 
lar solid body, consisting of six square and 
equal sides, and containing equal angles. 
The solidity of any cube is found by multi¬ 
plying the superficial area of one of the sides 
by the height, or multiplying together three 
factors, each equal to the common dimen¬ 
sion. Thus, the solid contents of a cube, 
any one of whose surfaces is three feet long, 
will be 3x3x3, or 27 cubic feet. The product 
of two of the factors is the area of one of 
its sides. The cube is one of the five regu¬ 
lar or Platonic bodies, which, being placed 
beside each other, fill up the space about a 

point.- Cubic Number., in Arithmetic, 

that Avliich is produced by the multiplica¬ 
tion of a square number by its root: thus, 1 
C4 is a cube number, and arises by multi¬ 
plying 1G, the square of 4, by the root 4.- 

Cube Boot, the common factor of a cube 

number: thus, 3 is the cube root of 27.- 

Double Cube ; this consists of two cubes 
placed side by side. Large halls are some¬ 
times built of this shape. 

CU'BEBS, the fruit of various species of 
Cubeba, plants belonging to the order of 
peppers. It is employed in medicine, its ; 
virtues depending upon a principle called j 
cubebine, analogous to piperine. 

CU'BIO or CU'BIOAL (kubikos, from ku¬ 
bos, a cube: Gr.), having the form of a cube, 
or that may be contained within a cube. 1 
Thus, a cubic foot of water is the water that 
may be contained within six equal surfaces, I 
each a foot square. 

CU'BIT ( cubitus: Lot.), an ancient mea¬ 
sure, equal to the length of a man’s arm 
from the elbow to the tip of the middle fin¬ 
ger. Among different nations the length 
of the cubit differed. The English was 18 
inches, the Roman rather less, and the 
cubit of the Scriptures is supposed to have 
been 22 inches. 

CUBITyE'US (same deriv.), in Anatomy, 
an epithet for two muscles of the wrist, one 
of which, called the externus, serves to ex- j 
tend the wrist; and the other, the internus, ! 
to bend it. 1 


CU'BITUS (the elbow: Lat.), in Anatomy, 
the fore arm, reaching from the elbow to 
the wrist. It is composed of two bones, 
called ulna and radius, united by ligaments. 
The situation of the ulna is interior, its 
length is greater than that of the radius, 
and it has a capability of both flexion and 
extension. The epithet cubital is used; as, 
the cubital nerve, artery, or muscle. 

CUCK'OO-SPITTLE, a white froth or 
spume, very common on many plants in 
the spring, which forms the nidus of the 
young of the Aphropliora spurn aria, an in¬ 
sect belonging to the Cercopidce (a family of 
the liomopterous order), and popularly 
called the Frog-hopper. 

CU'CULUS (Lat.), in Ornithology, a genus 
of birds, including our common cuckoo 
(Cuculus canorus), placed in the order of 
<S 'cansores, or climbers. Our cuckoo lays its 
eggs in the nests of other birds, chiefly in 
those of the hedge-sparrow, from which the 
young cuckoos turn out the young spar¬ 
rows. The cuckoo arrives in Britain about 
the middle of April, and departs in the first 
week of July. To this shortness of the pe¬ 
riod of residence, joined with the numerous 
progeny which nature has destined it to 
yield, ornithologists attribute the motive 
for this singular arrangement in the eco¬ 
nomy of nature; for by means of it, cuc¬ 
koo’s eggs are laid in an abundance that 
could not be effected if the bird were to sit 
herself. 

CU'CUMBER ( cucumis: Lat.). [See Cu- 
CURBITACEyE.] 

CUCUR'BIT (cucurbita, a gourd: Lat.), a 
chemical vessel shaped somewhat like a 
gourd. It is used in distillation, and, with 
its head and cover, constitutes the alembic. 

CUCURBITA'CE/E, a natural order of 
herbaceous plants, chiefly natives of hot 
climates, which have unisexual flowers and 
a climbing habit. An acrid, bitter, purga¬ 
tive principle, abounds in many plants of 
this order. The only member of it found 
in Britain is the Wild Bryony ( Bryonia 
dioica) of our hedges, which contains a 
poisonous principle called Bryonine. To 
this order belong the cucumbers, melons, 
common gourds and bottle gourds, the 
bitter apple ( Citrullus ), which yields colo- 
cynth, the vegetable marrow, and the chou- 
chou ( Sechium ), which, in warm countries, 
bears a fruit that is cooked for the table. 

CUD, the food which ruminating animals 
chew over again ; from whence, to clieio the 
cud signifies to ponder, think, or ruminate 
upon a thing. 

CUD'DY, in large ships, a place lying be¬ 
tween the captain’s cabin and the quarter¬ 
deck under the poop. It is divided into 
partitions for the master and other officers. 
Also, a sort of cabin or cook-room, in the 
fore-part or near the stern of a lighter or 
barge of burden. 

CUE (queue, a tail: Fr.), the last words of 
a speech, which a player, who is to answer, 
catches and regards as an intimation to 
begin. Also, a hint given to him of what 
and when he is to speak. 

CUI BONO ? A Latin phrase frequently 
quoted, and usually misapplied. The Ro¬ 
man lawyer Crassus put the question when 




































185 Etterarj? 


several persons were suspected of having 
committed a crime. He asked, * To whom 
was it a gain ?’ since he who would derive 
a benefit from its commission was more 
likely to be the guilty person than he who 
would derive no benefit. He did not ask 
what good has come of the act (as seems 
: to be generally thought from the use made 
of the quotation at the present time), for, 
first, the Latin words will not bear such a 
construction, and, second, Crassus assumed 
that good had been done to some one, 
j and the enquiry naturally arose, cui? to 
whom? 

CUIRASS' ( cuirasse , from cuir, leather: 
Fr.), a piece of defensive armour, made of 
I iron plate, well hardened, and covering the 
j body from the neck to the girdle.- Cui¬ 

rassiers, heavy cavalry armed with a 
| cuirass. In former times cuirasses were 
very common, but appear to have been 
disused in England about the reign of 
Charles II. Napoleon again introduced 
:: them ; and they have been revived among 
| the European cavalry. 

CUL'DEES.in Church History, a religious 
order, whose origin is attributed to St. 
Columba, an Irish monk of the 6tli century. 

! Being remarkable for the religious exer- 
| cises of preaching and praying, they were 
called, by way of eminence, Cultores Dei, 
corrupted to Culdees. 

CUL DE LAMP, in Architecture, a term 
used for several decorations iu vaults and 
ceilings. 

CU'LEX (agnat: Lat.), in Entomology, a 
genus of dipterous insects, including the 
common gnat, C. ciliaris. 

CULM ( culmus , a stalk : Lat.), in Botany, 
the stalk or stem of corn or grasses, usually 

jointed and hollow.-Also, a provincial 

term for anthracite in various forms. 

CULMIF'EROUS ( culmus , a stalk; and 
fero, I bear : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
for such plants as have a smooth jointed 
stalk, usually hollow, and at each joint 
wrapped about with single, narrow, sharp- 
pointed leaves, and seeds contained in chaffy 
husks ; as wheat, rye, barley, &c. 

CULMINATION ( oilmen, the top of any- 
thing: Lat.), in Astronomy, the passing of 
i any heavenly body over the meridian, or its 
I greatest altitude for the day. Hence culmi¬ 
nation is used, metaphorically, for the con¬ 
i' dition of any person arrived at the most 
brilliant or important point of his career. 

CUL'PRIT (culpa, a fault: Lat), in Law, 
a word applied in court to one v/ho is in¬ 
dicted for a criminal offence. 

CUL'YERIN ( coulevrine: Fr.), a long 
slender piece of ordnance, serving to carry 
an 18 lb. ball to a great distance. It was 
formerly called a hawk. 

CUL'VERTAILED (culvre, a pigeon : Sax.), 
in Shipbuilding, the fastening one timber 
into another by a dovetailed joint. 

CUM'MIN-SEED ( cuminum: Lat.; from 
lcuminon: Gr.), a long slender seed, of a 
rough texture, unctuous when bruised, of a 
strong smell and a pungent taste. It forms 
an ingredient in curry powder, and is em¬ 
ployed in veterinary practice. It is pro¬ 
duced by an umbelliferous plant the Cumi- 
»t uni cyminum of botanists. Some of the 


[curate 


Roman poets allude to its power of pro¬ 
ducing paleness and languor. 

CU'MULUS (a heap : Lat.), a large cloud, 
flat at the base, and rounded in its uppci 
parts.- Cirro-Cumulus, small well-de¬ 

fined masses of rounded cloud closely packed 
with a horizontal arrangement.-— Cumulo- 
Stratus, a blending of the cirro-stratus 

with the cumulus.- Cumulo-Cirro-Stra- 

tus, the raincloud, or Nimbus, a horizontal 
sheet, with the cirrus above, and the cumulus 
entering it laterally and from below. 

CUNE'IFORM ( cuneus, a wedge; and 
forma, form : Lat.), an appellation given to 
whatever resembles a wedge; as, in Botany, 
a cuneiform leaf. Cuneiform Letters, 
those found on old Babylonian and Persian 
monuments. They are sometimes called 
arrow-headed characters, and are the 
simplest and most ancient letters of which 
we have any knowledge. Specimens of 
this form of writing are to be seen in the 
British Museum, on the ancient sculptures 
of Assyria. 

CU'NEUS (Lat.), the wedge, in Mechanics. 

- Cuneus, in Antiquity, a company of 

infantry, drawn up in the form of a wedge, 
the better to break through the enemy’s 
ranks. Also, the seats and benches on which 
the spectators sat in a theatre, which were 
narrow next the stage and broad behind. 

CUP'BEARER, an oiflcer of the king’s 
household, who was formerly an attendant 
at a feast. 

CU'PEL (because of the shape of a cup), 
a shallow ch emi cal vessel, made generally of 
bone ash, in which assay-masters try pre¬ 
cious metals. When these are changed by 
fire into a fluid, it absorbs their scoria, the 
dross formed by the oxidation of their baser 
constituents. 

CU'POLA (Ital.), or Dome, in Architec¬ 
ture, a roof or vault, rising in a circular 
form. [See Dome.] 

CUP'PING, in Surgery, the operation 
of using the cupping-glass, a small cup¬ 
shaped glass, whence the name. Being 
applied to some part of the body, the air 
within it is rarefied; which causes the flesh 
to protrude into it, on account of the ex¬ 
ternal pressure. On removing the glass, a 
circular red mark is left, from the pro- j 
pulsion of the blood into the small ves¬ 
sels. This is termed dry cupping. It is, 
however, generally accompanied by a 
number of incisions produced by an instru¬ 
ment called a scarificator. A large quantity 
of blood may be drawn, by again applying 
the cupping-glass. When skilfully per¬ 
formed, it is neither a painful nor a 
dangerous operation. 

CU'PIiEOUS: (cupreus: Lat.), resembliug 
copper, or partaking of its qualities. 

CUPRES'SUS (the cypress: Lat.), in 
Botany, a genus of coniferous trees, com¬ 
prehending the various species of Cypress, 
which see. 

CUPRIF'EROUS (cuprum, copper; and 
fero, I bear: Lat.), producing or affording 
copper ; as cupriferous silver. 

CU'RATE (euro, I take care of: Lat.), an 
officiating, but unbeneficed clergyman, who 
performs the duty of a church,and receives a 
salary from the incumbent of the living, &e. 





























curator] 


Elje Jjrmtttfic airtr 


i8Q 


CURATOR ( Lat.), in Civil Law, a person 
regularly appointed to manage the affairs 
of minors, or persons mad, deaf, dumb, &c. 
There are also curators for the estate of 
debtors, and of persons dying without heirs. 
In learned institutions, the curator takes 
charge of libraries, collections of natural 

history, &c.-Among the Romans the 

title was given to various officers, who were 
superintendents of different departments 
of the public service. 

CUROULION'ID/E ( curculio , a weevil: 
i Lat.), in Entomology, a large family of 
: coleopterous insects, including the des- 
structive weevils. 

CURCU'MA (curcum: Arab.), in Botany, 
a genus of herbaceous plants, nat. ord., 
Z ingib eracece, including Curcuma long a, the 
Turmeric plant, and C. angustifolia, the East 
India or arrow root. 

CUR'FEW ( couvrir , to cover: and feu, 
fire : Fr.), a law introduced from Normandy 
! into England by William the Conqueror. It 
| ordained that all fire and lights should be 
extinguished on the ringing of a bell, at 
; eight o’clock, or some other fixed hour of 
j the evening. 

CU'RIA ( Lat .), in Roman Antiquity, a cer¬ 
tain division or portion of a tribe. It was 
the current tradition that Romulus divided 
the people into thirty curice, or wards, ten 
| in a tribe; that each might perform the 
! ceremonies of the feast and sacrifices in 
the temple, or holy place, appointed for the 
purpose. The priest of the curia was called 
1 curio. The tribe resembled a Scottish clan, 
in which the bond of union is supposed to 
be common blood, though there is no con¬ 
sanguinity between many of the component 

families.- Cuiua, in Law signifies gene- 

! rally a court. 

CDR'LEW (corlieu : Fr.), a grallatorial 
i bird, which belongs to the Scolopacidce, or 
snipe family. It lives near waters and 
! marshes, and feeds on worms; and is found 
! in most parts of Europe. The English cur¬ 
lew goes to the sea-side in autumn and 
i winter, and subsists there on marine in¬ 
sects, small crabs, &c. 

CUR'RANT (from Corinth, in Greece: 
now Coranto), the fruit of well-known 
shrubs belonging to the genus Fibes, nat. 

ord. Gh'ossidariacece. -Also, a small kind of 

dried grape, imported from the Levant. 

CUR'RENCY ( curro , I run : Lat), in Com- 
! inerce, the coin and bank-notes or other 
paper-money issued by authority, and 
which are continually passing current. 

OUR'RYING (corroyer, to curry: Fr.; 
from corium, a skin: Lat.), the art of dress¬ 
ing skins after they are tanned, for the 
purposes of the shoemaker, coach and 
harness maker, &c., by giving them the 
necessary smoothness, lustre, colour, and 
softness. The person working at or carry¬ 
ing on this business is called a currier. 

CUR'SITOR ( cursito, I run to and fro: 
Lat.), a clerk belonging to the court of 
chancery whose business is to make out 
original writs. 

GUR'TAIN ( cortina: Ital.), in a general 
sense, a cloth hanging round a bed, or at a 
! window, <foc., which may be contracted, 
spread, or drawn aside at pleasu re. Also, a 


cloth hanging used in theatres, to conceal 

the stagefrom the spectators.- Curtain - , ; 

in Fortification, that part of the rampart 
which is between the flanks of two bastions, ,t 
It is bordered with a parapet, behind which 
the soldiers stand to fire on the covered way 
and into the moat. 

CURTA'TION (curto, I shorten : Lat.), in 
Astronomy, the interval between a planet's 
distance from the sun and the curtate dis¬ 
tance. The curtate distance is the distance 
of a planet from the sun, reduced to the 
plane of the ecliptic. 

CU'RULE CHAIR ( curulis, belonging to 
a chariot: from currus, a chariot: Lat.), in 
Roman Antiquity, a chair or stool, adorned 
with ivory, in which the chief magistrates j 
of Rome had a right to sit. The curulo j 
magistrates were the consuls, prastors, cu- 
rule mdiles, and censors. After the fail of I 
the republic it was assigned to the em- | 
perors, and to their statues, in their ab- j 
sence. This chair was often placed in a 
kind of chariot, whence it had its name. 

CUR'VATURE ( curvatura, a bending : | 
Lat), the peculiar bending or flexure of 
a line, by which it becomes a curve having 
certain properties. 

CUR'VET ( courbette, from courber, to 
bend: Fr.), in Horsemanship, a particular \ 
leap of a horse, when he raises both his j 
fore-legs at once, and, as his fore-legs are | 
falling, both his hind-legs, so that all his j 
feet are off the ground at once. 

CUSP ( cuspis , the point of a spear: Lat), ! 
in Astronomy, a term for the horns of the 

moon.-In Geometry, the point or corner j 

formed by the meeting and termination of | 
two parts of a curve. 

CUS'PIDATE or CUS'PIDATED (same 
deriv.), a term in Botany for a leaf, &c,., hav- J 
ing a sharp end, like the point of a spear. 

CUSTARD-APPLE, the fruit of some 
species of Annona, growing in the 'West I 
Indies. It is of the size of a tennis-ball, of i 
a green colour, and contains a delicious i 
white pulp of the consistence of custard. 
One species has the name of sweet sop, 
another of sour sop. 

CUSTOMARY FREE'HOLD (same derm), 
in Law, a superior kind of copyhold; the 
tenant holding, as it is expressed, by copy of j 
court-roll, or roll telling the lauds, &c,, 
under the jurisdiction of the manor, &c., 
by the custom of the manor, but not at the ! 
will of the lord. 

CUSTOMS (same deriv.), in Political Eco- j 
nomy, the duties, toll, tribute, or tariff, 
payable to the state upon merchandise ex¬ 
ported and imported. 

CUS'TOS ROTULO'RUM (keeper of the ! 
rolls: Lat), the keeper of the rolls and j 
records of a county. He is usually a no- t 
bleman, and always a justice of the peace, 
of the quorum, in the county where he is 

appointed.- Custos Brevium (keeper of 

the briefs : Lat.), the principal clerk belong¬ 
ing to the Common Pleas.- Custos Oculi 

(keeper of the eye: Lat), iu Surgery, an 
instrument for preserving the eye in *somo 
operations. 

CUTA'NEOUS {cutis, the skin : Lat.), an 
epithet for whatever belongs to or affects 
the skin: as, a cutaneous eruption, &c. 
































- 


187_ Eiteimj) 

CTJ'TICLE ( cuticula, the external skin, a 
dim. of cutis, the skin : Lot.), in Anatomy, 
the scarf-skin, a thin membrane closely 
lying upon the skin or cutis, to which it ad¬ 
heres very firmly. 

CU'TIS ( Lat .), in Anatomy, the derma, or 
inner skin, which lies under the cuticle; it 
is full of pores, nerves, fibres, lymphatic 
ducts, &c., and is called the cutis vera, or 
true skin, in distinction from the cuticle. 

CUT'LAS ( coutelas, from couteau, a knife: 
Fr.), a broad cutting sword, used by seamen 
in hoarding, &c. 

CUT'LERY ( coutellerie, from couteau, a 
knife : Fr.), a term applied to all cutting in¬ 
struments made of steel. Although, in a 
general sense, it comprises all those articles 
denominated edge-tools, it is more particu¬ 
larly confined to the manufacture of knives, 
scissors, razors, surgical instruments, and 
swords. Those articles which require the 
edge to possess great tenacity, at the same 
time that superior hardness is not required, 
are made from shear steel. The finer kinds 
of cutlery are made from steel which has 
been in a state of fusion, and which is 
termed cast steel, no other being suscep¬ 
tible of a fine polish and very keen edge, 
j Razors are made of cast steel, the edge of a 
| razor requiring the combined advantages 
of great hardness and tenacity. After the 
razor blade is formed, it is hardened by 
i gradually raising it to a bright red heat, 
i and plunging it into cold water. It is tera- 
j pered by heating it afterwards till a bright- 
i ened part appears of a straw colour. The 
manufacture of penknives is divided into 
three departments: — the first is the forg- 
; ing of the blades, the spring, and the iron 
scales ; the second, tire grinding andpolish- 
I ing of the blades ; and the third, the hand¬ 
ling, which consists in fitting up all the 
parts, and finishing the knife. The blades 
are made of the best cast steel, and hard¬ 
ened and tempered to about the same de¬ 
gree with that of razors. But the beauty 
and elegance of polished steel is displayed 
to great advantage in the manufacture of 
the finer kinds of scissors. Damascus was 
anciently famed for its razors, sabres, and 
swords—the latter especially, which pos¬ 
sessed all the advantages of flexibility, 
elasticity, and hardness : while they pre¬ 
sented a beautiful wavy appearance called 
the w r ater. It is not known how this effect 
is produced; but it is well imitated in 
Europe by scooping hollows in the blade 
and filling them up ; also by welding to¬ 
gether a bundle of steel bars, cutting and 
rewelding them, &c. Various other cities 
and countries have also been famous at 
different periods for the manufacture of 
good cutlery: as Sheffield is at the pre¬ 
sent time, for admirable penknives and sur¬ 
gical instruments. 

CUT'TER, a boat attached to a vessel of 
war, which is rowed with six oars, and is 
employed in carrying light stores, passen¬ 
gers, &c. Also, a vessel with one mast 
ar,d a straight running bowsprit, which 
may be drawn in upon deck. The distinc¬ 
tion between a cutter and any other vessel 
with one mast is, that, in the cutter, the jib 
has no stay to support it. 


CYGEOMETRY j 


CUT'TLE-EISHES {cutele: Aug. Sax.), the 
popular name for certain molluscous ani¬ 
mals belonging to the class Cephalopoda, 
There are two sections: 1. Those with 
eight arms, including the Octopus or 
Poulpe; 2. those with ten arms, two of 
which are elongated, including the Cala- 
maries or Squids, and the Sepias. 

CUT'-WATEIt, the fore part of a ship’s 
prow, which cuts the water. 

CY'AETTE ( leuanos, blue : Gr.), in Miner¬ 
alogy, a ponderous crystallized stone, of a 
blue or greenisli-grey colour. It is a silicate 
of alumina, with a trace of oxide of iron. 

CYAN'OGEN (kuanos, blue ; and gennao, I 
produce : Gr.), in Chemistry, a bicarburet 
of nitrogen, a highly poisonous and irre- 
spirable gas. Combined with hydrogen, it 
forms hydrocyanic or prussic acid; and,with 
the metals, &c., cyanides. Prussian blue is 
a combination of cyanogen and iron. 

CYATH'IFORM ( cyathus, a cup; and 
forma, a form : Lat.), in the form of a cup or 
drinking-glass, a little widened at the 
top. 

CY'ATHUS (Lat.; from kuathos: Gr.), in 
Roman Antiquity, a liquid measure, con¬ 
taining one-twelfth of a sextarius, the latter 

being about equal to our pint.-Also, a 

cup which the Romans used to fill and drink 
from as many times as there were letters in 
the name of their patron or mistress. 

CYC'LAMEN (lcuklaminos: Gr.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Primu- 
laccce. The species have tuberous roots, 
which in Sicily are said to be eaten by the 
swine, whence the common name Sow 
bread. One species is wild in England, 

C. europceum. 

CY'CLE ( kuklos, a circle : (?r.),in Chrono¬ 
logy, a certain period or series of numbers, 
which regularly proceed from the first to 
the last, and then return again to the first, 

and so circulate perpetually.- Cycle op 

the Sun, or solar cycle, a period of 28 years, 
in which the same days of the week recur on 
the same days of the year, and the Sunday 
or Dominical letter recurs in the same 

order- Cycle op the Moon, or lunar 

cycle, a period of ID years, in which the new 
and full moon recur on the same days of the 

month.- Cycle op Inijiction, a period 

of 15 years, in use among the Romans, 
commencing from the third year before 
Christ. This cycle has no connection with 
the celestial motions. It was said to have 
been instituted by Constantine: but it was 
used long before that emperor. 

CY'CLOGR A PH ( kuklos, a circle; and 
graplio, 1 write: Gr.), an instrument used 
for describing the arcs of circles. 

CY'CLOID, or TnocHOin (kuklos, a cir¬ 
cle, or trochos, a wheel; and eidos, form: 
Gr.), a geometrical curve, generated by a 
point in tne circumference of a circle rolled 
along a line.- Cycloidal, the space con¬ 

tained between the curve or crooked line 

and the subtense of the figure.- Cycloid. 

a term applied to those fish scales which 
are composed of concentric layers of horny 
or bony material, not covered with enamel, 
and without a spinous edge, such as the 
scales of the salmon and trout. 

GYCLOM'ETRY (kuklos, a circle; and | 























cyclone] 


Efje ^ctrnttftc antf 


188 


metreo, I measure : Gr.), a term sometimes 
used for tlie mensuration of circles. 

CY'CLONE (i kuklos, a circle: Gr.). This 
is a storm of great violence and enormous 
proportions, in which the atmosphere is 
driven with extraordinary velocity round a 
central point, which is more or less calm. 
This point does not, however, remain sta¬ 
tionary, hut moves onward in obedience 
to circumstances. The breadth of the 
wind’s path is sometimes 1000 miles. Such 
storms frequently occur within the tropics 
(where they are known as typhoons), at the 
change of the monsoons in August, Sep¬ 
tember, and October, when the NE. trade- 
wind suddenly veers round, and becomes 
the SW. monsoon. In the southern hemi¬ 
sphere, the direction of the wind in these 
storms is like that of the hands of a clock: 
in the northern hemisphere it moves in the 
opposite direction. A navigator, overtaken 
by a cyclone, ought to avail himself of the 
wind, to avoid the centre, the point of 
greatest danger, and make towards the 
edge. 

CYOLOPAl'DIA, or more correctly ENCY¬ 
CLOPAEDIA {m, in; kuklos, a circle; and 
paideia, instruction: Gr.), the circle or com¬ 
pass of the arts and sciences; a common 
title for a book like the present work. 

CYCLOP'IC (kuklopikos, relating to Cy¬ 
clops : Gr.), savage and gigantic; pertaining 
to those monsters in fabulous history, who 
are represented as having assisted Vulcan 
in forging the thunderbolts of Jove. 

CYG'NUS (Lat.; from kuknos: Gr.), in 
Ornithology, the Swan, a well-known water 
fowl. -Cygnus, in Astronomy, a constel¬ 

lation of the northern hemisphere. It is 
in the milky way, and is shaped like a large 
cross. The principal star is of the second 
magnitude. 

CYL'INDER ( lculindros, from kulindo, I 
roll: Gr.), in Geometry, a solid body, sup¬ 
posed to be generated by the rotation of 
a parallelogram round one of its sides. This 
will produce a solid, shaped like a column 
with parallel sides. If a line from the 
centre of the upper surface, let fall perpen¬ 
dicularly on the lower, touches the centre 
of the latter, it is a right cylinder ; other¬ 
wise it is oblique. The solid contents of a 
cylinder, whether right or oblique, is found 
by multiplying the area of the base by its 
altitude, and its convex surface is found 
by multiplying the circumference by the 
height. The area of the internal diameter 
of a cylinder, multiplied by its depth, -will 
give the cubical capacity. The solidities of 
a cone, of a sphere, and of a cylinder formed 
by the revolution of a square on a line 
passing through and bisecting it—the cir¬ 
cumferences of the bases of the cone and 
cylinder and the great circle of the sphere 
being equal—are as 1, 2, and 3. This ratio 
was first discovered by Archimedes. -Cy¬ 

linder, in Gunnery, the whole hollow 
length of a great gun; the bore. 

CYLIN'DROID ( lculindros, a cylinder; and 
eidos, form: Gr.), a solid body, approaching 
to the figure of a cylinder, but differing in 
some respects, as having the bases ellipti¬ 
cal, but parallel and equal. 

OY'MA, or CYMA'TIUM (kuma, a wave ; 


lcumation, a small wave : Gr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a member or moulding of the cornice, 
the profile of which is waving, that is, con¬ 
cave at one part and convex at the other. 
When the concave part of the moulding 
projects beyond the convex part, the cyma- 
tium is denominated a cyma recta; but 
when the convex part forms the greatest 
projection, it is a cyma reversa .. 

CYM'BAL ( lcumbalon, from kiimbos, a hol¬ 
low vessel: Gr.), a musical instrument used 
by the ancients, hollow, and made of brass, 
supposed to be somewhat like a kettle-drum. 
The modern cymbals used in military bands 
consist of two concave metal plates, which 
being held one in each hand are struck to¬ 
gether. 

CYME ( cyma: Lat.; from kuma: Gr.), a 
sprout, a species of inflorescence, in which 
the flowering stems divide in pairs with a 
flower springing from the fork. 

CYNAN'CHE ( kunanche, a bad sore 
throat; literally, dog-throttling: from kuon, 
a dog; and ancho, I strangle : Gr.), among 
Physicians, an inflammation of the larynx. 
It is of several kinds, and comprehends the 
quinsy, croup, and malignant sore throat. 

CYN'IC ( kunikos, dog-like: Gr.), a man of 
a surly or snarling temper: a misanthrope. 

-Cynics, a sect of ancient philosophers 

who prided themselves upon their contempt 
of riches and state, arts, sciences, and 
amusements. The two most celebrated men 
of this sect were Antisthenesand Diogenes. 

CYN'IPS, in Entomology, a genus of liy- 
menopterous insects, which puncture with 
their ovipositor the surface of leaves, &c., 
and deposit with the egg a drop of irritating 
fluid which produces the different kinds of 
gall-nuts. The most beautiful gall-nut is 
the production of the Cynips Folii-qucrcfis, 
which, piercing the terminal bud of the tree, 
deposits its egg in the interior, and the 
juice of the tree exuding and drying round 
it in concentric portions, converts it from 
a healthy bud into a fine dark green gall, 
leafed like a rose-bud beginning to blow, 
about an inch in diameter, and held to 
the branch by a pedicle. When the in¬ 
sect is fully formed, it eats through the 
nut and flics off. The common gall-nut is 
produced by the Cynips tinctoria, upon the 
Quercus infectoria, an oak growing in the 
Levant. A very curious thing about this 
genus is, that the male has never yet been 
discovered, although innumerable nests of 
gall-flies have been examined. 

CYNODON'TES (kunodon: from kuon, a 
dog; and odous, a tooth: Gr.), in Anatomy, 
dog-teeth, of which there are two in each 
jaw, one on each side betwixt the fore-teeth 
and the grinders. 

CYNOREX'IA (kuon, a dog; and orexis, 
an appetite : Gr.), in Medicine, a canine ap¬ 
petite. 

CYN'OSURE (kuonosoura: from kuon, a 
dog; and oura, a tail: Gr.), in Astronomy, 
a name given to Ursa minor, or the Lesser 
Bear, a constellation by which the ancient 
Phoenicians were guided in their voyages; 
and hence an object attentively observed, 
whence the application of the word in our 

time, ‘ The cynosure of modern eyes.’-- 

In Greek Mythology, Cynosura was the 







































189 Ettcrarw Crca^unn [dactyl 


nurse of the infant Jupiter, on Mount Ida 
in Crete, and was afterwards changed by 
him into a constellation. 

CYTRESS, the name of several species of 
coniferous trees, belonging to the genus 
C~‘pressus. Of the common cypress (C. sem- 
pervirens) there are two varieties, the hori¬ 
zontal form, and the upright one. The lat¬ 
ter is frequently planted in cemeteries in 
the south of Europe. The C. ludtanica, or 
Cedar of Goa, is an elegant tree, which has 
been brought from India to Europe. The 
C. fundois, or weeping cypress of the Chi¬ 
nese, is said to be the original of the tree 
th at fig ures on ‘willow pattern’ china. 

CYPRINTDJE {kuprinoe, the carp: Gr.), 
in Ichthyology, a family of malacopterous 
abdominal fishes, with small mouths and 
no teeth in the jaws, living in fresh water. 
In England we have several species. The 
carps and gold fish are placed in the genus 
Cyprinus ; the carp, bream, and the white 
bream in the genus Abramis; the roach, 
dace, chub, rudd, and minnow, in the ge¬ 
nus Leuciscus; and the barbel, gudgeon, 
tench, and loach, in the genera Barbu*, Go- 
bio, Tinea, and Cobitis, respectively. 

CYRE2CATC3, a sect of ancient philoso¬ 
phers, so called from their founder Aristip¬ 
pus of Cyrene, a disciple of Socrates. The 
great principle of their doctrine was, that 
the supreme good of man in this life is 
pleasure. 

CYST (TcSsiis , a bladder: Gr.), a bag which 
, contains morbid matter in animal bodies. 






- Ctstic Oxide, a peculiar substance 

supposed to be generated in the kidneys. 

CYSTIDES same dene.), in Med: cine, en¬ 
cysted tumours, or such as have their sub¬ 
stance included in a membrane. 

CYSTITIS ^ame deriv.), In Medicine, in¬ 
flammation of the bladder. 

CYSTOCELE (kustis, a bladder; and kill, 
a hernia: Gr.), in Surgery, a hernia or rup¬ 
ture formed by the protrusion of the bladder. 

CYSTOT'OJIY {kustis, a bladder; and 
Urm.no, I cut: Gr.), the practice of opening 
encysted tumours for the discharge of mor- 
bi d ma tter. 

CYTTSUS (kutisos: Gr .), a genus of legu¬ 
minous trees and shrubs, with pea-like flow¬ 
ers, chiefly natives of the south of Europe. 
Our common laburnum is one of the species. 

CYT'O BLASTEMA ( h&stis, a bladder; and 
blastema, a sprout: Gr.), in Physiology, a 
liquid or semi-fluid substance, consisting 
of proteine, fatty matter, and salts, found 
inside cells, or without them. It i3 also 
called blastema or protoplasm, and it is 
supposed to be the formative matter of cells. 

CZAR (.Caesar), the title assumed by the 
emperors of Russia. The first that bore the 
title of czar of Moscow was Ivan IL in 1579. 
The eldest son of the czar was called Czar- 
ovicz, or as we usually spell it, Cesare- 
i citch ; hut this appellation was discon¬ 
tinued after the murder of Alexis, the son of 
Peter I., until revived by Paul L in 1799, in 
favour of Constantine, his second son. The 
• consort of the czar is termed Czarina. 



D, the fourth letter in the Hebrew alpha¬ 
bet, and in those derived from it. It is a 
paiatodentaL having a kind of middle sound 
between the t and th; its sound being 
formed by a stronger impulse of the tongue 
against the upper part of the mouth, than is 
necessary in the pronunciation of the t. 
D, as a numeral, denotes 300; hut it is more 
correct to write 10. As an abbreviation, it 
stands for Doctor: M.D. Medicines Doctor, 
Doctor of Medicine. And for Divinitotis: 
D.D. Dirmitatis Doctor, Doctor of Divinity. 
For Domini: AD. Anno Domini, in the 
year of our Lord. For Dei: Dei gratia, 
by the grace of God. For Defensor: FD. 
F id defensor. Defender of the faith. 

Sec. -By Roman writers, it is used for 

Dims, Decius, Decoins, Distras, Diis, ice. 

I Thus DAL, in Roman epitaphs, signified 
Diis Manuinu (to the infernal gods ;; hut, on 
other occasions, Diis Magnis to the great 
j gods .-As a sign, it is one of the Domi¬ 

nical or Sunday letters; and in Music, it Is 
' the nominal of the second note in the na¬ 
tural diatonic scale of C. 

DAB, a small flat fish, the Platessa Umanda 
of ichthyologists. Its surface is rougher 
than that of the flounder or plaice, and it is 
better than either as food. It is about 
fight or nine inches long. 


DA CATO 'from the beginning: ItaL) 
in Music, a phrase signifying that the first 
part of the tune i3 to be repeated from the 
beginning. It is also used as a call or 
acclamation to the musical performer at 
concerts, &<n, to repeat the air or piece 
which has just been finished. 

DACE, a river fish of the family of the 
Cyprinidee, the Leuciscus vulgaris of ichthy¬ 
ologists ; it resembles the roach In habits 
and appearance, but there are only nine in 
place of twelve rays in the dorsal fin, and 
the pectoral, ventral, and anal fln3 are 
; nearly white. 

DA'COIT (dakhee: Hindi, a robber). Da- 
coits are high class Rajpoots, originally 
from Gaze rat, who form gangs for the 
purpose of robbery, but never commit 
murder. The?'were found throughout In¬ 
dia, but by the exertions of the govern¬ 
ment their numbers have been greatly 
reduced. 

DACRYGELO'513 (dalmx, a tear; and 
gelos, laughter: Gr.), in Medicine, a species 
of insanity, in which the person Laughs 
and w eeps a t the same time. 

DACTYL {daktidos, literally the finger. 
Gr.—like the finger, the dactyl has, as it 
were, one long and two short joints), afoot 
i in Latin and Greek poetry, consisting of a 






























DACTYLIC] JktCStftuC iXlltf 


long syllable followed by two short ones: 
as dorninfis, carmlnd. When combined with 
spondees consisting of two long syllables. 
It forms the hexameter, a line of six feet. 

DACTYL'IO ( daktulikos , from daktulos, a 
dactyl: Gr.), an epithet for verses which end 
with a dactyle instead of a spondee. 

DAOTY'LIOMANCY ( claktulios , a ring; 
and mcmteia, prophecy : Gr.), a kind of di¬ 
vination among the Greeks and Romans, 
which was performed by suspending a ring 
by a thread over a table, the edge of which 
Avas marked with the letters of the alphabet. 
As the ring, after its vibration ceased, hap¬ 
pened to hang over certain letters, these 
joined together gave the answer. 

DACTYLIOTHE'CA ( daktulios , a ring; 
and theke, a repository: Gr.), a collection of 
engraved gems. 

DAC'TYLIS ( dalctulos, a finger: Gr., be¬ 
cause it has long and slender spikes, like 
fingers), a genus of grasses, containing 
Cocksfoot grass. 

DACTYLOL'OGY, or DACTYLON'OMY 
(i daktulos, a finger; and logos, a discourse, 
or nomos, a law: Gr.), the art of communi¬ 
cating ideas or thoughts by the fingers ; or 
the art of numbering on the fingers. 

DAC'TYLOS (literally, a finger: Gr.), the 
shortest measure among the Greeks, being 
a finger's breadth, or about seven-tenths of 
an inch. It corresponded to the digitus of 
the Romans. 

DA'DO {Ital.), the die, or that part in the 
middle of the pedestal of a column between 
its base and cornice. It is also the name of 
the lower part of a wall. 

I) JE MONOM A'NI A ( daimon, a demon ; 
and mania, madness: Gr.), in the medical 
writings of the ancients, denoted a mad¬ 
ness which was supposed to arise from de¬ 
moniacal influence. 

DAF'FODIL, the popular name of some 
of the species of Narcissus, nat. ord. Ama- 
ryllidacece. It is a corruption of the Greek 
word asphodelos. 

DA'GON ( dag , a fish : Heb.), an idol of the 
Philistines, of the human shape upwards, 
and resembling a fish downwards, with a 
finny tail. 

DAGUER'REOTYPE ( Daguerre , the in¬ 
ventor ; and tupos, a sketch : Gr.), the name 
given to the process discovered by Daguerre, 
by which all images produced by the ca¬ 
mera obscura are retained and fixed in a 
few moments, by the action of light upon 
metallic surfaces coated with a salt of 
silver. The ancient alchymists were aware 
that a substance washed first with a solu¬ 
tion of a salt of silver, and then with a 
solution of common salt, would become 
black. Paper wetted in this way, and placed 
in the camera obscura, so as to receive the 
image on it, will soon exhibit a negative 
picture; that is, one in which the lights 
and shadows are reversed. Many persons, 
among others,Wedgewood and Sir H. Davy, 
attempted in vain to arrest the action of 
the light when the picture was produced ; 
but ultimately its whole surface became 
black. At length Niepce and Daguerre dis¬ 
covered a means of effecting this, and were 
munificently rewarded by the French go¬ 
vernment. They used for the purpose a 


190 


silvered copper plate, which, after having ! 
been rendered extremely clean, was ex- ] 
posed on its silvered side to the vapour of : 
iodine, and then placed in the camera ob¬ 
scura. Having been removed from the I 
latter, without the least appearance of 
change on its surface, it was exposed in a : 
proper apparatus to the vapour of mercury, \ 
which caused the landscape, &c., to appear. 
It was then washed with a solution of hypo- j 
sulphite of soda, to remove the undecom- I 
posed salt of silver, and therefore to pre- I 
vent any further action of the light; and i 
was finally washed with pure water, and | 
carefully dried. The application of chloride 
of gold fixes the picture. [See Photo¬ 
graphy.] 

DAH'LIA (from Dahl, a Swedish bota- [ 
nist), a genus of plants, belonging to the i 
Composites. The species are natives of i 
South America, but have become common ! 
in our gardens, and are highly ornamental 
in the autumn, when other flowers are 
scarce. The flowers by cultivation havs 
been doubled, and made to assume a variety 
of colours. They are reproduced from the 
seed, or by the division of the roots. The 
roots furnish the Mexicans with a whole¬ 
some article of food, though the taste is by 
no means pleasant. 

DA'IRY (dey, milk : Old Eng.), a building 
appropriated to the purpose of preserving 
and managing milk, making butter, cheese, 
&c. Temperature in a dairy is of the first 
importance; for if too much heat be ad¬ 
mitted, the milk will quickly become sour ; 
and if too cold an atmosphere prevails, 
neither butter nor cheese making can be 
carried on with any success. Dairy farms, 
in general, consist chiefly of meadow and 
pasture, with only a small portion of the 
land under tillage; but it has of late years 
been proved that stall-feeding, with green 
crops,is most important in the management | 
of cows: for in this way they can be kept 
in milk through the whole winter season. 

DA'IS (a canopy : Fr.), in Architecture, a 
raised platform at the end of a dining-hall, 
where the table for the principal guests 
stood; also a seat with a canopy over it. 

DA'ISY ( deeges eage, day’s eye: Sax.), a 
well-known wild plant, the Beilis perennis 
of botanists, belonging to the Comjwsita’. 

DAM-'AGE FEAS'ANT ( dommage faisant, 
doing mischief: Fr.), in Law, is when one 
person’s beasts get into another’s ground, 
without licence from the owner or occupier 
of the ground, and do damage, by feeding 
or otherwise, to the grass, corn, wood, &c., 
in which case the party injured may dis¬ 
train or impound them; but at his peril if 
the accident have happened through his 
neglect. Possession without title empowers 
a tenant to distrain in such a case ; but the 
cattle cannot be detained if the owner of 
the estate offer amends. 

DAM'AGES ( dommage, injury: Fr. ; from 
damnum, a loss: Lat.), in Law, the esti¬ 
mated equivalent for an injury sustained; 
or that which is given or adjudged by a 
jury to the plaintiff in an action to repair 
his loss. 

DAM'ASK. (same dcriv.), a textile fabric, 
with a pattern consisting of figures and 



















<91 Jlttctitf]) Cria^un). [date-tree 


; - -- 

| flowers, originally from Damascus. Though 
1 at first it was made only of silk, other ma- 
j terials are now used, as, for example, in 

j damask table-cloths.- Damask-Steel, is 

a tine kind of steel, used in Damascus for 
sword-blades, so celebrated for their extra¬ 
ordinary temper. 

DAMASKEEN'ING (same derive, the art 
of engraving on and inlaying iron or steel 
with gold or silver. 

DAME (lady: Fr.), formerly a title of 
honour for a woman, and the title still 
given in legal documents to the wife of a 
baronet. 

DAM'NIFY ( damnum , loss ; and facio, I 
cause: Lat.), in Law, to cause hurt or da¬ 
mage to; as, to damnify a man in his goods 
or estate. 

DAM'PERS, in Music, certain parts in 
the internal construction of the pianoforte, 
which are covered with soft leather in 
order to deaden the vibration, and are 

acted on by a pedal.-Also, iron plates 

; used to regulate the supply of air to steam 
furnaces, &c. 

DAMPS (damp/, vapour : Germ.), noxious 
exhalations, frequently found in mines, 
coal-pits, wells, and other subterraneous 
places, and which are deleterious or fatal 
to animal life. These damps are usually 
carbonic acid gas, vulgarly called choke- 
damp, which instantly suffocates; or some 
inflammable gas, called fire-damp. The fire¬ 
damp, which prevails almost exclusively in 
coal-mines, is a mixture chiefly of light 
carburetted hydrogen and atmospheric air, 
which explodes with tremendous violence 
whenever it comes in contact with flame. 
The injuries which formerly occurred so 
frequently, both to the machinery and to 
the lives of the miners, arising from the 
fire-damp, are now greatly diminished by 
the use of Sir H. Davy’s safety-lamp. It 
consists of a cylinder of wire gauze, so 
placed that air cannot pass to or from the 
flame, except through it, while it trans¬ 
mits sufficient light for the miners. The 
i flame cannot pass out through the gauze, 
j and therefore cannot set the explosive mix¬ 
ture of gases on fire; although the mixed 
gas can pass into the flame, and thus be 
consumed without inconvenience or dan¬ 
ger. If the workmen were not so infatuated 
as to remove the gauze for the purpose of 
lighting their pipes, candles, &c., this 
admirable contrivance would, it is proba¬ 
ble, totally prevent explosion, and the con¬ 
sequent fearful loss of life and destruction 
of property which occurs from time to time. 

DAM'SEL (damoiselle: Fr.), a name an¬ 
ciently given to young ladies of noble or 
genteel extraction. The word is, however, 
now seldom used, except jocularly or in 
poetry. Damoisel, or damoiseau, the mas¬ 
culine of the same word, appears to have 
been applied to young men of rank; thus 
we read of damsel Pepin, damsel Louis 
le Gros, damsel Richard, prince of Wales. 
From the sons of kings this appellation 
first passed to those of great lords or barons, 
and afterwards to those of gentlemen who 
were not yet knights. Such is the change 
which language undergoes, that at the pre¬ 
sent day the word damsel is used only, and 


even rarely, when speaking of young un- j 
married women. It occurs frequently in | 
the Scriptures and in poetry. 

DANCET'TE ( danser, to dance: Fr.), in 
Heraldry, is when the outline of any bor- 
dure or ordinary is very largely indented. 

DAN'CING (same deriv.), has been prac¬ 
tised by all nations, civilized and barbarous; 
being by some held in esteem, by others in 
contempt. It has also often been made an 
act of religion; thus, David danced before 
the ark, to honour God and express his 
excess of joy for its return into Sion; and 
among the pagans it made a part of the ; 
worship paid to the gods, it being usual to 
dance round the altars and statues. Ac- | 
cording to Scaliger, the early bishops of the 
Christian church, on account of their lead¬ 
ing the dance in solemn festivals, were 
styled prcesules, a name given by the 
ancients to the priests of Mars, because 
they were the prcesullatores (chief dancers : 
Lat.), in the sacred rites of that deity; and 
this practice continued in the church until 
the 12th century. 

DA'NEGELT ( Danengeld, Dane’s money : 
Germ.), an annual tax formerly laid on the 
English nation for maintaining forces to 
oppose the Danes, or to furnish tribute to 
procure peace with them. It was first im¬ 
posed as a continual yearly tax upon the 
whole nation under king Ethelred about 995. 

It was levied by William I. and II., but 
was remitted by Henry I., and finally 
abolished by Stephen on the day of his 
coronation. 

DA'OURITE, a mineral, called also ru- 
hellite, of a reddish hue. It is a Tourmaline 
with a soda base. 

DAPH'NE (the laurel: Gr.), in Botany 
a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Thymelacccc. 
Daphne Mezereum and Daphne Laureola, the 
spurge laurel, are British species. 

DAPH'NINE ( daphne, laurel: Gr.), in 
Chemistry, the bitter principle of the laurel, 
discovered by Yauquelin. It consists of 
hard crystals which are of a greyish colour 
and transparent. 

DA'RIC ( dareilcos, from Darios, Darius: 
Gr.), in Antiquity, a Persian gold coin, said 
to have been struck by Darius. It is scarce 
in collections. Existing specimens weigh 
about 128£ grains. Silver darics were also 
struck : specimens exist weighing from 224 
to 230 grains. 

DA'TA (things given : Lat.), among Ma¬ 
thematicians, a terra used for such things 
and quantities as are given, known, or 
capable of being ascertained, in order to 
find therefrom other things that are 
unknown. 

DATE ( datus, given: Lat.), because let¬ 
ters, &c., were stated to be * given ’ at such 
and such a time and place, that part of a 
writing or letter which expresses the 

day of the month and year.- Date, in 

Law, is the description of the day, month, 
and year, with (sometimes) the year of the 
reign of the king, in which a deed or other 
writing was executed. An ante-date is a 
date prior to the real time when the in¬ 
strument was signed. A post-date is that 
posterior to the real time. 

DA'TE-TREE, the Phoenix dactylifera, a 


































patholite] J^rienttftc autf 


species of palm which flourishes in North 
Africa and Western Asia, growing fifty, 
sixty, and sometimes one hundred feet 
high, distinguishing the landscape of those 
countries, and affording the inhabitants 
food, clothing, &c. The fruit grows in large 
clusters, is pulpy, firm, sweet, and esculent, 
and contains a hard kernel. 

DATH'OLITE ( daio, I kindle : and litlios, 
a stone ; Or.), in Mineralogy, a borosilicate 
of lime, found in Norway. It becomes 
opaque when heated. 

DA'TIVE CASE ( dativus , pertaining to 
giving: Lat.), in Grammar, that inflection 
of a noun which indicates participation in 
the action of the verb accompanying it. 

DATUTtTA, in Chemistry, a vegetable 
alkaloid, the poisonous principle of the 
Datura Stramonium. 

DATf'CTJS (daukos: Or.), in Botany, a 
genus of plants, nat. ord. Umbelliferce, con¬ 
taining the well known carrot. 

DAU'PHIN, the title borne by the eldest 
son of the king of France, down to 1830. 
It is said that in 1349, Humbert II., the 
last of the princes of Dauphiny, having 
no issue, gave his dominions to the crown 
of France, upon condition that the king’s 
eldest son should be styled the Dawpliin. 
These princes carried a dolphin on their 
shields. 

DA'VID'S HAT (St.), the 1st of March, 
kept by the Welsh in honour of St. David, 
bishop of Minevy, in Wales, who, at the 
head of their forces, wearing leeks to 
distinguish them, obtained a signal vic¬ 
tory over the Saxons. It is the custom 
of the Welsh to wear leeks in their hats 
on this day. 

DA'VT’S LAMP. [See Daxps.] 

DAT (dceg: Sax.), according to the most 
natural and obvious sense of the word, 
signifies that part of the twenty-four hours 
when it is light; or the space of time 
between the rising and the setting of the 
! sun—the time which elapses from its set- 
| ting to its rising again being considered the 
i night. In this sense it is termed artificial 
day. The word day is often taken in a 
larger sense, so as to include the night 
also, or to denote the time in which the 
earth makes a complete revolution with 
respect to the celestial bodies. Hence it 
expresses different intervals, according as 
the body with which the earth’s rotation is 
compared is fixed or not. The astronomical, 
called also the solar and the apparent day, 
is the time which elapses between two con¬ 
secutive returns of the same terrestrial 
meridian to the centre of the sun. Astro¬ 
nomical days are not equal, because the 
velocity of the earth in its orbit, and by 
consequence the apparent daily motion of 
the sun, are greater in winter than in sum¬ 
mer; also, the obliquity of the ecliptic 
causes the sun’s apparent daily motion in 
right ascension to be less at the equinoxes 
than at the tropics. The astronomical day 
begins at noon, and is counted on through 
twenty-four hours to the following noon. 
The civil, or mean solar day, is the time 
employed by the earth in revolving on its 
axis, as compared with the sun, supposed to 
move at a mean rate in its orbit. In this 


way of reckoning, the days are all of the 
same length; but the noon, or any given 
hour of the civil day, sometimes precedes 
and sometimes comes after the noon or 
corresponding hour of the astronomical 
day. Most nations begin the civil day at 
mean midnight. The Babylonians, Syrians, 
and Persians, like the modern Greeks and 
the natives of the Balearic isles, began 
their day at sunrise; the Jews, ancient 
Athenians, Chinese, and other orientals, at 
sun-setting ; and the ancient Egyptians at 
noon. The sidereal day is the period which 
elapses between the times at which a star 
passes over the meridian on two successive 
days. The most ancient astronomical obser¬ 
vations show that this interval has always 
remained of the same length. It is divided 
into twenty-four sidereal hours, which are 
subdivided into sidereal minutes and se¬ 
conds. It is used universally by astrono¬ 
mers in their observatories, though its 
commencement is still determined by the 
apparent passage of the sun across the 

meridian.- Days of Grace, in Commerce, 

a customary number of days allowed for the 
payment of a bill after it becomes due. 
Three days of grace are allowed in Great 
Britain and America. In other countries 
the time allowed is much longer, but the 
merchants very rarely avail themselves of 
the time. 

DAT'COAL, a name given by miners to 
the upper stratum of coal. 

DAT'FLT, a species of the family of the 
Ephemeridce, an insect so called from the 
shortness of its existence, because, after 
it has become a perfect fly, it lives only a 
few hours. Its larva, however, lives in the 
aquatic state two or three years. 

DAT'-LILT, the popular name of a species 
of Hemerocallis; a plant so called because 
the beauty of its flower seldom lasts longer 
than one day. 

DAZE (divas, to overwhelm with light: 
Sax.), in Mineralogy, a kind of glittering 
stones found in tin and lead mines. 

DE'ACON (diakonos, an attendant: Or.), 
the lowest of the three orders of clergy 
(bishops, priests, and deacons) in the Eng¬ 
lish church. The word is sometimes used 
in the New Testament for anyone that 
ministers in the service of God; in which 
sense bishops and presbyters are styled 
deacons. In the church of England, the 
form of ordaining a deacon declares that it 
is his office to assist in the distribution of 
the holy communion, in which, agreeably 
to the practice of the ancient church, he is 
confined to the administration of the wine 
to the communicants. He may not pro¬ 
nounce the absolution. He is not capable 
of any ecclesiastical promotion ; yet he may 
be chaplain to a family, curate to a bene- 
ficed clergyman, or lecturer to a parish 

church.-In the Roman Catholic church, 

the deacon’s office is to incense the offi- 
dating priest, to incense the choir, to put 
the mitre on the bishop’s head at the ponti¬ 
fical mass, and to assist at the communion 
He is attended by the sub-deacon, who, ac¬ 
cording to the doctrine of that church, 
being in one of the holy orders, is bound 
to celibacy, &c.-In Presbyterian and lu- 














193 iCttemry 


dependent places of worship, the deacons 
distribute the bread and wine to the com¬ 
municants.-In Scotland, an overseer of 

the poor, or the master of an incorporated 
company, is styled a deacon. 

DE'ACONESS (same deny.), a female dea¬ 
con in the primitive church. This office 
appears as ancient as the apostolic age; for 
St. Paul calls Phoebe a servant of the church 
of Cenchrea. One part of her office was to 
assist the minister at the baptizing of 
women, to undress them for immersion, 
and to dress them again, that the whole 
ceremony might be performed with all the 
decency becoming so sacred an action. 

DEAD'-EYES, in Sea language, a kind of 
blocks with many holes in them, by which 
the shrouds are fastened to the chains. 

DEAD LAN'GUAGE, a language which is 
no longer spoken, or in common use by a 
people, and is known only in writings; as 
the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. 

DEAD'-LIGHTS, strong wooden ports, 
made to fit the cabin windows, in which 
they are fixed to prevent the water from 
entering the ship in a storm. 

DEAD'-POINTS, two positions in the 
revolution of an axle driven by recipro¬ 
cating motion, in which the driving force 
is nil. To obviate the difficulty thus arising, 
the fly-wheel was invented. 

DEAD-RECK'ONING, in Navigation, the 
; calculation made of a ship’s place, by ob- 
j serving the way she makes by the log, and 
' allowing for currents, &c., no recourse 
being had to observation. 

DEAD'-WATER, the eddy water closing 
in with a ship’s stern as she passes through 
the water. 

DEAD'-WORKS, the parts of a ship 
which are above the surface of the water 
when she is trimmed for a voyage. 

DEAF'NESS, a defect in the power of 
hearing, which may arise:—1. From the dis¬ 
ease or some impairment of the auditory 
nerve ; 2. From a partial or complete de- 
i struction of the membrana tympani, the 
i membrane which receives those vibrations 
of the air which constftute sound: this may 
j be the result of disease or accident; 3. From 
disease of the ossicles; 4. From a collection 
of wax in the auditory canal, preventing 
the duo transmission of the vibrations to 
| the membrana tympani; 5. From an en- 
i largement of the tonsils, when they press 
1 upon the eustachian tube, the canal which 
communicateswith themiddleear[see Ear]. 

DEAL ( delan , to divide : Sax.), fir-planks 
of different thicknesses, brought from the 
, north of Europe, the produce of the spruce 
fir ( Abies excelsa). When the pieces are 
7 inches broad they are called battens; 

1 when 9 inches broad, deals ; and when 11 
inches broad, planks. SomeNorth American 
spruce firs are also applied to the same 
purpose, especially the black and white 
kinds, Abies nigra, and A. alba. 

DEAN ( decanus: Lat.), a dignitary of the 
! church of England, next to a bishop, and 
head of the chapter in a cathedral or council. 
-The Dean and Chapter form a corpo¬ 
rate body, in which is vested the property 
of the cathedral, and the management of 
the estates belonging to it. 


Creatfurjn [debt 


DEATH {Sax.), total and permanent ces¬ 
sation of all the vital functions, when the 
organs have not only ceased to act, but 
have lost the susceptibility of renewed ac¬ 
tion.-In Law, there is a natural death 

and a civil death: natural, where actual 
death takes place; civil, where a person 
is not actually dead, but adjudged so by 
law; as by banishment, abjuration of the 
realm, &c. 

DEATH'-WATCH, a small beetle belong¬ 
ing to the timber-boring genus Anobium, 
is remarkable for striking with the fore 
part of its head against paper or some other 
material, and thus making a ticking noise, 
like the beat of a watch, which by ignorant 
and superstitious people is supposed to be 
a presage of death. It is of a greyish-brown 
colour, and about a quarter of an inch in 
length. The ticking is merely the mode of 
call which the male insect makes for its 
mate. The larva is very destructive to 
furniture, books, &c. An instance occurred 
of twenty-seven volumes in a public library 
having been perforated by the larva of an 
Anobium, in such a way that a string could 
be passed through the holes, and the vo¬ 
lumes could then be all lifted together. 

DEBA'CLE (a breaking up of ice: Fr.), 
a Geological term, to designate a violent 
rush of waters, which, overcoming all op¬ 
posing barriers, carries with it stones, rocks, 
&c„ and spreads them in ail directions. 

DEBEN'TURE ( debeo, I owe : Lat.), a term 
used at the custom-house for a certificate 
signed by an officer of the customs, which 
entitles a merchant exporting goods to the 
receipt of a bounty, or a drawback of du¬ 
ties.-It is also an instrument, in use in 

some government departments, by which 
the government is charged to pay a cre¬ 
ditor or his assigns the sum found due on 
auditing his accounts.-Also, an instru¬ 

ment by which a public company acknow¬ 
ledges the borrowing of a sum of money, 
and undertakes to repay the amount with 
interest. 

DEB'IT (i iebitum , a debt: Lat.), a term 
used in Book-keeping to express the left- 
hand page of the ledger, to which all 
articles are carried that are charged to an 
account. 

DEBOUCH' ( deboucher, to clear a way: 
Fr.), in Military language, to issue or march 
out of a narrow place, or from defiles. 

DE'BRIS ( Fr.), ruins or rubbish : applied 

particularly to the fragments of rocks.- 

The word debris is also used by the French 
to express the remains or wreck of an army 
that has been routed. 

DEBT ( debitum: Lat.), in Law, a species 
of contract, by which one party is bound 
to pay the other a certain sum of money. 
A debt of record is a sum which appears to 
be due by the evidence of a court of redord; 
a debt by special contract, or specialty, is a 
sum which is acknowledged to be due, or 
becomes due by instruments under seal; 
and a debt by simple contract is either by 
parole, or a written obligation unsealed, as 
by a bill of exchange, a promissory note, 

&c.- National Debt, the engagement 

entered into by a government to repay at 
a future period money advanced by indivi- 















decachord] )t «g>anrttfit autr 194 

duals for public service, and to pay the 
lenders an interest agreed upon. 

DEC'ACHORD, or DECACHORD'ON (de- 
kachordos : from delta, ten ; and chorde, a 
musical string : Gr .), a musical instrument 
of ten strings. 

DEC'AGON (delta, ten; and gOnia, an 
angle : Gr.), in Geometry, a plane figure 
with ten sides and ten angles. 

DE'CAGRAMME ( deka , ten: Gr. ; and 
gramme ), a French weight of ten grammes, 
equal to 154 34 grains troy. 

DECAHE'DRON (deka, ten ; and hedra, a 
base: Gr.), in Geometry, a figure or body 
having ten sides. 

DE'CALITRE (delta, ten : Gr.; and litre), 
a French measure of capacity, containing 
ten litres, or 610'28 cubic inches : the litre 
being rather less than our imperial quart. 

DEC'ALOGUE (deka, ten; and logos, a 
discourse: Gr.), the ten commandments or 
precepts delivered by God to Moses, at 
Mount Sinai, originally engraved on two 
tables of stone. 

DECAM'ERON (delta, ten ; and hemera, a 
day : Gr.), a work in Italian prose, written 
by Giovanni Boccaccio, and first published 
about 1352. It consists of one hundred 
tales, supposed to have been related during 
ten days, in a villa in the country, by a 
party who had assembled there to escape 
the plague which raged at Florence in 1348. 
It was arranged that each of the party 
should relate a story daily for the entertain¬ 
ment of the others. The beautiful country 
around Florence is described, and the ram¬ 
bles and repasts of the recluses are re¬ 
corded. ‘ These stories,’ says Sismondi, 
‘which are varied with infinite art, as well 
in subject as in style, from the most pathetic 
and tender to the most sportive, and un 
fortunately the most licentious, exhibit a 
wonderful power of narration ; and his de¬ 
scription of the plague in Florence, which 
serves as an introduction to them, may be 
ranked with the most celebrated historical 
descriptions which have descended to us. 
The perfect truth of colouring ; the ex¬ 
quisite choice of circumstances, calculated 
to produce the deepest impression, and 
which place before our eyes the most re¬ 
pulsive scenes without exciting disgust; 
and the emotion of the writer, which in¬ 
sensibly pervades every part, give to this 
picture that true eloquence of history,whicli 
in Thucydides animates the relation of the 
plague in Athens. With regard to the 
stories themselves, it would be difficult to 
convey an idea of them by extracts, and 
impossible to preserve in a translation the 
merits of their style. The merit of Boccaccio 
consists in the perfect purity of his lan¬ 
guage, in his elegance, his grace, and, above 
all, in that naivete, which is the chief merit 
of narration, and the peculiar charm of the 
Italian tongue. 

DEO'AMETRE (deka, ten : Gr. ; and mitre), 
a French measure of length, consisting of 
ten metres, or 3937 inches. 

DECAN'DRIA (deka, ten ; and aner, a 
male : Gr.), the tenth class of the, Linnasan 
system of plants, containing plants with 
flowers having ten stamens. 

DEGARBON IZA'TION (of cast iron), a 

process resorted to in order to convert cast 
iron into steel and malleable iron, by re¬ 
moving a portion of the carbon it contains. 

DEC'ASTICH (deka, ten ; and stichos, a 
line : Gr.), a poem consisting of ten lines. 

DEC'ASTYLE (deka, ten ; and stales, a 
column : Gr.), in Architecture, a building 
with ten columns in front. 

DE’CEM'BER (Lat., from decern, ten), the 
last month of the modern year. About the 
21st of this month, the sun enters the 
tropic of Capricorn, and makes the winter 
solstice. ID was so called from being the 
tenth month in the Roman year, which 
began with March. 

DECEM'VIRI (decern, ten ; and viri, men : 
Lat.), a body of men who, according to the 
Roman traditions, were elected by the pa¬ 
tricians, a.u.c. 302, for the purpose of draw¬ 
ing up a body of laws, founded on the most 
approved institutions of Greece. They com¬ 
piled a code, which they inscribed on ten 
tables, and stated that their labours were 
not yet complete. Next year, therefore, 
another body of ten, which probably in¬ 
cluded some of the patricians, was ap¬ 
pointed with the same powers ; and these 
added two more tables, altogether making 
the famous twelve tables, which were, from 
that time, the foundation of all Roman 
law. The second body of decemvirs at¬ 
tempted to prolong their period of office, 
committed some acts of violence, and alto¬ 
gether gave such dissatisfaction, that they 
were dissolved. The traditionary history 
of the decemviri is, however, very doubt¬ 
ful. There were other decemvirs, who were 
appointed for judicial and other purposes. 

BECEN'NARY (decern, ten : Lat.), in Law, 
a tithing consisting of ten freeholders and 
their families. Ten of these decennaries 
constituted a hundred, the origin of which 
is ascribed to Alfred. 

DECID'UOUS (deciduus, that falls off: 
Lat.), an epithet chiefly used in Botany ; as, 
deciduous leaves, those which fall in autumn, 
in distinction from those of evergreens. 
The calyx or cup of a flower is also said to 
be deciduous when it falls off or decays 
along with the flower petals; while, on the 
contrary, it is called permanent when it re¬ 
mains after these are fallen. 

DE'CIGRAMME (decimals, the tenth : 
Lat. ; and gramme), a French weight of 
one-tenth of a gramme, equal to 1-5434 grs. 
troy. 

DE'CILITRE (decimus, the tenth: Lat. ; 
and litre), a French measure of capacity, 
equal to one-tenth of a litre. 

DE'CIMAL ARITH'METIC (decimus, be 
longing to ten : Lat.), the ordinary system, 
in which decimal numbers are used. Decimal 
numbers are those whose values increase 
or decrease in a tenfold ratio. 

DE'CIMAL COINAGE. A system in which 
the computation is made in parts of ten 
with coins to correspond, is manifestly 
attended with great convenience, and has 
been adopted in France and some other 
countries. Attachment to established usage, 
and the apprehension of ill effects arising 
from a change, have hitherto prevented the 
adoption of such a system with us; but when 
the benefits are more clearly perceived, the 




































public will not hesitate about It. The advan¬ 
tage of a decimal system will be appreciable 
in every calculation. There will, moreover, 
be a great saving of time in the teaching 
of pecuniary arithmetic, and hence a deci¬ 
mal system would further education. 

DE'CIMAL FRACTIONS, a method of 
expressing fractions of unity, in parts of 
10, 100, 1000, &e. It is usual to express in 
writing the numerator only, putting a point 
before it on the left hand, thus "2 is equal 

t0 lb’ ' 25 = TUd* ‘ 575 = TbbV Cyphers 011 
the right hand of decimals make no altera¬ 
tions in their value: thus, ’20 is exactly 
the same as 2 But cyphers on the left hand 
of decimals decrease their value, for '5, '05, 


•005 are equal 


t0 To’ 


and 


5 


All 


_ 5 ^ 

TOO’ “““ 1000 

figures to the left of the point • express 
whole numbers; and a series of figures, 
some of which are to the left, and some to 
the right of a decimal point, form a mixed 

In order to 


V-T* - *>s 75 
too 


number, thus: 2575 = 25. 
reduce a vulgar fraction to a decimal frac¬ 
tion of equal value, we annex cyphers to 
the numerator until it is equal to a greater 
sum than the denominator, then dividing 
it by the denominator, the quotient will be 
the decimal fraction required. 

DECIMA'TION (deciniatio, from decimus, 
the tenth : Lat.), a punishment inflicted by 
the Homans on such soldiers as quitted their 
post, or behaved badly in the field. The 
names of all the guilty were put into an 
urn or helmet, from which a tenth part 
only were drawn, whose lot it was to suffer 
death. Those who escaped received barley, 
instead of wheat, for food. 

DE'CIMETRE ( decimus , the tenth : Lat.; 
and mitre), a French measure of length, 
equal to the tenth part of a metre, or to 
3 937079 inches. 

DECK (decan, to adorn : Sax.), the planked 
floor of a ship from stem to stern. Small 
vessels have only one deck; larger ships 
have t\yo or three decks. Thus, speaking of 
the size of a large ship, we say, she is a two- 
decker, or a three-decker. 

DECK'ED (same deriv.), in Heraldry, a 
term applied to an eagle, or other birds, 
when their feathers are trimmed at the 
edges with a small line of another colour. 

DECLAMATION (declamatio: Lat.), the 
act of speaking to a public audience with 
energy and grace; it may be a discourse 
addressed either to the reason or to the 
passions. Among the Greeks, declamation 
was the art of speaking indifferently on all 
subjects and on all sides of a question. 
With us it is more especially applied to the 
speeches of students in colleges, practised 
for exercise in oratory. The term is, how¬ 
ever, often used contemptuously, to denote | 
a noisy harangue. The Romans employed 
the expression only in the sense of pleading 
at tne bar. 

DECLARATION ( declaratio , an exposi¬ 
tion : Lat.), in Law, that part of the process 
or pleadings in a common law court in which 
a statement of the plaintiff's complaint 
against the defendant is set forth.- De¬ 

claration op War, a public proclamation 
ruade by a berald-at-arms to the subjects of | 


a state, declaring them to be at war with 


some foreign power, and forbidding all and 
every one to aid or assist the common enemy 
at their peril. 

DECLEN'SION ( dcclino, I vary or inflect: 
Lat.), in Grammar, the inflection of cases to 
which nouns are subject. Also, the act of 
going through these inflections. 

DECLINATION (declinatio, a bending 
aside: Lat.), in Astronomy, the distance 
of any star or point of the heavens from the 
equator, either north or south, and mea¬ 
sured on the great circle, which passes 
through the centre of the star or point, and 
the poles. When the sun is in the equinoc¬ 
tial, he has no declination, and illuminates 
half the globe from pole to pole. As he in¬ 
creases in north declination, lie gradually 
shines further over the north pole, and 
leaves the south pole in darkness; and vice 
versA. The sun’s greatest declination, north 

or south, is 23J degrees.- Declination 

op the Cosipass, the variation of the 
needle from the true meridian of a place. 
At most places on the earth’s surface, the 
needle does not coincide, but forms an an¬ 
gle, with the geographical meridian. Lines 
on a map connecting places at which the 
needle is deflected to the same extent from 
the geographical meridian are called iso- 
gonal lines. Lines which connect places 
where the needle coincides with the geo¬ 
graphical meridian are called lines of no de¬ 
clination. 

DECOCTION (decoctio, from decoquo, I 
boil down : Lat.), a medicinal liquor, made 
by extracting the soluble and efficacious 
part of many drugs, particularly of barks, 
woods, seeds, roots, &c.,by boiling. It dif¬ 
fers from infusion, which is merely pouring 
boiling water upon them. 

DECOLLATION (decollatio, from decollo, 
I take off from the neck : Lat.), the act of 
beheading, a term used in the phrase ‘de¬ 
collation of St. John the Baptist.’ 

DECOM'POSITE ( de, out of ; and conrpono, 
I put together : Lat.), a botanical term ap¬ 
plied to leaves of plants when the primary 
leaf is so divided that each part forms a 
compound leaf, and to flowers which con¬ 
tain within a common calyx several that 
are smaller. 

DECOMPOSITION (de, equivalent to the 
English un; and compono, I put together : 
Lat.), in Chemistry, the act of separating 
the constituent parts of a substance. It 
differs from mechanical division, as the 
latter effects no change in the properties of 
the body divided, whereas the parts che¬ 
mically decomposed have properties very 
different from those of the substance itself. 

DECOY', in a general sense, any lure that 
deceives and misleads. Also a sea term 
for a stratagem employed by ships of war 
to draw any vessel of inferior force into 
an incautious pursuit, until she comes 
within gunshot. Decoying is also per¬ 
formed to elude the chase of a ship of su¬ 
perior force in a dark night; and this is 
done by committing to the sea a lighted 
cask of pitch, which will burn for a con¬ 
siderable time, and misguide the enemy 
As soon as the cask is lowered, the ship 
changes her course, and thus, if at any 




































decree] 


Ei)C J^ctenttftc mttt 


196 


tolerable distance from the foe, escapes 

with facility.- Decoy, among sportsmen, 

a place for catching wild fowl.- Decoy- 

Duck, a wild duck trained to decoy others 
into the decoy, or place where they may be 
caught. 

DECREE' ( decretum: Lat.), in Civil Law, 
the decision of the emperors on cases sub¬ 
mitted to them.—-In Law, the judgment 
of a court of equity on any bill preferred. 
A decree is interlocutory when made during 
the progress of a suit on some minor 
matter in dispute, and final when it goes to 
the whole matter in question. Decrees of 
the inferior judges may be appealed from 
to the Lords Justices, or to the Lord Chan¬ 
cellor, and from them to the House of 
Lords. A decree may also be appealed 
against in the House of Lords. 

DEC'REMENTS (decrernentum, a diminu¬ 
tion : Lat.), in Physics, the small parts by 
which a variable and decreasing quantity 
becomes less and less. 

DECREPITA'TION (de, much ;and crepito, 
I crackle : Lat.), in Chemistry, a term applied 
to the crackling noise of salts when exposed 
to heat, by which they are quickly split. It 
takes place in those salts that have little 
water of crystallization, or some between 
their plates, &c., if, like nitre, they have no 
water of crystallization—the increased tem¬ 
perature converting that small quantity into 
vapour by which the crystals are suddenly 
burst. Common salt affords a good example 
of decrepitation, and when used as a flux 
should be previously decrepitated. 

DECRESCEN'DO ( Ital .), or Diminuendo, 
in Music, the term for gradually decreasing 
or weakening the soimd; as opposed to 
crescendo. 

DECRES'CENT ( decrescens, decreasing: 
Lat.), in Heraldry, a term denoting the state 
of the moon when she declines from the full 
to her last quarter, and the horns are turned 
to the sinister side of the escutcheon. 

DECRET' ( decretum, a decree: Lat.), in 
Scottish Law, a term applied to various 
judgments and sentences. 

DEC'RETAL (same deriv.), a decree of the 
pope which, until the 14th century, had the 
same authority in canon law as that of an 
emperor in the civil law. The Decretals of 
Isidore, framed with a view to extend the 
papal power, pretend to contain the de¬ 
crees of popes who lived in the first three 
centuries; but they were forged in the ninth. 

DECUM'BENT ( decumbens, lying down : 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for anything 
which lies on the ground. 

DECUM'BITURE (same deriv.), in Astro- 
logy, the scheme or aspect of the heavens, 
by which the prognostics of recovery or 
death were supposed to be discovered. 

DECU'RION ( decurio , from decern, ten: 
Lat.), in Homan Antiquity, the commander 
of a decuria of cavalry. The cavalry be¬ 
longing to a legion were divided into ten 
turmce or troops; and for each of these, 
three decurions were chosen. In each troop, 
the decurion first chosen commanded the 
whole troop, but without changing his ap¬ 
pellation. 

DECU'RIO'NES MUNICIPA'LES (muni¬ 
cipal decurions : Lat.), a court of judges or 


councillors representing the Roman senate 
in the free towns and provinces. 

DECUR'RENT ( decurrms, running along: 
Lat.), an epithet for a leaf which adheres to 
the stem forming a wing along it. 

DECUS'SATE ( decassatio, the intersection 
of two lines: Lat.), in Botany, a term ap¬ 
plied to leaves which are set in pairs along j 
a branch, each pair being at right angles to j 
the one below it.-In Rhetoric, a decus¬ 

sated period is one that consists of two j 
rising and two falling clauses, placed in j 
alternate opposition to each other. 

DE'DALOUS (from Dcedalus, the con- i 
triver of a famous labyrinth), a Botanical I 
term applied to leaves of a delicate texture, 
whose margin is marked by various wind- j 
ings and turnings. 

DEDICATION ( dedicatio, from dedico, I 1 
consecrate: Lat.), the act of consecrating : 
or solemnly devoting any person or tiling j 
to the service of God and the purposes of 

religion.- Feast of Dedication, an anni- j 

versary festival among the Jews, in memory 
of Judas Maccabseus, who repaired and 
dedicated anew the temple and altar, which 
had been plundered and profaned by An- 
tiochus Epiplianes. It was observed on the 
twenty-fifth of Cisleu, and continued eight 

days.-In Literature, a complimentary 

address to some one, prefixed by an author 
to his work. This practice is ancient, but 
it has gone much out of fashion. 

DEDUCTIVE METHOD OF IN'QUIRY, 
the pursuit of laws into their consequences. 
[See Induction.] * The successful process 
of scientific inquiry,’says Sir John Herschel, 

‘ demands continually the alternate use of 
both the inductive and the deductive 
method.’ 

DEDUC'TOR (Lat.), a client amongst the 
Romans, who called upon his patron at his | 
lodgings in the morning, waited upon him 
from thence to the forum, and attended 
him upon all public occasions. 

DEED (deed: Sax.), in Law, a writing 
sealed and delivered by the parties. If : 
made by only one party, it is a deed-poll; if 
by two or more, an indenture. The essential 
parts of a deed are the date and names of 
the parties: the recitals, in wdiich the in¬ 
tention of the parties, and former transac¬ 
tions with reference to the same property, 
are recounted, and the operative part, 
which tells the considerations for which the 
deed is made; the conveyance by and to the 
several parties; the description of the tene¬ 
ments, their legal adjuncts; the habendum, 
beginning with * to have and to hold,’ ex¬ 
pressing the quantity of estate conveyed; 
the declaration of uses, which limits or 
modifies the enjoyment to one or more 
parties, according to stipulations previously 
made; the declaration of trusts, if any; and 
lastly, the covenants for title, and such as 
may be required by the peculiar circum¬ 
stances of the case. It must be signed and 
sealed by the grantor, and also by the 
grantee, if he has entered into any engage¬ 
ment or covenant. Witnesses usually attest 
the deed; but this is indispensable only 
where, a power having been given to be 
executed by the deed, the terms of the 
power require such attestation. 


J 



























197 Httsrary [degradation 

DEER. Animals of the deer kind consti¬ 
tute the tribe Cervina of naturalists, a divi¬ 
sion of the ruminating Bovidce. The Elk, 
Rein Deer, Fat, low Deer, and the True 
Stags belong to the Cervina, the latter in¬ 
cluding the Common Stag or Red Deer, the 
Wapiti Deer, the spotted Axis Deer of 
India, the Rusa Stag and Muntjak of Java, 
the Roebuck, and some other species. The 
Red Deer ( Cervus elaphus ) is a native of 
Europe and the temperate parts of Asia. 
Its fur has a brown colour, and its horns 
are conical with numerous branches. It is 
no longer wild in England, where the hunt¬ 
ing of it afforded so much sport to the 
i nobility of the olden time, but in Scotland 
: it still runs wild over the extensive moors, 
j and many are brought down annually by 
the rifle of the deer-stalker. The sovereign 
keeps a pack of stag hounds, and until 
lately there was a master of the buck 
hounds, one of the great officers of the 
royal household. The fallow deer has taken 
its place in parks. 

DE FAC'TO (in fact: Lat.), in Law, some¬ 
thing actually in fact, or existing, in dis¬ 
tinction from de jure, where a thing 
is only so in justice, but not in fact: thus a 

I king de facto is a person that is in actual 
possession of a crown, and a king dejure is 

1 the person who has a just right to the 
crown, though he may not be in possession 
of it. 

DEFAMA'TION (defamatus, dishonoured: 
Lat.), the malicious uttering of falsehood 
with a view to injure another’s reputation. 
Defamatory words, signs, pictures, &c., 
written or printed and published, constitute 
a libel. 

DEFAULT' (defaut: Fr.), in Law, the 
omission of any act which a party ought to 
do to entitle himself to a legal remedy or 
defence, such as non-appearance in court 
on a day assigned. If the plaintiff make 
default, he is nonsuited; if the defendant, 
judgment by default passes against him. 
Suffering judgment by default entitles the 
plaintiff to issue execution after the dama¬ 
ges, if damages are in question, have been 

ascertained.- Defaulter, one who fails 

to account for money entrusted to his 
care. 

DEFEASANCE (defaire, to rid oneself 
of : Fr.), in Law a collateral deed, made at 
the same time with a deed of conveyance, 
containing conditions by the performance 
of which the estate created by the deed of 
conveyance may be defeated. A defeasance 
on a bond, recognizance, or judgment re¬ 
covered, is a condition which, when per¬ 
formed, renders the bond, &c., of no effect. 

DEFECA'TION ( defceco, I cleanse from 
dregs : Lat.), the act of separating from lees 
or dregs. 

DEFEN'CE (defendo, I defend: Lat.), in 
Law, the reply which the defendant makes 

after the declaration is produced.-In 

Military affairs, any work that covers or de¬ 
fends the opposite posts, as flanks, parapets, 
&c. 

DEFEN'DANT (same deriv.), In Law, the 
party that is summoned into court, and 
defends, denies, or opposes the demand or 
charge, and maintains his own right. It is 

applied whether the person defends, or ad 
mits the claim and suffers a default. 

DEFI'LE ( dtfiler, to advance in a line • 
from fit, a thread: Fr.), a narrow way or pass, 
through which a company of soldiers can 
march only in file. 

DEFINl'TION (deflnitio, from definio, I 
limit: Lat.), the determining the nature of 
things by words; or a brief description of 
a thing by its properties. It is generally 
effected by adding to a generic word the 
essential and peculiar qualities or circum¬ 
stances of the thing to be defined. But a 
strictly accurate definition cannot always 
be given ; and the most simple things are 
generally the least capable of definition, 
from the difficulty of finding terms more 
simple and intelligible than the one to be 
defined. 

DEFINITIVE ( de.finitivus, from same: 
Lat.), a term applied to whatever terminates 
a process, question, &c., in opposition to 
provisional and interlocutory.-In Gram¬ 

mar, a word used to define or limit the 
extent of the signification of an appellative 
or common noun. 

DEFLAGRA'TION ( de/lagratio, from de- 
flagro, I consume by fire: Lat.), rapid com¬ 
bustion, or the act of burning two or more 
substances together, as charcoal and nitre. 

DEFLEX'ION (deflexio, from deflecto, I 
bend aside : Lat.), the bending anything out 
of its proper direction, as the turning a 
ship out of her due course by currents, or 

the bending of an iron bar by a weight.- 

Deflexion of the rays of light, in 
Optics. When a luminous ray passes very 
near to an opaque body, it is deflected or 
bent from its rectilinear course. This phe¬ 
nomenon, first remarked by Grimaldi, was 
examined by Newton, who gave it the 
name of diffraction, which see. 

DEFLORA'TUS ( defloreo , I shed blos¬ 
soms : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a 
flower which has discharged its pollen. 

DEFLU'VIUM (a falling off : Lat.) in Bo¬ 
tany, a disease in trees in which they lose 

their bark.- Defluvium Capillorum, 

in Medicine, a preternatural falling off of 
the hair. 

DEFLUX'ION (defluxio, from defluo, I flow 
down: Lat.), in Surgery, the falling or 
flowing of humours from a superior to an in¬ 
ferior part of the body; as a defluxion from 
the nose in catarrh. 

DEFOLIA'TION (de, privative; and fo- 
liatus, having leaves : Lat.), the shedding 
of leaves, a term technically applied to the 
fall of leaves in the autumn. 

DEFO'RCEMENT (de. from ; and for ce¬ 
ment, forcibly : Fr.), in Law, the holding of 
lands or tenements to which another person 
has a right. In Scotland it denotes the re- 
sistingan officer in the execution of the laiv. 

DEGllADA'TION (de, privative ; and gra- 
dus, a station: Lat.), in Ecclesiastical af¬ 
fairs, the depriving a person of his dignity 
and degree; as the degradation of a clergy¬ 
man by depriving him of holy orders. In 
the Roman Catholic church it is done with 
many ceremonies, which are intended to 
strike the beholders with horror. The 
vestments of the person to be degraded 
are dragged off; the unction applied to 




















Cl}? -sTCtcnttfic mrtf 


98 


degraded] 

I Lis hands at liis ordination is, as it were, 

scraped off, hy a piece of rough iron. Pope 
Boniface required that there should he six 

bishops at the degradation of a priest.- 

In Military affairs, the depriving an officer 
of his commission.-In Painting, lessen¬ 

ing and obscuring remote objects in a land¬ 
scape, that they may appear as they would 
do to the eye of a distant observer. 

DEGRA'DED (digrader, to degrade : Fr. ; 
from gradus, a step : Lot .), in Heraldry, an 
epithet in blazoning for a cross that has 
I steps at each end. 

DEGREE' (degrH ; Fr.). Every circle is 
| supposed to be divided into three hundred 
! and sixty parts called degrees, and each 
i degree into sixty otherparts called minutes; 

' each of these minutes being again divided 
into sixty seconds, each second into as 
many thirds, each third into fourths, and so 
on.— -Degree, in Universities, a distinc- 
i tion of rank, intended to denote a certain 
amount of proficiency in a faculty or a 
science. The first degree is that of Bachelor 
of Arts, the second that of Master of Arts. 
Honorary degrees are those of Doctor of 
Divinity, Doctor of Laws, &<■'. Physicians 
also receive the degree of Doctor of Medi¬ 
cine. - Degree, in Algebra, a term applied 

to equations to distinguish the highest 
power of the unknown quantity.- De¬ 

gree, in Genealogy, an interval of rela¬ 
tionship between persons more or less 
nearly allied.——The division, space, or 
interval, marked on a mathematical or other 
instrument, as on a thermometer or baro¬ 
meter. 

DEGRE'E OE LAT'ITUDE, and LON'GI- 
TUDE. A distance on the meridian which 
will cause a difference of one degree in the 
altitude of the pole is a degree of latitude. 
A degree on the equator, or any great circle 
of the earth parallel to the equator, is a 
degree of longitude. To ascertain the 
-length of a degree of latitude lias been a 
problem of great interest from the earliest 
times. Its solution is rendered extremely 
difficult by the irregularities of the surface 
of the earth. The mean of the most care¬ 
ful measurements indicates the length of 
a degree of latitude at the equator to be 
302,734 English feet, and at the pole366,361; 
and a degree of longitude at the equator, 
365,152. 

DEHIS'CENCE ( dehisco, I gape: Lat), in 
Botany, a term given to the opening of the 
capsules of a plant. 

DEIFICATION ( Dens, God : and facia, I 
make: Lat.), the act of enrolling among 
the heathen deities. 

DE'I JUDI'CIUM (the judgment of God: 
Lat.), the old Saxon trial by ordeal, so called 
because it was supposed to be an appeal to 

God. 

DEIPNOS'OPHIST ( deipnon, a meal; and 
sophistes, a learned person : Gr.), one of an 
ancient sect of philosophers, who were 
famous for their learned conversation at 
j meals. 

I DE'ISTS (Devs, God : Lat.), in the modern 
sense of the word, are those persons who 
acknowledge the existence of a Creator, 
but do not admit that he has made in words 
any revelation of his will to mankind. 


DE'ITY (Deus, God : Lat.), the nature and 
essence of the Supreme Being; a term 
frequently used in a synonymous sense 
with God.-Also, a fabulous god or god¬ 

dess; as Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, &c. The 
works of Pliny, Cicero, &c„ clearly show us 
that enlightened pagans had not those 
gross ideas regarding the Deity which are 
indicated by the heathen mythology. 

DELACRYMA'TION ( delacrymatio: Lat.), 
a preternatural discharge of watery hu¬ 
mours from the eyes. 

DEL CRED'ERE ( credere, to trust: Ital.), 
in Commerce, a term expressive of a gua¬ 
rantee given by factors, who for an addi¬ 
tional premium warrant the solvency of the 
parties to whom they sell goods upon credit. 

DEL'EGATE ( delego, I commit to : Lat.), 
in the United States of America, a person 
elected or appointed to represent a state or 
district in the congress. 

DELF, a kind of potter’s ware, originally 
made at Delft in Holland ; it is covered with 
an enamel, or white glazing, in imitation of 
porcelain. 

DELIQUESCENCE ( deliquesco, I melt 
away: Lat), in Chemistry, spontaneous 
liquefaction in the air; a term applied to 
certain saline bodies that absorb moisture 
from the atmosphere. 

DELIItTUM (madness : Lat.), a state in 
which the ideas of a person are wild and 
irregular, or do not correspond with the 
truth, or with external objects. It may be 
defined symptomatic derangement, or that 
which is dependent on some other disease, 
in distinction from idiopathic derangement 
or mania. 

DELIV'ERY ( delivrer , to deliver : Fr.), a 
part of oratory, referring to the manage¬ 
ment of the voice. 

DEL'LA ROB'BrA 'WARE, a species of 
earthenware, the foundation of which is 
terra cotta, upon which a metallic colour is 
fixed by the action of fire. The Egyptians 
were acquainted with the art; it was re¬ 
vived in the 15tli century by Luca della 
Robbia, an Italian. He began with white 
figures on a blue ground, afterwards he 
added more colouring, and then he intro¬ 
duced perspective. 

DELPHlNTDiE (dolphin, a dolphin : Lat), 
a family of Cetacea, mammals living in the 
sea, characterized by the moderate size of 
the head, and the presence of teeth in both 
jaws. It includes not only the dolphin, 
porpoise, and narwhal, but also some ani¬ 
mals usually called whales. [See Dolphin.] 

DELPHIN'IUM (delphin, a dolphin : Lat.. r 
from a fancied resemblance in the flower), 
in Botany, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ra- 
mtnculacete, including the common Lark¬ 
spur. 

DEL'TA (the Greek letter A], the large 
tract of land formed by the sediment 
brought down by a river, and deposited in 
a lake or quiet ocean. Deltas have been 
formed at the mouths of the Nile, the 
Ganges, the Mississippi, and many other 
great rivers. 

DEL'TOIl) (delta, the Greek a ; and cidos, 
form : Gr.), in Anatomy, a thick triangular 
muscle of the arm, being one of the three 
elevators.-Also,a term foranythinghav- 





























199 Utter ary Crea^urji. [dendrachate 


ing three angles, of which the terminal 
one is much further from the opposite side 
than the lateral ones. 

DEMAIN' or DEME'SNE (domaine: Fr.; 
from dominus, a lord: Lat.), in Law, a 
manor-house, and the lands thereunto be¬ 
longing. It denotes also all the part3 of 
any manor not in the hands of freeholders; 
and is frequently used for those lands that 
the lord has in his own hands, to distinguish 
them from other land appertaining to the 
manor, and belonging to freeholders or 
copyholders. 

DEMARCATION (Fr.), Line of, every 
line drawn for determining a border which 
is not to be passed. 

DEM'I-CADENCE (demi, half: Fr.), in 
Music, an imperfect cadence, or one that 
falls on any other than the key note. 

DEMI-CUL'VERIN, a piece of ordnance, 
which carried a nine-pound shot. 

DEM'I-GORGE, in Fortification, that part 
of the polygon which reaches from the 
curtain to the angle of the polygon. 

DEM'I-QUAYER, the same as semi-quaver, 
which see. 

DEM'I-SEMI'QUAVER, in Music, a note 
equal in length to half a semi-quaver. 

DEM'I-VOLT (demi, half : Fr.; and volta, 
a turn : Ital.), one of the artificial motions 
of a horse, in which he raises his fore-legs 
in a particular manner. 

DEMI'SE (demissio: Lat), in Law, sig¬ 
nifies a grant by lease of heritable pro¬ 
perty, It may be either for life or years. 
-The death of a king, or of a queen reg¬ 
nant, is termed the demise of the crown, 

< by which is implied a transfer of the royal 
authority or kingdom to a successor. 

DEMOC'RACY (demokratia: from demos, 
the people : and kratos, power: (Fr.), a form 
of government in which the supreme power 
Is lodged in the hands of the people collec¬ 
tively, or in which the people exercise the 
powers of legislation. 

DE'MON, or DiE'MON (daimdn, a spirit: 
Gr.), a name used by the ancients for cer¬ 
tain supernatural beings, in whose exist¬ 
ence they believed. They were spirits or 
genii, who appeared to men, either to do 
them service or to hurt them. The Plato- 
nists distinguish between gods, demons, 
and heroes; the demons being those since 
called angels. Socrates and Tasso declared, 
in very distant ages, they were each at¬ 
tended by a demon or familiar. In Tasso, 
this pretension has been referred to a hypo¬ 
chondriacal state of mind : in Socrates, the 
matter has given rise to much speculation. 
From the manner, however, in which the 
philosopher is said to have described his 
demon, there seems good reason to believe 
that he spoke figuratively of his natural 
conscience or intellect: ‘it directed him 
how to act in every important occasion of 
life, and restrained him from imprudence 
of conduct.’ 

DEMO'NIAC (daimonikos, possessed by a 
demon : Gr.), a human being whose volition 
and other mental faculties are supposed to 
be overpowered, restrained, or disturbed in 
their regular operation, by an evil spirit. 
_—In Church History, the term Demoniacs 
is applied to a branch of the Anabaptists, 


whose distinguishing tenet is, that at the 
end of the world the devil will be saved. 

DEMONOC'RACY (daimdn, a demon ; and 
kratos, power : Gr.), the power or govern¬ 
ment of demons. 

DEMONOL'OGY (daimdn, a demon; and 
logos, a discourse : Gr.), a treatise on de¬ 
mons or evil spirits. The Greeks imputed 
madness sometimes to the agency of Furies, 
and sometimes to the influence of Diana or 
the moon. The Romans thought insanity 
was caused by Ceres or the Larvce; and 
amongst the Jews, ‘to have a devil’and 
‘ to be mad’ were synonymous terms. Every¬ 
thing, in short, which affected either the 
body or the mind in an extraordinary man¬ 
ner—every disagreeable phenomenon which 
they could not otherwise account for—was 
by the Jews supposed to be the work of a 
devil. 

DEMONSTRATOR (Lat., from samel, in 
Anatomy, one who exhibits the parts when 

dissected. 

DEMUL'CENTS (demulceo, I sooth, lite¬ 
rally I caress with the hand: Lat.), any 
medicines which lessen aerimony, or the 
effects of stimulants on the solids, as gums 
and other mucilaginous substances. 

DEMUR'RAGE (demoror, I delay: Eat), in 
Commerce, an allowance made to the master 
of a ship by the merchants, for staying in a 
port longer than the time first appointed. 

DEMUR'RER (same deriv.), a legal term. 
Where, on the face of the declaration in an 
action at law, or a bill filed in chancery, 
there does not appear sufficient in point of 
law to entitle the plaintiff to relief, the 
defendant puts in a demurrer. The effect 
of this is that the defendant obtains the 
judgment of the court, whether even, sup¬ 
posing all the allegations in the declaration 
or bill to be true, the plaintiff has any case 
against him. If the demurrer be allowed, 
the action or suit is at an end, unless the 
court permits the pleadings to be amended. 

DEM'Y (demi, half: Fr.), in Heraldry, an 
epithet for any charge that is borne half: 

as a demy-lion, or half-lion.- Demy, the 

name given by printers to paper when cut 
or folded into sheets 22 inches long by 17J 
broad.- Demies, the scholars at Magda¬ 

len College, Oxford. 

DENA'RIUS (Lat.; literally, containing 
ten), in Roman Antiquity, a silver coin, 
worth at first ten asses, but afterwards 
sixteen, when the w r eiglit of the ass was 
reduced to an ounce. In military pay, it 
was still considered as equal to ten asses. 
Originally the denarius was the eighty- 
fourth of a pound of silver, but it was sub¬ 
sequently the ninety-sixth. It is considered 
to have been worth eiglitpence-halfpenny 
English. The gold denarius was equivalent 
to twenty-five silver ones. Our copper 
penny has been called a denarius, and is 

therefore represented by d. - Denakius 

Dei, God’s penny, or earnest-money given 
and received by the parties to contracts. 
It was so called, because in ancient times it 
was given to the church or to the poor. 

DEN'DRACHATE (dendron, a tree; .and 
achates, agate : Gr.), in Mineralogy, arbores¬ 
cent agate, or agate containing the figures 
of shrubs or parts of plants. 











dendrite] VLl)t J&ctcnttfic juitf 200 

DEN'DRITE ( dendrites, pertaining to a 
tree : Or.), a stone or mineral on which are 
the figures of shrubs or trees. Hence the 
epithets dendritic and dendroid. 

DEN'DROID ( dendron , a tree; and eidos, 
form : Gr.), a fossil which has some resem¬ 
blance in form to the branch of a tree. 

DENDROL'OGY ( dendron , a tree, and lo¬ 
gos, a discourse : Gr.), a discourse on, or the 
natural history of trees. 

DENDROM'ETER ( dendron, a tree; and 
metron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument to 
measure the height and diameter of trees. 

DEN'IZEN ( dinassdyn, a man of the city; 
Wei.), an alien who is made a subject by royal 
letters-patent, holding a middle position be¬ 
tween an alien and a natural-born subject. 
He may take lands by purchase or demise, 
but cannot enjoy offices of trust, &c„ nor 
receive a grant of lands from the crown. 

DENOM'INA'TOR ( denomino, I designate: 
Lat.), in Arithmetic, the number which ex¬ 
presses into how many parts an integer or 
integers have been divided so as to produce 
those quantities, some number of which is 
expressed by the numerator. Thus, in the 
fraction |, the integer is supposed to have 
been divided into seven equal parts, of 
which five have been taken. 

DENOU'EMENT (literally the unknotting: 
Fr.), a word nearly anglicized, signifying the 
development or winding up of any event. 

DEN'SITY ( densitas: Lat.), closeness of 
constituent parts; that property in bodies 
by which they contain a certain quantity of 
matter under a certain bulk or magnitude: 
it is directly opposed to rarity. A body is 
said to have double and triple the density of 
another body, when, being equal in size, 
the quantity of matter in one is double or 
triple the quantity of matter in the other. 

DEN'SITY OF THE EARTH. Many at¬ 
tempts have been made to ascertain the 
meau density of our globe, and several pro¬ 
cesses have been used for this purpose. 
1. Maskelyne, in 1774, ascertained the effect 
of the mountain Schehallien, in Scotland, 
upon a plumb line, and thus compared the 
attraction of a known mass with the 
attraction of the earth. This method has 
been employed by others. 2. The time of 
oscillation of a pendulum has been ob¬ 
served at the summit, and at the foot of a 
mountain. The difference in the times 
being precisely ascertained, the attraction 
of the mountain is a matter for calcula¬ 
tion. 3. By descending to a known depth 
into the earth, and comparing the time of 
oscillation of pendulums stationed there, 
and on the surface of the earth, data are 
afforded for calculating the earth’s density, 
because, at the lower station, the attraction 
of the exterior shell of the earth is got rid 
of, and the mass of this exterior shell 
being estimated, a term of comparison is 
obtained. 4. By ascertaining the attrac¬ 
tion of an object of known weight, a piece 
of lead for example, upon the balance of 
torsion, as was done in the * Cavendish ex¬ 
periment.’ The results obtained by these 
several methods have a considerable range, 
but the mean result is, that our globe has a 
weight 5J times greater than a globe of ! 

water of the same size. Whence it would 
seem that the weight of the earth may be 
estimated at 5,842 trillions of tons. 

DEN'TAGRA {dens, a tooth; and ago, I 
carry off: Lat.), a surgeon’s instrument or 
forceps for extracting teeth. 

DEN'TAL {dens, a tooth : Lat.), an articu¬ 
lation or letter formed by placing the end 
of the tongue against the upper teeth or 
nearer the roof of the mouth; as in d and t. 

DENTA'LIUM (same deriv.), a genus of 
marine molluscs, having a tubular slightly 
curved shell, open at both ends, but much 
narrower at one end than at the other. It 
thus has the shape of an elephant’s tusk, 
whence the name. 

DEN'TATE {dentatus, toothed; from 
same: Lat.) in Natural History, a term 
usually applied to an edge which is cut 
into angular projections. Denticulate is a 
diminutive term. 

DEN'TIFRIGE {dentifricium ; from dens, 
a tooth ; and frico, I rub: Lat.), any powder 
or other substance used for cleaning the 
teeth. 

DEN'TIL {dens, a tooth: Lat.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, an ornament in cornices, bearing 
some resemblance to teeth; used particu¬ 
larly in the Corinthian, Ionic, Composite, 
and sometimes Doric orders. 

DEN'TINE {dens, a tooth : Lat.), the sub¬ 
stance of which the greater part of our 
teeth consists. It is what is frequently 
called the ivory of the tooth, and its 
minute structure is composed of a homo¬ 
geneous basis surrounding numerous 
elongated channels, termed the ivory 
tubes. The dentine of the fangs is covered 
with the ‘cement,’ or bony portion; that 
of the exposed part of the tooth with ena¬ 
mel. [See Teeth.] 

DEN'TOID {dens, a tooth : Lat.; and eidos, 
form : Gr.), having the form of teeth. 

DENUDA'TION {denudo, I make naked : 
Lat.), in Geology, the removal of solid mat¬ 
ter from any part of the earth’s crust by 
water in motion, such as rivers, and the 
waves of the sea. The sea acts upon the 
margin of the land with a broad horizontal 
movement, which has a tendency to eat 
away the land down to its own level. If 
the land is slowly rising, gentle slopes are 
found upon it; if it is stationary for a 
long period, vertical cliffs are produced. 
Rivers are continually carrying to the sea 
the weathered particles of rocks, and mud 
formed by the attrition against each other 
of stones that have fallen into their bed. 
The solid materials thus obtained are 
again spread out over the bottom of the 
ocean, and thus new strata are formed, 
which will at some future period be eleva¬ 
ted above its level. The stratified deposits 
in the earth’s crust are at once the monu¬ 
ment and measure of the denudation which 
had previously taken place. 

DEOB'STRUENT {de, privative: and 
obstruens, obstructing: Lat.), any medicine 
which removes obstructions and opens the 
natural passages for the fluids of the body. 

DE'ODAND {Deo dandum, to be given to 
God: Lat.), a personal chattel which was 
the immediate occasion of the death of a 
rational creature, and for that reason was 












201 


Ettcrari? CreajSurg. 


[descension 


formerly given to God, that is, forfeited to 
the king, to he applied to pious uses. In 
later times it was given absolutely to the 
sovereign ; but now no chattel is forfeited, 
however instrumental it may have been in 
causing death. 

DEO'DORIZERS {de, privative; and odor, 
a smell: Lat.), a term applied to a class of 
disinfectants especially characterized by 
their power of destroying foetid effluvia: 
among these are chlorine and several of its 
compounds. A solution of permanganate 
of potash has lately come into use as a dis¬ 
infectant. Some kinds of charcoal, and es¬ 
pecially that obtained from peat, when 
mixed with excrement, not only destroy 
the odour, but form an excellent compost 
for agricultural purposes. 

DEOX'IDATE or DEOX'IDIZE, in Che¬ 
mistry, to deprive of oxygen, or reduce 
from the state of an oxide. 

DEPART'MENT {Fr., from departir, to 
divide), either a division of territory, as the 
departments of France, or a distinct class 
of official duties allotted to particular 
persons. 

DEPARTURE (depart: Fr.), a nautical 
term, indicating the distance a ship has 
gone to the east or west of the meridian 
from which she set out. 

DEPHLOGIS'TICATED AIR (de, priva¬ 
tive ; and phlogiston, an element imagined 
by the older chemists), a term applied by 
Dr. Priestley, when he first discovered it, 
to what is now called oxygen gas. It was 
denominated by Scheele, who also dis¬ 
covered it about the same period, vital air. 

DEPLOY' ( deployer, to spread : Fr.), the 
spreading of troops; a military term. 

DEPO'NENT ( dcpono, I lay down ; Lat), 
in Law, one who gives written testimony 
on oath. 

DEPORTATION ( deportatio, from deporto, 
I carry away: Lat.), a sort of banishment 
among the Romans, to someislandor other 
place which was allotted to a criminal for 
liis abode, with an obligation not to leave 
it on pain of death. 

DEPOS'IT ( depositum, a something in¬ 
trusted : Lat), among civilians, something 
that is committed to the custody of a per¬ 
son, to be kept without any reward, and to 
be returned on demand. 

DEPOSITION ( depositio, from depono, I 
lay down : Lat.), in Law, the testimony of a 
witness set down in writing, in answer to 
interrogations legally made. --^-Deposi¬ 
tion, the settlement of substances sus¬ 
pended in fluids; thus the depositions of 

alluvial matter.- Deposition ( depono, I 

take from : Lat.), the act of dethroning a 
king or divesting anyone in authority of 
his power and dignity. 

DEP'OT {Fr.), a store or magazine for de¬ 
positing goods or merchandise.-In Mili¬ 

tary affairs, a place where all sorts of stores 
and provisions are kept, and recruits are 
received and trained. The word is applied, 
also, to that portion of a regiment which 
remains at home when the rest is on foreign 
service. 

DEPRESSION (deprcssio, from deprimo, I 
sink down : Lat.), of the sun, or a star, in 
Astronomy, is its distance at any time be¬ 


low the horizon, measured by an arc of the 

vertical circle.- Depression of tiib 

Pole, a phenomenon which arises from the 
spherical figure of the earth; thus, when a 
person sails or travels towards the equator, 
lie is said to depress the pole, because as 
many degrees as he approaches nearer the 
equator, so many degrees will the pole be 

nearer the horizon.- Depression of an 

Equation, in Algebra, the reducing an 
equation to lower degrees by dividing it 
by some common factor, as a biquadratic to 
a cubic equation, or a cubic to a quadratic. 

DEPRES'SOR {deprimo, I press down : 
Lat.). in Anatomy, a name applied to several 
muscles, because they depress the parts to 
which they are attached. 

DEPRIVATION {de, from; and privatio, 
a taking away : Lat.), the taking away from 
a clergyman his spiritual dignity by sen¬ 
tence of the proper authority. 

DEPURATION {Fr.), the act of purifying 
or freeing fluids from heterogeneous mat¬ 
ter. This is done either by decantation, 
when the feculent matter is deposited in 
the bottom of the vessel, by boiling and 
skimming, by filtration, or by clarification. 

DEP'UTY {depute: Fr.; from deputo, I 
cut off : Lat), in a general sense, a person 
appointed or elected to act for another, or 
sent upon some business by a community. 

-In Law, a deputy is one who exercises 

an office in another’s right; and the person 
whom he represents is answerable for his 
misconduct. By a deputation is generally 
understood the person or persons authorized 
and sent to transact business for others, 
either with a special commission and au¬ 
thority, or with general powers. 

DER'ELICTS {derelictus, abandoned: 
Lat.), in Civil Law, such goods as are wil¬ 
fully relinquished by the owner. It also 
signifies what is forsaken, or cast away by 
the sea: thus, lands which the sea has sud¬ 
denly left are called derelict lands, and ves¬ 
sels forsaken at sea derelict ships. 

DERIV'ATIVE {derivativus: Lat), in 
Grammar, any word taking its origin from 
another, called its primitive; as manhood, 
from man, &c. 

DERMATOL'OGY, or DERMOL'OGY {der¬ 
ma, a skin ; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), a 
discourse or treatise on the skin. 

DERMES'TES {dermestes: from derma, a 
skin; and estliio, I eat: Gr.), in Entomology, 
a genus of coleopterous insects, whose 
larvm devour skins, leather, furs, feathers, 
&c. They are exceedingly destructive in 
museums and furriers’ shops. 

DER'VISE or BER'VIS (poor: Pers.), a 
name given to various Mahometan priests 
or monks. Enthusiasts have, from time im¬ 
memorial, existed in Persia, who, impelled 
by the convictions that poverty is the only 
passport to virtue, and that the self-imposed 
privations of this world will be commensu- 
rately rewarded in the next, have volun¬ 
tarily renounced all the comforts and cha¬ 
rities of life. Dervises are found in all 
Mohammedan countries. There are many 
sects, distinguished by the different forms 
and colours of their habit. Daucing is one 
of their religious ceremonies. 

DESCEN'SION {descensio, a going down: 















descent] SHI)? JpCtCUttftf Hlltf 202 

Lat.), in Astronomy, an arc of the equator 
which descends or sets with any sign or 
point in the zodiac. Descension is either 
right or oblique , according as it takes place 

in a right or oblique sphere.-The epithet 

descending is also in frequent use in Astro¬ 
nomy ; as, descending degrees, descending 
latitude, &c. And by desccnsional difference 
is understood the difference between the 
right and oblique descensions of any pla¬ 
netary body. 

DESCENT' ( descensxis : Lat.), in a general 
sense, is the tendency of a body from a 
higher to a lower place; thus, all bodies, 
unless prevented by a force superior to 
their gravity, descend towards the centre 

of the earth.-In Law, the title to inherit 

lands by reason of consanguinity, as well 
where the heir shall be an ancestor, or col¬ 
lateral relation, as where he shall be a child 
or other issue. Title to inherit land by 
descent accrues only when such land is not 
the subject of a settlement or devise. The 
principal rules of descent are 1. That 
the estate shall lineally to the children 
of the person who last died entitled. 2. That 
male children shall take to the exclusion of 
female. 3. 'That the eldest male child shall 
inherit to the exclusion of the other male 
children; but where there are only female 
children, they shall all take equally. 4. That 
the lineal descendants in infinitum, shall re¬ 
present, that is, stand in the place of their 
ancestor, and have the same estate or share 
that he would have done if living. 5. That 
when there shall be a failure of lineal de¬ 
scendants, or issue, of the person last en¬ 
titled (technically called the purchaser), 
the estate shall ascend and descend to the 
lineal ancestors, and to the collateral rela¬ 
tions of the purchaser. 6. That the nearest 
lineal ancestor shall take the estate in pre¬ 
ference to all others : hence, a father will 
take before a brother, and collaterals only 
take through a lineal ancestor. 7. Amougst 
collaterals, a relation of the half-blood shall 
inherit next after any relation in the same 
degree of the whole blood, and his issue 
where the common ancestor was a male, 

; and next after the common ancestor where 
that ancestor was a female. 8. In lineal 
! ascents, and in collateral inheritances, the 
j male stock shall always be preferred to the 
female, unless the estate has descended 
from a female. Hence none of the maternal 

1 ancestors of the purchaser, nor any of their 
descendants, can inherit until all the pa¬ 
ternal ancestors and their descendants have 
failed. In some localities, all sons inherit 
equally from their father, on account of 
the custom of gavelkind. By the custom 
of borough English, the youngest son is 
heir. Bastards or aliens cannot inherit. 
But, with certain restrictions, a natural- 
born subject may derive his title through 

alien ancestors.- Descent, a term in 

Heraldry, to express coining down ; as, ‘a 
lion in descent,’ i. e. a lion with his heels 
upwards, as though in the act of leaping 
down from an eminence. 

DES'ERT ( desertus : Lat.), a large unin¬ 
habited tract of land, or extent of country, 
entirely barren. In this sense, some are 
sandy deserts, as those of Arabia, Libya, 

and Sahara: others are stony, as the desert 
of Pharan, in Arabia Petrasa. 

DESER'TER ( desei'tor: Lat.), an officer, 
soldier, or seaman, who quits his post, &c., 
without leave or intention to return. Tho 
crime of desertion has at all times been held 
in the utmost contempt and abhorrence. 
Its punishment lias ever been severe, and, 
in time of war, generally that of death. 

DESHACHE' (de, from ; and hacher, to 
hack : Fr.), in French Heraldry, a term for a 
beast whose limbs are separated from its 
body, but still remain on the escutcheon, 
and at only a small distance from their 
natural places. 

DESIC'CANT or DESIC'CATIVE ( desicco, 

I dry up : Lat.), any medicine or application 
that has the property of exhausting mois¬ 
ture from, or drying up, a sore. 

DESIDERATUM {Lat.), a thing to be 
desired. 

DESI'GN ( dessin : Fr.), in a general sense, 
the plan, order, representation, or con¬ 
struction of a building, &c., by an outline 
or general view of it. The word design, 
in painting, is used for the first draft of 
a large work, which is to be executed 
and finished in a more elaborate manner. 

DESIPIEN'TIA {Lat.), in Medicine, a de¬ 
fect of reason, or symptomatic frenzy. 

DESMOL'OGY {desmos, a ligament; and 
logos, a discourse : Gr.), that branch of ana¬ 
tomy which treats of the ligaments and 
sinews. 

DES'l’OTISM {despotes, a master : Gr.), a 
form of government in which the monarch 
rules by his sole and uncontrolled authority. 

DESPOUILLE' (despoiled: Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, the whole case, skin, or slough of a 
beast, with the head, feet, tail, &c., so that, 
being fined and stuffed, it looks like the 
entire animal. 

DESPUMA'TION {despumatio, from cle- 
spumo, I skim off: Lat.), a term for clarify¬ 
ing a liquor, by skimming off its froth or 
excrementitious matter. 

DESQUAMA'TION ( desquamo , 1 scale off : 
Lat.), in Anatomy, an exfoliation of bone; 
also the separation of the cuticle in small 
scales. 

DESUDA'TION {desudatio, from desuclo, 

I sweat much : Lat.), in Medicine, a profuse 
and inordinate sweating, succeeded by an 
eruption of pustules called heat-pimples. 

DESULPHURA'TION, in Chemistry, the 
act or operation of depriving of sulphur. 

DETACH'MENT (Fr., from detacher, to 
separate), a body of troops selected or drawn 
out from several regiments or companies, 
on some special service or expedition. Also 
a number of ships, taken from a fleet, and 
sent on a separate service. 

DETENTS' (detineo, 1 keep back : Lat.), in 
Clock-work, those stops which, by being 
lifted up or let down, lock or unlock the 
works of a dock in striking. 

DETER'GENTS, or DETER'SIVES {de- 
tergeo, I clean out: Lat.), medicines which 
have the power to remove viscid humours, 
or cleanse sores. 

DETERMINATION {determinatio, from 
determino, I prescribe : Lat.), in Physic, 
the tendency of a body in any particular 
direction : thus, a determination of blood 



































203 


Httcrmi Cmtfttrg. 


[dey 


to tlio head, liver, &c., is a more copious or 
rapid flow of blood to those parts. 

DETERRA'TION (do, from ; and terra, the 
earth : Lat.), the uncovering of anything 
buried or hidden in the earth. 

DET'INUE (detin. eo, I detain : Lat.), in 
I Law, a personal action of contract, that 
lies against a person who has goods or other 
things which he detains or refuses to de¬ 
liver up. 

DET'ONA'TING rOW'DER. [See Fut- 
MIXAting Powder.] 

DETONATION ( detono , I thunder : Lat), 
an explosion or sudden report made by the 
percussion and inflammation of certain com¬ 
bustible substances. 

DETRITUS (rubbed down : Lat.), in Geo¬ 
logy, the fragments removed by natural 
agencies from the surfaces of rocks. 

DEU'TERO-CANON'ICAL ( deuteros , se¬ 
cond ; and kanonikos, canonical: Or.), in 
Theology, a term applied to certain books 
of Scripture which were added to the canon 
after the rest, either because they were not 
I written till after the canon was compiled, 
or in consequence of some controversy in 
regard to their canonicity. A canon was 
drawn up in the time of Esdras, when some 
books were put upon it which were not on 
the canon made before the captivity : thus, 
Daniel. The apocryphal books, considered 
i as canonical by the Roman Catholic church— 
| Maccabees, for example—were not written 

I I until after the Jewish canon was settled. 
DEIJTERON'OMY ( deuteros , the second ; 
and nomos, law: Gr.), one of the sacred 
books of the Old Testament, or the fifth 
I book of the Pentateuch. 

DEUTOX'TDE (deuteros, the second : Gr. ; 

| and oxide), in Chemistry, a substance oxi- 
! dizcd in the second degree. 

DEVELOP'MENT. In order to become 
thoroughly acquainted with the nature of 
an organism, it is necessary to study its 
life-history, and to trace its development as 
it passes from the embryonic to the adult 
condition. Morphology, it has been said, 
teaches us what an animal is, physiology 
what it does, the study of development 
what it was, and how from what it was it 
came to be what it is. This study is also 
necessary for the determination of its ho¬ 
mologies [see Homology], because it is 
not always safe to infer homology in organs 
from a correspondence in structure and po- 
I sition. An examination of the organs in 
their simplest state, and in the stages they 
| I pass through, is required to determine the 
I j pointtvith perfect certitude. A comparison 
i of the forms of organized beings in past 
! times with one another, and with those now 
existing, has led some naturalists to con¬ 
ceive that there has been a gradual passage 
f from one form to another, that is, from 
beings of alower to those of aliighergrade ; 
in other words, that the influence of ex¬ 
ternal circumstances acting through along 
lapse of ages upon beings possessing in¬ 
definite variability, has changed the earlier 
less complex forms of life into forms of 
greater complexity. It is a fact that existing 
beings of the highest type now pass during 
their lives from a structure of the greatest 
simplicity to one of the greatest com¬ 


plexity; and it has been thought that the 
study of fossil remains proves that the 
history of organic life, from its first ap-j 
pearance on the planet to the present day, I 
has pursued an analogous course. This is | 
the theory of progressive development. 

DEVI'CE (deviser, to invent: Fr.), in j 
Painting, an emblem or representation of 
anything, with a motto subjoined, or other¬ 
wise introduced.-In Heraldry, a name 

common to all figures, ciphers, characters, 
rebuses, mottoes, &c., which, by allusions to 
the names of persons, families, &c., denote 
their qualities, nobility, or the like. Badges, 
impresses, and devices were very commonly 
used in England from the reign of Edward 
I. tq, that of Elizabeth, when they began to 
be rare. 

DEVI'SE (deviser, to will: Fr.), in Law, is 
the disposition of real estate by will; being 
distinguished from a gift of personal estate, 
which is termed a bequest. The person to 
whom a devise is made is called a devisee. 

DEVO'NIAN, or Old Bed Sandstone Sys¬ 
tem, in Geology, amember of the Palaeozoic 
series. It is divisible into an upper and a 
lower group. Parts of each are developed 
in Scotland and the sonth-west of England. 
In one of the beds in Scotland, belonging to 
the upper division, remains of the earliest 
reptile yet discovered have been found. The 
Devonian series is interposed between the 
Silurian and Carboniferous systems. 

DEW (thau: Germ.), the moisture which 
rises into the atmosphere during the day, 
and is afterwards deposited on the earth in 
gentle drops during the night. The air, 
when heated during the day, is capable of 
holding a larger quantity of water in solu¬ 
tion, as vapour, than when cooled during the 
night, the low temperature of which pauses 
some of the water to separate. The sepa¬ 
rated particles uniting, form drops of dew. 
When the night is cloudy, the surfaces on 
which the dew would be deposited are not I 
sufficiently cooled down for the purpose, 
since the clouds give back some of the heat 
which passed ofli by radiation. 

DEW'-POINT, in Meteorology, that point 
of temperature at which, if the air is 
cooled down to it, dew will begin to be 
formed, the air containing just enough of 
the vapour of water to saturate it at that 
temperature. 

DEX'TER (dextra, the right hand : Lat), 
the right, or on the right hand or side; as, 
the dexter point, in Heraldry, by which is 
meant the right-hand side of the escutcheon. 

DEXTRINE, a soluble substance dealt in 
commercially as British gum, and used in 
the arts as a substitute for gum. It is ob¬ 
tained from potato starch, by boiling it 
with an acid. The substance called Diastase 
has also the property of converting starch 
into dextrine, and at a much lower tempe¬ 
rature than that of boiling water. It is 
simply starch under a new form, having the 
same chemical composition. The name 
dextrine was given to it on account of its 
twisting the plane of polarisation towards 
the right hand. 

DEY (dai, a maternal uncle: Turk .), the 
title of the supreme governor in Tunis, and 
the other Barbary states. 







































diabetes] 


&\)t ^ricnttfic antf 


204 


DIABE'TES (Gr., from diabaino, I stride), 
in Medicine, a morbid discharge of urine 
containing sugar. 

DIACAITS'TIC CURVE ( diakaio , I heat 
to excess: Gr.), in the higher Geometry, 
a curve which touches the rays from a lu¬ 
minous point after they have been refracted 
by passing through a curved medium. 

DIACHRIS'TA ( diachristos , anointed : 
Gr.), medicines applied to the fauces, palate, 
&c., for the abstersion of phlegm. 

DIACH'YLON (diachulos, very juicy: Gr.), 
in Medicine, a plaister formed of the juices 
of several plants, and formerly very much 
esteemed. The word is at present used to 
expi-ess a plaister made by boiling hydrated 
oxide of lead with olive oil. 

DIACOUS'TICS ( diakouo, I hear through : 
Gr.), the refraction of sound, caused by its 
passing through media of different den¬ 
sities. 

DIA'CRISTS (a deciding: Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, the act of distinguishing diseases 
from one another by their symptoms. 

DIADEL'PHOUS ( dis , twice : and adelphos, 
a brother: Gr.), in Botany, a term given to 
stamens when their filaments are united 
into two bundles, as is the case with many 
leguminous plants. Linnaeus formed an or¬ 
der of such plants, and called it Diadelphia. 

DI'ADEM ( diadema, from diadeo, I bind 
round : Gr.), anciently a head-band or fillet 
worn by kings, as a badge of royalty. It 
was made of silk, thread, or wool, and was 
put round the temples and forehead, the 
ends being tied behind, aud let fall on the 
neck. In modern usage, the mark of royalty 

worn on the head.- Diadem, in Heraldry, 

a term applied to certain circles or rims, 
serving to enclose the crowns of sovereign 
princes. 

DI'ADROM ( diadrome, a running across; 
Gr.), the time in which the vibration of a 
pendulum is performed. 

DliE'RESIS ( diairesis , a dividing: Gr.), 
in Surgery, an operation serving to divide 
and separate a part when its continuity is 

a hindrance to the cure.- Dijeresis, in 

Grammar, the division of one syllable into 
two, which is usually denoted by two dots 
over a letter, as in aulaX for ciulce. Such 
dots placed over contiguous vowels indicate 
that they are to be severally pronounced, 
and not blended into a diphthong. 

DIAGNOSTICS ( diagnostikos, able to dis¬ 
tinguish : Gr.), in Medicine, a term applied 
to those signs which indicate the state of 
a disease, its nature and cause, the symp¬ 
toms by which it is known or distinguished 
from others. When the diagnostics are 
common to several diseases, they are called 
adjunct; when they always attend a parti¬ 
cular disease, the word pathognomonic is 
used..— Diagnostic Signs, in Botany, the 
signs or characters by which one order is 
distinguished from others, one genus from 
others, &c. 

DIAG'ONAL ( dia, through ; and gonia, an 
angle: Gr.), in Geometry,aright line drawn 
across a quadrilateral figure from one angle 
to another; it is by some called the diameter 
of the figure. 

DI'AGRAM ( diagramma, from diagrapho, 

I mark out by lines: Gr.), a geometrical 


delineation, used for the purpose of demon¬ 
strating the properties of any figure, as a | 
square, triangle, &c. 

DI'AL, or SUN'-DIAL (dies, the day: 
Lat.), an instrument for ascertaining the j 
hour of the day by means of the shadow of I 
the sun. It consists of a plane surface, on | [ 
which lines are drawn in such a manner I 
that the shadow of a wire, or the upper j 
edge of another plane, erected perpen- j 
dicularly on the former, may show the true |! 
time of the day. The projecting body j 
which casts the shadow is called the style, 
or gnomon. It must be parallel to the 
earth’s axis, and its plane, when it is a 
plate of metal instead of a thin rod, must 
be perpendicular to the terrestrial equator. 
The style may be made to throw a shadow 
on a horizontal or other plane; and the 
dial will be termed horizontal, vertical, or in¬ 
clined, according to this circumstance. The 
horizontal dial is the most common: the 
vertical is the next generally used. The 
vertical may be turned towards the north, 
south, &c., and then the dial will be north, 
south, &c. If the dial were at right angles j 
to the style, that is, parallel to the plane of j 
the earth’s equator, every 15° the shadow I 
travelled round it would be equal to an j 
hour of time, and the angles made by the j 
hour lines with each other would be easily 
found, since they would all be equal. The 
angles formed by the hour lines of any 
other dial may, however, be determined 
without difficulty by means of a good ter¬ 
restrial globe, or by calculation. In the 
polar dial, which faces due east or due west, 
and is in the plane of the meridian, the 
hour lines are parallel. 

DI'ALECT (dialektos, from dialego, T use 
the language of a particular district: Gr.), 
the form or idiom of a language, peculiar 
to a province or any particular part of a 
country. The dialects of Greece are a sub¬ 
ject of study to linguists, specimens of seve¬ 
ral of them having been preserved in the 
literature. The principal were the Attic, 
Ionic, Poetic, HSolic, and Doric, which were 
used either separately or intermixed. 

DIALECTICS (dialektikos, skilled in ar¬ 
gument : Gr.), that branch of logic which 
teaches the art of reasoning. 

DIAL'LAGE ( diallage, an interchange: 
Gr.), a mineral of variable composition, con- j 
sisting of silica, with lime, magnesia, and ] 
other bases. It is usually found of a lamel¬ 
lar or foliated structure. With felspar it [ 
forms diallage rock or gabbro. 

DUALLING SPHERE, an instrument 
made of brass, with several semicircles 
sliding over each other upon a movable ho¬ 
rizon ; serving to sliowthenature of spheri¬ 
cal triangles, and to give a correct method 
of drawing dials on all sorts of planes. I 

DIAL'OGISM (dialogismos, a conversa- j 
tion : Gr.), in Rhetoric, the soliloquy of 
persons deliberating with themselves. It is 1 
also, in a more extensive sense, taken for 
discourse in general, whether held by a 
person alone, or in company with others. 

DI'ALOGUE (dialogos, from dialegomai, I 
converse with: Gr.), a verbal or written 
discourse between two or more persons. 

DIAL'YSIS (dialusis, from dialuo, I part 

























205 


Ettfrary Eriatfurg* 


asunder: Gr.), a mark or character, consist¬ 
ing of two points, placed over one of two 
vowels, as mosaic, to separate the parts of 
the diphthong, and show that they must be 

sounded distinctly. [See Diuresis.]- 

In Rhetoric, a figure of speech in which 
several words are placed together without 
the aid of a conjunction, as veni, vidl, vici. 

-In Medicine, a term denoting great re- 

i taxation or weakness of the limbs. - In 

Physics, it has been found that substances 
in a state of solution pass through a mem¬ 
brane with different degrees of rapidity ac¬ 
cording to their nature. Thus, if a mixture 
of a solution of gum arabic, and a solution 
of common salt, be placed upon a stretched 
sheet of parchment, the saline solution will 
pass through sooner than the gum. With 
I reference to this property, Prof. Graham 
has divided all soluble substances into col¬ 
loids {cotta, glue: Or.), and haloids {hals, 
salt: Gr.). This discovery has been turned 
to practical account in the separation of the 
I constituents of mixtures of the two classes 
| of substances. 

DIAMAGNET'IC ( dia, through : Gr.), an 
j epithet applied to bodies which are repelled 
I by the poles of a magnet, and which, when 
freely suspended between the poles of a 
magnetic, will arrange themselves, if of an 
! elongated form, across the lines of force. 

Paramagnetic {para, with: Gr.) bodies are 
j the reverse of these, and set themselves 
i along, not across, the lines of magnetic 
force. 

DIAM'ETER ( diametros, from diametreo, 
I measure through: Gr.), in Geometry, a 
right line passing through the centre of a 
circle or other curvilinear figure, and ter¬ 
minated at each extremity by the circum- 
! ference. It thus divides the circle into two 
j equal parts, and is the greatest chord; hence 
we have a method of describing a semicir¬ 
cle upon any line, by assuming its middle 
point for the centre. The diameter of a 
circle is to the circumference as 1 to 3741G, 
or as 7 to 22 nearly. The square of the dia¬ 
meter multiplied by 7854 is the area. The 
cube of the diameter of a sphere multiplied 
by ’5236, gives the solid contents. 

DI'AMOND (a corruption of adamant, 
from adamas: a, not; and damao, I subdue 
—on account of its hardness: Gr.), the most 
valuable and the hardest of gems. When 
pure, it is perfectly clear and pellucid, and 
j is eminently distinguished from all other 
j substances by its vivid splendour and the 
brightness of its reflections. Though found 
| of different shapes, and sometimes tinged 
! with several colours, yet it ever bears the 
same distinguishing characters. The largest 
diamond ever known is probably that of 
the rajah of Mattan, in the East Indies. It 
; is of the purest water, weighs 367 carats, 
or, at the rate of 4 grains to the carat, up- 
Avards of 3 ounces troy. It is shaped like 
an egg. A governor of Batavia offered 
150,000 dollars, two ships of war with their 
ammunition and guns, and a certain num¬ 
ber of great guns, with powder and shot, 
for it. But the rajah refused to part with it 
at any price. The Mogul diamond, under 
the name of Koh-i-noor (mountain of light), 
is in the possession of the queen of England. 


[diamond 

Its history is supposed to reach back about 
4000 years. It has been recently re-cut, and 
now weighs 186 J- carats. A diamond be- 

lb 

longing to the emperor of Russia weighs 
193 carats: it is of the size of a pigeon’s egg. 
The Regent or Pitt diamond, in the posses¬ 
sion of the French government, weighs 136 
carats ; and one belonging to the court of 
Portugal 120 carats. The value of a wrought 
diamond is found by ascertaining its weight 
iu carats, doubling it, squaring the result, 
and multiplying what is obtained into 21. 
Thus, if a diamond weighs 5 cai’ats : twice 
5 are ten, ten times 10 are 100,100 times 21. 
are 2001. This rule does not hold when the 
diamond becomes large, on account of the 
fewness of purchasers. A very trifling flaw 
greatly lowers the commercial value of a 
diamond. The places whence diamonds are 
brought are Borneo and Golconda, Bengal, 
and the Brazils. In the last-mentioned 
country the gem appears to have been ori¬ 
ginally found in the metamorphic quartzo- 
sc.histose rock, constituting the mountains 
of the Diamond district in southern Brazil. 
It, is, however, almost invariably obtained : 
by washing from a loose gravel, formed by j 
the disintegration of the metamorphic rock, 
or from a conglomerate chiefly composed of J 
gravel set in a ferruginous cement. These 
gems consist of pure carbon, and, as the 
hardest tools make no impression on them, 
they are cut and ground by the powder of 
their own substance. In the experiments 
of modern chemists, the diamond has been 
reduced to carbonic acid by combustion 
with oxygen, and, like carbon, it is capable 
of changing iron into steel. Diamonds are 
valuable for many purposes. Their powder 
is the best for the lapidary and gem en¬ 
graver, and more economical than any other 
material for cutting, engraving, and polish¬ 
ing hard stones. Glaziers use them, set in 
a steel socket, and attached to a small 
wooden handle,.forcutting glass. It isvery 
remarkable, that only the point of a natural 
crystal can be used; cut or split diamonds 
scratch, but the glass will not break along 
the scratch, as it does when a natural crys¬ 
tal is used. The diamond has also of late 
years become an article of great value to 
engravers, particularly in drawing or ruling 
lines, which are afterwards to be deepened 
by aquafortis, for which steel points, called 

etching needles, were formerly used.- 

Rough Diamond, the stone as it comes 

from the mines.- Rose Diamond, one 

which is quite fiat underneath, with its 
upper part cut in numerous little faces, usu¬ 
ally triangles, the uppermost of which ter¬ 
minate in a point.- Table Diamond, one 

which has a large square face at top, encom¬ 
passed with four smaller.- Brilliant 

Diamond, one which is cut iu faces both 
at top and bottom, and whose table or prin¬ 
cipal face is flat. In cutting diamonds the 
first step is to cement them at the ends of 
two pieces of wood, which are held in the 
hands and rubbed together. The dust thus 
produced is carefully preserved for the pur¬ 
pose of polishing. The diamond is then 
embedded in soft metal, and in this state is 
brought to bear at the proper angle upon a 
horizontal plate of soft iron, called a skieve. 


















diamond] 


&l)c ^rtcuttftc nntf 


206 


set In rapid revolution, the plate having 
been first cliarged with diamond dust mixed 
with oil. Each facet is thus separately 
formed and polished. 

DI'AMOND BEET'LE, a coleopterous in¬ 
sect, a member of the family Curculionidcc. 
The elytra, or wing cases, are very brilliant, 
and fragments are often mounted for exa¬ 
mination by the microscope. 

DIA'NA, TREE OP (Bianco arbor: Lat.), 
a name given by the old chemists to the 
crystallized silver which forms when mer¬ 
cury is put into a solution of nitrate of 
silver. 

DJAN'DRIA (dis, twice; and aner, a 
male: Gr.), the second class of the Linnrean 
system of plants, containing those which 
have two stamens. 

DIANCE'A ( dianoia , a thought: Gr.), in 
Rhetoric, a figure of speech, importing a 
serious consideration of the matter in 
hand. 

DIAN'THTTS ( dianthes , variegated ; lite¬ 
rally, flowering twice: Gr.'<, in Botany, a 
genus of plants, nat. ord. Silenacece, includ¬ 
ing the various species of pink and car¬ 
nation. 

DIAPA'SON (Lat.: from dia, through; 
and pasun, all: Gr. —that is, through all the 
notes of the octave: a concord consisting 
of a note and its octave), in Music, an 
interval, which most authors who have 
written upon the theory of music use to 
express thd octave of the Greeks. The 
diapason is the first and most perfect of the 
concords : if considered simply, it is but one 
harmonical interval; though, if considered 
diatonically, by tones and semitones, it 

contains seven degrees.- Diapason, the 

fundamental or standard scale by which 
musical instruments are made.- Diapa¬ 

son Stop, that which indicates the power 
of an organ, by the length of its longest 
pipe ; as of 8,16, or 32 feet. 

DIAPEN'TE (dia, through; and pente, 
five: Gr., a concord consisting of a note 
and its fifth), in Music, an ancient term 
signifying a fifth ; an interval making the 

second of the concords.-In Medicine, a 

composition of five ingredients. 

DI'APER ( d’Ypres: Fr., from being ori¬ 
ginally made at Ypres), a kind of figured 
linen cloth, much used for towels and 
napkins. 

DIAPH'ANOUS (diaphanes, from dia- 
phaino, I let a tiling be seen through : Gr.), 
an appellation given to all transparent 
bodies, or such as transmit the rays of 
light. It is synonymous with translucent, 
but differs from transparent, since it does 
not allow the forms of objects to be seen. 

DIAPII'ORA (a difference : Gr.), in Rhe¬ 
toric, a figure of speech, in which a word, 
when repeated, is taken in a different sense 
from that in which it was first used. 

DIAPIIORE'SIS (Gr., from diaphoreo, I 
carry off), in Medicine, augmented perspi¬ 
ration. 

DIAPHORETICS ( diaplioretihos, from 
same: Gr.), medicines which promote per¬ 
spiration. 

DPAPHRAGM (diaphragma, literally a 
partition wall: Gr.), in Anatomy, a large 
muscular membrane or skin placed trans¬ 


versely in the trunk, and dividing the 
thorax or chest from the abdomen. 

DIAPOR'ESIS (perplexity: Gr.), in Rhe¬ 
toric, a figure expressive of the speaker’s 
doubt or hesitation as to the manner in 
which he should proceed in his discourse, 
the subjects ho lias to treat of being all 
equally important. 

DIARRHCE'A (diarrlieo, I flow through : 
Gr.), a disorder which consists in a frequent 
and copious evacuation from the intestines. 

DIARTHRO'SIS (a separation : Gr.), in 
Anatomy, a kind of juncture of the bones, 
in which there is a perceptible motion. 

DI'ARY (dies, a day: Lat.), a register of 
daily occurrences and observations; or an 
account of what passes in the course of a day. 

DI'ASPORE (diaspora, a scattering : Gr.), 
a laminated mineral, consisting of alumina, 
water, and oxide of iron. A small fragment 
decrepitates when heated, and is dispersed 
in numerous particles ; whence the name. 

DI'ASTASE (diastasis, a separation : Gr.), 
a peculiar azotised substance, formed in 
barley and other grains during germination 
from the gluten or vegetable albuminous 
matter. This substance has the effect of 
converting starch into dextrine, and ulti¬ 
mately into grape sugar. It is precipitated 
from an infusion of bruised malt by alcohol. 
When malt is mashed with raw grain, its 
diastase changes the starch of the grain 
into sugar. 

DIASTASIS (a separation : Gr.), a term 
used by ancient Physicians for a distension 
of the muscles, or separation of the bones. 

DIASTE'MA (diastema, an interval: Gr.), 
in Rhetoric, a modulation of the tones of 
the voice, by marking with precision the 
intervals between its elevation and depres¬ 
sion.—— In Music, a space or interval. 

DIASTOLE (Gr.), among Physicians, a 
dilatation of the heart, auricles, and ar¬ 
teries, during the process of circulation: 
it is opposed to systole, a contraction of the 
same parts.-In Grammar,a figure of pro¬ 

sody, by which a syllable naturally short is 
made long. 

DPASTYLE (diastulos: from dia, asun¬ 
der; and stulos, a column : Gr.), an edifice 
in which three diameters of a column are 
allowed for the intercolumniations. 

DIASYR'MUS (diasurmos, a mocking: 
Gr.), in Rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole, being 
an exaggeration of something low and ri¬ 
diculous ; ironical praise. 

DIATES'SARON ( diatessarun : from dia, 
through; and tessarun, four: Gr.: a con¬ 
cord consisting of a note and its fourth), 
in Music, a concord or harmonic interval, 
composed of a major tone, a minor tone, 

and one major semitone.-In Theology, 

the four gospels. 

DIATHER'MANOUS (dia, through ; ther¬ 
mos, hot: Gr.), a term applied to those sub¬ 
stances which transmit radiant heat. Sub¬ 
stances do this in different degrees, and 
some refuse to transmit any. Thus, glass, 
through which light passes readily, is 
opaque to heat; whilst rock-salt, through 
which light will not penetrate, permits heat 
to pass. 

DIATOMA'CEiE (dia, through; tomos, a 
section : Gr.), a large tribe of microscopic 


































207 


Eiterarj) Erratfurg. 


[die 










vegetables, growing in salt and fresh 
water, and usually parasitic upon other 
vegetables. They were formerly confused 
with animal infusoria, but are now univer¬ 
sally considered vegetable organisms, not¬ 
withstanding the curious motions which 
some species exhibit. They form a division 
of the great order of Algae. Some of the 
species are solitary, whilst others are 
grouped into lines and membranes. In 
consequence of the variety of their shapes, 
and of a large portion of each individual 
consisting of silex forming a hollow case 
bearing elegant patterns made by striae, 
they have been sought after by micro- 
scopists, and they have been extensively 
studied. They retain their beautiful confi¬ 
guration even after boiling in strong acid, 
a process adopted in preparing them for in¬ 
spection, in order to get rid of the vege¬ 
table matter. These silicious cases are 
found fossil in enormous quantities in va¬ 
rious parts of the world. 

DIATONTC ( diatonos ; from dia, through ; 
and tonos, a tone : Gr.), in Music, whatever 
proceeds by tones and semitones, both 
ascending and descending. Thus we say, 

| a diatonic series; a diatonic interval; dia¬ 
tonic melody or harmony. 

1 DI'CAST ( dikastes , from dike, justice: 

Gr.), in Ancient Greece, an officer answering 
| nearly to our juryman. 

DICE (dcs: Fr.), cubical pieces of bone or 
ivory with dots on their faces ranging 
! from one to six. They are employed in 
j various games, and are of great antiquity. 
One tradition says that they were invented 
by Palamedes, at the siege of Troy, for the 
amusement of the officers and soldiers. 

DICHOT'OMOUS (dicliotomos , divided 
equally into two: Gr.), in Botany, an epi¬ 
thet for a stem or branch that divides and 
redivides into two throughout. 

DICHOT'OMY (dichotomia: from dicha, 
in two ; and temno, I cut: Gr.), in Astrono- 
j my, that phase or appearance of the moon, 
when she is bisected, or shows just half her 
disk. In tin's situation the moon is said to 
be in her quadrature. 

DIOHRO'MATISM, or DICHRO'ISM (dis, 
double ; and chroma, a colour : Gr.), a pro¬ 
perty, in certain crystallized bodies, of 
exhibiting two distinct colours, according 
to the direction in which the light is trans¬ 
mitted through them. Dichromatism is 
also exhibited by certain liquid solutions. 
For instance, if a few drops of cochineal 
be mixed with water in a tall champagne 
glass, the upper part will be red, tlie lower 
of a lavender tint. Again, a strong solution 
of acetate of chromium is red, but if dilu¬ 
ted with water it becomes green. 

DICLI'NAL, or DICLI'NOUS (dis, twice; 
Mine, a bed : Gr.), in Botany, an epithet for 
plants which have the stamens and pistils 
in distinct flowers. 

DICOTYLE'DONOTJS (dis, double: Gr.; 
and cotyledon), in Botany, an epithet ap¬ 
plied to plants which have an embryo or 
germ with two seed-lobes or Cotylepoxs. 
Almost all exogenous plants are dicotyle¬ 
donous, whilst endogenous plants are mono- 
f.otyledonous, that is, with only a single 
seed-lobe attached to the embryo. 


DICTA'TOR (Lat., from dicto, I order), in 
Ancient Rome, a magistrate created in 
times of exigency and distress, and invested 
with very great power. He had authority 
to raise or disband troops, and to make 
war or peace, and that without the con¬ 
sent of either the senate or the people. The 
usual duration of his office was only for six 
months, during which time all the ordinary 
magistrates, except the tribunes of the 
people, acted under his authority. When¬ 
ever he appeared in public, he wasatteuded 
by twenty-four lictors, or double the number 
allowed a consul. Extensive, however, as 
his power was, lie was nevertheless under 
some restrictions: he could not, for in¬ 
stance, spend the public money arbitrarily, 
leave Italy, or enter the city on horseback. 
The choice of a dictator was not, as in the 
case of other magistrates, decided by the 
popular voice, but one of the consuls ap¬ 
pointed him by command of the senate; 
and the dictator always nominated his 
master of the horse, unless that officer had 
been named by the senate. A dictator was 
also sometimes named for holding the 
comitia for the election of consuls, and 
for the celebration of public games, &c. 
For the space of four hundred years this 
office was regarded with veneration, till 
Sylla and Caesar, by becoming perpetual 
dictators, converted it into an engine 
of tyranny, and rendered the very name 
odious. 

DIC'TIONARY (dictionarium : Mod. Lat.; 
from dictio, a word or expression : Lat.), in 
its first and most obvious sense, signifies a 
vocabulary, or alphabetical arrangement of 
the words in a language, with their defi¬ 
nitions. But, now that the various branches 
of science have become so much extended, 
the term is also applied to an alphabetical 
collection of the terms of any art or science, 
with such explanations or remarks as the 
writer may deem necessary for their eluci¬ 
dation. 

DIBAC'TIC FO'ETRY ( didaJdikos, in¬ 
structive, from didasko, I teach: Gr.), 
that species of metrical composition which 
has instruction for its primary object. But 
though its ostensible aim is to impart in¬ 
struction in verse, it may and often does 
attain an animated and elevated character. 

DIDAC'TYLOUS (dis, double ; and dab- 
tulos, a finger : Gr.), in Zoology, an epithet 
for having two fingers or toes. 

DIDECAHE'DRAL (dis, twice; deica, ten; 
and hedra, a base : Gr.), in Crystallography, 
having the form of a decahedral (or ten¬ 
sided) prism, with pentahedral (or five- 
sided) summits. 

DIDODEOAHE'DRAL (dis, twice; dodeka, 
twelve ; and hedra, a base : Gr.), in Crystal¬ 
lography, having the form of a dodecahe¬ 
dral (.twelve-sided) prism, with hexaliedral 
(six-sided) summits. 

DIDYNA'MOUS (dis, double: and dunar 
mis, power : Gr.), in Botany, an epithet for 
flowers which have two of their stamens 
longer than the other two, as amongst the 
Labia,tee. Linnaeus formed such flowers 
into a class which he named Didynamia. 

DIE (de: Fr.), the stamp with which a 
piece of prepared metal is impressed in 














































dies] 


EIjc jg'ctcnttftc anlr 


208 


coining, &c. Coins are generally completed 
by one blow of the coining-press; and at 
the Royal Mint these presses are so con¬ 
trived, as to strike, upon an average, sixty 
blows in a minute. Medals are usually in 
very high relief, and the effect is produced 
by a succession of blows. 

DI'ES (a day : Lat.). In Law, days are dis¬ 
tinguished into Dies juridici, days on which 
the court sits for the administration of 
justice; Dies non (juridici), days on which 
no pleas are held in any court of justice; 
and Dies datus , a day, or time of respite, 
given by the court to the defendant in a 

cause.-Among the Romans, days were 

distinguished in a variety of ways; the 
most important of which were Dies nefasti 
or Dies atri, days devoted to religious pur¬ 
poses, on which it was unlawful to do any 
public business Dies fasti, similar to the 
Dies juridici of modern times; and Dies 
feriati, like our Dies non juridici, when the 

courts were shut.- Dies Caniculares, in 

Astronomy, the dog days. - Dies Critici, 

in Medicine, days in which some diseases 
are supposed to arrive at a crisis. 

DIE'SIS ( Gr.: the least subdivision in 
music), that division of a tone less than a 
semitone; or an interval consisting of a 
less or imperfect semitone. 

I)I'ET (diaita, maintenance: Gr.), food 
regulated by the rules of medicine. The 
best way to preserve health is to live upon 
plain simple food, lightly seasoned, and in 
a quantity agreeable to the age, strength of 
the stomach, sex, and constitution. Gene¬ 
rally, indeed, hunger shows the best time of 
eating, as thirst does of drinking; but if 
either be indulged to excess, our health and 
spirits will both suffer. In summer, when 
the fluid parts quickly evaporate, the diet 
should be moist, cooling and easy of diges¬ 
tion, to repair the loss with the greater 
speed : but in winter, the stomach will 
admit of more solid and heating aliments. 
The golden rule, however, seems to be, to 
use moderation both in eating and drinking; 
and it is indisputable that early habits of 
self-command, in the regulation of the 
appetite, are of paramount importance to 
all who would enjoy good health, and attain 

a vigorous old age.- Diet (Didt: Germ.), 

in German politics, a convention of princes, 
electors, ecclesiastical dignitaries, and 
representatives of free cities, to deliberate 
on the affairs of the empire. 

DIETET'ICS (diaitetikos, relating to diet: 
Gr.), the rules relating to diet framed with 
a view to healthy persons and to invalids. 

DIEU ET SON ACTE (God and his act: 
Fr.), a maxim in old law, that the act of God 
shall not be a prejudice to any man. 

DIEU ET MON DROIT (God and my 
right: Fr.), the motto of the royal arms of 
England, first assumed by king Richard I. 
to intimate that he did not hold his empire 
in vassalage to any mortal. It was after¬ 
wards assumed by Edward III.,and was con¬ 
tinued without interruption to the time of 
William III.,whoused the motto jemaintien- 
clnay, though the former was still retained 
upon the great seal. After him queen Anne 
adopted the motto semper eadem, which had 
been before used by queen Elizabeth ; but 


since Anne’s time, Dieu et mon droit has 
been the royal motto. 

DIF'FERENCE (differentia Lat.), in Logic, 
an essential attribute belonging to any 
species that is not found in the genus ; being 
the formal or distinguishing part of the 

essence of a species.-In Arithmetic, the 

remainder, when one number has been sub¬ 
tracted from another.- Differences, in 

Heraldry, certain additions to a coat of 
1 arms, serving to distinguish one family 
from another, or a younger branch from 
the elder or principal branch. The eldest 
son bears a label of three points ; the second, 
a crescent; the third, a mullet; the fourth, 
a martlet; the fifth, an annulet, or small 
ring; the sixth, a fleur de lis ; the seventh, a 
rose; the eighth, a cross moline; the ninth, a 
double quatrefoil. The family of the second 
son repeat these differences on their own 
paternal mark of filiation thus, the second 
son’s first son bears a crescent ensigned 
with a label; and so on of the rest. Females 
| do not bear differences. 

DIFFERENCIAL CAL'CULUS, a most 
important branch of the higher mathe¬ 
matics, invented by Leibnitz, and brought 
to perfection by James and John Bernoulli. 
The method of fluxions, which is the same 
j as the calculus, except as to notation and 
■ the mode of explaining the principles, was 
discovered some years before by Newton. 
The object of the calculus is to find the 
ratios of the differences of variable magni¬ 
tudes, on the supposition that these dif¬ 
ferences become infinitely small. Every 
magnitude which forms the subject of 
mathematical reasoning may be increased 
[ or dimimished without limit. We may 
therefore always conceive a quantity to 
become so great as to exceed, or so small as 
to be less than, any assignable finite quan¬ 
tity of the same nature as itself. It is not 
| necessary to attribute a physical existence 
| to either of them. The infinitely small 
quantities, which are considered in the dif¬ 
ferential calculus, are called differentials. 
The differential of a variable quantity is 
‘ the infinitely small difference between two 
successive states of the same variable;’ 
and the object of the calculus is to find this 
for all possible cases. 

DIF'FORM (dis, signifying separation; 
and forma, a form: Lat.), in Botany, an 
epithet for leaves or flowers which do not 
correspond in size or proportion : the oppo¬ 
site of uniform. 

DIF'FRACTION OF LIGHT. When a 
beam of light, admitted into a dark cham¬ 
ber, is received on a screen, and a small 
object is placed in its path, there will be 
seen a number of coloured fringes external 
to the shadow, and if the object be a narrow 
one, like a piece of thin wire, there will also 
be fringes of colour in the shadow, whilst 
the middle will be luminous, as if the object 
were perforated. This phenomenon is 
called diffraction, and it arises from the 
interference of the undulations of light, 
passing on opposite sides of the object 
which throws.the shadow. 

DIF'FUSION OF GASES. Two gases, not 
acting chemically on each other, will inter¬ 
mix, if allowed to do so, even against the 

















209 


Ettcmji Crcas’itro. 


action of gravity. Tims if a vessel be 
separated into two divisions by a partition 
of dry plaster of Paris, and one division 
filled with oxygen, the other with hydrogen, 
the heavier oxygen will penetrate upwards, 
and the lighter hydrogen downwards, 
through the porous partition, until the two 
are uniformly mixed. Hence we see how 
in the economy of nature the atmosphere is 
preserved in a uniform state, as regards the 
proportions of its constituent gases, and 
the accumulation of deleterious vapours in 
towns is prevented. 

DI'GAMMA, an ancient letter of the 
Greeks which is thought to have been 
equivalent to our W. It was finally dropped 
from the alphabet. It has given rise to 

{ much learned dissertation. 

DI'GEST ( digestus, a distributing: Lat.), 
in Law Literature, a collection of judicial 
decisions arranged under distinct heads. 
The most celebrated digest was that made 
by order of the emperor Justinian, which 
was published a.d. 533. This was the 
spirit of several thousand volumes contain¬ 
ing judicial decisions and the opinions of 
the most learned jurisconsults. It was 
j divided into 50 books, and was termed 
Digesta or Pandect cp. 

DIGESTER ( digestcnr: Fr.), a strong me¬ 
tallic vessel, with a tight lid and a safety 
valve, for subjecting bodies to the action of 
hich-pressure steam. 

DIGESTION ( digestio: Lat.), that process 
j by which the nutritive portion of food is 
J elaborated and prepared to be converted 
i into blood. This is effected in the stomach 
and the intestines. The stomach is lined 
with glands, one set of which secrete a sol¬ 
vent fluid called the gastric juice, and 
another set secrete an albuminous fluid. 
When the food has become reduced to a 
pulpy fluid called chyme, it is passed into 
the duodenum, the first portion of the small 
intestine, where the bile secreted by the 
liver and the pancreatic juice secreted by 
the pancreas are mingled with the aliment, 
and it there becomes completely elaborated, 
the nutritious being separated from the 
rejected portion. The milky liquid called 
1 chyle is the result, and this is carried into 
i the blood by certain very minute vessels, 

J called lymphatics or lacteals, which are nu- 
i ! merously distributed in the walls of the 
1 intestine, and are in communication with 
| the veins. The residue of the product of 
digestion is carried on to the great intes- 
[ tine, and is afterwards ejected. In the 
1 lower animals the process is much less 
complicated than amongst the vertebrata. 
In many it does not advance beyond the 
! making of chyme, which is circulated 
1 : through the body without further elabora- 

; i tion.- Digestion, in Chemistry, the ex- 

k j posing of bodies to the action of moderately 
warm water. 

DIGESTIVE ( digestio, a digesting: Lat.), 
I in Medicine, any preparation which in¬ 
creases the energy of the stomach, and aids 

digestion.-In Surgery, an application 

which ripens an ulcer or wound, or disposes 
| it to suppurate. 

DI'GIT ( digitus , a finger : Lat.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, the twelfth part of the diameter of 


[DILATATION 


the sun or moon : a term used to express 
the quantity and magnitude of an eclipse. 
Thus, an eclipse is said to be of six digits 

when six of these parts are hid.-Also, 

a measure taken from the breadth of the 
finger, and thus indicating the humble 
means originally employed in measure¬ 
ments, &o. It is properly three-quarters 

of an inch.- Digits, or Monades, in 

Arithmetic, any one of the nine numerals, 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 0, 7, 8, 9. 

DIGITA'LIS ( Lat ., literally pertaining to 
the finger, from its five-parted leafy calyx), 
in Botany, a genus of plants, containing 
the common foxglove, D. purpurea, and be¬ 
longing to the nat. ord. Scrnphulariacece. 
In this and some other species, there is a 
principle which, in a concentrated form, is 
poisonous. An extract is much employed 
to lower the action of the heart. 

DI'GITATE ( digitatus, having fingers: 
Lot.), in Botany, an epithet used when a 
leaf branches into several distinct leaflets 
like fi ngers; or when a simple undivided peti¬ 
ole connects several leaflets at the end of it. 

DI'GLYPH (diglaphos: from dis, twice; 
and glupho, I hollow out: Gr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a kind of imperfect triglyph, with two 
instead of three channels. 

DIG'NITARY ( dignitas, a dignity : Lat:), 
in the Canon Law, an ecclesiastic who holds 
a dignity which gives him some pre-emi¬ 
nence over mere priests and canons; as a 
bishop, dean, archdeacon, prebendary, &c. 

DI'GRAPH (dis, double; and graphe, a 
letter: Gr.), a union of two vowels, of 
which one only is pronounced, as in bread. 
It is essentially different from a diphthong, 
which consists of two vowels also, but pro¬ 
duces a sound which neither of the vowels 
has separately. 

DIGRESSION ( digressio, a going aside : 
Lat.), in Rhetoric or Literary Composition, 
that passage or narration which deviates 
from the main subject, butwhich has some 
relation to it, or may be useful by way of 
illustration. 

DIGYN'IA (dis, twice ; and gune, a female: 
Gr.), in Botany, an order in the Lineman 
system, consisting of plants that have two 
pistils. 

DIHEXAIIE'DRAL (flis, twice ; hex, six ; 
and liedra, a base : Gr.), in Crystallography, 
having the form of a hexahedral (six-sided) 
prism with trihedral (three-sided) summits. 

DIKE, or DYKE ( digue : Fr.), a mound of 
earth, stones, or other materials, intended 
to prevent low land from being inundated 

by the sea, &c.,as the dikes of Holland.-- 

In Geology, sheets of igneous rock, which 
have usually a vertical or oblique position. 
They have originated from the filling up of 
a fissure by molten rock. When the rocks 
at each side have disappeared through de¬ 
nudation, the dike is seen to stand out like 
a wall; whence its name. 

DILAPIDATION ( dilapidate, from di- 
lap ido, I demolish : Lat.), in Law, the ruin 
or damage which accrues to a house in con¬ 
sequence of neglect. 

DILATATION ( dilatatio, from dilate, I 
make wide : Lat.), in Surgery and Anatomy, 
the widening the orifice of a wound, or the 
distension of a vessel. 

P 





























diptera] 


&{)£ g>ctcnttfic aittr 


212 


large broad wheel, which turns round while 
the cloth is held against them. 

DIPTEItA (dipteros, with two wings: 
from dis, twice; and pteron, a wing : Gr.) in 
Entomology, an order of insects comprising 
an immense number of species, of which 
the house-fly is an example. As some of 
this order have no wings, it is distin¬ 
guished by several peculiarities drawn from 
other sources. Behind the wings is a pair of 
slender bodies, termed halteres, or balancers, 
which are always in motion, and are gene¬ 
rally present even when true wings are not 
developed. In some species, as the blow-fly, 
the eggs are hatched within the body of 
the parent; in others, as the forest fly, the 
larva undergoes its metamorphosis in the 
parent’s body, and the young are excluded 
as pupae. 

DIP'TYCHA, or DIPTYCH ( diptuchos , 
twofold: Gr.), in Roman Antiquity, a public 
register of the names of the consuls and 

other magistrates.-Among the early 

Christians, tablets, on one of which were 
written the names of the deceased, and 
on the other those of the living, patriarchs, 
bishops, &c., or of those who had done 
any service to the church. They consisted 
of two leaves, which folded like a book. If 
the register consisted of more than two 
leaves, it was a poluptuclion (manifold). 

DI'PUS ( dipous , two-footed : from dis, 
twice; and pous, a foot: Gr., on account of 
the disproportionate development of the 
hinder legs), in Zoology, a genus of rodents, 
between the squii-rels and rats, and greatly 
resembling the kangaroo in the enormous 
development of the hind legs and tail. The 
Egyptian Jerboa has a body eight inches 
long, and was known to the ancients by 
that name. It is found in various parts of 
Africa, and in the eastern provinces of 
Siberia. It lives in burrows, in which it re¬ 
poses during the day, choosing the night for 
its excursions, and for obtaining its food. 

DIPY'RE ( dipuros, twice put in the Are: 
Gr.—doubly acted on by Are), a mineral 
occurring in minute prisms, composed of 
silica, alumina, and lime. Before the blow¬ 
pipe it becomes phosphorescent, and then 
fuses. 

DI'R/E (ill-omened : Lat.), in the Roman 
divination, any unusual accidents or un¬ 
common appearances, as sneezing, stum¬ 
bling, strange voices, apparitions, spilling 
salt or wine upon the table or upon one’s 
clothes, meeting wolves, hares, foxes, &c. 

DIRECT' ( directus , straight: Lat.), in Law, 
an epithet for the line of ascendants and 

descendants in genealogical succession.- 

Direct, in Astronomy, a term used when a 
planet moves forward in the zodiac accord¬ 
ing to the natural order and succession of 

the signs, in distinction from retrograde. - 

In Optics, a direct ray is one which is car¬ 
ried from a point of the invisible object 
directly to the eye, without being turned 
out of its rectilinear direction by any inter¬ 
vening body. 

DIRECTION, LINE OF ( directio, from 
dirigo, I send in a straight line: Lat.), in 
Mechanics, a line along which a given force 
tends to move a body on which it acts: 
thus, the line of direction of gravity is 


towards the centre of the earth.- Angle 

of Direction,, the angle comprehended 
between the lines of direction of two con¬ 
spiring forces.- Direction Word, in 

Printing, the word which is sometimes put 
at the bottom of a page, and which begins 
the next page. 

DIRECTOR (dirigo, I arrange: Lat.), a 
person appointed to transact the affairs of 
a public company; as, the director of a bank, 
assurance office, &c.- Director, in Sur¬ 

gery, a grooved probe to direct the edge of 
the knife or scissors in opening sinuses 
or fistulas, &c., that by means of it the 
subjacent nerve and tendons may remain 
unhurt. 

DIRECTORY (directorms, that points to 
some object: Lat.), a book containing an 
alphabetical list of the inhabitants of a 
town, with their places of abode. Also, a 
book containing directions for public wor¬ 
ship or religious services.-In France, the 

term directory was given to five officers to 
whom the executive authority was com¬ 
mitted in 1795. It had the appointment 
and removal of the ministers of state. Its 
policy was at first moderate and concilia¬ 
tory, but at last gave great dissatisfaction. 
After existing four years, it was overthrown 
by the ascendency of Buonaparte. 

DIRGE (dirige: Lat.), a song or tune, in¬ 
tended to express grief, sorrow, and mourn¬ 
ing. It is a corruption of the word dirige, | 
with which the Roman Catholic service for 
the dead commences. 

DIS, a prefix or inseparable particle, 
which generally has the force of a privative 
and negative; as disarm, disallow, disoblige. 

In some cases, however, it denotes sepa¬ 
ration, as in distribute, disconnect. The 
Greek word dis (twice) means that anything 
is doubled, the last letter being sometimes I 
cut off. 

DISABIL'ITY (dis, a privative; and habi- 
litas, fitness: Lat.), in Law, an incapacity 
under which a person labours, and which 
prevents him from enjoying certain legal 
benefits. Thus, an alien cannot take lands; 
an infant cannot make valid contracts, &c. 

It is produced in four ways: viz., by the act 
of God, of the law, of the person, or of his 
ancestors.- Disability differs from in¬ 

ability in denoting deprivation of ability; 
whereas inability denotes destitution of 
ability, either by deprivation or otherwise. 

DISAFFOR'EST, to abolish forest laws 
and their oppressive privileges with respect 
to a particular district. 

DISAGGREGATION (dis, privative ; and 
aggrego, I gather together: Lat.), the act or 
operation of separating an aggregate body 
into its component parts. 

DISC, or DISK (diskos: Gr.), the body and 
face of the sun, the moon, or a planet,"as it l 
appears to us on the earth ; or the body and 
face of the earth, as it would appear to a 
spectator at the moon. The fixed stars are 
destitute of any apparent disk, even when 

viewed by the best telescopes.-In Optics, 

the magnitude of the len's of a telescope, or 
the width of its aperture.-Disc, in Bo¬ 

tany, the part inside the ray of a radiated 
compound flower, such as is seen in the 
marigold or daisy. 
































2i: 


Htterarn (Ercatfurj). 


DISCHARGING ROD {dicliarger, to dis¬ 
charge : Fr.), an instrument used in electri¬ 
cal experiments. It generally consists of 
metal wire with halls at the end, a joint 
in the middle, and a glass handle. 

DISCI'PLE (disdpulus, from disco, I learn: 
Lat,), one who learns any thing from another: 
thus the followers of any teacher, philoso¬ 
pher, &c..,are called disciples. In the more 
common acceptation, among Christians, the 
disciples denote those who were the imme¬ 
diate followers and attendants on Christ, 
of whom there were seventy or seventy- 
two specially selected by him ; but the 
word is also applied to all Christians, as 
they profess to learn and receive his doc- 
! trines and precepts. The words disciple and 
apostle are often synonymously used in the 
gospel history; but sometimes the apostles 
are distinguished from disciples, as persons 
chosen out of their number to be the prin- 
I cipal ministers of religion. 

DISCIPLINE (same deriv.), subjection to 
laws, rules, order, and regulations, either 
in a moral, ecclesiastical, or military sense. 
Also that chastisement or external mortifi¬ 
cation which some religious devotees inflict 
on themselves. 

DISCLAIM'ER ( dis , privative; and clamo, 
I cry out: Lat.), in Law, a denial by a tenant 
| of his landlord’s title; or the renunciation 
by an executor before he has proved a will 
of the executorship; also in equity, a plea 
| by which the defendant renounces all claim 
to the subject of the demand made by the 

bill.-In Patent Law, the formal renuncia- 

i tion in writing of something claimed in the 
specification. 

| DIS'CORD ( discordia , from discors, disso¬ 
nant : Lat.), in Music, a union of sounds 
; which the ear receives with dislike, whe¬ 
ther they are produced together or in suc- 
J cession. A discord may, however, be happily 
introduced into a musical composition; in 
which case, it adds to the pleasure pro¬ 
duced by the chord into which it is re¬ 
solved, and for which the discordant note 
is a preparation. 

DIS'COUNT, in Commerce, an allowance 
made on a bill or any other debt not yet 
become due, in consideration of immediate 
payment; or any deduction from the cus¬ 
tomary price of an article. The discounts 
at banking establishments are usually the 
amount of legal interest paid by the bor¬ 
rower, and deducted from the sum bor¬ 
rowed at the commencement of the credit. 
To discount a bill of exchange, signifies 
to pay it before it is due, deducting a 
certain part of the sum for the accommo¬ 
dation. 

DISCO V'ERY (decouvrir, to discover: Fr.), 
in Law, the disclosing or revealing anything 
by a defendant in his answer to a bill filed 
against him in a court of equity. 

DISCRE'TIVE ( discretus, separated: Lat.), 
In Logic, an epithet applied to a proposition 
expressing some distinction, opposition, or 
variety, by means of but, though, yet, &c,; 
as, men change their dresses, but not then- 
inclinations. 

DIS'CUS {Lat. ; from diskos : Gr.), in An¬ 
tiquity, a quoit made of iron, and sometimes 
perforated in the middle. The players did 


[DISPLAYED 


noFtry to hit a mark, but to throw the 
quoit as far as they could. 

DISCU'TIENT ( discutio , I dispel: Lat.), a 
medicine or application which disperses 
any coagulated fluid, or tumour. 

DISE'ASE, any state of a living body in 
which the natural functions of the organs 
are interrupted or disturbed, either by de¬ 
fective or preternatural action. A disease 
may affect the whole body, or a particular 
limb or part of the body; and such partial 
affection of the body is called a local or 

tnYliPH 7. 1 epo CP 

DISINFECTION {dis, privative; and in- 
fectus, tainted : Lat.), in Medicine, purifica¬ 
tion from infected matter. 

DISINTEGRATION {dis, privative; and 
iniegratio, a making whole: Lat.), the act 
of separating integrant parts of a substance, 
as distinguished from decomposition or the 
separation of constituent parts. Geologists 
speak of the disintegration of rocks under 
atmospheric influences. 

DISJUNCTIVE {disjungo, I separate: 
Lat.), in Grammar, an epithet for conjunc¬ 
tions which unite sentences, but separate 

the sense, as but, nor, &c.-A Disjunctive; 

Proposition, in Logic, is one consisting 
of two or more categorical parts connected 
disjunctively, and therefore stated alter¬ 
natively, as ‘ it was day or night.’-A Dis¬ 

junctive Syllogism is one in which the 
major proposition is disjunctive; as ‘the 
earth moves in either a circle or an ellipsis; 
but it does not move in a circle, therefore 
it moves in an ellipsis.’ 

DISLOCATION {dis, privative; and lo- 
catio, a placing: Lat.), a displacement of one 
part with reference to another. 

DISMEM'BERED (demembrer, to dismem¬ 
ber : Fr.), in Heraldry, an epithet for birds 
that have neither feet nor legs; and also 
for lions and other animals whose members 
are separated. 

DISPATCH'ES (depeches: Fr.), in Politics, 
a packet of letters sent by a public officer, 
on some affair of state or public business. 

DISPENSATION (dispensatio: Lat.), in 
Ecclesiastical affairs, the granting of a li¬ 
cence, or the licence itself, to do what is 
forbidden by laws or canons, or to omit 
something which is commanded. Also, a 
system of principles and rites enjoined : as 
the Mosaic dispensation, that is, the Leviti- 
cal law and rites. 

DISPEN'SATORY {dispensatorius, relat¬ 
ing to management: Lat.),, or Pharmaco- 
pce'ia, an authorized volume containing 
directions for compounding medicines. 

DISPER'MOUS {dis, twice ; and sperma, a 
seed: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet for fruits 
which contain only two seeds. 

DISPER'SION {dispergo, I scatter about: 
Lat.), in Optics, the separation of the dif¬ 
ferent coloured rays, during refraction, 
arising from their different refrangibilities. 
-In Medicine, the removing of inflam¬ 
mation from a part, and restoring it to its 
Wealthy state. 

DISPLAY'ED {dSployer, to spread out: 
Fr.), in Heraldry, a term applied to the po¬ 
sition of an eagle, op any other bird, when 
it is erect, \yitp its \yings expandedop spread 
out. 




















disposition] JpctenttCtc nutf 214 

DISPOSITION ( dispositio: Lat.), in Ar¬ 
chitecture an arrangement of the whole 
design : it differs from distribution, which 
relates to the arrangement of the internal 
parts. 

| DISPUTATION (disputatio: Lat.),' in the 
schools, a contest, either by words or in 
writing, on some point of learning, for a 
degree, prize, or for an exercise. Also a 
; verbal controversy respecting the truth of 
i some fact, opinion, or argument; as when 
Paul disputed with the Jews in the syna- 
i gogue. 

DISQUISITION ( disquisitio , an investi¬ 
gation : Lat.), an inquiry into the nature 
and properties of any problem, question, 
&c., with the intention of acquiring or im¬ 
parting a correct knowledge regarding it. 

DISRUPTION ( disrumpo, I break asun¬ 
der : Lat.), in Geology, a term applied to the 
A'iolent separation of rocks by an earth¬ 
quake. 

DISSECTION ( disseco, I cut up: Lat), 
the methodical opening of an organized 
body, for the purpose of examining its 
structure and uses. Le Gendre observes, 
that the dissection of a human body, even 
dead, was held a sacrilege till the time of 
Francis I.: and that he has seen a consul¬ 
tation held by the divines of Salamanca, at 
the request of Charles V., to settle the ques¬ 
tion whether or not it were lawful, in point 
' of conscience, to dissect a human body for 
the purposes of anatomical science. 

DISSE'ISIN or DISSE'IZIN, in Law, a 
wrongful putting out of him who is seised 
of the freehold in lands : it is either single 
disseisin, or disseisin by force, more properly 
called deforcement. 

DISSENTER. ( dissentio, I think other¬ 
wise : Lat.), one who separates from the ser¬ 
vice and worship of any established church. 
In England, therefore, the word is particu¬ 
larly applied to those who do not conform to 
the rites and service of its church as by law 
established. The principles on which dis¬ 
senters separate from the church of England 
are the right of private judgment, and 
liberty of conscience. They maintain that 
Christ, and he alone, is the head of the 
church, and that they bow to no authority, 
in matters of religion, but that which pro¬ 
ceeds from him. In England the Presby¬ 
terians are dissenters, in Scotland the Epis¬ 
copalians. 

DISSE'PIMENT ( dissepimentum, from 
dissepio, I hedge off: Lat.), in Botany, a 
partition or septum formed in ovaries', by 
the united sides of the carpels, whereby 
cells are formed. 

DISSIPATION ( dissipatio , a scattering : 
Lat.), in Physics, the insensible loss or waste 
of the minute parts of a body, which fly off. 
By means of it, the body is diminished, or 
consumed. 

DISSOL'VENT ( dissolvo , I dissolve: Lat.), 
or Solvent, in Chemistry, a menstruum, or 
anything which has thepower of converting 
a solid substance into a fluid ; thus, water 

is a dissolvent of salts.-In Medicine, any 

remedy supposed capable of dissolving cal¬ 
culi or other concretions in the body. 

DIS'SONANCE ( dissonantia , from dissono, 

I disagree in sound : Lat.), in Music, a false 

consonance: it is synonymous with discord, 
which see. 

DISTANCE (Fr.; from disto, I am sepa¬ 
rated from: Lat.), Line of, in Perspec¬ 
tive, a right line drawn from the eye to 
the principal point; the point of distance 
being a point in the horizontal line at a 
distance from the principal point equal to 

that of the eye from the same.- Distance, 

as applied to the turf, is a length of 240 
yards from the winning-post of a race¬ 
course. Precisely at this spot is fixed a post 
corresponding with others, but having a 
gallery capable of holding three or four 
persons, which is called the distance-post. 
In this gallery, as well as in that of the win¬ 
ning-post, before the horses start each heat, 
a person is stationed holding a crimson 
flag; during the time the horses are run¬ 
ning, each flag is suspended from the front 
of the gallery to which it belongs, and is in¬ 
clined forward as a horse passes either post. 

If tLere happen to be any horse which has 
not come up to the distance-post before the 
first horse in that heat has reached the 
winning-post, such horse is said to be * dis¬ 
tanced,’ and is thereby disqualified for 
running any more during that race. 

DISTEM'PER, in the Veterinary art, a 
disease incident to dogs, horses, and other 

domestic animals.-In Painting, the use 

of colours mixed with size and water. On a 
small scale this is called body-colour paint¬ 
ing. 1’lie old painters made use of white of 
egg, or the glutinous juice of the young 
branches of the fig tree. 

DISTICH .(distichos: from dis, double; and 
stichos, a verse: Gr.), a couplet or couple of 
verses in poetry making complete sense. 

DISTILLATION (dis, apart; and stillo, I 
trickle: Lat.), the evaporation and subse¬ 
quent condensation of liquids. Its discovery 
has been ascribed to the alchemists, though 
it was probably known to the Arabians in 
very early times. On the large scale, it is 
used for the production of ardent spirits 
in distilleries. There are two distinct pro¬ 
cesses in the operations of the distiller: the 
first is the formation of alcohol from sugar; 
the second, the separation of the alcohol 
from the fluid, &c., with which it is associ¬ 
ated. In most cases, even the formation of 
sugar is a part of the distiller’s business in 
this country, as the substance employed is 
either malt, or a mixture of raw grain and 
malt. The process consists in the infusion of 
the ground grain and malt, with constant 
agitation, in a certain quantity of water, at 
a proper temperature, in the mash tun. 
After some time the resulting icort is run 
off, fresh water is added, and the process is 
repeated until scarcely anything soluble 
remains. AVhen the worts are collected, 
they are made to ferment, by the addition 
of good yeast; and when the fermentation 
is over, the wash is subjected to the action 
of heat : the spirit distils over and is con¬ 
densed. To purify and strengthen it, by 
separating the water and fusel oil, it is dis¬ 
tilled a second time. Sometimes it is puri¬ 
fied by filtration through charcoal. The oil 
comes over most abundantly towards the 
end of the distillation, when the weak spirit 
which remains requires an elevation of tern- 































[diuretics 


216 HCterarj) 


perature, which is also favourable to the 
evaporation of the oil. The process is not j 
difficult to be explained. The diastase of 
the malt changes the starch of the raw 
grain into sugar ; the fermentation changes 
the sugar into alcohol; the distillation 
separates the alcohol from the remaining 
fluid, on account of its boiling at a lower 
temperature: the second distillation re¬ 
moves still more of the water and oil, on 
account of the low temperature at which the 
comparatively strong solution of alcohol 
evaporates. The product of spirit from a 
given quantity of grain depends greatly on 
tlie skill and attention of the distiller. The 
spirit which comes over in the beginning of 
the first distillation is termed first shot; 
that which comes over last, feint; the spirit 
before the second distillation is called low 
i wines. Proof spirit is a mixture of about 
equal parts, by weight, of absolute alcohol 
and water. Great improvements have been 
made in distillation: with some of the 
more perfect stills, a pure and strong spirit 

can be obtained by one distillation.- 

Destructive Distillation, the produc¬ 
tion of gases, acids, &c., by subjecting 
organic substances to a heat which causes 
them to be decomposed. In this way coal 
gas is obtained from bituminous coal, 
and pyroligneous acid from wood.- Frac¬ 

tional Distillation, distillation carried 
on at several different degrees of tempera¬ 
ture, the product of each distillation, at a 
given degree, being kept separate from the 
others. 

DISTINCTION ( distinguo , I make a dif¬ 
ference : Lat.), in Argumentation, the ad¬ 
mission of w'hat is said by an adversary, to 
be true in one sense, but not in another. 
Thus, if it be asserted that ‘age is vene¬ 
rable,’ we may distinguish, by admitting 
this to be true of a virtuous old age, but 
denying it of one that is corrupt. 

\ DIS'TOMA, a genus of intestinal w T orms. 
[See Fluke.] 

DISTRESS' ( distringo , I strain hard: Lat.), 

: in Law, the proceeding of entering upou 
land and houses, and seizing the movable 
property, growing crops, &c., with a view 
of selling the same for the purpose of satis¬ 
fying some claim. Landlords have a right 
i of distress for rent which has become due. 
A distress cannot be made after sunset, or 
before sunrise. Gates cannot be broken 
open, nor can the outer door of a dwelling- 
house or building be forced open in order 
to make a distress. The goods distrained 
cannot be sold until five days from the 
making of the distress have expired. Cer¬ 
tain species of personal chattels are exempt 
from distress, particularly the utensils and 
instruments of a person’s trade and profes¬ 
sion—if in actual use. All distresses for 
rent must be made by day. But if the 
tenant fraudulently removes goods from 
the premises, the landlord may, within 
thirty days, seize such goods, wherever 
found, unless they are sold for a valuable 
consideration, before the seizure. [See R.E- 
PLEVIN.] 

DISTRIBU'TION (distributio: Lat.), the 
act of dividing or separating ; as, the distri¬ 
bution of property among children, or the 


j distribution of plants into genera and spe- 

| cies.-In Architecture, the dividing and 

disposing of the several parts of a building, 
according to some plan, or to the rules of 

the art.-In Medicine, the circulation of 

the chyle with the blood.-In Printing, 

the inverse of composition. It consists In 
throwing the types or letters, one by one, 
into those compartments of the cases to 

which they belong.-In Logic, a term is 

said to be distributed in aproposition when 
it is employed in its full extent, so as to 
comprise everything to which the term can 
be applied. Thus man is weak, where the 
term man is distributed, and weak undistri¬ 
buted, since there are other things weak 
besides man.— Distributive Justice, 
justice so administered by a judge as to 

give every man his due.- Distributive, 

in Grammar, an epithet for words which 
serve to distribute things into their seve¬ 
ral orders, as each, either, every, &c. 

DIS'TRICT (districtus, stretched out: 
Lat.), a word applicable to any portion of 
land or country, or to any part of a city or 
town, which is defined by law or agreement. 

A governor, a prefect, or a judge may have 
his district, or states and provinces may be 
divided into districts for public meetings, 
the exercise of elective rights, &c.- Dis¬ 

trict, in Law, that circuit or territory 
within which certain laws may be in force, 
or regarding which certain regulations, &c., 
may have been made. 

DISTRIN'GAS (you are to distrain : Lat.), 
a writ in common law proceedings ad¬ 
dressed to the sheriff, directing him to com¬ 
pel the appearance of a defendant, or to dis-- 
train the goods of a defendant.-In Chan¬ 

cery, a writ called a distringas issues to 
compel the appearance of a corporation 
aggregate. Also a writ to restrain the Bank 
of England from transferring stock or pay¬ 
ing dividends. 

DITIIYRAM'BTTS ( Dithurambos, Bacchus: 
Gr.), a sort of hymn anciently sung in 
honour of Bacchus, full of excitement and 
poetical rage : any poem written with wild¬ 
ness. The ditliyrambic poetry was very 
bold and irregular, for the poets not only 
took the liberty to coin new words for the 
purpose, but made double and compound 
words, which contributed very much to the 
wild magnificence of this kind of compo¬ 
sition. 

DI'TONE ( ditonos : from dis, double; and 
tonos, a tone: Gr.), in Music, an interval 
comprehending two tones. 

DITREM'ATOUS. [See MONOTREMA- 
tous.] 

DITRIHED'RIA (dis, twice ; tris, thrice ; 
and hedra, a base: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a 
genus of crystals with six sides or planes ; 
being formed of two trigonal pyramids 
joined base to base, without any interme¬ 
diate column. 

DIT'TANY OF CRETE, a species of 
marjoram used as a febrifuge, the Origanum 
diclamnus of botanists, a native of Candia. 

DIT'TO ( detto, said : Ital.), contracted into 
Do. in books of accounts, signifies ‘the 
aforesaid.’ It is used to avoid repetition. 

DIURET'ICS (diouretikos, promoting a ' 
discharge of urine: Gr.), medicines which ! 



























DIURNAL 


C!)c $cfenttfic antf 


216 


have the power to promote or increase the 
discharge of urine. 

DITJR'NAL ARCH ( diurnus, daily: Lat), 
in Astronomy, the arch or number of de¬ 
grees that the sun, moon, or stars describe 
between their rising and setting.- Diur¬ 

nal Motion of a planet, so many degrees 
and minutes as any plane moves in twenty- 
four hours. 

DIVAN' (an audience chamber: Turk.), a 
council-chamber or court, in which justice 
is administered in the eastern nations, 
particularly among the Turks. There are 
two sorts of divans: that of the grand seig- 
j nior, called the council of state, which con¬ 
sists of seven of the principal officers of the 
empire; and that of the grand vizier, com¬ 
posed of six other viziers or councillors of 
state, with the chancellor, and secretaries 

of state, for the distribution of justice.- 

The word divan, in Turkey, also denotes a 
kind of stage, which is always found in the 
halls of the palaces, and in the apartments 
of private persons. It is covered with 
costly tapestry, and has a number of 
embroidered cushions leaning against the 
wall ; the master of the house reclines on 
it when he receives visitors. From this, a 
kind of sofa has obtained the name of divan. 

DIVAR'ICATE ( divarico, I spread out: 
Laf), in Botany, an epithet for a branch 
which spreads out wide, or forms an obtuse 
angle with the stem. It is also applied to 
peduncles and petioles. 

DIVER'GENT (di, asunder; and vergo, I 

turn : Lat.), spreading out.- Diverging 

Lines, in Geometry, those which constantly 

recede from each other.- Divergent 

Rays, in Optics, those rays which spread 
out more and more as they recede from 
their source : opposed to convergent. Con¬ 
cave glasses render the rays divergent, and 

convex ones convergent.- Diverging 

Series, in Mathematics, a series the terms 
of which always become larger the further 
they are continued. 

DIVER'SION ( diverto, I turn a different 
' way: Lat.), in Military tactics, an attack on 
! an enemy, by making a movement towards 
j a point that is weak and undefended, in 
j order to draw his forces off from continuing 
; operations in another quarter, 
j DIV'IDEND ( dividendum, something to 
! be divided : Lat.), the part or proportion of 
| profits which the members of a society or 
public company receive at stated periods, 

[ according to the share they possess in the 
| capital or common stock of the concern. 

! The term is applied also to the annual 
interest paid by government on various 
public debts. In this sense, the order by 
i which stockholders receive their interest 
is caUed a dividend warrant, and the portions 
I of interest not called for are denominated 
unclaimed dividends. It also signifies the 
! sum a creditor receives from a bankrupt’s 

estate.- Dividend, in Arithmetic, the 

number to be divided into equal parts by 
the divisor. 

DIVI-DIVI, the Indian name of a legu¬ 
minous tree, Cccsalpmia coriaria, growing 
in South America, the pods of which are 
very rich in astringent principles, and are 
employed in tanning leather, 


DIVI'NA COMME'DIA LA the name bj 
which Dante’s great poem is known, al¬ 
though its author styled it only La Corn- 
media, saying, that he called it a Comedy 
because, contrary to the fashion of tragedy, 
it begins with sorrow and ends with joy. 
Tt -was not published entire until after 
Dante’s death, which occurred in 1321. The 
poem, written in terza rima, is the story of 
a vision, and is divided into three books, the 
Inferno, the Purgatorio, and the Paradiso 
(Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven), whither he 
supposes himself in spirit to be successively 
transported. Much of the poem is allego¬ 
rical, as he himself stated to his friends, 
telling them that it had many meanings. 
Dante was a sincere son of the church, but 
he has unsparingly attacked the papal court, 
and urged the necessity of reform. There 
are many passages of stern invective, and 
bitter indignation, directed against persons 
and cities; but there are not wanting in¬ 
stances of vivid description and tender 
beauty. His great excellence, however, is 
thought to consist in his mastery over the 
feelings, and his acquaintance with the 
workings of the lihart of man. Many trans¬ 
lations have been made into English, and 
almost all other European languages have 
their own versions. The Italian editions 
have been very numerous, and the disqui¬ 
sitions and commentaries upon it would fill 
a library of respectable size. 

DIVINA'TION (divinatio: Lat.), the pre¬ 
tended art of discerning future events, or 
such as cannot be known by ordinary or 
natural means. The ancient philosophers 
divided divination into two kinds, natural 
and artificial. Natural divination was sup¬ 
posed to be effected by a kind of inspiration 
or divine afflatus; artificial divination by 
certain rites, or observances, which we have 
explained under their respective titles. All i 
the ancient Asiatic tribes had modes of , 
divination : the Egyptians and Greeks had 
their oracles; and, with the Romans, divi¬ 
nation and witchcraft were brought into a 
kind of system, and constituted part of their 
religion. In truth, there has hardly been a 
nation discovered, which had advanced 
beyond the lowest barbarism, that did not 
practise some kinds of divination; and even 
in the ages in which reason has most pre¬ 
vailed over feeling, the belief in the power 
of discerning future events has been enter¬ 
tained. Even the wise Socrates was wont 
to assert that the science of divination was 
necessary for all persons who would go¬ 
vern successfully either cities or their own 
families. 

DI'VING (dippan, to dive: Sax.), the art 
of descending underwater to a considerable 
depth, and remaining there for a length of 
time, as occasion may require. The practice 
of diving is resorted to for the recovery of 
things that have been lost in the water. An 
apparatus is now very generally employed, 
in which the head of the diver is covered by 
a helmet of thin sheet copper, large enough 
to admit of its easy motion, and capable of 
containing from six to eight gallons of air. 
The helmet comes pretty far down on the 
breast and back, and has in front three eye¬ 
holes, covered with glass, and protected by 






























217 


Httararg (Erntfurg. 


brass wire. This helmet is united to a 
waterproof canvas jacket by means of rivets, 
so tightly that no water can be introduced 
to the body of the diver. The junction of 
the helmet and jacket is stuffed, so that it 
may clasp the shoulders of the diver firmly. 
A leather belt passes round the neck, to 
whicli are attached two weights, one before 
and the other behind, each about 401bs., in 
order that the diver may desceud with faci¬ 
lity ; but, to provide against any accident 
when he is at the bottom, the belt is secured 
with a buckle in front, which he can in¬ 
stantly unfasten; and thus, dropping the 
weights, he rises to the surface. The diver 
is supplied with fresh air by means of a 
flexible waterproof pipe, which enters the 
back of the helmet, and communicates with 
an air-pump at work above in the vessel 
from which the diver descends. From the 
S back part of the helmet also there issues 
! an eduction pipe, to allow the escape of the 
breathed air. In order that the diver may 
j give notice to the attendants at the top, 
when he requires a hook, tackle, bucket, 

' or any alteration in the supply of fresh air, 
he is furnished with a single line, which 
passes under his right arm. He descends 
from the side of the vessel by means either 
: of a rope or wooden ladder loaded at the 
lower end (but more frequently by the for¬ 
mer). When he reaches the bottom, the 
rope is let down, till it becomes slack, to 
prevent the motion of the vessel from 
affecting him; and he carries a line in his 
j hand, that he may, when necessary, return 
to the rope, if he lets it go. To make him¬ 
self as comfortable as possible underwater, 
he puts on two suits of flannel, over which 
be has a dress of waterproof cloth, which 
entirely covers his body, the only apertures 
being at the neck and wrists, and these are 
water-tight. The diver is thus enabled to 
remain several hours at a time under water, 
all the while perfectly dry, his motion being 
J rendered quite steady by weights attached 
j i to his shoes. 

DI'VING-BELL, a mechanical contriv¬ 
ance, by which persons may descend below 
I the surface of the water aud remain there 
I for some time without inconvenience. It 
j! is most usually made in the form of a trun- 
cated cone, the smaller and upper end being 
i closed and the larger open ; and it is used 
for the recovery of property that is sunk in 
wrecks, &c. Of late years it has also been 
much employed to assist in laying the 
! foundations of buildings under water. To 
illustrate the principle of this machine, 

| take a glass tumbler and plunge it into 
water with the mouth downwards; you 
will find that very little water will i-ise into 
the tumbler, which will be evident if you 
place apiece of cork inside; for its upper 
side will be perfectly dry, the air which was 
in the tumbler having prevented the en- 
j trance of the water. But, as air is cotn- 
I pressible, it cannot entirely exclude the 
j water, which condenses it a Little, by pres- 
! sure. Modern improvements have rendered 
this apparatus pei-fect. The air pumped in 
! not only supplies the divers, but empties 
! the bell of water. It is made heavy enough 
| to sink itself, and is so constructed that it 


[division 


cannot easily overset, even if it meet a 
sunken rock. Signals render communica¬ 
tion between the divers and those above 
very simple and effective. By letting air 
through a stopcock into a water-tight com¬ 
partment in the upper part, the bell becomes 
so light as to ascend, and by letting water 
into the same compartment, the bell is made 
sufficiently heavy to descend. The divers, 
therefore, have the machine completely un¬ 
der their own control. 

DIVISIBILITY ( divisibilis , that may be 
divided : Lat .), that property by which the 
particles of matter in all bodies are capable 
of mechanical separation or disunion from 
one another. As it is evident that a body 
is extended, so it is no less evident that it 
is divisible; for, since no two particles of 
matter can exist in the same place, it fol- j 
lows that they are really distinct from each j 
other, which is all that is meant by being j 
divisible. In this sense, the least conceiv- ■ 
able particle must still be divisible, since 
it will consist of parts which will be really ] 
distinct. Thus far, extension may be con¬ 
sidered as divided into an unlimited num¬ 
ber of parts, but with respect to the limits j 
of the actual divisibility we are still in the 
dark. That matter may, even with the | 
means at our disposal, be divided to a sur- j 
prising extent, is easily proved by many 
simple experiments. A single grain of sul¬ 
phate of copper, or blue vitriol, will com¬ 
municate a flue azure tint to five gallons of ! 
watei - . In this case, the sulphate is at¬ 
tenuated at least ten million times. Odours 
are capable of yet wider diffusion : a single 
gi-ain of musk is sufficient to perfume a 
room for twenty years. 

DIVIS'ION ( divisio: Lat.), the act of se- J 

parating any entire bodies into parts.- 

Division, in Arithmetic, one of the four 
fundamental rules, by which we find how 
often a less number, called the divisor, is 
contained in a greater, called the dividend, I 
the number of times which the divisor is 
contained in the dividend being termed the j- 
quotient. - Division, in Music, the divid¬ 

ing the interval of an octave into a num¬ 
ber of less intervals. The fourth and fifth J 
divide the octave perfectly, though difter- I 
ently: when the fifth is below, and serves 
as a bass to the fourth, the division is called 
harmonical, but when the fourth is below j 

it is called arithmetical. - Division, among 

Logicians, the unfolding of a complex 1 
idea, by enumerating the simple ideas of 

which it is composed.-In Ithetoric, the 

arrangement of a discourse under several 

heads. - Division, part of an army, as a 

brigade, a squadron, or platoon.-A part 

of a fleet, or a select number of ships under 
a separate commander, and distinguished 
by a particular flag. 

'DIVIS'ION OF LA'BOUH, in Political 
Economy, an expression employed to de¬ 
signate that apportionment of occupations, 
by means of which an individual labourer 
is restricted to the repeated execution of 
the same operation, or at least of a small 
number of operations. Adam Smith said 
that the superiority of civilized nations 
over savages is entirely owing to this 
regulation ; and lie pointed out that the 






























Cije Scientific antf 


218 


divorce] 


advantages attending it are 1. That work¬ 
men do not lose time by quitting one kind 
of occupation for another, by having to 
change their places, positions, or imple¬ 
ments. 2. That the mind and hand acquire 
a wonderful skill in performing simple and 
often-repeated operations. 3. That the di¬ 
vision of labour leads to the discovery of 
contrivances for the abridgment of labour. 
It reduces each operation to a very simple, 
and often-repeated process; and it is this 
kind of labour which is most easily per¬ 
formed by implements or machinery. 

DIVO'RCE ( divortium , from diverto, I 
separate: Lat.), a separation, by law, of 
j husband and wife. It is either a divorce d 
vinculo matrimonii, that is, a complete 
j dissolution of the marriage bond, by which 
the parties become as entirely disconnected 
as those who have not been joined in wed¬ 
lock; or a divorce & mensd et thoro (from 
bed and board), by which the parties are 
i legally separated, but not unmarried. Di- 
! vorces are now obtained in the Court of 
Divorce, in consequence of adultery on the 
part of the wife, or of adultery, with cruelty 
J or certain other serious offences, on the 
i part of the husband, unless the petitioner 
j has connived at or condoned the adultery, 
or been guilty of adultery also, or has too 
long delayed bringing the matter into 
court. A divorce h mensd et thoro is now 
termed a judicial separation, and is obtained 
on account of cruelty on the part of the 
husband or wife, or adultery alone on the 
j part of the husband: it gives the wife, as 
j to property and in other respects, the con- 
i dition of a feme sole. Damages may be 
obtained by the injured husband from the 
cd-respondent or paramour; more or less 
of the fortune brought by the guilty wife 
may be allotted to the support of the chil¬ 
dren of the dissolved marriage ; and whe¬ 
ther the marriage is dissolved, or there is 
only a judicial separation, on petition of 
the wife, an order for alimony to her may 
be made. An appeal lies from this court 
to the House of Lords ; hut after the time 
limited for this purpose has expired, or 
the decree has been confirmed, the par¬ 
ties may marry as if the prior marriage had 
been dissolved by death. 

DOBEREI'NER’S LAMP, a small instru¬ 
ment for obtaining instantaneous light, in 
which a jet of hydrogen gas is inflamed by 
coming into contact with spongy platinum. 

DOCE'T/E ( dokesis, an opinion: Gr.), a 
sect that looked upon all the acts and suf¬ 
ferings of Christ as having taken place 
only in appearance. 

DOCIM'ASY, or the DOCIMAS'TIC ART 
(dokimasia, an examination,from dokimazo, 
I prove: Gr.), the art of assaying metals, 
or separating them from foreign matters, 
and determining the nature and quantity 
of metallic substance contained in any ore 
or mineral. 

DOCK Ido eke: Germ.), an artificial basin 

for the reception of ships.- Wet Docks 

are constructed with gates, which, when 
shut, keep the ship afloat at low water. 
They are used for loading or unloading 

vessels out of the influence of the tide.- 

Dhy Docks, called also graving docks, are 


left dry by the sea, or are rendered so by 
pumping. ‘They are used for building, re¬ 
pairing, and examining ships. 

DOCK'ET ( etiquette, a ticket: Fr.), in Law, 
an abridged entry of an instrument or pro¬ 
ceeding on a small piece of paper or parch¬ 
ment. 

DOOK'YARD, an arsenal, containing all 
sorts of naval stores and timber for ship¬ 
building. In England, the royal dockyards 
are at Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, 
Deptford, Woolwich, and Sheerness, where 
many of Her Majesty’s ships and vessels of 
war are generally moored during peace, and 
such as want repairing are taken into the 
docks and refitted. 

DOC'TOR (a teacher: Lat.), a person who 
has passed all the degrees of a faculty, and 
is empowered to practise and teach it; or, 
according to modern usage, one who has 
received the highest degree in afaculfy. 
The title of doctor originated at the same 
time with the establishment of universi¬ 
ties, and is either conferred publicly with 
certain ceremonies, or by diploma. Wo 
have doctors of divinity (D.D.); of Medi¬ 
cine (M.D.); of Civil Law (D.C.L.); and of 
Laws (LL.D.); the two last being fre¬ 
quently honorary merely. In Germany 
there are doctors of Philosophy (Ph. D.). 

DOO'TRINAIRES (Fr.), a party in the 
French chamber of deputies on the second 
restoration of the Bourbons, who would 
rank themselves neither among the friends , 
of absolute power, nor among the defenders 
of the revolution. They opposed the ultra¬ 
royalists, and took a middle course, avow¬ 
ing themselves the supporters of a consti¬ 
tutional monarchy. 

DOC'TRINE (doctrina: Lat.), a principle 
or position in any science, laid down as 
true by an instructor therein. Thus, the 
doctrines of the Gospel are the principles or 
truths taught by Christ and his apostles. 
But, as any tenet or opinion is a doctrine, 
doctrines may be either true or false. 

DOC'UMENT (documentnm, a proof: Lat.), 
any official or authoritative paper, contain¬ 
ing written instructions or evidence. 

DOD'DER (todter, the slayer: Teut., be¬ 
cause injurious to plants), the common 
name of some parasitical plants, belonging 
to the genus Cuscuta, nat. ord. Cuscutacece. 
The two British species attach themselves 
to hops, flax, nettles, &c. 

DODEC'AGON ( dudeka, twelve ; and gunia, 
an angle : Gr.), a regular polygon of twelve 
sides. Its area is equal to the square of 
one of its sides multiplied by 1P19G. 

DO'DECAHE'DRON (dudeka, twelve; and 
hedra, a base ; Gr.), one of the five Platonic 
bodies, or regular solids. Its surface con¬ 
sists of twelve equal and regular pentagons, 
and is found by multiplying the square of 
the side of one of its pentagons by 20'64578, 
and its solid contents by multiplying the 
cube of one of the same sides by 7 - 66312. 

DODECAN'DRIA (dudeka, twelve; and 
aner, a male: Gr.), the lltli class in the 
Li unman system of Botany, comprehending 
those plants which have flowers with twelve 
stamens and upwards, as far as nineteen 
inclusive, as dyer’s weed, purslane, house- 
leek, &c. The essential character is, that 










































219 iLttcnu'j) Crfajgurp. [dome 

the stamens, however numerous, are in¬ 
serted into the receptacle. 

DO'DO, the popular name of an extinct 
bird, which formerly lived in the Mauritius, 
the Bidus ineptus of naturalists. It was an 
unwieldy creature, with short wings and a 
strong beak, the upper mandible being 
curved. So scanty is the evidence of its 
former existence, that some naturalists 
have doubted whether such a bird as 
the Dodo ever lived. Its place amongst 
the birds has also been debated, but it 
would seem best classed with the ground 
pigeons. 

DODO'NIAN, in Antiquity, an epithet 
given to Jupi ter, because lie was worshipped 
in a temple built in the forest of Dodona, 
where was the most celebrated, and, it is 
said, the most ancient oracle in Greece. 

DOG ( dogghe : But.), the Canis farniliaris, 
an animal well known for his attachment 
to mankind. [See Oasis.] 

DOG'BANE, the common name of plants 
belonging to the genus Apocynum, nat.ord. 
Apocynacece. The A. androsoemifolium is a 
perennial North American plant, the root 
of which is intensely bitter and nauseous, 
and is employed in the form of a powder 
for the same purposes as ipecacuanha. 

DOG'-DAYS. [See Canic'ular. Days.] 

DOG'-FISH, in Ichthyology, the popular 
name of several species of shark. Although 
dog-fishes rarely venture to attack mankind, 
they commit great ravages in the fisheries 
by their voracity. The flesh of all the spe¬ 
cies is hard, dry, and unpalatable, requiring 
to be well soaked before it is eaten; but a 
considerable quantity of oil is obtained from 
i the liver. The rough skin of the ScyIlium 
Catulus, or common dog-fish, is used by 
joiners and other artificers for polishing 
wood, &c. 

DOG'-STAR, or Sinius, a star of the first 
magnitude in the constellation Canis major 
(the greater dog : Lat.). It is the brightest 
of all the fixed stars. 

DOG'WOOD, a name applied, in England, 
to any of the shrubby species of Cnrnus, 

; nat. ord. Cornacece ; in the West Indies, to 
j the Piscidia Erythrina, nat. ord. Legumi- 
nosce. The former are mere ornamental 
shrubs; the latter yields a powerful nar¬ 
cotic. The Cornus sanguinea, or cornel- 
tree, is a common shrub in English hedges. 

DOGE (jPV.), formerly the title of the chief 
magistrate in the republics of Venice and 
Genoa. The dignity was elective in both 
places. At Venice it continued to be for life; 
but at Genoa, from 1528 until the title of 
Doge was abolished in Italy by the French, 
in 1797, it was held only for two years. 
His power became, by degrees, very limited. 

DOG'GElt {dogre: Fr.), the name of a two- 
masted Dutch fishing vessel. In some of 
our old statutes we meet with dogger-men, 
denoting the fishermen whose vessels were 
of this description. 

DOG'GREL, a kind of loose, irregular, 
burlesoue poetry. 

DOGMA (Or., from dolceo, I think), a 
principle, maxim, or tenet, particularly with 
regard to matters of faith and philosophy; 
as, the dogmas of the church, the dogmas of 
Aristotle. 

DOG'MATISTS ( dogmatistes, from dogma - 
tizo, I lay down an opinion : Gr.), a sect of 
ancient physicians, of which Hippocrates 
tvas the first. They laid down definitions 
and divisions, reducing diseases to certain 
genera, and those genera to species, and 
furnishingremediesfor them all; supposing 
principles, drawing conclusions, and apply¬ 
ing those principles and conclusions to the 
particular diseases under consideration. 

DOIT(dtt 2 /f; But.), the ancient Scottish 
penny-piece, twelve of which were equal to 
a penny sterling. Two of them were equal 
to the bodle, six to the baubee, and eight to 
the aclieson. 

DOLA'BRIFORM ( dolabra, an axe ; and 
forma, a form : Lat.), hatchet-shaped. In 
Botany, applied to leaves which are cylin¬ 
drical at the base, grow broader at the up¬ 
per part, and are thick on one edge and very 
thin on the other. 

DOLE, in our ancient customs, signified 
a part or portion of a meadow where several 
persons had shares. It now means a distri¬ 
bution or dealing of alms, or a liberal gift 
made to the people or to some charitable 
institution. 

DOLICHOCEPH'ALIC ( dolichos , long; 
kephale, the head, Gr.), a term applied by 
comparative anatomists to skulls of an 
elongated form, such as those of negroes ; 
opposed to br achy cephalic. 

DO'LIUM (a very large jar: Lat.), a genus 
of molluscs inhabiting univalve shells, of a 
figure approaching to round, so as to seem 
distended, and, as it were, inflated. They 
are found in the Mediterranean and other 
seas. 

DOL'LAR, a silver coin of the United 
States of America, of the value of about 

4 s. 3d. sterling ; it contains 100 cents. In 
Prussia the thaler or dollar is worth about 

3s. Bavaria, Hanover, Denmark, and Ham¬ 
burg, have also thalers of different values. 
The English give the name dollar to the 
Spanish piastre, worth about 4s. 4d. 

DOL'LMAN, a kind of long cassock worn 
by the Turks, hanging down to the feet, j 
with narrow sleeves buttoned at the wrist. 

DOL'OMITE, a variety of magnesian car¬ 
bonate of lime, so called from the French 
geologist Dolomieu. It belongs to the Per¬ 
mian division of the Palaeozoic period. It 
occurs under considerably diversified as¬ 
pects, constituting beds of very great ex¬ 
tent, and abounding in the Apennines, the 
Tyrol, Switzerland, and Tuscany. It is of 
various shades of white; and both in Eu¬ 
rope and America it is frequently employed 
as marble. 

DOL'PHIN ( delphin : Lat,.), a name given j 
both to a genus of acanthopterygious fishes i 
and to members of the cetacean genus Bel- 
phinus. The former includes the Cory ph mi a 
hippurus, celebrated in poetry for its display 
of colours when dying. The Belpliini are 
allied to the porpoises. 

DOM ( dominus, a lord: Lat.), a title given, 
in the middle ages, to the pope; but, more 
recently, to members of certain monastic 
orders—thus to the Benedictines. 

DOME ( domus, a house: Lat.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a spherical or other concave roof, 
i over a circular or polygonal building. A 




























DOMESDAY] 


EI)C J^ctcnttfu autr 


220 


eurbased or diminished dome is segmented 
on its section. A surmounted dome is higher 
than the radius of its base. The most an¬ 
cient dome at present existing is that of 
the Pantheon at Rome. The following are 
the diameters (in feet) of some of the most 
remarkable domes:— 

diam. height 

Pantheon, at Rome.... 142 143 

Duomo, at Florence . . . 139 310 

St. Peter’s, at Rome . . . 139 330 

St. Sophia, at Constantinople 115 201 

Ancient Baths of Caracalla. 112 11G 

St. Paul’s, London .... 112 215 

DO'MESDAY or DOOMS'DAY BOOK 

( dom , lord; and deya, a proclamation ; Celt.), 
a book or record made by order of William 
the Conqueror, which now remains in the 
exchequer, and consists of two volumes, a 
large folio and a quarto ; the former con¬ 
tains a survey of all the lands in most of 
the counties in England, and the latter 
comprehends some counties that were not 
at first surveyed. The ‘ Book of Domesday ’ 
was begun by five justices, assigned for 
that purpose in each county, in the year 
1081, and finished in 1086. It was of such 
authority, that the Conqueror himself 
allowed some cases in which he was con¬ 
cerned to be determined by it. Camdeu 
calls it the tax-book of king William ; and 
it was further called Magna Holla. There 
is likewise a third domesduy book, made 
by command of the Conqueror ; and also a 
fourth, which is an abridgment of the 
others. 

DOM'ICILE (see next), in Law, the place 
of permanent residence of a pei'son. This 
has frequently to be considered with refer¬ 
ence to the wills of persons dying in a 
foreign country, it being a maxim of our 
law that all personal property is to be con¬ 
sidered as being in that country where its 
owner is domiciled, and consequently the 
laws of that country are those according to 
which it is to be distributed. 

DOMICIL'IARY (domicilium, a residence : 
Lat.), pertaining to an abode or residence. 
Hence, a domiciliary visit signifies a visit 
to a private dwelling, particularly for the 
purpose of searching it, under authority. 

DOM'INANT (dominant, ruling over; 
Lat.). In Music, the dominant or sensible 
chord is that which is practised on the 
dominant or fifth of the key, and which in¬ 
troduces a perfect cadence. Every perfect 
major chord becomes a dominant chord as 
soon as the seventh minor is added to it. 

DOMIN'ICAL LETTER ( dies dominion, 
the Lord’s day: Lat.), in Chronology, that 
letter of the alphabet which points out in 
the calendar the Sundays throughout the 
year. This mode of representing the days 
of the week in almanacs by placing a letter 
opposite to the day of the month, has fallen 
into disuse, the initial letters of the name 
of the day itself being used instead. 

DOMIN'ICANS, called also Predicants, or 
Preaching Friars, an order of monks founded 
by Dominic, a native of Spain, in 1215. The 
establishment of this order was due to the 
apprehensions of the papacy, excited by the 
rise and spread of opinions hostile to its 


doctrines and authority; the secular and 
regular clergy of the time being little dis¬ 
posed to rouse themselves from their indo¬ 
lence and vices, to combat with their assail¬ 
ants. As soon as the Dominicans had 
fulfilled their first mission, by the destruc¬ 
tion of the Albigensian heresy, as it was 
called, the order was permanently estab¬ 
lished by a bull of Honorius III. In France 
they were called Jacobins, because the first 
convent in Pariswas in the Rue St. Jacques. 
The military order of Christ was originally 
composed of knights and noblemen, whose 
duty it was to wage war against heretics. 
After the death of the founder, this became 
the order of the penitence of St. Dominic, 
for both sexes. In course of time the Do¬ 
minicans were superseded in the schools 
and courts by the Jesuits. 

DOMIN'ION ( dominium: Lat.), in the 
Civil Law, the power to use or dispose of 
a thing as we please. Dominium plenum 
is when the property is united with the 
possession. Dominium nudum, when there 
is the property without the possession. 
Dominium is again divided into that which 
is acquired by the law of nations, and that 
which is acquired by the civil law. The 
former can never be had without possession, 
the latter may. Directum Dominium is the 
right alone of dominion. Dominium utile, 
the profit accruing from it. Thus the 
wife retains the dominium direcUim of her 
jointure, and the dominium utile passes to 
her husband.-In a general sense, Domi¬ 

nion signifies either sovereign authority, or 
territory within the limits of the authority 
of a prince or state ; as, the British do¬ 
minions. 

DOM'INO (Half), a masquerade dress, worn 
bygentlemen and ladies, consisting of a long 
silk mantle, with a hood and wide sleeves. 
It was formerly a dress worn by priests in 
the winter, which, reaching no lower than 
the shoulders, served to protect the face 

and head from the weather.- Dominoes, a 

game played by two or more persons, with 
twenty-eight pieces of ivory, called cards, 
and variously dotted on one side like dice. 

DOM'INUS (Lat.), in the Civil Law, one 
who possesses anything by right or pur¬ 
chase, gift, loan, legacy, inheritance, pa 5 r - 

ment, contract, or sentence.- Dominus, 

in the feudal law, one who grants a part of 
his estate in fee to be enjoyed by another. 

DON ( dominus, a lord : Lat.), a title which 
in Spain is given to every one from the king 
to the poorest gentleman, but in Portugal 
is restricted to the royal family and the 
higher nobility. All the ladies in both 
countries are styled Dona. 

DONATION (donatio : Lat.), in Law, the 
act or contract by which a person trans¬ 
fers to another either the property or the 
use of something, as a free gift. In order to 
be valid, it supposes a capacity both in the 
donor and donee, and requires consent, ac¬ 
ceptance, and delivery.-The conferring 

of certain benefices on a clerk, by deed of 
gift alone,without presentation, institution, 
or induction ; but he cannot legally officiate 
until he obtains the bishop’s licence. 

DO'NATISTS, a sect of Christians in 
Africa, who took the name from their foum 

































221 


Ettcrarn Cmt£urin 


tier Donatus. They held that theirs was 
the only pure church, and that baptism and 
ordination, unless conferred by them, were 
invalid. The Donatists made themselves 
formidable, when swarms of fanatical 
peasants, inflamed by their doctrines, in 
348, under the name of Circumcelliones, at¬ 
tacked the imperial army, and for thirteen 
years after desolated Mauritania with pil¬ 
lage and murder. Martyrdom was eagerly 
sought by them, and they voluntarily gave 
themselves up to be executed. This sect 
was finally extinguished when the country 
was conquered by the Saracens. 

DO'NATIVE (donatio,a gift: Lat.),a church 
or chapel founded by the sovereign or by 
his permission, and intended to be merely 
the gift of the patron, subject to his visi¬ 
tation only, and not that of the ordinary ; 
and, by the mere act of donation, vested in 
the clerk, who does not require the ordi¬ 
nary’s leave to officiate. But if the patron 
once presents a clerk to the bishop, he loses 
his privilege.- Donative, among the Ro¬ 

mans, was properly a gift made to the 
soldiers, as congiarium was that made to the 
people. 

DON'JOM (a turret: Fr.), in Fortification, 
a strong tower or redoubt, into which the 
garrison of an ancient fortress might re¬ 
treat in case of necessity, and capitulate 
with greater advantage. 

DOOM PALM, a palm with fan-shaped 
leaves, which grows in Upper Egypt, and is 
remarkable for the way its branches grow, 
forking and reforking. The ripe fruit resem¬ 
bles gingerbread in flavour, and is eaten 
by the peasants. The nut is eaten by the 
Ethiopians before it is ripe. When ripe, it is 
so hard as to serve for the sockets of dirks. 

DOR'IO, an epithet for anything belong¬ 
ing to the Dorians, an ancient people of 
Greece. The Boric dialect was broad and 
rough, yet there was something venerable 
and dignified in its antique style; for 
which reason it was often made use of in 

solemn odes, &c.-The Doric Order of 

Architecture is the second of the five or¬ 
ders, being that between the Tuscan and 
Ionic. It is distinguished for simplicity 
and strength, and is used in the gates 
of cities and citadels, on the outside of 
churches, and in other situations where 
embellishment is unnecessary or inappro¬ 
priate.-The Doric Mode, in Music, was 

the first of the authentic measures of the 
ancients, and grave rather than gay. 

DOR'MANT ( dormio , I sleep: Lat.), an 
epithet expressive of a state of inaction or 
sleep, termed hibernation, from its taking 
place usually in winter. Hence dormant 
animals are such as remain several months 
in the year apparently lifeless, or, at least, 
in utter inactivity. The period of long 
sleep generally begins when the food of 
the animal grows scarce, and inactivity 
spreads over the vegetable kingdom ; and 
instinct then impels it to seek a safe place 
for the period of rest. The bat hides itself 
in dark caves, or in walls of decayed build¬ 
ings; the hedgehog envelopes itself in 
leaves, and generally conceals itself in fern 
brakes; and the marmot buries itself in 
the ground. A state of partial torpor takes 


[DOUBLET 


place in the case of the common bear, the 
badger, and the racoon. During this period 
we observe in the animals, first a decrease 
of animal heat; and secondly, that they 
breathe much more slowly and uninter¬ 
ruptedly than at other times. The diges¬ 
tion also is much diminished; the stomach 
and intestines are usually empty; and even 
if the animals are awakened, they do not 
manifest symptoms of appetite, except in 
heated rooms. Snails also have a period of 
inaction, but whilst this takes place during 
winter in cold count ries, it is during summer 

in warm.- Dormant, in Heraldry, the 

posture of a lion, or any other beast, lying 
along in a sleeping attitude, with the head 
on the fore paws, by which it is distin¬ 
guished from the couchant, where, though 
the beast be lying, yet he holds up his head. 

-Dormant (or sleeping) Partner, one 

who takes no share in the active business 
of a partnership, but is entitled to a pro¬ 
portion of the profits, and subject to a 
share of the losses. 

DOR'MER, or DOR'MENT (same deriv.), 
in Architecture, a window made in the roof 
of a building. 

DOR'MOUSE (same deriv.), in Zoology, a 
rodent animal, the Myoxus avellanarius of 
naturalists. During the rigour of winter 
dormice retire to their bed of moss or dry 
leaves, made in a hollow tree or under 
shrubs, and, rolling themselves up, fall into 
a torpid or lethargic state, which lasts, with 
little interruption, throughout that cheer¬ 
less season. Sometimes they experience a 
short revival, on a warm, sunny day, when 
they take a little food, and then relapse 
into their former condition. 

DOR'NOOK, a kind of figured linen, of 
stout fabric, manufactured for coarse table¬ 
cloths. It derives its name from a town in 
Scotland, where it was first made. 

DOR'SAL ( dorsum , the back: Lat.), an 
epithet for what belongs or relates to the 
back, as the dorsal fins of fishes. 

DORSIF'EROUS ( dorsum , the back; and 
fero, I bear : Lat.), in Botany, a term applied 
to ferns which bear the spore cases on the 
back of the frond. 

DOSE ( dosis, a giving: Gr.), in Chemistry, 
the quantity of any substance which is add¬ 
ed to any solution, &c., in order to produce 
any chemical effect. 

DOS'SIL or DOR'SEL ( dorsum, a back: 
Lat.), in Surgery, a pledget, or piece of lint 
made into a cylindrical form. 

DOT'TEREL, a small grallatorial bird, the 
Charadrius Morinellus. It inhabits the north¬ 
ern parts of Asia and Europe, and is mi¬ 
gratory, appearing on our moors and downs 
when going to, and again when returning 
from, the breeding-place. 

DOU'BLE ENTEN'DRE (Fr.), any phrase 
which has a covert as well as an obvious 
meaning. 

DOU'BLE STARS. [See Stars.] 

DOUB'LET (Fr.), among Lapidaries, a 
counterfeit stone composed of two pieces 
of crystal, with a colour between them, so 
that they have the same appearance as if 

the whole substance were coloured.- 

Amongst Opticians, a lens composed of two 
glasses. 






















tfIjc &>rtrnttfic h n't! 


doubling] 


DOUB'LING (doubler, to double: Fr.) a 
cape, is to sail round or pass beyond it, so 
that the point of land shall separate the ship 
from her former situation. 

DOUBLOO'N, a Spanish gold coin con¬ 
taining two pistoles, and of the value of 
16s. 2d. sterling. 

DOU'CINE (Fr.), in Architecture, a mould¬ 
ing, concave above and convex below, serv¬ 
ing as a cymatium to a delicate cornice. 

DOVE ( taube: Germ.), the popular name 
of birds of the genus Columba, of which 
there are four British species, namely: 
the ring dove (Columba palumbus), the larg¬ 
est of the pigeon tribe, so wild that it can¬ 
not be domesticated; the stock-dove, or 
common wild pigeon ( C. anas), which is 
migratory; the rock-dove ( C. livia), which 
builds in high cliffs near the sea; and the 
turtle-dove ( C. turtur), also migratory, a shy 
and retired bird, living in the woods. 

DOV'ETAIL, in Carpentry, the manner of 
fastening boards together by letting one 
piece into another, in the form of a dove’s 
tail spread, or a wedge reversed ; it is the 
strongest of all jointings. 

DOW'AGER (from dower), in Law, pro¬ 
perly a widow who enjoys a dower: the 
term is applied particularly to the widows 
of princes and noblemen. The widow of a 
king is a queen-dowager. 

DOW'ER. ( douaire: Fr.), in Law, the por¬ 
tion w hich a widow has of her husband’s 
lands and tenements,to enjoy during her life. 

DOWN ( dunn: Dan.), the softest and most 
delicate feathers of birds, particularly of 
geese, ducks, and swans, growing on the 
neck and part of the breast. The eider-duck 
yields the best kind.-Also the fine fea¬ 

thery substance by which seeds are con¬ 
veyed to a distance by the wind ; as in the 
dandelion and thistle. This is called pappus 
by botanists, and consists of the upper part 
of the calyx, the lower part adhering to the 
fruit. 

DOWNS (dime, a large open plain: Germ.), 
banks or elevations of sand, which the sea 
gathers and forms along its shore, and 
which serve it as a barrier. The term is 
also applied to tracts of naked land on which 
sheep usually graze. The North and South 
Downs are two ranges of chalk hills, of a 
smooth rounded outline, covered with 
short herbage in the south-east of England. 

.-The Downs is a celebrated roadstead 

on the coast of Kent, between the North 
and South Forelands, where both outward 
and homeward bound ships frequently make 
some stay, and squadrons of men-of-war 
rendezvous in time of war. It affords ex¬ 
cellent anchoi*age, and is defended by the 
castles of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich, as 
well as by the Goodwill Sands. 

DOW'RY (douaire: Fr.), the money or 
fortune which the wife brings her husband 

in marriage: it differs from dower. - 

Dowry is also used, in a monastic sense, 
for a sum of money which is given with a 
female upon entering her in some religious 
order. 

DOXOL'OGY (doxologia: from doxa, 
glory; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), in 
Christian worship, a hymn in praise of the 
Almighty. There is the greater and lesser I 


doxology : the angelic hymn, ‘Glory be to 
God on high,’ Sec., is the greater doxology ; 

‘ Glory be to the Father, and to the Son,’ 

&c,., the less. 

DRACHM', or DRACH'ME' (Gr.), from 
drassomai, I grasp with the hand; and, 
therefore, literally, a handful), an ancient 
Greek coin of the value of ninepence three- 
farthings. It weighed 66‘5 grains, and con¬ 
tained G5 - 4 grains pure silver. The drachma 

was originally, no doubt, a weight.- 

Drachm is also a weight containing sixty 
grains, or the eighth part of an ounce. It 
is often written dram. 

DRA'CO (drakOn, the dragon : Gr.), in As¬ 
tronomy, a constellation in the northern 
hemisphere. 

DRACON'ID^E, a family of scaly reptiles 
found in India, distinguishable from the 
true lizards by having a broad membrane 
at each side of the body, supported by their 
six first false ribs. Thus a kind of wing is 
formed, by which, whilst leaping from 
branch to branch, the animal is assisted in 
its flight as by a parachute. But it has no 
power of rising in the air like a bat. 

DRA'CO VO'LANS (a flying dragon : Lat.), 
a meteor in cold marshy countries, con¬ 
sisting of phosphuretted or carburetted 
hydrogen, which, under certain conditions, 
becomes luminous. 

DRACUN'CULUS (a dim. of draco, a dra¬ 
gon : Lat.), in Botany, a species of Arum, 
a plant with a long stalk, spotted like the 

belly of a serpent.- Dracuncuih, long 

slender worms, which breed in the muscu¬ 
lar parts of the arms and legs. They are j 
called Guinea worms, being common among ! 
the nativesof Guinea. [See Guinea Worm.] i 

DRAFT, in Commerce, a bill drawn by 
one person upon another, for a sum of 
money.-—-In Military affairs, the selecting 
or detaching of soldiers from an army or 
from a military post. Also, the act of 
drawing men to serve in the militia. 

DRAG'OMAN (targeman, he has interpre- ' 
ted: Arab.), an interpreter in the East. The 
term is applied particularly to one whose 
office is to interpret for the European 
ambassadors at the Ottoman court. 

DRAG'ON (drakbn: Gr.), a fabulous . 
winged serpent, frequently mentioned in j 
the romances of the middle ages. 

DRAG'ON-FLY, the popular name of 
many species of neuropterous insects as¬ 
signed by naturalists to several genera, Li- 
bellula, & c. Their elegant forms and bright . 
colours render them beautiful objects on a , 
sunny day. They deposit their eggs in water, 
and they continue in that element for the 
two years during which they remain in the 
larva and pupa state. According to Leuwen- 
lioek there are more than 12,000 lenses in 
each eye of a dragon-fly. 

DRAG'ONET, the Callionymus Lyra, an 
acanthopterygious fish wit h a slender body, ’ 
coloured with yellow, blue, and white, it 
inhabits the Mediterranean and the German 
Ocean. 

DRAGONNE'E (Fr.). in Heraldry, the term 
for a lion or other beast, whose upper half 
resembles a lion, &c„ but the lower the 
hinder part of a dragon. 

DRAG'ON’S-BLOOD, a resinous juice 




































ILttararg Cvrn^ury, 


obtained by incision from several plants 
found between the tropics, chiefly species 
of Calamus, plants belonging to the order 
of palms, and the Dragon’s-blood Tree, Dra¬ 
caena Draco, belonging to the order of Lili- 
acece. It is opaque, of a deep reddish- 
brown colour, and brittle; and has a smooth 
and shining conclioidal fracture. Its taste 
is slightly astringent; and when burnt, it 
emits an odour somewhat like benzoin. It 
is employed chiefly for tingeing spirit and 
turpentine varnishes, for preparing gold 
lacquer, and for staining marble, to which 
it gives a red tinge. It was formerly in 
high repute as a medicine, but at present is 
very little used. 

1)11 AG'ON'S HEAD, the Dracocephalum, a 
genus of plants with many species, most of 

them herbaceous.- Dragon’s Head and 

Tail, the name given by astrologers to the 
points of the ecliptic plane crossed by the 
moon in its orbits, to the former of which 
they ascribe good fortune, and to the latter, 
bad. 

DRAGOO'N ( dragon: Fr.), a kind of light 
horseman, first employed in France. They 
were to fight either in or out of the line, 
in a body or singly, chiefly on horseback, 
but, if necessary, on foot also; but experi¬ 
ence proving that they did not answer the 
end designed, they ceased to be used in 
infantry service, and now form a useful 
kind of cavalry, mounted on horses too 
heavy for the hussars and too light for the 
cuirassiers. 

DRAM'A (literally a deed : Gr.), the name 
of all compositions adapted for recitation 
and action on the stage, whether tragedy, 
comedy, opera, or farce, in which are dis¬ 
played, for instruction and amusement, 
those passions, feelings, errors, and virtues 
of the human race, which are found in real 
life. The elements of the dramatic art 
are observed among all nations, and every 
people which has made progress in civiliza¬ 
tion has, at the same time, shown some taste 
for it. It is impossible to ascertain the 
exact period when theatrical amusements 
were first introduced-into England ; but 
, they are mentioned as having existed very 
early by William Fitz-Stephen, a monk of 
Canterbury, in his Descrijrtio nobilissimee 
civitatis Lundonce, written soon after the 
year 1170: and her success lias been such, 
that she has produced the dramatic genius 
who has surpassed all ancient and modern 
writers in universality of conception and 
knowledge of human nature—our unrivalled 
Shakspere. In the beginning of the mid- 
j die ages, when everything noble was buried 
under the deluge of barbarism, the dramatic 
I art was lost, or existed only among the 
lower classes of the people, in plays impro¬ 
vised at certain festivals—for instance, at 
the carnival. These were attacked as hea¬ 
thenish, immoral, and indecent exhibitions; 
but the favour which they enjoyed among 
the people, and the spirit of the times, in¬ 
duced the clergy to encourage theatrical ex¬ 
hibitions founded on subjects from sacred 
history. These Mysteries, as they were at- 
that time denominated, were followed by a 
species of the drama, styled Moralities, in 
which the senses, passions, affections, vir¬ 


[dream 


tues, and vices were personified, and con¬ 
stituted the characters. As the moralities 
were contrived to entertain as well as in¬ 
struct, some dawnings of poetry were soon 
exhibited, with occasional attempts at wit 
and humour, which naturally introduced 
comedy. 

DRA'MATIS PEIISO'N/E (the characters 
in the play: Lat.), the characters repre¬ 
sented in a drama. 

DRA'PERY ( draperie: Fr.), in Sculpture 
and Painting, the representation of the 
clothing of human figures ; also hangings, 
tapestry, and curtains. 

DRAS'TICS ( drastikos, that which acts 
promptly: Gr.), medicines which operate 
speedily and effectually. 

DRAUGHT ( dragon , to draw : Sax.), in 
Architecture, the delineation of any in¬ 
tended building, &c.-In Navigation, the 

depth of water necessary to float a vessel, 
or the depth to which a ship sinks when 
laden ; as, a ship of ten feet draught.—— 
Draughts, an amusing game played by 
two persons with twelve men on each side, 
on a chequered board like the chess-board. 

-Draught Hooks, the iron hooks fixed 

on the cheeks of a cannon carriage, used in 
drawing the gun backwards and forwards. 

DRAWBACK, in Commerce, a term used 
to signify the remitting or paying back of 
the duties previously paid on a commodity, 
on its being exported, so that it may be 
sold in a foreign market on the same terms 
as if it had not been taxed at all. By this 
expedient, merchants are enabled to export 
commodities loaded at home with heavy 
duties, and to sell them abroad on the same 
terms as those brought from countries 

where they are not taxed.-In a popular 

sense, dro.wbaclc signifies any loss of advan¬ 
tage or deduction from profit. 

DRAW'ER, and DRAW'EE (dragon, to 
draw : Sax.), in Commerce, the drawer is he 
who draws a bill of exchange or an order 
for the payment of money ; and the drawee, 
the person on whom it is drawn. 

DRAWING (same deriv.), the art of re¬ 
presenting the appearances of objects upon 
a flat surface, so as to exhibit their form 
and shadow, situation, distance, &c. [See 
Painting, Perspective, &c.] 

DREAM ( traum : Germ.), a series of men¬ 
tal impressions occurring to a sleeping per¬ 
son, and which, therefore, are not under 
the command of reason. Dreams have been 
referred to various causes: among others, 
to direct impressions on the organs of sense 
during sleep ; to the absence of a power to 
test the inaccurate conclusions drawn from 
one set of impressionsby other impressions; 
to a disordered , state of the digestive or¬ 
gans ; to a less restrained action of the 
mental faculties ; to the suspension of voli¬ 
tion while the powers of sensation continue, 
&c. In health there is a less tendency to 
dream than in disease ; in the earlier than 
in the later periods of life: and the very 
act of dreaming show's that the brain is not 
enjoying a complete state of rest. They 
have been frequently ascribed by the super¬ 
stitious to supernatural agency, especially 
when there has been any coincidence be¬ 
tween a dream and an external event. 
































drudging] J^rienttfic antf 221 

DREDG'ING ( dragan , to drag : Sax.), the 
process of catching oysters, hy the remov¬ 
ing or dragging mud with dredges, &c.- 

Diiedging-machine, an engine used to take 
up mud or gravel from the bottom of rivers, 
docks, &c. 

DRESSINGS ( dresser, to trim up : Fr.), in 
Architecture, mouldings round doors, win¬ 
dows, and the like. 

DRIFT, a heap of any matter driven to¬ 
gether; as, a drift of snow or sand.- 

Drtft, in Mining, a passage cut under the 
earth, betwixt shaft and shaft, or turn and 

turn.-In Geology, a superficial deposit of 

| fragments of rock frequently brought from 
a considerable distance, along with mud, 
sand, and clay.—D rift, in Navigation, 
the angle which the line of a ship’s motion 
makes with the nearest meridian, when she 
drives with her side to the waves and is 

not governed by the helm. - Drift-sail, 

a sail used under water, veered out right 
! ahead by sheets, as other sails are. It serves 
to keep the ship’s head right upon the sea 
in a storm, and to hinder her driving too 

fast in a current.-A boat is also said to 

drift, or to go adrift, when it floats on the 
water without any one to row or steer it. 

DRILL ( drillen, to turn in a circle : Ger.), 
in Mechanics, a small instrument for mak¬ 
ing such holes as punches will not con¬ 
veniently produce. Drills are of various 
sizes, and are used by smiths, turners, and 

machinists.-A dog-like baboon, the Cy- 

noceplialus leucophceus of naturalists. It is 
a native of Guinea.-To Drill, in a mili¬ 

tary sense, is to teach and train recruits to 
their duty by frequent exercise- Drill¬ 

ing, in Husbandry, a mode of putting seed 
into the ground by a machine called a drill 
plough, which makes channels in the ground 
and lets the seed into them, so that it 
comes up in rows, in which the plants are 
; at regular distances from each other. 

DROM'EDARY ( dromedarius : Lat.; from 
dramas: Gr.) [See Camel.] 

DRONE, the male of the honey-bee. It is 
larger than the working bee v but less than 
the queen bee. The drones make no honey : 
and, after living a few weeks, they are 
killed or driven from the hive. 

DROP ( tropfen: Germ.), a small portion 
of any fluid in a spherical form ; as, a drop 
of water, a drop of laudanum, &c In Phar¬ 
macy, 60 drops are equal to the quantity 

filling a teaspoon.-The part of a gallows 

which sustains a criminal before he is 
executed, and which suddenly drops after 

the rope is attached to his neck.-To drop 

astern, in seamen’s language, is to slacken 
the velocity of avessel to let another pass her. 

DROP'SY ( hydrops: Lat.; from It udor, 
water : Gr.), in Medicine, an unnatural col¬ 
lection of watery humour, either through¬ 
out the whole body or in some part of it ; 
as the cavity of the abdomen. It occurs 
most frequently in persons who are debili¬ 
tated by disease. The dropsy takes diffe¬ 
rent names, according to the part affected : 
as, Ascites, or dropsy of the abdomen ; Hy¬ 
drocephalus, dropsy of the brain or water in 
the head, &c. 

DROS'ERA ( droseros: Gr.), in Botany, a 
genus of herbaceous bog plants, nat. ord. 

Droseracece. They are of small size, and are 
found in various parts of the world, two 
species being natives of Britain. The leaves 
are furnished with glandulous hairs, which 
discharge a viscid juice. A drop of this is 
to be seen at the end of each hair during 
the hottest day. The hairs are irritable, 
and contract when touched. 

DROSOM'ETER ( drosos, dew ; and metron, 
a measure : Gr.), an instrument for ascer¬ 
taining the quantity of dew which falls. It 
consists of a balance, one end of which is 
furnished with a plate to receive the dew, 
the other containing a weight protected 
from it. 

DROWN'ING (drunenian, to drown : Sax.). 
Death by drowning ensues from respiration 
having been stopped, and not from any water 
having got into the lungs, this being pre- 
vented by the glottis. If a man, unable to 
swim, falls into the water, he instinctively 
makes every exertion to escape from it ; for 
a time he struggles, but at last becomes ex¬ 
hausted, and sinks. His agitation leads him 
to neglect obvious means of safety. Th6 
body, when the lungs are properly filled with 
air, is of less specific gravity than the water; 
and would, if the lungs were not exhausted 
by his struggles, easily float. Hence, if he 
were to lie quietly on his back, his mouth 
would be above water. The directions 
given by the London Humane Society for 
the treatment of persons in a state of, 
suspended animation ought to be kept in 3 
every house, and known by every indi¬ 
vidual ; and in all cases medical assistance 
should be immediately sent for. In the 
meantime, avoid all rough usage, and at¬ 
tend to the following cautions: never hold 
the body up by the feet; nor roll‘it on 
casks ; nor rub it with salts or spirits ; nor 
inject tobacco-smoke or infusion of tobacco ; 
but convey it carefully, with the head and 
shoulders supported in a raised position, to 
the nearest house : strip it and rub it dry ; 
then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it 
in a warm bed, in a warm chamber ; put 
bladders or bottles of hot water, or heated 
bricks, to the pit of the stomach and the 
soles of the feet, and foment the body with 
hot flannels ; but if possible immerse it in a 
warm bath, as hot as the hand can bear 
without pain, as this is preferable to the 
other means of restoring warmth. Do not, 
however, suspend the use of the other 
means at the same time. These observa¬ 
tions are recommended in the absence of a 
medical practitioner. The treatment re¬ 
commended by the society is to be perse¬ 
vered in three or four hours ; for it is a very 
erroneous opinion, that persons are irre¬ 
coverable because life does not soon make 
its appearance : though it must be con¬ 
fessed that, after an immersion of four or 
five minutes, the chances of recovery are 
very remote. 

DRUG ( dreg: Sax.), a general name for 
substances used in medicine, sold and fre¬ 
quently compounded by the druggists. It 

is also applied to dyeing materials.-In 

Commerce, any article lying on hand, or 
become unsaleable, is called a drug. 

DRUG'GET (same deriv , because light, as 
if dried up), a coarse woollen fabric, used 











































225 Etterarj) Crcagurg. [duct 


for covering carpets, and sometimes as an 
article of clothing by females of the poorer 
classes. 

DRU'IDS ( Druides: Lat.), the priests of 
the ancient Britons and Gauls. Ciesar is 
the ilrst writer who tells us of the Druids. 
They presided over religious observances 
and sacrifices, taught youth, decided con¬ 
troversies, chose a president by election, 
held a great meeting once a year, made 
great osier images, in which human beings 
were burned as sacrifices, had traditions 
about astronomy, the power of the gods, and 
the nature of tilings. The younger Pliny 
added to this information that the mistle¬ 
toe was a sacred plant with them, and that, 
clad in white robes, they cut it with a golden 
sickle, performing certain ceremonies. The 
oak was their sacred tree, and they lived 
amongst groves of it. Hence he derives 
Druid from drus, the Greek for an oak. 
Tacitus, in a famous passage, has described 
the invasion of Anglesea by Suetonius, 
when the Roman soldiers were met by 
Druids, who, with hands extended upwards, 
uttered awful prayers, and called down the 
vengeance of the gods. When the island 
was conquered, the sacred groves were hewn 
down. The connection of the Druids with 
altars and circles of stones, like Stonehenge, 
rests on nothing historical, for no ancient 
book contains anything to bring the two 
together. Notwithstanding the great num¬ 
ber of volumes written about the Druids, 
very little is known about them beyond 
! what is mentioned above, and in this age of 
investigation there are some who think 
that the whole subject is mythical, so ob¬ 
scure and indefinite is the information 
transmitted to us. 

DR.UM ( trammel; Germ.), a military musi¬ 
cal instrument in the form of a cylinder, 
hollow within and covered at the ends 
with vellum, which is stretched or slack¬ 
ened at pleasux-e by means of small cords 
and sliding knots. It is beat upon with 
sticks. Drums are sometimes made of 
brass, but commonly of wood. Kettle¬ 
drums are hollow hemispheres, and are 
used in pairs; one of them being 
tuned to the key note, and the other to 
the fifth of the key. There are several 
beats of the drum, as the Cliamade, Reveille, 

Retreat, &c.- Drum, in Architectui-e, the 

upper part of a cupola, usually below the 
dome; also the base of the Corinthian 

capital.- Drum of the Ear, the hollow 

part of the ear, behind the membrane of 
the tympanum; which latter is a tense 
membrane closing the external passage 
of the ear, and receiving the vibrations 
of the air. 

DRUM'MOND’S LTGHT, the name given 
to the light produced by directing a sti-eam 
of oxygen gas, passing through the flame of 
alcohol, upon a small ball of quick lime. It 
derives its name from its inventor. 

DRTTPE ( drupa, an over ripe olive : Lat), 
in Botany, a succulent fruit, such as the 
cherry, plum, apricot, and date. The hard 
endocarp, forming the stone, and contain¬ 
ing a single seed or kernel, is surrounded by 
the mesocarp, which is usually pulpy, but in 
the almond is of a rough texture. The 


epicarp forms the skin of the fruit. Dru¬ 
paceous is an epithet applied to plants bear¬ 
ing drupes. 

DRUSE, in Mining, a cavity in a rock, 
having its interior surface studded with 
crystals or filled with water. 

DRY'ADS ( Druas, from drus, an oak : 
Gr.), in the Heathen Mythology, deities or 
nymphs, which the ancients believed to 
inhabit groves and woods. They differed 
from the Hamadryads, these latter being 
attached to some particular tree with 
which they were born, and with which they 
died; whereas the Dryads were goddesses 
of ti-ees and woods in general. 

DRY-ROT, a minute fungus which grows 
in timber, decomposes its fibres, and pro- 
duces rapid decay. Dry-rot is so called by 
architects in contradistinction only to the 
more usual circumstances of decay to which 
wood is liable. Many methods have been 
pi - oposed for rendering wood, and the va¬ 
rious substances consisting of woody fibre, 
incapable of being affected by dry-rot: 
the most effectual is the saturating them 
with a solution of corrosive sublimate. 

DU'AL ( dualis, that contains two: Lat.), 
a name given by Grammarians to a parti¬ 
cular form of the nouns, to indicate that 
two of the things designated are referred 
to, the plural form referring to more than 
two. The Greek language has a dual number. 

DU'ALISM (same deriv.), the philosophi¬ 
cal exposition of the nature of things by 
the adoption of two dissimilar primitive 
principles, not derived from each other. It 
is the most sti-iking feature in all the early 
Greek cosmogonies, and that which chiefly 
distinguishes them from the Oriental. 
Among the ancients, the most eminent of 
those who maintained it were the Pytha¬ 
goreans, and, among the moderns the 
followers of Descartes. Those holding 
matter and spirit as distinct, in opposition 
to the materialists, are, in some sense, 

dualists. -In Theology, the Manicluean 

doctrine of two principles, the good and the 
evil. Also, the high Calvinistic, which holds 
that all mankind are divided, by the arbi¬ 
trary deci - ee of God, into two classes, the 
elect and reprobate. 

DUC'AT ( ducato: Ital .—because coined by 
dukes), a gold coin, coined in Austria, Den¬ 
mark, Hamburg, Hanover, Prussia, Russia, 
and Sweden. The values differ in the dif¬ 
ferent states, ranging from 7s. 6d. to 9s. 5 d. 

DU'CES TE'CUM (bring with thee : Lat.), 
in Law, a clause in a subpoena, commanding 
a person to bring with him to the trial 
of an action, books and papers which the 
party who issues the subpoena may think 
material to his purpose. 

DUCK'WEED or DUCK’S'-MEAT, the 
popular name of some plants growing in 
ditches and stagnant waters, and serving as 
food for ducks and geese. There are four 
species indigenous to Britain. They belong 
to the genus Lemna, nat. ord. Pistiacece. 

DUCT ( ductus , a leading: Lat.), in Medi¬ 
cine, any vessel or tube in the animal body 
by which the blood, chyle, lymph, &c„ are 
carried from one part to another. Also, the 
vessels of plants in which the sap is con¬ 
veyed. 



















CFjc J^ctenttffc antt 


226 


ductility] 


DUCTILTTY ( ductilis, capable of being 
drawn : Lat.), that property of metals which 
renders them capable of being extended 
by hammering, or of being drawn into wire 
without breaking. In general, ductility de¬ 
pends, to a greater or less extent, on tem¬ 
perature. Metals which, like zinc, are very 
ductile at one temperature, may be quite 
the contrary at another. The ductility of 
gold is very great: it may be reduced to a 
leaf only the 282,000th of an inch in thick¬ 
ness, and a particle of gold not exceeding 
, the 500,000th of a grain in weight can be 
made distinctly visible to the naked eye. 
By drawing a compound wire, consisting of 
platinum covered externally with silver, 
and afterwards dissolving olf the silver, 
Dr. Wollaston obtained a platinum wire 
only the 30,000th of an inch in diameter. 
When the diameter was only the 18,000th 
of an inch, it supported a weight of a grain 
and one-third. 

DU'EL ( duellum , a contest between two : 
Lat.), originally a combat between two 
persons, authorized by the law, for the dis¬ 
covery of the truth, but now a premeditated 
battle between two persons on some private 
quarrel, in which, if death ensue, both the 
principal and the seconds are guilty of 
murder. 

DUEN'NA, the chief lady-in-waiting to 
the Queen of Spain. Also, an elderly wo¬ 
man, holding a middle rank between a 
governess and a companion, appointed to 
take charge of the younger ladies in Span¬ 
ish families. 

DUET, or DUET'TO (Ital.; from duo, 
two : Lat.), in Music, a song or piece for 
two performers. 

DU'GONG, a cetaceous mammal, allied to 
the Manatee, and living in the Indian ocean, 
where it feeds on sea-weed. It is the Hali- 
core dugong of naturalists. 

DUKE (.dux, a leader: Lat.), a sovereign 
prince in Germany, and the highest title of 
! honour in England. His consort is called a 

j duchess. -In England, among the Saxons, 

I the commanders of armies, &c., were called 
dukes (duces), without any addition, till 
Edward III. made his son, the Black Prince, 
duke of Cornwall, after whom other dukes 
were made in the same manner, the title 
descending to their posterity. Duke, at 
present, is a mere title of dignity, without 
giving any domain, territory, or jurisdic¬ 
tion over the place from whence it is taken. 

DULCAMA'RA (dulcis, sweet; and ama- 
rus, bitter: Lat.), the common woody night¬ 
shade. [See Bitter-sweet.] 

DUL'CIMER (dulcis, sweet: Lat.), a mu¬ 
sical instrument, used by the Jews, but the 
nature of which is not known. Also, in 
more modern times, an instrument played 
by striking brass wires with small sticks. 

DULOC'RACY (doulokratia: from d'oulos, 
a slave ; and kratos, power: Gr.), a govern¬ 
ment in which slaves and the lowest order 
of the people have the power. 

DULSE, the common name of an edible 
sea-weed, the Rhodymenia palmata of bota¬ 
nists. 

DUMB'NESS (stumm, dumb: Germ.). The 
most general cause of this is the want 
of the sense of hearing. Sometimes, how¬ 


ever, it arises from injury to the lin¬ 
gual nerves, or from general or local de¬ 
bility. The loss of hearing, though it hap¬ 
pen in early life, after speech has once been 
attained, does not produce dumbness. Even 
the loss of the tongue does not altogether 
incapacitate from speaking. Great atten¬ 
tion has been bestowed latterly on methods 
of instructing the dumb in the various 
arts and sciences, and even in languages, 
with great success; and such persons are 
now able not only to converse with facility 
by signs, but to devote themselves, as an 
amusement or means of support, to litera¬ 
ture and science. 

DUNES (Ang. Sax.), low hills of movable 
sand, very common in different parts of 
Great Britain, Ireland, and the Continent. 

-Fine sand, blown from the sea, accumu- | 

lates when it meets with rocks, stumps of 
trees, or other obstacles. These hillocks, i 
by the continual action of the same cause, [ 
are urged on, and their inroads often pro¬ 
duce the most destructive effects. One de¬ 
partment of France, the Landes, has been 
nearly overwhelmed by them. During vio¬ 
lent hurricanes, their progress is so rapid, 
that they almost instantaneously cover en¬ 
tire villages, fields, and gardens. The best 
barriers against them are such trees and 
shrubs as are known to thrive in a barren 
soil: these both fix them and prevent any 
further encroachment of the sand. 

DUN'NAGE, any loose or light material, 
such as wool, used as a bed in the stowage 
of heavy articles. 

DUODE'CIMALS (diiodecimus, the twelfth: 
Lat.), in Arithmetic, numbers proceeding 
from multiplications by twelve, in the same 
way as decimals proceed from multiplica¬ 
tions by ten.-Also, a rule in Arithmetic, 

by which the contents of any surface or 
solid are found, by multiplying together 
its linear dimensions, expressed in feet, 
inches, and lines. It is much used by arti¬ 
ficers, and is called likewise cross-mulii~ 
plication. 

DUODE'CIMO (duodecim, twelve: Lat.), 
abbreviated to 12mo, having or consisting 
of twelve leaves to a sheet; or a book in 
which a sheet is folded six times, so as to 
have twenty-four pages. 

DUODE'NUM (duodeni, twelve each : Lat.), 
in Anatomy, the first of the small intes¬ 
tines in vertebrate animals, where the bile 
and the pancreatic juice are mixed with 
chyme. It received this name from the 
older anatomists, on account of their hav 
ing remarked it to be, in some animals, of 
a length equal to about the breadth of 
twelve fingers: but this measure is generally 
inapplicable. 

DU'PION (doppio, double: Ital.), a double 
cocoon, formed by two or more silk- ‘j 
worms. 

DU'PLE (duplus, double: Lat.), among 
mathematicians, an epithet applied to a 
ratio where the antecedent term is double 
the consequent: thus, the ratio of 8 to 4 

is a duple ratio.- Subduple Ratio is 

just the reverse of the former, or as 1 to 2. 
Such is 4 to 8, or 6 to 12. 

DU'PLICATE (duplico, I double : Lat.), a 
copy or transcript- Duplicate Propor- 























227_ Ettcvan) 

tiox, or Ratio, is the proportion of the 
square of one number to the square of an¬ 
other. 

DUTLICATURE (same deriv.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the fold of a membrane of a vessel. 

DU'RA MA'TER (the hard mother : Lat.), 
in Anatomy, the membrane between the 
bones of the skull and the brain, and also 
dividing the latter into parts. The mem¬ 
branes of the brain were called matres, or 
;| mothers, by the older anatomists, because 
they supposed the other membranes to be 
derived from them. 

DURAN'TE (Lat.), in Law, during: as 
« durante bene placito, during pleasure; du¬ 
rante minors estate, during minority; du¬ 
rante vita, during life. 

DUR'BAR ( Ind .), a court held by the 
; governor-general, or by the native princes 
of India, on some state occasion. 

DURESS' (durities, harshness: Lat.), in 
Law, restraint or compulsion; as where 
ii a person is wrongfully imprisoned, or de- 
i prived of his liberty contrary to law ; or is 
v threatened to be killed, wounded, or beaten, 

1 till he executes a deed or signs a writing 
J intended to bind him. Any bond, deed, 
it or other obligation, obtained under du- 
j ress, will be void in law; and in an action 
i brought on the execution of any such deed, 

, the party may plead that it was obtained 
by duress. 

i DUTCH LIQ'UID (or chloride of liydro- 
■j carbon), a name for the mixture of chlorine 
and olefiant gas, which combine in equal 
r measures even in the dark. It is a heavy 
j oily liquid, with a sweetish taste. 

DU'TY (dd, owed : Fr.), in Commerce, any 
' tax or impost; a sum of money required by 
government to be paid on the importation, 

’ exportation, or consumption of goods. 

, DUUM'VIRI (duo, two; and viri, men: 

. Lat), in Roman Antiquity, a general appel- 
1 lation given to magistrates, commissioners, 

• and officers, where two were joined toge¬ 
ther in the same function. The office, dig¬ 
nity, or government of two men thus 

; associated, was called a duumvirate.- —The 
’ Duumviri capitales were the judges in cri- 
' l minal causes. From their sentence it was 
lawful to appeal to the people, who alone 
had the power of condemning a citizen to 
1 death. The Duumviri juri dicundo were the 
highest magistrates in municipal towns. 
The Duumviri pcrduellionis were appointed 
J to try those accused of perduellio, or trea¬ 
son. The Duumviri municipales were two 
. magistrates in some cities of the empire, 
answering to the consuls at Rome; they 
1 ; were chosen out of the body of the decu- 

■ riones; their office usually lasted five years, 
upon which account they were frequently 

■ termed quinquennales magistratus. The 
Duumviri navales were the commissaries of 
the fleet: the duty of their office consisted 

’ in issuing orders for the fitting of ships, 

• and giving their commissions to the marine 
' officers, &c. The Duumviri sacri were ap- 
1 pointed for the purpose of building a temple 
’ when it was determined to erect one. The 

• Duumviri sacrorum had the charge of the 
Sibylline books, afterwards committed to 

J the Decemviri. The Duumviri viis extra 

■ urbem purgandis were officers who had 


Erea£un>. [dyeing 


charge of the streets outside the gates of 
Rome, &c. 

DWARF (dweoph: Sax.), in general, an 
appellation given to things greatly inferior 
in size to that which is usual in their seve¬ 
ral kinds: thus, there are dwarfs of the 
human species, dwarf trees, &c. The Ro¬ 
mans were so passionately fond of dwarfs, 
that they often used artificial methods to 
prevent the growth of boys designed for 
dwarfs, by enclosing them in boxes, or by 
the use of tight bandages. 

DWARF'ING TREES. ‘ The art of dwarf¬ 
ing trees’ (saysMr.Fortune), ‘ascommonly 
practised both in China and Japan, is, in 
reality, very simple. It is based upon one 
of the commonest principles of vegetable 
physiology. Anything which has a ten¬ 
dency to check or retard the flow of the sap 
in trees also prevents, to a certain extent, 
the formation of wood and leaves. This 
may be done by grafting, by confining the 
roots in a small space, by withholding 
water, by binding the branches, and in a 
hundred other ways, which all proceed upon 
the same principle. Stunted varieties are 
generally chosen, particularly if they have 
the side branches opposite or regular, for 
much depends upon this; a one-sided dwarf 
tree is of no value in the eyes of the Chinese 
or Japanese. The main stem is thus in most 
cases twisted in a zigzag form, which pro¬ 
cess checks the flow of the sap and at the 
same time encourages the production of 
side branches at those parts of the stem 
where they are most desired. The pots in 
which they are planted are narrow and 
shallow, so that they hold but a small quan¬ 
tity of soil compared with the wants of the 
plants, and no more watei is given than is 
actually necessary to keep them alive. 
When new branches are In the act of for¬ 
mation they are tied down and twisted in 
various ways ; the points of the leaders and 
strong growing ones are generally nipped 
off, and every means are taken to discourage 
the production of young shoots possessing 
any degree of vigour. Nature generally 
struggles against this treatmeutfora while, 
until her powers seem to be in a great mea¬ 
sure exhausted, when she quietly yields to 
the power of Art. When plants from any 
cause become stunted or unhealthy, they 
almost invariably produce flowers and fruit. 
A bamboo, a fir, and a plum-tree, the last in 
full blossom, have been seen growing and 
thriving in a box only one inch square by 
three inches high.’ 

DY'EING (deagan, to colour: Sax.), the 
art of giving a lasting colour to silks, 
cloths, and other substances, by which 
their beauty is much improved, and their 
value enhanced. Dyeing, properly so called, 
is a chemical process; and, in order that 
it may succeed, it is necessary that the 
colouring matters should bo dissolved in 
some fluid, and that their attraction to 
that fluid should be less than to the stuff. 
It is essential in dyeing to ascertain the 
affinities of the colouring substance : first, 
to the solvents; secondly, to those sub¬ 
stances which modify its colour, increase 
its brilliancy, and strengthen its union 
with the stuff; thirdly, to the different 
























dynameter] 


djc J^rtciittfic autf 


228 


agents which may change the colour, and 
principally to air and light. In dyeing, the 
term mordant is applied to those matters 
which serve as intermedia between the 
colouring particles and the stuff to be dyed, 
either for the purpose of facilitating or of 
modifying their combination: by their 
means, also, colours are varied, brightened, 
and rendered more durable. The principal 
substances employed as mordants are alu¬ 
minous salts, lime, metallic oxides, some 
astringent principles, and animal matters. 
Sometimes the mordant is printed on the 
cloth, and then, the whole cloth being 
dipped in the colouring matter and washed, 
the colour will be removed, except where 
the mordant has been placed. Sometimes 
the mordant is intended to resist the co¬ 
lour, in which case the colour will be re¬ 
moved in the washing wherever the mor¬ 
dant has touched, and there will be a white 
pattern on a coloured ground. Sometimes 
the mordant and pattern are printed on to¬ 
gether, and rendered permanent by expos¬ 
ing the goods to steam. Sometimes the 
substance put on by the block destroys the 
colour after the cloth has been dyed uni¬ 
formly throughout. The three simple co¬ 
lours used in dyeing are red, yellow, and 
blue; all other colours are compounded of 
these. The ancient Egyptians practised 
the art of dyeing with some degree of sci¬ 
entific precision; but the Tyrians were 
those who made it the staple of their com¬ 
merce ; and there is little doubt that purple, 
the symbol of royal and sacerdotal dignity, 
was a colour discovered in Tyre, and instru¬ 
mental in raising that city to opulence and 
grandeur. The moderns have obtained from 
the New World several dye-drugs unknown 
to the ancients, such as cochineal, Brazil 
wood, logwood, annotto, &c.; but the vast 
superiority of our dyes over those of for¬ 
mer times must be ascribed principally to 
the employment of pure alum and solution 
of tin as mordants—substances which give 
to our common dye-stuffs remarkable depth, 
durability, and lustre. One of the most im¬ 
portant improvements in the art of dyeing 
is the recent discovery of the beautiful 
aniline colours obtained from coal tar. 

DYNAM'ETER (dunamis, force ; and ma¬ 
tron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
determining the magnifying power of tele¬ 
scopes. 

DYNAM'ICS (dunamikos, powerful: Gr.), 
the doctrine of power; but, as this is known 
to us only by its effects, that is, by the mo¬ 
tion it produces on the body upon which it 
acts, and it is measured by that motion, 
dynamics may be defined to be ‘ the science 
which treats of the motion of bodies.’ It 
is often restricted to the motion of those 
which are at liberty to obey the impulse 
communicated to them ; in which case, the 
motion of a stone falling freely to the 
ground, or of a heavenly body moving in 
its orbit, would belong to dynamics; but 
the motion of a body moving along an in¬ 
clined plane, to mechanics. Dynamics, how¬ 
ever, and statics, are often, and not incor¬ 
rectly, considered as branches of the general 
science of mechanics. A knowledge of the 
principles of dynamics is due to the mo¬ 


derns, having had its commencement m the 
researches of Galileo: before his time, the 
forces which act on bodies were examined 
only in the cases in which equilibrium is 
produced. 

DYNAMOM'ETER ( dunamis , force ; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring and recording the energy ex¬ 
erted by an effort. 

DY'NASTY ( dunasteia, from dunastes, a 
chieftain : Gr.), a race or series of princes 
who have reigned successively in any king¬ 
dom ; as the dynasties of Egypt and Persia. 

DYS'CRASY ( duslcrasia: from dus, diffi¬ 
cult ; and krasis, a blending : Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, an ill habit or vitiated state of the 
humours. 

DYS'ENTERY ( dusenteria: from dus, 
difficult; and enteron, an intestine: Gr.), in 
Medicine, a disease in which blood, mucus, 
and other morbid matter, are evacuated, 
accompanied with griping of the bowels, &c. 

DYS'ODILE ( dusodes, stinking: Gr.), a 
species of coal of a greenish or yellowish 
grey colour, in masses composed of thin 
layers. Its odour when burning is very 
foetid. 

DYS'OREXY (dus, bad; and orexis, a 
yearning after anything: Gr.), in Medicine, 
a bad or depraved appetite. 

DYSPEP'SI A, or DYSPEP'SY (dus, bad ; 
and pepsis, digestion: Gr.), in Medicine, 
difficulty of digestion. Hence those who 
are afflicted with indigestion are termed 
dyspeptic persons. The disorder of the 
digestive function is the most frequent 
and prevailing of the ailments that afflict 
man in the civilized state; all classes and 
all ages suffer from its attacks. The symp¬ 
toms of dyspepsia are very different in dif¬ 
ferent circumstances. The epicure loses 
his relish for the most refined dishes: be¬ 
comes bloated, heavy, and probably apo¬ 
plectic. The fashionable lady suffers from 
headaches, flatulence, occasional giddiness, 
and dimness of sight; she becomes indolent, 
whimsical, and full of fancies ; or, as the old 
physicians would say, she has the vapours. 
The studious man finds his mind blunted, 
loses his appetite or does not enjoy his 
meals; sleeps badly, dreams much, and be¬ 
comes capricious and dissatisfied with him¬ 
self and everybody else : he is a hypochon¬ 
driac. The humbler classes drink gin or 
rum for a stimulant, which soon becomes a 
necessity ; and as its effect diminishes, the 
dose is increased, until at last they become 
tipplers, or perhaps confirmed drunkards. 
The nature of the case must, in a great 
degree, suggest the remedy. It is one of 
the most painful diseases; but, with a 
little energy and perseverance, it is almost 
certain to be removed. When the man 
advanced in years does not find the ener¬ 
getic appetite of his youth, when the stu¬ 
dious man does not possess the appetite 
derived from active employment, each 
merely discovers what natureherself points 
out — that he does not require so large a m 
supply of food as he might in other circum¬ 
stances ; and if, by provocatives, he forces 
himself to eat what nature tells him he is 
unable to digest, he must take the con¬ 
sequences. Some kinds of food are natu- 





















229 


Htterarp Cmtfttrg. 


[ear 


rally hard to be digested: some kinds are 
indigestible in certain circumstances, and 
by certain constitutions ; but in the great 
majority of cases the evil arises, not so 
much from the quality as the quantity of 
what is taken. As to the use of bitters, or 
those other means of improving a weak 
stomach, their effect is but temporary; in 
most cases, the remedy will ultimately lose 
its effect, and in many it will produce evils 
as bad as, or worse than, those it is intended 
to remove. Abstinence is the great cure 
for dyspepsia; moderation and healthful 
exercise are its preventives. 

DYSPHA'GIA (dws, difficult; and phago, 


I eat: Gr.), in Medicine, a difficulty of 
swallowing, which arises from paralysis, 
enlarged tonsils, &c. 

DYS'PHONY (dus, difficult; and phone, a 
voice: Gr.), in Medicine, a difficulty of 
speaking, occasioned by imperfection in 
the organs of speech. 

DYSPNCE'A (dus, difficult; and pneo, I 
breathe: Gr.), in Medicine, a difficulty of 
breathing. 

DYS'UllY ( dusouria: from dus, difficult; 
and ouron, urine: Gr.), in Medicine, diffi¬ 
culty of voiding the urine, attended with 
pain and a sensation of heat. 


E 


E, the fifth letter in the Hebrew alphabet, 
and languages derived from it, is the second 
vowel, and has different pronunciations 
in most languages. The French have their 
e open, e masculine, and e feminine or mute. 
In English the letter has two sounds : long, 
as in here, mere, me; and short, as in wet, 
kept, &c. As a final letter it is generally 
quiescent; but it serves to lengthen the 
sound of the preceding vowel, as in mane, 
cane, thine, which without the final e would 
be pronounced man, can, thin. In many 
other words the final e is silent, as in exa¬ 
mine, definite, &c. In sea charts, E. stands 
for east: thus, E. by N. East by North ; E. 
by S. East by South. As an abbreviation, it 
is put for engineers, as R.E. Royal Engineers ; 
for empire, as II.R.E. Holy Roman Empire ; 
for eminence and excellency, as H.E. His 
Eminence (a title of cardinals), or His Ex¬ 
cellency, a title given to governors of colo¬ 
nies and to ambassadors ; for exempli, as 
e.g. exempli gratia (for instance), &c. In 
Music, it is the third note or degree of the 
diatonic scale, corresponding with mi of 
the French and Italians. As a numeral, E 
stands for 250. 

E'AGLE ( aigle: Fr.), the name of several 
rapacious birds of the family Falconidee. The 
largest is the imperial eagle (Thrasaetus 
liarpyia), a native of Mexico, which measures 
three feet and a half from the t ip of the bill to 
the end of the tail; and the next, the golden 
eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the largest of the 
European kinds,and anativeof Britain, its 
length being three feet three inches. Most 
of the species are noble birds. The talons 
and hill of the eagle are strong and terrible ; 
its vision is keen, and it can distinguish 
objects at a great distance. It lives to a 
great age. Among the ancients, the eagle 
was held sacred to Jupiter: it was placed 
on his sceptre, as the carrier of the light¬ 
ning, and thus became expressive of supe¬ 
rior dominion. In this sense it is used as 
the symbol of nations, princes, and armies. 
The eagle was first used as a military stan¬ 
dard by the Persians. Among the Romans, 
It was either of gold, silver, or bronze, 
borne singly on the point of a staff; but 


from the time of Constantine, when the em¬ 
pire became divided into the eastern and 
western, it was represented with two heads. 
During the sway of Napoleon, the French 
took for their standard an eagle with folded 
wings.— Eagle, in Heraldry, one of the 
most noble bearings, and which, according 
to the learned in that science, ought to be 
given to none but such as greatly excel in 
courage and magnanimity. It is assumed 
by sovereigns as the badge of empire. The 
eagle of Russia is or, with two heads dis¬ 
played sable, each duoally crowned of the 
field; the whole imperially crowned, beaked, 
and membered, gules. The eagle of Austria 
is also displayed, with two heads ; the Prus¬ 
sian eagle has but one. The Americans 
have selected the bald eagle of their conti¬ 
nent, a selection made by Benjamin Frank¬ 
lin. The eagle is also the badge of several 
orders, as the Black Eagle and the Red 
Eagle of Prussia, the White Eagle of Poland, 

&c.- Eagle, a gold coin of the United 

States, value 21, 3s. lOcZl sterling. 

E'AGLE-STONE, a term applied by the old 
pharmaceutists to globular clay ironstone. 
The specimens vary in size from a walnut 
to a man’s head, are of a spherical or oval 
shape, have a rough surface, and are essen¬ 
tially composed of concentric layers. In the 
centre is generally a kernel or nucleus, 
sometimes movable, and always differing 
from the exterior in colour and density. The 
ancients gave them the name of eagle- 
stones, from an idea that the eagle carried 
them to her nest to facilitate the laying of 
her eggs. 

E'AGLET, a diminutive of eagle, properly 

signifying a young eagle.-In Heraldry, 

when there are several eagles on the same 
escutcheon, they are termed eaglets. 

E'AGLE-WOOD. [See Aloes-wood.] 

EAR (eare: Sax.), the organ of hearing, 
consisting externally of a cartilaginous 
body, the concha, attached to each side of 
the head. This collects the undulations of 
the air constituting sound, and conveys 
them to the external auditory passage, at 
the bottom of which a membranous par¬ 
tition, the tympanum, stretches across a 
































faring] Ojc ^ricnttftc mxtf 236 


cavity containing four little bones, named 
malleus, incus, stapes, and os orbiculare. 
These are articulated together. A bony par¬ 
tition, perforated by two small holes, one 
covered by a membrane, and the other 
closed by the stapes, separates the tympanic 
cavity from the internal ear or labyrinth, a 
cavity in the temporal bone. The labyrinth 
is chiefly composed of the three semicircular 
canals; and the cochlea, an organ resem¬ 
bling in shape the spiral shell of a snail. A 
limpid fluid fills these parts, and the nerves 

of hearing are suspended in it.- Ear, in 

Music, that internal sense by which we per¬ 
ceive and judge of harmony, and distin¬ 
guish musical sounds.- Ear, among gar¬ 

deners, a name given to the cotyledonous 
leaves which first appear from the seed, and 
usually differ in form from the subsequent 
perfect leaves. 

EAR'ING, in seamen’s language, a small 
rope employed to fasten the upper corner 
of a sail to its yard, &c. 

EAR'-MARK originally signified a cut in 
the ear by which a sheep could be recog¬ 
nized, but it has been extended to a mark 
on any object by which it maybe identified. 

EARL ( eorl: Sax.), a British title of no¬ 
bility, between a marquis and a viscount; 
now the third degree of rank. 'William the 
Conqueror first made this title hereditary, 
giving it in fee to his nobles, and allotting 
them for the support of their state the third 
penny out of the sheriff’s court, from all 
pleas of the shire whence they had their 
title. At present the title is accompanied 
by no territory, or private or judicial rights, 
but confers nobility, and an hereditary seat 
in the House of Lords. In official instru¬ 
ments, earls are styled by the sovereign 
‘ trusty and well-beloved cousins,’ an appel¬ 
lation as ancient as the reign of Henry IV. 
For some time after the Norman conquest 
they were called counts, and their wives to 
the present day are styled countesses. The 
earl’s coronet lias no flowers raised above 
the circle, like that of a duke and a marquis, 
butonlypoints.andapearlon each of them. 

EARL MAR'SIIAL OF ENGLAND, a 
great officer who had anciently several 
courts under his jurisdiction, and among 
them the court of chivalry , or court of honour. 
Under him is the herald’s office, or college 
of arms. He is an earl ex officio. The first 
Earl Marshal on record was appointed in 
1135. Since 1483 it has been in the Howard 
family, and has been made hereditary in the 
heirs male of the eighth Duke of Norfolk, 
whose descendant, the present duke, now 
holds it. 

EARN'EST, in Commercial law, money 
advanced by the buyer of goods, to bind the 
seller to the performance of a verbal bargain. 

EARTH, in Astronomy and Geography, 
one of the primary planets, the terraqueous 
globe which we inhabit. In remote anti¬ 
quity, the earth was regarded as a flat, 
circular body, floating on the water; but 
the great distances which men were able to 
travel soon refuted this limited idea as an 
optical illusion, and the spherical form of 
the earth was consequently suspected. 
According to the Ptolemaic system, it was 
supposed to be immovable in the centre of 


the universe; but, according to that of 
Copernicus, it moves from west to east, 
so as to occasion the succession of day and 
night, and also annually round the sun, so 
as to cause the different seasons. By some 
of the ancients its form was supposed to be 
like that of an oblong cylinder ; by others, 
like that of a drum ; and by others it was , 
supposed to be a plane surface. Succeeding 
ages have, however, demonstrated it to be j 
nearly spherical; and among other reasons ) 
for this theory are the following : —1. All , 
the appearances of the heavens, both on 
land and at sea, are the same as they would 
be if the earth were a globe. 2. In eclipses 
of the moon, which are caused by the sha¬ 
dow of the earth falling upon the moon, 
this shadow is always circular, and a body 
can be no other than a globe which, in all 
situations, casts a circular shadow. 3. Seve¬ 
ral navigators have sailed quite round the 
globe, steering their course directly south 
and west till they came to the Magellanic 
sea, and from thence to the north and west, 
till they returned to their port from the 
east; and all the phenomena which should 
naturally arise from the earth’s rotundity 
happened to them. It is true, the surface 
of the earth is not an exact geometrical 
globe ; but then the inequalities are so in¬ 
considerable that the highest mountain 
bears no greater proportion to the bulk of j 
the earth than agrain of dust does to a com- J 
mon globe. The figure of the earth was 
believed by mathematicians and geogra- ' 
pliers to be perfectly spherical, excepting i 
the small inequalities in its surface, of 
mountains and valleys, until Sir Isaac New- J 
ton and Huygens demonstrated from the j 
laws of hydrostatics, and the revolution of 
the earth about its axis, that its figure is not j 
a true sphere, but an oblate spheroid flat- \ 
tened towards the poles. Various measure¬ 
ments have since put this beyond all doubt. 
There are abundant proofs that the earth, 
since it has assumed its present form, has 
undergone many great revolutions. Shells 
and corals are found in the interior of con¬ 
tinents, and on the summits of the highest 
mountains; which, therefore, must have 
been at some period beneath the sea. The 
remains of tropical animals and plants are 
found in high latitudes. Mineral strata are 
twisted, dislocated, and broken asunder. 
As to the structure of the crust of the 
globe, see Geology. The earth’s equatorial 
diameter is rather more than 7,9251 English 
miles; its polar, rather more than 7,899 
miles; the polar compression is, therefore, 
not quite 26J miles, and the proportion of 
one diameter to the other is as 299 to 298. 
Its mean radius is 3.956J miles; its circum¬ 
ference, 25,000; its superficies, 198,944,200 
square miles; and its solidity, 263,930,000,000 
cubic miles. The mass of the earth, com¬ 
pared with that of the sun, is as 1 to 355,000; 
and its mean density is to that of water as 
5J to 1. The interior of the earth is almost 
entirely unknown to us, as the depth to 
which we have been able to penetrate is 
nothing in comparison with its diameter. 
The earth has a triple motion. There is a di¬ 
urnal motion round its own axis, from west 
to east, in 24 hours, which occasions the per- 































231 Htterarg 

petual succession of days and nights. The 
time of the earth’s revolution on its axis, 
called the sidereal day, is measured by the 
interval between two transits of the same 
fixed star over the meridian of anyplace; 
and astronomers have proved that this in¬ 
terval cannot have altered so much as three 
times the thousandth part of a second during 
the last 2000 years. There is an annual mo¬ 
tion round the sun in a year, which produces 
the different seasons, and the lengthening 
and shortening of days. Tills motion is 
performed in an elliptical orbit, the excen- 
tricity of which, or the distance of the foci 
from the centre, is CT01679 parts of the 
mean distance of the earth from the sun— 
that is, of 95 millions of miles. The motion 
of the earth in its orbit is not uniform, 
being most rapid at its 'perihelion, and 
slowest at its aphelion. Its average velocity 
is G8.040 miles an hour. The inequality of 
the earth’s angular motion about the sun 
causes the apparent solar day, or the in¬ 
terval between the successive transits of the 
sun over the same meridian, to be unequal, 
and not to correspond with the length of the 
mean solar day. The third motion is caused 
as follows. The equator of the earth is in¬ 
clined to the plane of its orbit, called the 
plane of the ecliptic, at an angle of 23° 27' 56": 
this inclination is termed the obliquity of 
the ecliptic, and causes the phenomena of 
the seasons. Since the earth’s axis always 
preserves its parallelism (that is, points to 
the same star), tlio sun, at one season of 
the year, is 23° 27' 56" to the north of the 
equator, and at the opposite season the same 
distance to the south of it; but the straight 
line formed by the intersection of the planes 
of the equator and ecliptic has a slow mo¬ 
tion westward, contrary to the order of the 
signs, and retreats at the rate of 50 - l" yearly, ■ 
causing what is termed the precession of 
the equinoxes, or, more correctly, the retro¬ 
gression of the earth's nodes. This is due to 
the disturbing action of the sun and moon 
on the redundant matter at the equator of 
the earth, by which its figure is rendered 
oblate; and this precession, jointly with 
the nutation of the earth’s axis, causes a 
motion of its poles about the poles of the 
, ecliptic. The sun appears to return to the 
equator before the completion of the side- 
i real year, by the amount of time which the 
sun, or rather the earth, requires to pass 
over 50'1", that is, 20' 19'9". A complete 
tour of the ecliptic is performed in 25,868 
years. The revolution of the seasons forms 
the equinoctial or tropical year. The dis¬ 
covery of the motion of the earth has be- 
j coriie memorable in the history of the 
human mind, showing, as it does, a marked 
ability in man to resist the impressions 
produced by appearances, and to believe 
the contrary of that which had been be¬ 
lieved and taught for many centuries. It 
was also a triumph over the assumption of 
an infallible authority. Galileo was im¬ 
prisoned for holding the very doctrines 
now maintained universally by mankind; 
and he was obliged, under the threat of 
most terrible punishment, to recant, as 
heretical, his teachings regarding a system 
of the world, the correctness of which is 


Erca^urn. [earthquakes 

now unquestionable. The invention of the ■ 
telescope, by means of which the rotation 
of Jupiter was soon observed, but still 
more Newton’s discovery of universal gra¬ 
vitation, and the nature of the celestial 
motions, led to the accurate knowledge re¬ 
garding the solar system at which we have 
arrived. 

EARTH-EAT'ING is a habit which indi¬ 
viduals amongst some savage peoples pos¬ 
sess, the morbid craving arising probably 
from the meagreness of their ordinary diet. 
Humboldt has described the habit as wit¬ 
nessed by him amongst the Otomacs of the 
Orinoco. On the upper parts of the Ama¬ 
zon it is by no means uncommon, not only 
amongst the Indians, but the negroes and 
whites. 

EARTH'-NUT, a name given to various 
subterranean vegetable products. It is ap¬ 
plied in England to the nut of the Bunium 
flexuosum, an umbelliferous plant; in China 
and the western coast of Africa, to the pods 
of the Aracliis hypogcea, a leguminous plant; 
and, in other countries, to the small tubers 
of cyperaceous plants. 

EARTH'ENWARE, or POTTERY. [See 
China Ware.] 

EARTH'ING, in Agriculture and Garden¬ 
ing, the covering of shrubs and plants, as 
vines, celery, &c., with earth. 

EARTHQUAKES are waves of elastic 
compression travelling through a portion 
of the crust of the globe, and originating 
in an impulse in the interior. ‘ That im¬ 
pulse (says Mr. Mallet) maybe an explosive 
production or condensation of high pressure 
steam in heated cavities deep beneath the 
surface, or sudden increase or decrease of 
its tension, or sudden fracture or fall, or 
forcing up or down or against each other of 
great rocky masses, or if in near propinquity 
to active volcanoes, it may be any of their 
throbs or throes, or explosive ejections, or 
the recoil from these.’ The rate of move¬ 
ment of the wave thus generated varies 
with the elasticity of the medium through 
which it is propagated, the rate being less 
at sea than on land, and less in loose strata 
than in compact rock. An earthquake wave 
has been found in some cases to travel at ! 
the rate of thirty miles a minute. When the 
impulse originates under the sea, a large 
volume of water is forced upwards, and a 1 
wave is propagated in all directions, which, ! 
when it reaches ashore, rushes upon it with 
violence, frequently causing great destruc¬ 
tion. Very large tracts of ground are some¬ 
times shaken. At the fearful earthquake 
which destroyed a great part of Lisbon in 
1755, a portion of the earth’s surface four 
times larger than Europe was shaken. In 
the Andes the earth has sometimes con¬ 
tinued to tremble without interruption for 
many days together; and at other places 
there have been tremblings felt almost 
hourly for many successive months. Per¬ 
manent alterations of the level of large 
tracts of ground, both elevations and depres¬ 
sions, have followed earthquakes. Noises 
very frequently but not always accompany 
earthquakes. The connection of earth¬ 
quakes and volcanoes has been often no¬ 
ticed, so much so that the latter have been 






























earths] 


EIjc ^rtrttttftc antf 


232 


termed safety valves for the country In their 
neighbourhood. The immediate cause of 
earthquakes is still involved in great ob¬ 
scurity, and various theories have been pro¬ 
posed to embrace all the phenomena dis¬ 
played. The destruction of life by earth¬ 
quakes has often been very large. Although 
there is a strong tendency on such occasions 
to exaggerate the loss of life, it may well be 
that in the course of a few thousand years 
some millions of human beings have been 
destroyed. 

EARTHS ( erde: Ger.), in a popular sense, 
those solid bodies composing the mineral 
strata, which are incombustible, colourless, 
not convertible into metals by any ordi- 
nary methods of reduction, and, when 
reduced by scientific experiments, possess¬ 
ing generally but an evanescent metallic 
existence. But, to describe earths according 
to the rules of chemical science, we should 
say that they are tasteless, inodorous, unin¬ 
flammable substances, usually occurring in 
intimate union with each other, with vari¬ 
ous acids, and with oxides of the common 
metals. Under these circumstances, they 
constitute by far the greatest part of the 
strata, gravel, and soil, forming the moun¬ 
tains, plains, and valleys of our globe. 
Their number is ten. Five of them possess 
decided alkaline properties— baryta, stron- 
tia, livie (calcia), magnesia, and iithia. Five 
of them are termed earths proper— alumina, 
glucina, yttria, zirconia, and thorina; these 
do not change the infusion of cabbage or 
tincture of litmus, do not readily neutralize 
acidity, and are insoluble in water. The 
earths were regarded as simple bodies until 
the brilliant researches of Sir H. Davy 
proved them to be compounds of oxygen 
with peculiar bases. 

EAR'-TRUMPET, an instrument used by 
persons partially deaf, to strengthen the 
sensation of sound, by collecting and con¬ 
ducting it through a funnel-shaped tube to 
the seat of the sense of hearing. 

EAR'WIG, the common name of some 
orthopterous insects, of which th eForficula 
auricularia. is the best known. The English 
and French name, perce-oreille, is founded 
on a popular error that these insects enter 
the human ear, and there commit serious 
injury. These insects are remarkable for 
the forceps at the end of the abdomen, and 
for the singular structure of the wings, 
which, although little used, are of large size. 
They are of delicate texture, and fold up 
like a fan into a very small compass. 

E'ASEL ( esel, an ass: Ger.), a wooden 
frame on which a painter sets the cloth, &c., 

to be painted.- Easel-pieces, such pieces 

as are painted on easels, in distinction 
from those painted on ceilings, &c. 

E'ASEMENT ( aisement: Fr.), in Law, a 
privilege or convenience which one man 
has upon another man’s land, such as a 
right of way. I 

E'ASING ( aisant: Fr.), in sea language, ! 
the slackening a rope, &c.; thus, to ease 
the bowline or sheet, is to let them go 
slacker; to ease the helm, is to let the ship 
go more before the wind, or more larboard. 

EAST (Osf: Ger.), one of the four cardinal 
points, being that point of the horizon 


where the sun appears to rise when in 
the equator. The word east is indefinitely 
used when we speak of countries which lie 
eastward of us, as Persia, India, China, &c. 
-In Christian churches, which are gene¬ 
rally built east and west, the chancel stands 
at the east end, with an emblematic refer¬ 
ence to Christ, who is called the Son of 
Righteousness and the Day-spring. 

E'ASTER ( astern: Ger.), a solemn festival 
observed among Christians, in commemo¬ 
ration of Christ’s resurrection. The Greeks 
and Latins call it pascha, a Hebrew word, 
applied to the Jewish feast of the passover, 
to which the Christian festival of Easter 
corresponds. Thus, St. Paul says (l Cor. 
v. 7), ‘For even Christ our passover is 
sacrificed for us.’ This feast was fixed by 
the council of Nice, in the year 325, to be 
held on the Sunday which falls upon or 
immediately after the full moon which hap¬ 
pens next after the twenty-first of March ; 
and as such it stands in the rubric of the 
church of England. The new moons of the 
ecclesiastical calendar, by which Easter is 
regulated, are determined arbitrarily, by 
the lunar cycle in the Julian calendar, and 
the table of epacts in the Gregorian. The 
new moons of the calendar are generally 
one, two, or even three days later than the 
astronomical or true new moons. And the 
14th day of the moon is counted full moon, 
though the opposition more usually occurs 
on the 16th. 

E'ASTER-OF'FERINGS, or EASTER-dues, 
small sums of money sometimes paid to a 
parochial clergyman by the parishioners. 

E'ASTERLING ( psterlicli, eastern : Ger.). 
The silver penny was at first called by this 
name, from which sterling, as applied to 
English money, is supposed to have been 
derived. The Baltic and German traders, 
who visited London in the middle ages, 
were called Easterlings; and their name 
may have been given to this coin, from 
some of their nation having been employed 
to coin it. 

EAST-IN'DIA COM'PANY,—‘ the Gover¬ 
nor and Company of Merchants of London 
trading to the East Indies,’—the most cele¬ 
brated commercial association either of an- 
cientormodern times. It was incorporated 
about the 42nd of Queen Elizabeth, a.d. 1600, 
and empowered to trade to countries to the 
eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, exclusive 
of all other persons. A variety of causes had 
been long operating in favour of such an 
incorporation; and several very valuable 
East India ships which had been taken from 
the Portuguese and Spaniards by the Eng¬ 
lish fleets, awakened a desire in our mer¬ 
chants to obtain a share in a traffic which 
promised such great advantages. At length, 
in 1593, an armament fitted out for the 
East Indies by Sir Walter Raleigh, and 
commanded by Sir John Borrouglis, fell in, 
near the Azores, with the largest of all the 
Portuguese carracks, a ship of 1600 tons bur¬ 
den, carrying 700 men and 36 brass cannon ; 
and, after an obstinate conflict, carried her 
into Dartmouth. She was the largest ves¬ 
sel that had been seen in England, and 
her cargo, consisting of gold, spices, cali 
coes, silks, pearls, drugs, porcelain, ivory 

















Httcrari) Crca^ttvy. [eccentricity 


233 


&c., excited the ardour of the English to 
engage in so lucrative a commerce. About 
the year 1698, application being made to 
parliament by private merchants, for.laying 
this trade open, an act passed empowering 
every subject of England, upon raising a 
sum of money for the supply of the go¬ 
vernment, to trade to those parts. A great 
subscription was accordingly raised, and 
the subscribers were styled the New East- 
India Company ; but the old establishment 
being in possession of all the forts on the 
coast of India, the new one found it its inte¬ 
rest to unite with it; and both, trading with 
one joint stock, have ever since been known 
under one name, viz. The United East-India 
Company. Many and severe have been the 
contests between the advocates of a free 
trade to India and the friends of the ‘ in¬ 
corporated company;’ but at length the 
long-supported monopoly of that powerful 
body yielded to the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
c. 85, for continuing the charter till 1854, 
which, in fact, put a limit to the Com¬ 
pany’s commercial character, by enacting 
that its trade to China was to cease on the 
22nd of April, 1834, and that the Company 
was, as soon as possible after that date, to 
dispose of its stocks on hand, and close 
its commercial business. All the real and 
personal property belonging to the Company 
on the 22nd of April, 1834, was vested in 
the crown, to be held or managed by the 
Company in trust for the same; subject to 
all claims, debts, contracts, &c., already ex¬ 
isting or to be hereafter incurred by a com¬ 
petent authority. The Company’s debts and 
liabilities were to be all charged on India; 
the dividend, which was to continue at 10j 
per cent., was to be paid in England out of 
the revenues of India, but it might be re¬ 
deemed any time after April 1874, or, should 
the Company be deprived of the govern¬ 
ment of India in 1854, any time after that 
event, on payment of 2001. for 1001. stock. 
The functions of the East-India Company 
I became, therefore, wholly political, and 
I even these functions have now ceased, 

I The affairs of our Indian empire are now 
managed by a Secretary of State, assisted 
by fifteen councillors, and two under secre¬ 
taries. The East-India Company’s terri- 
| tories were immense : they were greater 
j than those of either Russia or Austria, 
being inferior only to those of Great 
Britain and France. The revenue of India, | 
which now exceeds the expenditure, is up- ; 
wards of forty-five millions sterling. 

EAU DE COLOGN'E (Cologne water: 
Fr.), an aromatic spirit, made originally at 
Cologne. It is chiefly used as a perfume; 
though numberless imaginary medicinal 
virtues have been ascribed to it. A good 
imitation of it may be made by mixing one 
pint of alcohol, one drachm each of the oils 
of bergamot, orange-peel, and rosemary, 
one drachm of bruised cardamom seeds, one 
pint of orange-flower water, and distilling 
one pint from a water bath. 

EAU DE LUCE, a strong solution of am¬ 
monia, scented by adding a little mastic and 
oil of amber. It is considered, in India, 
an effective remedy against the bite of poi¬ 
sonous snakes. 


EAVES ( eaux: Fr.), the edges of the roof 
of a house, which overhang the wall, for 
the purpose of throwing the water to a dis¬ 
tance from it. 

E'AVES-DROPPER, one who skulks 
under the eaves of houses, for the purpose 
of listening to what passes within. 

EBB (ebbe: Ger.), the retirement or reflux 
of the tide. 

EB'ONY ( ebenos: Ger.), a hard, heavy, 
durable black wood, ■which admits of a fine 
polish : obtained from various species of 
Diospyros, nat. ord. Ebenacece, trees which 
grow in India, Madagascar, Ceylon, and the 
Mauritius. It is wrought into toys, and 
used for mosaic and inlaid work. Ironwood 
belongs to the same genus. 

EBOU'LEMENT (Fr.), in Fortification, 
the crumbling or falling away of a wall or 
rampart. 

EBRAC'TEATE (e, privative; and bractea, 
a thin leaf: Lat.), in Botany, without a 
bractea or floral leaf. 

EBULLITION ( ebullio, I bubble up: 
Lat.), either the operation of boiling, or 
the effervescence which arises from the 
mixture of an acid with an alkaline liquor. 

ECAU'DATE (e, privative; and cauda, a 
tail: Lot.), an epithet for anything which 
has no tail or spur. 

EC'BASIS (ekbasis, an issue of a matter: 
Gr.), in Rhetoric, those parts of the pro¬ 
osmium in which the orator treats of 
things according to their events or conse¬ 
quences. 

EC'BOLE (elcbole, a going out: Gr.), in 
Rhetoric, a digression by which the orator 
introduces some other person speaking in 
his own words. 

EC'CE HO'MO (‘ Behold the man! ’ Lat.), 
in Art, a picture or piece of sculpture, which 
represents Christ crowned with thorns. 
The name was suggested by Pilate’s excla¬ 
mation, John xix. 5. 

ECCENTRIC or EXCEN'TRIC ( eJckentros: 
ek, away from; and kentron, the centre: 
Gr '.), in Geometry, a term applied to circles 
and spheres which have not the same cen¬ 
tre, and consequently are not concentric. 
-In Ancient Astronomy, the deferent cir¬ 
cle, in the circumference of which the cen¬ 
tre of the epicycle of a planet is supposed 
to be carried forward in its orbit round the 
earth. It was excentric with regard to the 
earth ; for though the orbit of a planet was 
believed to be a circle described about the 
earth, the latter was not placed in the cen¬ 
tre of that circle.- Excentric Anomaly, 

the arc of the excentric circle, between the 
perihelion of the orbit, and a straight line 
drawn through the centre of the planet, 

perpendicular to the major axis.- Excen- 

tric Circle, in Ancient Astronomy, the 
circle that circumscribes the orbit of a 

planet,-An Eccentric, in Machinery, is 

a circular disc, attached to a shaft in such 
a manner that its centre does not coincide 
with the axis of the shaft. It is of great 
use when a reciprocating motion is required 
to be given to a rod. 

ECCENTRICITY or EXCENTRIC'ITY 
(same deriv.), in Astronomy, the distance 
between the focus and centre of the elliptic 
orbit of a planet or satellite, the semi-axis 




















ECCHYMOSIS] 


&\)t ^ctcnttfic anti 


234 


of locomotion, are tlirust at the will of the 
animal. The vent is placed at the middle 


major being considered as unity; or the 
ratio of the distance between the focus and 
centre to the semi-axis major. 

ECCHYMO'SIS (Gr.), from enchumo, I 
pour in), in Medicine, an appearance of livid 
spots on the skin, occasioned by an extra¬ 
vasation of blood from a vein betwixt the 
flesh and the skin. 

ECCLESIAS'TES (a preacher: Gr.'), a ca¬ 
nonical book of the Old Testament, the de¬ 
sign of which is to show the vanity of all 
sublunary things. The majority of com¬ 
mentators believe this book to be the fruit 
of Solomon’s repentance, after having expe¬ 
rienced all the follies and pleasures of life. 

ECCLESIAS'TIC ( ekklesiastikos , belong¬ 
ing to the church; from elcklesia, the 
church : Gr.), a person in orders : one who 
is consecrated to the service of the church 
and the ministry of religion. 

ECCLESIAS'TICUS (same dcriv.), an apo¬ 
cryphal book of Scripture, considered by 
the Roman Catholic church as canonical. 
It is so called from its being read in the 
Jewish church as a book of piety and in¬ 
struction, but not of infallible authority. 
Its author was a Jew, called Jesus the son 
of Sirach. The Greeks call it the wisdom of 
the son of Sirach. It exhibits but little re¬ 
gard for methodical arrangement, but it is 
highly poetical. 

ECCLE'SIOLOGY ( ecclesia , and logos, a 
discourse: Gr.), that branch of knowledge 
which is concerned with the structure of 
churches, ancient and modern, their various 
parts and contents. 

E'CHELON (a step : Fr.), a term in mili¬ 
tary tactics borrowed from the French, sig¬ 
nifying the position of an army with one 
division more advanced than another, some¬ 
what like the steps of a ladder. A battalion, 
regiment, &c., marches en Echelon if the di¬ 
visions of which it is composed do not 
march in one line, but on parallel lines. The 
divisions are not exactly behind each other, 
but each is to the right or left of the one 
preceding, so as to give the whole the ap¬ 
pearance of a stairway. This order is used 
if the commander wishes to bring one part 
of a mass into action, and to reserve the 
other. 

ECHI'NATE or ECHI'NATED ( echinos, a 
hedgehog : Gr.), a term applied to whatever 

is armed with large spines.-In Botany, 

an epithet for the seeds of plants that are 
rough and prickly ; also for the pericarp of 
some plants. 

ECUI'NITES (same deriv.), fossil Echini, 
and radiate animals of allied genera. They 
abound in the chalk. 

ECHI'NODERMS ( echinos, a hedgehog; 
derma, skin: Gr.), a class of radiate ani¬ 
mals, including sea-urchins, star-flshes, and 
some worm-like animals in which the radi¬ 
ate structure is only slightly displayed. 

ECH'INUS (a sea-urchin: Lat.; from 
echinos: Gr.), the name of a genus of sea- 
urchins or sea-eggs, belonging to the echino- 
dermatous class. They have a subglobose 
shell,or test, composed of calcareous plates, 
some of which bear tubercles, forming the 
sockets on which the spines move ; whilst 
others are perforated with small holes in 
rows through which fleshy cirri, the organs 


of the upper part, over against the mouth 
on the under side. The dental apparatus i3 
large and remarkably elaborate. It was for¬ 
merly styled Aristotle’s lantern. Some spe¬ 
cies of Echinus form an article of human 
food on the shores of the Mediterranean. 

-In Architecture, the quarter round, a 

member or ornament near the bottom of 
the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite capi¬ 
tals. It is the ovolo; but the name is pro¬ 
perly applied only when it is carved with I 

eggs and anchors.- Echinus, in Botany, - 

a prickly head or top of a plant. 

EC'HIUM ( ecliion , from cchis, a viper: 
Gr.), in Botany, a genus of plants belonging 
to the nat. ord. Boraginaccce. The Viper's 
bugloss, a British wild plant, belongs to the 
genus. 

EC'HO (echo, a returned sound: Gr.), a 
sound reflected from some hard surface to 
the ear. As the undulatory motion of the 
air, which constitutes sound. Is propagated 
in all directions from the sounding body, it 
will frequently happen that the air, in per¬ 
forming its vibrations, will impinge against 
various objects, which will reflect it back, 
and so cause new vibrations the contrary 
way. Now, if the reflecting body is at such 
a distance, &c„ as to cause the reflected 
sound to be both distinct from the original 
one, and so strong as to be appreciable by 
the ear, there will be what is called an echo. 
The greater the distance of the reflecting 
body, the longer will be the time before the 
repetition is heard ; and when the sound, in 
its progress, meets with objects at different I 
distances, sufficient to produce an echo, it ! 
will be repeated several times successively, 
according to the different distances of these 
objects from the sounding body; which 
makes what is called a repeated echo. Echoes 
are not, however, caused by a mere reflec¬ 
tion of the sonorous particles of air, for then 
every hard substance would produce an 
echo; certain conditions are required :— 
The ear must be in the line of reflection, 
that the person from whom the sound pro¬ 
ceeds may hear the echo. If there are 
several reflecting surfaces, the sound may 
be brought back by their joint reflection. 
The reflecting body must not be too near, 
or the direct and reflected sounds cannot 
be distinguished : there may be resonance 
without echo. The least distance cannot be 
less than fifty feet; and about ten distinct 
sounds may be heard in a second ; hence a 
person situated 512 feet from the reflecting 
body, will hear the sound one second after 
it is emitted, aud it may repeat about ten 
syllables. The reflecting surface must be 
suffi c-iently extensive, or the echo will be too 
feeble. A certain concavity in the surface, 
though not necessary, is very advantageous, 
as it concentrates several rays of sound to 
one point. Tw r o persons may converse in 
whispers which will be heard by no one else, 
if each is placed in the focus of an elliptical 
building. The reflection of sound is go¬ 
verned by the same laws as regulate the 
reflection of light.- Echo, in Architec¬ 

ture, any vault or arch constructed so as to 
produce an artificial echo. These are ge- 
























235 Ettcrarjj 


nerally of a parabolic or elliptic form : of 
this kind is the whispering-gallery in St. 

Paul’s cathedral.- Echo, in Poetry, a sort 

of verse which returns the sound of the last 
syllaole, the elegance of which consists in 
giving a new sense to the last words. 

ECHOM'ETER (echo, an echo; and metron, 
a measure : Gr.), among Musicians, a kind 
of scale or rule, serving to measure the du¬ 
ration and length of sounds, and to deter¬ 
mine their intervals and ratios. 

ECLAIRCISSE'MENT ( Fr .), the clearing 
up of anything not before understood. 

ECLAMP'SIS (Gr., from elclampo, I shine 
forth), in Medical Science, scintillations or 
flashings of-light in the eyes; a symptom of 
epilepsy. 

ECLA'T (Fr.), a burst of applause; renown 
following some action or event. 

ECLECTICS (eklego, I pick out: Gr.), 

1 those philosophers who, without attaching 
themselves to any particular school, select 
what appears to them the best and most 

rational from each.-Anciently, they were 

a sect of Greek philosophers who endea¬ 
voured to mould the doctrines of Pythago¬ 
ras and Plato, and blend them with the 
theology of the Egyptians and the tenets 
of Zoroaster. They borrowed many of the 
principal dogmas of Christianity from the 
catechetic school of Alexandria; and, com¬ 
bining these with the mysticism of Py¬ 
thagoras, the errors of Plato, and the 
superstitions of Egypt, they hoped to recon¬ 
cile the Christians and Pagans to the same 

opinions.-In Art, the school of the Car- 

I raeci is termed ‘eclectic,’ because they 
j endeavoured to select the chief excellences 
of other schools and artists, the grandeur 
of the Florentine, the grace of the Roman 
school, the colouring of Titian, &c. ‘ The 
Carracci were the unapproached represen¬ 
tatives of the eclectic school. In the at¬ 
tempt to combine the excellences, how'ever 
great, of various minds, the chief recom¬ 
mendation of human productions, viz. the 
evidence of individual character, the moral 
physiognomy, which in its sincerity and 
passion atones for so many defects, is of 
neoessity wanting.’— Eastlake. 

ECLEGM' (ekleigma, an electuary; from 
ek, away; and leiclio, I lick up: Gr.), a 
medicine made by the incorporation of oil 
with syrups. 

ECLIP'SE (ekleipsis, literally a forsaking: 
Gr.), in Astronomy, an obscuration of the 
light of the sun, moon, or other luminary, by 
the interposition of another heavenly body 
between it and our sight. An eclipse of the 
sun is caused by the intervention of the 
moon, which totally or partially hides the 
sun’s disc; an eclipse of the moon is occa¬ 
sioned by the shadow of the earth, which 
falls on it and obscures it, either wholly or 
in part. In endeavouring to understand 
the true nature of eclipses, the mind must 
figure to itself the body of the sun, irradia¬ 
ting the earth on one side of its globe, 
which, being a solid body, intercepts the 
rays, and therefore projects a long conical 
shadow from its opposite side: now, when 
the moon happens to come in a line with 
this shadow, it falls upon her, and she is 
eclipsed. An eel ipse of the moon is partial, 


Cm^ury. [economy 


when only a part of its disc is within the 
shadow of the earth; it is total, when all its 
disc is within the shadow. As the moon is 
actually deprived of her light during an 
eclipse, every inhabitant upon the face of the 
earth, who sees the moon, sees the eclipse. 
It is evident that there will be an eclipse of 
the sun or moon, only when the sun, moon, 
and earth are in the same right line, or very 
nearly so. There must be two, and there 
may be three, eclipses of the moon every 
year. The sun can only be eclipsed at the 
new moon, or when the moon, at its con¬ 
junction, is in or near one of its nodes. 
There must be two, and there may be four, 
eclipses of the sun every year; and these 
may be partial, total, or, annular when the 
shadow is sufficiently extensive to hide 
only the centre of the sun’s disc. Besides 
the cone of shadow, within which no rays 
can enter, there is a surrounding space, to 
which rays can come from some portions of 
the lumin ous body: this is called the penum¬ 
bra (almost a shadow: Lat.) of the body 
causing the eclipse. The nearer the spec¬ 
tator is to the umbra or shadow, the deeper [ 
the penumbra, because the larger the por j 
tion of the luminous body screened by that j 
which is interposed. With an eclipse of the j 
sun, the relative positions of the sun and 
moon are not independent of the observer’s j 
position, since, as the sun is not actually 
deprived of his light, a spectator may see 
the sun, without perceiving the eclipse; as 
he may, on account of his position, have 
none of the rays coming to him from it 
intercepted. An eclipse of the sun begins 
on the western side of his disc, and ends 
on the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon 
begins on the eastern side of her disc, 

and ends on the western.-The ancient 

Greeks and Romans were greatly alarmed by 
eclipses, supposing them presages of the 
most dismal events. 

ECLIPTIC (ekleipsis, an eclipse: Gr.), in 
Astronomy, the sun’s apparent path; or 
a great circle of the celestial sphere, sup¬ 
posed to be drawn through the middle of 
the zodiac; or it may be defined, that circle 
of stars in the heavens, through which the 
earth would appear to move, if it were seen 
from the sun. The axis of the earth is 
not perpendicular to the plane of the eclip 
tic, but declines from that perpendicular 
23° 27' 56". [See Earth ] The ecliptic ob¬ 
tained its name from the fact, that eclipses 
happen only when the moon is in its plane, j 

or very near it.- Ecliptic, in Geography, 

a great circle on the terrestrial globe, not 
only answering to, but falling within, the 
plane of the celestial ecliptic. 

EC'LOGUE (ekloge, a picking out: Gr.), 
a selection of passages from a book; a short 
poem. The Bucolics of Virgil consist of 
ten Eclogues, in which shepherds are repre¬ 
sented conversing with each other. 

ECON'OMY (oikonomia: from oikos, a 
house ; and nemo, I manage : Gr.), the fru¬ 
gal expenditure of money, with the prudent 
management of all the means by which 
property is saved or accumulated. It also 
signifies a judicious application of time and 
labour. In a more extended sense, it de¬ 
notes the regulation and disposition of the 




























ECTAONEsis] ^racntttfc antt 236 


affairs of a state or nation,'which is called 
political economy. And it is likewiseapplied 
to the regular operations of nature in the 
generation, nutrition, and preservation of 
animals or plants : as animal economy, ve¬ 
getable economy. 

ECPHONE'SIS ( ekphonesis , an exclama¬ 
tion : Gr.), in Rhetoric, a figure of speech 
used hy an orator to give utterance to the 
warmth of his feelings. 

ECPHRAC'TIO ( ekphraktikos , capable of 
removing obstructions : Gr.), in Medicine, 
that which has the property of dissolving 
or attenuating viscid matter, and of re¬ 
moving obstructions. 

ECPHYSE'SIS ( ekphusesis , an emission 
of the breath : Gr.), in Medicine, a quick 
breathing. 

EOPIES'MA (ckpiesis, a violent squeez¬ 
ing: Gr.), in Medicine, a fracture of the 
cranium when the bones press inwardly on 
the. membranes of the brain. 

ECPLEX'IS ( ekplexis, a consternation : 
Gr.), in Medicine, that state of motionless 
stupor in which a person appears to lie 
when in a trance. 

EC'STASY (ekstasis, entrancement: Gr.), 
that state of mind in which the functions 
of the senses are either suspended or trans¬ 
ported with rapture by the contemplation 
of some extraordinary object.-In Medi¬ 

cine, a species of catalepsy, in which the 
person remembers, after the paroxysm is 
over, the ideas he had during the fit. 

ECSTAT'ICI ( elcstatilcoi, from same : Gr.), 
a sort of diviners amongst the Greeks, who 
for a considerable time lay in trances, de¬ 
prived of all sense and motion, but when 
they returned to their former state, gave 
strange accounts of what they had seen and 
heard during their supposed absence from 
the body. Ecstatics are found among the 
saints of the Roman Catholic church. 

ECTROTIUM ( ektropion , from ektrepo, I 
turn aside: Gr.), in Surgery, that state in 
which the eyelids are inverted or retracted, 
so as to show their internal or red surface, 
and not sufficiently to cover the eye. It 
arises from the tumefaction of the inner 
membrane, or from a contraction of the 
skin which covers the eyelid. 

EC'TYPE ( ektupos , worked in high relief: 

I Gr.), a word sometimes used by antiqua¬ 
rians, and signifying an impression of a 

I medal, seal, or ring, or a figured copy of an 
inscription or other ancient monument. 

EDDAS. The two Eddas (or Great Grand¬ 
mothers), which afford us the earliest 
specimens of the Scandinavian language, 
wereeomposed in Iceland. The elder one, 
containing old mythic poems, is of un¬ 
certain date. The younger one, a prose 
account of the ancient mythology, is 
attributed to Snorri Sturluson, who died 
1241. 

l ED'DY (ed, water; and ea, backwards: 
Sax.), a current of water running in a con¬ 
trary direction to that of the main stream. 

-Eddy-tide or Eddy-water, the water 

which runs back contrary to the tide; or 
that which falls back on the rudder of a 

ship under sail, and is called dead-water. - 

Eddy-wind, the wind returned or beat 
back by any obstruction. 


EDE'MATOUSor CEDE'MATOTJS {oidema, 
a swelling: Gr.), in Medicine an epithet 
applied to a white, soft, and insensible tu¬ 
mour, arising from water collected in the 
cellular membranes. 

E'DICT ( edictum, from edico, I publish; 
Lat.), an order issued by a prince to his 
subjects, as a rule or law requiring obe¬ 
dience. In Roman history we frequently 
meet with the edicts of the emperors; and 
the edicts of the praetors, containing no¬ 
tices to the people of the manner in which 

they intended to execute the laws.-The 

Edictumperpetuum wasa collection of all the 
laws which had been yearly published by the 
praetors in their edicts. It was made by 
direction of the emperor Adrian, and was 
so called because it was intended to con¬ 
tinue in force, and serve as a guide and rule 
in the administration of justice throughout 
the empire. 

EDITION ( editio, a publishing: Lat.), 
the number of copies of a work printed 
before the types are distributed. One who 
prepares the writings of another for publi¬ 
cation is called the editor; the latter re¬ 
vises, adds notes, and sometimes makes 
additions to the work, and even rewrites a 
great portion of it. The publisher is the | 
bookseller who negotiates the sale of the 
impression. The edition sometimes goes by 
the name of the editor: thus, ‘ Bentley’s 
Horace;’ sometimes by the name of the 
printer or publisher: thus, the ‘Aldine’ 
and ‘ Elzevir ’ classics, from the celebrated 
houses of Aldus and Elzevir. An editio 
princeps means the earliest printed edition 
of an author, an editio optima is what is 
considered the best edition. 

EDUCATION ( educatio , from educo, I 
bring up : Lat.), in its most extended sense, 
the art of developing and cultivating the 
physical, intellectual, and moral faculties. 
Physical education includes all that relates 
to the organs of sensation and the muscu¬ 
lar and nervous system. Intellectual educa¬ 
tion develops and improves the powers of 
the understanding. Moral education com¬ 
prehends the various modes of cultivating 
and regulating the affections, and forming 
right ideas as to the relation of man to 
man. Nothing Is more shackled by preju¬ 
dice, more perverted by fanciful theorists, 
or more abused by the unblushing effron¬ 
tery of ignorant and artful empirics, than 
Education. But too often, attention is 
almost wholly directed to external show, 
but littlebeinggiven to the communication 
of solid and useful instruction. There is a 
great tendency in the present day to impart 
superficial knowledge, to instruct in too 
many branches, without teaching any of 
them thoroughly, or properly considering 
the kind of information which is required 
by the circumstances or position of the 
pupil. It is not too much to assume, that 
according as this intellectual nutriment 
is administered, it becomes the germ of 
happiness or misery to the individual. A 
good educator considers not only the com¬ 
munication of knowledge, but also the 
training of the pupil; that is, the formation 
of habits, and the increase of his mental 
strength, by the right kind and amount of 
























237 


ilttcravy Ercas'urn. 


[egg 


exercise. The education of each sex must he 
suited to its peculiar wants, and the peculiar 
position to he occupied by it in after life. 
The education of females should have a 
special reference to their performance of 
domestic duties, and to their obligations as 
wives and mothers; not that it is in all 
cases to exclude the higher branches of 
knowledge, or those usually considered 
as belonging properly to the other sex. 
When we consider the great and just in¬ 
fluence which the female sex exerts in 
directing the early ideas of man, and in 
forming the habits of his future life, we 
must readily admit that it is most desirable 
they should be endowed with every species 
of knowledge which is conveniently within 
their reach, and which may turn that influ¬ 
ence to good.—The education of youth was 
strictly attended to, both by the Greeks and 
Romans. The minds and bodies of young 
persons were improved at the same time; 
their minds by every necessary branch of 
knowledge, and their bodies by the manly 
exercises of the Campus Martius, or private 
contests and trials of skill, agility, and 
strength. It was the chief aim of the 
Romans, as well as of the Greeks, to make 
their children shine in the senate and 
in the field, at the forum, and in the public 
games. Oratory was an object which they 
kept constantly in view ; and whatever was 
their destination, they endeavoured to ac¬ 
quire the art of elocution and a habit of 
fluent reasoning. Lacedcemon trained her 
hardy sons to despise danger, endure fa¬ 
tigue, and seein insensible to pain—to 
maintain their honour unstained, to love 
their country, and hold in contempt riches, 
and all that train of enervating plea¬ 
sures, which are the companions of afflu¬ 
ence. So far all this was meritorious in a 
high degree; but how circumscribed must 
the space have been which was then al¬ 
lowed for intellectual exertion, when the 
whole world of science was a terra, incog- 

ivittCL! 

EDULCORA'TIOH ( edulco, I sweeten: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, the act of separating, 
purifying, or freeing any substance from 
the saline particles with which it may be 
impregnated, or those that may be left ad¬ 
hering to it after any operation, by frequent 
ablutions with water. 

EEL (aal: Ger.), the popular name of 
fishes belonging to several genera. They 
are of elongated form, and are distin¬ 
guished from other fishes by the absence 
of ventral fins, and of the two bones in the 
upper jaw, called maxillary and premaxil¬ 
lary. The gill openings are usually small 
slits not placed at the edge of the gill 
covers. Most of them are very voracious. 
We have specimens in our streams and 
lakes of the freshwater genus Anguilla, 
and the sea contains the conger eel and 
many other species. 

EEI/-SPEAR, a forked mstrumenfwith 
three or four jagged teeth, used for catch¬ 
ing eels. „ . , . . , 

EFFECT' ( effectus , from efficio, I bring to 
pass: Lat.), the consequence of a cause, 
sometimes simple and visible, sometimes 
complicated and invisible, but always si¬ 


multaneous with the cause.-The word 

effects signifies personal or movable goods. 

EFFEC'TIYE ( effectivus , from same: Lat.), 
in Military language, an epithet for a body 
of men that are fit for service. 

EFFERYES'CENCE ( effervesco , I boil up : 
Lat.), the escape of gaseous matter from 
liquids, as in fermentation. The liquid has 
the appearance of boiling, and the effect is 
most frequently due to the liberation of 
carbonic acid. 

EFFE'TE (effetus, exhausted, like one who 
has brought forth: Lat.), barren. An animal 
becomes effete by losing the power of con¬ 
ception : the earth may be rendered so by 
drought, or by exhaustion of fertility. 

EFFI'CIENT ( efficio, I bring to pass: 
Lat.), causing the intended effect. The 
efficient cause is that which produces; 
the final cause is that for which anything 
is produced. 

EFFLORES'CENCE (effloresco, I begin to 
bloom: Lat.), the spontaneous crumbling 
down of transparent crystals, on account of 
the loss of water. This term was adopted 
by the older chemists, because of a fancied 
resemblance of the resulting powders to 
flowers. 

EFFLU'VIA (effluo, I flow forth : Lat.), 
the vapours arising from putrefying sub¬ 
stances. Malignant effluvia are considered 
to be the frequent causes of plague and 

EFFU'SION ( effusio, a pouring out: Lat.), 
in Surgery, the escape of any fluid out of 
the vessel or viscus naturally containing 
it; also the natural secretion of fluids. 
Blood may, on account of a wound, flow 
from the chest into the cavity of the pleura; 
or an injury to the head may cause effusion 
on the brain. 

EFT (Sax.), or Newt, common names of 
some small batrachian reptiles, which live 
in water, and, like the frog, undergo meta¬ 
morphosis. The great white newt ( Triton 
jmlustris ) is about six inches long; the 
common water newt (Triton aquaticits) is 
about three. 

EGG, a body formed in a peculiar catity 
in the interior of female mammals and 
lower animals, from which, when fertilized, 
another member of the species is produced. 
Taking the egg of a hen as an example, we 
find on the outside a calcareous shell, which 
is lined by a double membrane. Inside this 
is an albuminous substance, the ivhite con¬ 
sisting of several layers, and surrounding 
the yolk, which has its own membrane, the 
vitelline membrane. Before the egg was 
laid, there was in the middle of the yolk a 
minute vesicle, called the germinative ve¬ 
sicle, and this contained a smaller one, the 
germinative dot. The most important part 
of the egg is the vitellus, or yolk. It is an 
aggregation of granules and drops of oily 

fluid.-The quantity of eggs consumed 

in England appears almost incredible. In¬ 
dependently of the home produce, which is 
immense, the number of eggs annually im¬ 
ported from France, and other parts of the 
continent, is much more than 100 mil¬ 
lions. 

EGG'-PLANTS, the common name of 
some plants belonging to the genus So- 
















Cljc ^ctentitle antf 


238 


eglantine] 

lanum ; so called because the fruit is like 

3,11 Gpfg*. 

EG'LANTINE Kglantier: Fr.), the old 
English name of the sweet-briar: it has 
been incorrectly applied by Milton to the 
honeysuckle. 

E'GRET ( aigrette: Fr.) the name of two 
birds of the heron genus, viz. the great 
egret, or great white heron (Ardea alba), 
and the little egret ( Ardea garzetta). Both 
are of extreme rarity in England. 

El'DER-DOWN ( eider dunen: Ger.), the 
soft feathers of the eider-duclc, plucked by 
the female from her breast, for the purpose 
of lining her nest. The bird breeds amongst 
precipitous coast rocks in the north of 
Europe. 

EI'DOGRAPII ( eidos , form ; graphein, to 
write: Gr.), an instrument by which a 
drawing may be copied on a reduced or on 
an enlarged scale. 

EISTEDD'FOD ( eistedd , to sit: IVcl), the 
assemblies of the Welsh bards. Judges 
were appointed to decide on the merits of 
the respective minstrels by the Welsh 
princes, and, after the conquest of the 
principality, by the English kings. The 
last commission issued for that purpose 
was in 1568. The Gwyimedigion and Cam¬ 
brian societies have revived these meet¬ 
ings, for the recitation of prize poems, and 
performances on the harp. 

EJECT'MENT (ejectio, a casting out: Lat.), 
a personal action, in the form of trespass, 
in which a tenant for years claims damages 
for his expulsion from land demised to him : 
it has become the usual mode of trying 
questions of right to a real property. The 
party who claims land, or its appurtenances, 
not in his possession, is the real plaintiff : 
but up to 1852, by a strange fictioD, he did 
so through the means of a fictitious tenant 
named John Doe, who complained of being 
ejected from his farm by the defendant. 
The defendant disputed plaintiff’s right to 
let the land, and if the plaintiff succeeded, 
lie recovered nominal damages, and also the 
\ land itself for the term of Doe's supposed 
: demise: that is, for the term of his own 
; right. But at present, the real name of the 
claimant is set forth in the writ. 

ELiEAG'NUS (elaia, an olive tree; and 
agnos, a willow : Gr.), in Botany, a genus of 
trees, nat. ord. Elceagnaeece. Most of the 
species have their leaves covered with 
scurfy scales, which, under the microscope, 
are seen to be of a regular stellate form. 

ELA'OLITE ( elaion, oil; and lithos, a 
stone : Gr.), called also fellstein, a crystalline 
mineral, more or less translucent, of a 
greasy appearance, and varying in its co¬ 
lour from greenish-blue to flesh-red. It 
consists of silica, alumina, and potash. 

ELASTICITY, or ELASTIC FORCE 
(elauno, I set in motion : Gr.), that inherent 
property of bodies by which they restore 
themselves to their former figure, after any 
external pressure or tension: it is very ob¬ 
servable in a bent bow, steel springs, and 
the like. Perfectly elastic bodies are those 
which restore themselves with the same 
force with which they wre bent or de¬ 
pressed ; those which do nq restore them¬ 
selves with exactly the sa z force being 


called imperfectly elastic bodies. The air is 
elastic; vapours are elastic; and when the 
force compressing them is removed, they 
instantly expand or dilate, and recover 
their former state. When an elastic solid 
body is made to vibrate by a sudden stroke, 
the vibrations are made in equal times, 
wherever the stroke may be applied ; hence 
a bell always gives the same tone, however 
struck 

ELATER'ID.E ( elater, a driver: Gr.), in 
Entomology, a family of beetles possessing 
a pectoral spine in a sheath. When these 
insects are laid on their backs they bend 
themselves until they rest only on the ex¬ 
tremity of the head and wing cases. The 
effort being suddenly relaxed, the head and 
thorax fly up, and the base of the wing-cases 
strikes the supporting surface so forcibly 
that the beetle is jerked a considerable 
height into the air. The Pyrophorus nocti- 
lucus, or fire-fly of the tropical parts of 
America, belongs to this family. 

ELATE'RIUM ( elaterion, literally that 
which drives away: Gr.), a substance pre¬ 
pared from the pulp of the Ecbalium agreste, 
or wild cucumber, a plant belonging to the 
nat. ord. Cucurbitacece, which grows in the 
south of Europe. It is imported in thin 
cakes, of a greenish colour and bitter taste. 
It is a powerful cathartic, and is used to 
diminish the amount of fluid in cases of 
dropsy. 

EL'ATINE, the active principle of elate- 

rium. 

EL'BOW ( elbogen: Ger.), in Anatomy, the 
juncture of the cubitus and radius, or the 
outer angle made by the flexure or bend of 

the arm. -Elbow, in Architecture, a term 

used for an obtuse angle of a wall, building, 
road, &c., which deviates somewhat from a 
right line. 

EL'DER ( ealdor: Sax.), a person advanced 
in life, and who, on account of his age and 
experience, is selected to fill some import¬ 
ant office. In Jewish history, the elders 
were persons the most considerable for age, 
experience, and wisdom. Of this sort were 
the seventy men whom Moses associated 
to himself in the government of his people; 
such also were those who afterwards held 
the first rank in the synagogue as presi¬ 
dents. In the first Christian churches 
elders were persons who enjoyed offices or 
ecclesiastical functions, and the word in¬ 
cludes apostles, pastors, presbyters, bishops, 
or overseers; hence the first councils of 
the Christians were called presbyteria, or 
councils of elders. In the modern Presby¬ 
terian churches, elders are officers who, with 
the ministers and deacons, compose the 
sessions of the kirk, and have authority to 
inspect and regulate matters of religion and 

discipline.- Elder, the popular name for 

small trees belonging to the genus Sam- 
bucus, nat. ord. Caprifoliaceoe. There are 
several species; some bear black, some 
white, and others red berries. The stem 
and branches contain a soft pith. 

EL DORA'DO (the golden region: Span.), 
a name given by the Spaniards to an imagi¬ 
nary country supposed to be situated in the 
interior of America, between the rivers 
Orinoco and Amazon, abounding in gold 


























239 Htterary 

and all kinds of precious stones. ‘ Guiana, 
whose great city Geryon’s sons call El 

Dorado.’— Milton. -In the language of 

poetry, it now means a paradise of bound¬ 
less wealth and felicity. 

ELEAT'IC, an epithet given to a certain 
sect of philosophers, so called from Elea, 
a town of Campania, where some of them 
lived about 500 years n.c. Xenophanes 
is usually considered the founder of the 
school, and his most celebrated follow¬ 
ers were Parmenides and Zeno of Elea. 
Xenophanes thought that the universe was 
eternal and immutable. Parmenides taught 
! that Reason alone was capable of recog¬ 
nizing truth, and that the impressions 
made on the senses were deceptive, and 
occasioned by two opposite principles, Are 
or light, and cold or darkness, whence came 
all the appearances of change. Zeno at¬ 
tempted to prove by four arguments that 
there is no such thing as motion, one of 
j these having for its illustration the cele- 
; brated story of Achilles and the tortoise. 
The Eleatics are considered to be the 
founders of philosophical pantheism. 

ELECAMPA'NE, in Botany, the vulgar 
name for the Inula Selenium, an aromatic 
composite plant, from the root of which a 
preparation was made that was formerly 
used as an expectorant; also, a name given 
to a coarse candy, containing little else 
than coloured sugar. 

ELECT' (electus, chosen: Lat.), in Theo¬ 
logy, among Calvinists, a term for those 
whom they believe God has chosen, or pre¬ 
destinated to be saved.- Elect, in mat¬ 

ters of polity, signifies chosen, but not in¬ 
augurated. Thus, thelord-mayor of London, 
before his predecessor’s mayoralty is ex¬ 
pired, is called the lord-mayor elect. 

ELEC'TION ( electio , a selection: Lat.), the 
act of choosing a person to fill an office or 
employment by any manifestation of pre¬ 
ference. The term is applied to the choice 
of members of the legislature, which takes 
place within, at most, every seven years; 
to the selection of parish officers annually; 
and to the admission of members into so¬ 
cieties. Sometimes it is practised by show 
of hands, sometimes by ballot, and at others 
by every elector giving his vote separately, 
with an oath in regard to his right and in¬ 
tegrity.- Election, in Theology, divine 

choice, by which persons, according to the 
Calvinistic creed, are distinguished as ob¬ 
jects for salvation by the special grace of 
God, without reference to their good or bad 
t deeds. 

ELECTIVE ( electus, a choice: Lat.), de¬ 
pendent on choice, as an elective monarchy: 

, opposed to hereditary. 

ELECTOR (a chooser : Lat.), in Law, any 
one who has the right of giving hi3 vote at 
an election, particularly at the election of 

a member of parliament.- Elector, in 

Political History, t he title of such German 
princes as formerly had a voice in the elec¬ 
tion of the emperor of Germany; most of 
them have assumed the title of king. 

ELECTORATE (from last), the dignity 
or territory of an Elector, that is, one who 
had the right of voting at the election of 
an Emperor of Germany. Most of them, 


Cmjffurg* [electric 


since the abolition of the empire in 1305, 
have assumed the title of king. 

ELECTRIC CLOCKS. It was soon found 
that electro-magnetism might be applied 10 
the production of motion ; masses of soft 
iron being alternately attracted by and set 
free from electro-magnets, by alternately 
making and breaking battery connection. 
But the means necessary to be employed 
were too complicated, and, compared with 
steam, too expensive for economic use. It 
has, however, been successfully applied as 
a means of communicating motion to clock¬ 
work ; and it is particularly adapted to keep 
a number of clocks in perfect harmony, by 
using one, either ordinary or electric clock, 
to make and break battery communication, 
which simultaneously moves the hands of 
all the rest, however distant they may be. 

ELECTRIC LIGHT. Many attempts have 
been made, from time to time, to use elec¬ 
tricity as a means of illumination. The im¬ 
possibility of insulating machine electricity, 
particularly in certain states of the atmo¬ 
sphere, on account of its high intensity, 
would alone be sufficient to render it inap¬ 
plicable for the purpose. Galvanic elec¬ 
tricity, being of much lower intensity, does 
not present the same obstacle. If two 
pieces of charcoal are made a portion of the 
connection between the elements of a pow¬ 
erful galvanic battery, provided they are 
not too far asunder, the electricity will pass 
between them ; and on their being drawn 
farther apart, an intensely brilliant arch of 
light will be produced. But as carbon is 
gradually transferred by the electric cur¬ 
rent from one piece of charcoal to the other, 
the distance between the pieces becomes, 
after a while, too great, and the light is di¬ 
minished or altogether extinguished. Va¬ 
rious plans have been proposed to remedy 
this inconvenience; the best being the 
movement of one of the pieces of charcoal 
with machinery, regulated by the action of 
the apparatus itself, so as to maintain the 
proper space between them. 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, or, more cor¬ 
rectly, the ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELE¬ 
GRAPH. If the conducting wire which 
unites the two elements of a galvanic bat¬ 
tery be parallel to a magnetic needle before 
the current is transmitted, the needle will 
immediately arrange itself at right angles 
to the wire, when the current is made to 
pass along the wire. [See Electro-mag¬ 
netism.] The effect of the electric current 
on the needle is doubled, if the conducting 
wire is bent round so as to pass along the 
opposite side of the needle; and as these 
convolutions of the wire are increased in 
number within certain limits, their effect 
also is augmented. With such an appara¬ 
tus, each time the electric current is esta¬ 
blished and broken, there will be a separate 
deflection of the needle. As the conducting 
wire may be of any length, provided the 
battery is sufficiently powerful, we have at 
once a means of communication between 
distant places and a system of signs sug¬ 
gested : one deflection may mean one thing; 
two in succession another, and so on. But 
the signals at our disposal are doubled in 
number if, by reversing the electric cur- 






















electrical] antr 240 


rent, we cause the deflections to be made in 
the opposite directions, and their amount 
is still further increased if we combine de¬ 
flections in opposite directions. This is in 
fact the electric telegraph; since all the 
different forms it assumes are no more than 
modifications of it. It is found unnecessary 
to use two wires—one for the direct current 
from one place to another, and the other for 
the return current from the second place 
hack again to the first: the earth answers for 
one of them. Of course, when more than one 
message may have to be communicated at 
the same time, different wires must be used. 
It is clear that all the needles in connection 
with a given wire will be deflected at the 
same time by the electric current. When, 
therefore, it is notified for what place the 
message is intended, the connection with 
the other needles at the different stations 
being cut off, the current is not uselessly re¬ 
tarded. As the telegraph clerk may not be 
attentive, his notice is attracted by an 
alarm bell, set ringing by the electric cur¬ 
rent. The wires are sometimes carried 
through the air on poles, insulation being, 
secured by the use of glass or porcelain 
connections for attaching the wire to these 
supports; sometimes in tubes underground, 
insulation being effected by gutta percha, 
&c.; sometimes over the tops of houses, 
through the sea, &c. An apparatus with 
two needles is used at all principal stations : 
it may be considered as a combination of 
two simple ones; with it, the reading of 
the signals is more rapid; but it has the in¬ 
convenience of requiring two wires. Appa¬ 
ratus has been invented for printing or 
writing a message instead of merely indi¬ 
cating it. 

ELEC'TRICAL EEL, the Gymnotus elec- 
tricus of ichthyologists, a fish shaped like 
an eel, which inhabits rivers in tropical 
South America. It possesses an internal 
electrical apparatus, from which, at the will 
of the animal, a shock can be transmitted 
to another animal. These shocks are so 
violent that even horses are stupifled by 
them. In this way the animal obtains its 
prey. Specimens 5| feet long have been 
found, and smaller ones have been brought 
to Europe. With these various electrical 
experiments have been tried. 

ELEC'TRICAL MACHI'NE, an instru¬ 
ment or apparatus for generating electri¬ 
city. Electrical machines are of various 
kinds, but the cylindrical is the most com¬ 
mon, and probably the most convenient. 
It consists of a glass cylinder, fixed in such 
a manner that it may be turned with a 
winch ; a cushion, supported by a glass pil¬ 
lar, and having a piece of silk which comes 
between it and the cylinder; and a metallic 
body, which is supported by a glass pillar, 
and is called the prime or positive conductor, 
or simply the conductor. If the cushion also 
is insulated by a glass pillar, to which is 
attached a similar metallic body, the latter 
is called the negative conductor. The elec¬ 
tricity obtained from the prime conductor 
is positive or vitreous : that from the 
negative conductor, negative or resinous. 

' The plate electrical machine differs from the 
cylindrical, chiefly in having a circular 


plate of glass, instead of a glass cylin¬ 
der which is electrically excited by friction 
of the rubber. If we require positive elec¬ 
tricity, the.prime conductor must be insu¬ 
lated, and the negative conductor joined by 
I a wire or chain to the ground, since all 
the electricity capable of being removed 
from the cushion and negative conductor 
would soon be withdrawn from them. If 
we require negative electricity, it is the 
negative conductor 'which must be insu¬ 
lated, and the positive which must be con¬ 
nected, by a wire or chain, with the earth. 

-Electric Induction, that action 

which an electrified body possesses of ex¬ 
citing electricity in any other conducting 

body near it.- Electric Rubber, a j 

cushion of horsehair, covered with leather, 
and slightly coated with an amalgam, con¬ 
sisting of mercury, tin, and zinc, which 
have been fused together, and pounded 
with tallow in a mortar. The flap of silk 
attached to the rubber is used to keep the 
electricity from being dissipated before it 
is drawn away to the conductor, by points 
attached to the latter; and also to increase 
the friction. Everything connected with 
electrical apparatus must be perfectly dry 
and clean, since moisture or dust carries | 
away the electric fluid. On a very damp' 
day, it is extremely difficult to make electri¬ 
cal experiments successfully, whatever pre¬ 
cautions are taken. -Electric Shock, 

the effect produced on the animal body by [ 
transmitting through it a current of elec¬ 
tricity, or the sudden withdrawal of a 
charge of electricity. 

ELECTRIC'ITY (elektron, amber : Gr.~), a 
peculiar affection of matter. Also that 
branch of science which treats of this. The 
name is derived from the Greek word sig¬ 
nifying amber, the electrical properties of 
which were remarked 600 years before the 
Christian era; but electricity can scarcely 
be considered to have become a distinct 
branch of science before the commence¬ 
ment of the 17th century, when a book, 
containing accounts of several electrical 
experiments, was written by Dr. William 
Gilbert; and it is only since the year 1745, 
when the properties of the Leyden jar were 
discovered, that it has made any conside¬ 
rable progress. From that time, however, 
electricity became the subject of constant 
research and careful experiment; and, as a 
science, it advanced with great rapidity 
under the auspices of Franklin, Priestley, 
and others. Various theories have been put 
forward as to what electricity is. It is 
usually spoken of as a fluid, and it is sup¬ 
posed that a body in the natural state is 
one which contains two species of elec¬ 
tricity, the one termed positive or vitreous, 
and the other negative or resinous. These 
exhibit polar or antagonistic forces, so that 
if they meet they neutralize each other, 
and cease to be apparent. Bodies electrified 
with either electricity, by whatever name 
it may be called, repel those electrified with 
the same kind, but attract those electrified 
with the opposite kind. Bodies vary greatly 
in their power of transmitting electricity, 
hence their division into conductors and 
non-conductors. To the former the metals 



















241__ iUtcnu-i) 

| belong; to the latter, glass, wax, and 
! | resins. Substances of this description may 
be excited by friction, so as to exhibit the 
| attraction and repulsion of light bodies, 

|' and emission of sparks or flashes of light, 

] attended with a sharp snapping sound ; and 
such is the rapidity of the electric fluid in 
motion, that no appreciable space of time 
is required for its passage to any known 
distance. The back of a cat, and even the 
human body, if rubbed in the dark, when 
the atmosphere is dry, may be made to give 
out sparks. It is now thoroughly ascer¬ 
tained that lightning is produced by vast 
quantities of the electric matter, and that 
thunder is the noise caused by the passage 
of the lightning. The Aurora borealis, or 
Northern lights, is the effect of the elec¬ 
tric fluid moving in the higher regions of 
the atmosphere; and it may be extremely 
well imitated, by transmitting electricity 
through highly rarefied air, which acts, to a 
certain extent, as a conductor. It is also 
well known that earthquakes, whirlwinds, 
and waterspouts are generally accompanied 
with, and dependent upon, electrical pheno¬ 
mena. Indeed, a change in the condition 
of matter (for instance, from the liquid to 
the vaporous form, and vice versA ) is always 
accompanied by a change in its electrical 
state. 

ELECTROCHEMISTRY, that science 
which treats of the agency of electricity and 
galvanism in effecting chemical changes. 

ELECTROL'YSIS ( lusis , an unloosing: 
Gr.), the decomposition of metallic com¬ 
pounds, by the action of a galvanic current, 
when a deposition of metal takes place at 
the negative pole of. the battery. Electro¬ 
lysis is too expensive to be employed in the 
I separation of the commercial metals from 
| their compounds, but this process is largely 
applied in the operations of electrotyping 
1 and electroplating. 

ELEC'TRO-MAG'NETISM. Electricity 
cannot pass through a conductor without 
magnetism being developed. This im- 
! portant fact, discovered by Oersted, may 
be proved by a simple experiment. Cause 
a piece of thin copper wire to lie very near 
and parallel to a magnetized needle capable 
of moving on a point: connect the wire 
with a galvanic battery, so that a current 
shall pass through: while the current is 
passing, the needle will not remain paral¬ 
lel with the wire, but will arrange itself 
transversely to it; and whether the north 
pole shall be deflected to one side of the 
wire or the other depends on which direction 
along the wire the current is proceeding, 
and whether the current is under or over 
the needle. Changing both the direction of 
the current and the side of the needle along 
which it flows, leaves the deflection towards 
the same side of the wire. This experiment 
teaches us how to magnetize a bar of steel 
permanently but slightly, and a bar of iron 
temporarily butstrongly. Fortliis purpose, 
we must cover a copper wire with silk, cot¬ 
ton, or some other insulating material, and 
coil it round the bar which is to be mag¬ 
netized, and which may be either straight 
or in the form of a horseshoe, &c. On 
transmitting electricity through the wire, | 


SCrnttfurj). [electrometer 


the bar will be rendered magnetic, and the 
intensity of its magnetism will depend on 
its softness, on (within certain limits) the 
length of the wire, and on the power of the 
galvanic battery employed. 

ELEC'TRO-MET'ALLURGY. [See Elec¬ 
trotype.] 

ELECTROM'ETER ( electron; and me- 
tron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring the quantity or intensity of elec¬ 
tricity, and determining its quality. Several 
contrivances have been devised for this 
purpose, but all of them depend on the mu¬ 
tual repulsion of similarly electrified bodies. 
The simplest is the pith-ball electrometer, 
which consists of two balls about the size 
of paas, made, for lightness, of the pith of 
elder, and suspended by two threads of silk. 
In their ordinary state, they lie in contact, 
but when electrified, they fly from each 
other, the amount of divergence depending 
on the degree of electrical excitement. 
—The Gold-leaf Electrometer consists of a 
small glass jar, to the upper end of which 
is attached a brass cap ; in the centre of the 
latter is fixed a piece of glass tube; a wire 
passes through the tube, having at its 
upper end a brass ball, and at its lower, 
two narrow slips of gold leaf, hanging 
together by one end of each. These slips 
remain parallel, and in contact, when the, 
instrument is uneiectrifled; but, when it is 
electrified, by placing an excited body in 
contact with or near its brass ball, the 
lower extremities of the gold leaves fly 
asunder. The glass jar protects the gold 
leaves from injury.—The Quadrant Electro¬ 
meter ccfnsists of a stem of ivory, at the 
upper end of which is a graduated quad¬ 
rant or semicircle, from the centre of 
which hangs down a very light index, hav¬ 
ing a pith ball at its lower extremity. When 
this instrument is fixed on an uneiectrifled 
conductor, the index and pith ball will lie 
close to the ivory stem; but when the 
conductor is charged with electricity the 
index and stem will mutually repel each 
other, and the divergence will be indicated 
by the quadrant or semicircle.—The Torsion 
Electrometer consists of two pith balls, fixed 
respectively at the ends of a short and slen¬ 
der slip of some very light substance. This 
slip is suspended horizontally,by the centre 
of gravity, to a silkworm’s thread, or some 
other very fine filament, hung within a 
glass jar, in the centre of the upper end of 
which is fixed a tolerably large glass tube; 
and at the upper extremity of the glass 
tube, a movable knob, to the under part of 
which the filament is attached. The fila¬ 
ment passes down through the tube, and 
into the jar. A short piece of brass wire is 
fixed in an aperture drilled through the side 
of the jar, and has a brass ball attached to 
both its interior and exterior ends. When 
the instrument is uneiectrifled, one of the 
pith balls remains quietly in contact with 
the brass ball inside the jar; but when it is 
electrified, by bringing the outer brass ball 
in contact with an excited body, the pith 
ball is driven away from the brass ball, in 
opposition to the force of torsion, the fila¬ 
ment being forcibly twisted. If the brass 
and pith balls are oppositely electrified, it 
R 






















electro-negative] 


may be seen, by moving round the knob 
above, through what distance the brass and 
pith balls will attract each other, in oppo- 
j sition to the force of torsion; and as the 
force of torsion is proportional to the ex- 
j tent through which the filament is twisted, 
different repulsions or attractions may be 
very accurately compared. 

ELEC'TRO-NEGA'TIVE, charged with ne¬ 
gative or resinous electricity, and attracted 
by bodies positively electrified. -Elec¬ 

tro-positive, charged with positive or 
vitreous electricity, and attracted by bodies 
negatively electrified : for instance, by the 
negative pole or element of the galvanic 
battery. 

ELECTROPH'ORUS ( electron ; and phe- 
ro, I carry: Gr.), a very simple instrument for 
obtaining electricity. It consists of a flat 
smooth cake composed of resin and a little 
wax which have been melted together and 
poured into a small shallow circular tin 
tray; also, a brass plate with a glass handle ; 
and the skin of a cat prepared for the pur¬ 
pose. Having dried and even slightly 
warmed the apparatus, and struck the resin 
smartly a few times with the catskin, we 
lay the brass plate on the resin ; while there, 
a spark may be obtained from it—in the 
first instance, on account of the electricity, 
it removes from the parts of the rosin with 
which it is in contact, and afterwards on 
account of the electricity produced upon it 
by tiie electrical action of those portions of 
the resin with which it is not immediately 
in contact. On taking the plate away, a 
spark may be again obtained from it; and 
every time this is repeated, two sparks may 
be had in the same way—the first due to 
the electricity repelled from the brass plate 
j by that which remains in the very slight 
\ hollow of the resinous cake ; the second, 

I to the restoration of the ordinary state of 
j the brass plate when it has been removed 
from the inductive action of the cake. If 
the apparatus is kept inji dry place, sparks 
sufficient to explode gases may, without 
fresh excitement, be taken from it for 
j months. 

ELECTROSCOPE ( electron; and skopeo, 
I examine: Gr.). Any instrument, such as 
1 the gold-leaf electrometer, &c„ for detect- 
1 ing the presence of electricity, is called by 
this name. 

ELECTROTYPE ( electron; and tupos, a 
mark : Gr.), the process by which works in 
relief are reproduced by the agency of elec¬ 
tricity, which precipitates certain metals, 
such as gold, silver, and copper, from their 
solutions, upon moulds, so as to form a 
coherent mass equal in toughness and flexi¬ 
bility to hammered metals. The applica¬ 
tions of this beautiful process appear 
almost unlimited, and, as a means of pro¬ 
ducing facsimiles of art, it is invaluable. 
The nature of the operation may be illus¬ 
trated by a very simple experiment: — 
Plunge two pieces of clean platinum into a 
solution of sulphate of copper, slightly acid¬ 
ulated with sulphuric acid. No effect will be 
j produced until the pieces of platinum are 
connected respectively with the poles of a 
galvanic battery. On doing this, copper 
will be immediately precipitated on the 


242 


catalectrode or negative surface, and the 
deposit may be made of any desired thick¬ 
ness : if the strength of the solution is 
kept up by occasionally adding sulphate, 
the copper will be in the solid form, and 
may be peeled off the platinum. If the 
electric current is reversed, the copper will 
be taken from one piece of platinum and 
deposited on the other. If the negative pole 
or cathode had been a medal, or other irre¬ 
gular surface, a matrix would be formed 
from it; and, using this matrix in the same 
way, copper deposited on it would represent 
the surface of the medal, &c. If gold, silver, 
and other metals are substituted for the cop- j 
per, the cathode will be gilt, silvered, &c. A j 
varnish protects any part we please from 
being coated with deposit; and a coating 
of black-lead will render a non-conductor 
capable of having a deposit formed upon it. 
In the ordinary mode of carrying on the 
process, two vessels are used ; and, dilute j 
sulphuric acid having been poured into j 
one of them, which may be a lamp chimney | 
closed with a bladder at the lower end, it is 
placed in the other, which contains a strong 1 
acidulated solution of sulphate of copper, 
&c. The medal to be copied is hung in the 
solution of sulphate, being connected by a 
wire with apiece of zinc hung in the dilute 
acid. The bladder prevents the fluids from 
mixing, but does not intercept the electric 
current from the zinc to the medal. On 
the large scale, a somewhat different ar¬ 
rangement is used, but the principle is the 
same: the solution of sulphate of copper 
is placed in a trough of slate, &c.; a plate 
of copper is suspended in it, and also, op¬ 
posite to the copper, the medals, &c„ to , 
be copied. The plate of copper, being ! 
united by wire with the zinc element of a ! 
separate constant battery, and the metallic 
rod carrying the medals, &c.,with its other 
metallic element, a deposit is formed on the 
medals, &c. With this arrangement, the 
constant battery is called the generating 
cell, and the vessel with sulphate solution 
the decomposing cell. In the simple appa¬ 
ratus first described, the lamp chimney 
con tai n i n g t h e z i n c wa s t h c gen erat.i n g cel I, 
and the external vessel the decomposing 
cell. When other metals are to be precipi¬ 
tated, plates and solutions of these metals 
are to be employed in the decomposing 
cell. 

ELECTRUM (Lot.; from eleMron: Gr.), a 
term used by the ancients to indicate a 
metallic alloy, consisting of four parts gold 
and one silver; also amber. 

ELECTUARY (electuarium: Lot.), in 
Pharmacy, a form of medicine, composed 
of powders or other ingredients, incorpo¬ 
rated with some syrup, &c. [See Eclegjl] 

EL'EGANCE ( elegantia: Lot.), in the Fine 
Arts, grace and lightness, but particularly 
the latter. 

ELE'GIT (tm has chosen : Lat. —on ac¬ 
count of the creditor making a selection of 
the writ which he will sue out), in Law, a 
writ of execution, founded upon an ancient 
statute passed in the 13th year of Edward I. 

It is addressed to the sheriff,who gives to the 
judgment-creditor the lands and tenements 
of the debtor, to be enjoyed by him until 


Cljc Jpctenttftc 




























243 Ettcrarn Crraguti?* [elevation 

the debt is fully paid. After it, the body 
of the debtor cannot be taken. 

EL'EGY ( elegos: from e, alas ; and lego, I 
Bay : Gr.), a mournful and plaintive kind of 
[ poem. The principal writers of elegiac 
verse among the Greeks were Callimachus, 
Farthenius, and Eupborion ; among the 
j Latins, Propertius, Ovid, and Tibullus. 

EL'EMENTS ( elementa , first principles: 
Lat.), the indecomposable constituents of 
bodies, of which chemists have discovered 
about 65. These they class as metallic, 
non-metallic, and intermediate elements ; 
but, in fact, the classes graduate into each 
! other. A list of the elementary bodies will 
; be found under Equivalents. In the an¬ 
cient and still popular sense of the word, 
the elements are understood to be four in 
number, namely, fire, air, earth, and water ; 
but it is fully demonstrated by the re¬ 
searches of modern science, that earth is a 
compound of many earths ; air, a compound 
of at least two gases; water, a compound 
of hydrogen and oxygen ; and fire, only the 
production of light and heat during com¬ 
bustion_ Elements, in a figurative 

sense, the principles and foundations of 
any art or science, as ‘ Euclid’s Elements,’ 

&c.- Elements, in Divinity, the bread 

and wine prepared for the sacrament of the 
Lord’s Supper. 

EL'EMI, a resin of a strong aromatic 
odour, and a hot spicy taste, which exudes 
from incisions made through the bark of 
various terebinthinous trees. The crystal¬ 
line resin of elemi is called elemine, and is 
used in making lacquer. 

ELEN'CHUS ( elenchos , a proof: Gr.), in 
Logic, a sophism, or fallacious argument, 

; which deceives the hearer under the ap- 
i pearance of truth. 

EI/EPHANT ( elephas: Gr.), the largest, 
strongest, and most sagacious of all quad¬ 
rupeds. It is placed amongst the Pachy- 
dermata, in the order TJngulata. The form 
of this animal is altogether awkward; the 
head is massive, the eyes small, and the 
ears large and pendulous ; the body is thick, 
and the back much arched ; the feet are 
short, round, clumsy, and distinguishable 
only by the five rounded hoofs in which 
each of them terminates. The trunk, or 
| proboscis, by which it conveys food and 
drink to its mouth, and the most singular 
part of its structure, is a cartilaginous dou¬ 
ble tube, seven or eight feet long, composed 
of numerous rings, and extending from the 
upper jaw. It is of such strength as to be 
capable of breaking off large branches from 
trees; whilst, at the same time, it is en¬ 
dowed with such exquisite sensibility, that 
it can grasp the smallest object. The two 
large tusks are of a yellowish colour, and 
extremely hard : the bony substance of 
these is called ivory. The disposition of 
the elephant is gentle, and his manners so¬ 
cial ; hence they are seldom seen except in 
troops. In wandering from place to place, 

1 the males, who are furnished w 7 ith the 
largest tusks, put themselves at the head, 
and are the first to face every danger. Ele¬ 
phants shed their teeth eight times, their 
tusks only once. The latter take the place 
of the incisor teeth of other animals. Two 

species are distinguished, one inhabiting 1 
India, the other Africa. The latter has a 
remarkably large ear. The extinct mas- 1 
todon and mammoth were closely allied 
animals. Elephants were first used in war 
by the Greeks, in the time of Alexander the 
Great ; at least, there is no mention of their 
being so employed before that time. They 
carried upon their backs large towers, con¬ 
taining from ten to thirty soldiers, who 
threw missive weapons from thence upon 
the enemy, being themselves secured within 
their wooden walls; while the animals did 
great execution, by terrifying, tearing, and 
trampling down both horses and men. 

EL'EPIIANT-BEETLE, the Megasomaelc- 
phas of entomologists, is a native of South 
America. It is a member of the family Dy- 
nastidee, in the Lamcllicorn group. It has 
acquired its name from having a long horn 
on the thorax, with a shorter one on each 
side. This insect is frequently three inches 
in length, but in size it is much exceeded 
by the Hercules-beetle ( Dynastes Hercules), 
also a native of South America, which has 
a length Of five, and sometimes of six 
inches. 

ELE'PHANT’S FOOT, the common name 
of a plant, Testudinaria elephantipes, nat. 
ord. Dioscoreacece, a native of the Cape of 
Good Hope. The short thick rough stem 
suggested the name. 

ELEPHANTI'ASIS (Gr., from elephas, an 
elephant), a species of leprosy, which de- 1 
rives its name from the skin being covered 
with incrustations like the skip of the ele¬ 
phant, and from the legs swelling to an im¬ 
mense size. It is adreadful chronic disease, 
and is regarded as contagious. 

ELEUSIN'IA (. Eleusis, in Greece), in Gre- j 
cian Antiquity, solemn and mysterious fes¬ 
tivals in honour of Ceres and Proserpine. 
They were of tw r o kinds, the less and the 
greater. The less, which were held at Agrse 
on the Ilissus, were celebrated every year 
—according to some, in honour of Proser¬ 
pine only. They were intended chiefly as a 
preparation for initiation in the Hysteria, 
or rites of the greater solemnity. The latter 
continued nine days, the first portion being 
celebrated at Athens : it included, most pro¬ 
bably, a representation of the whole history 
of Ceres and Proserpine, and indicated to 
the initiated, according to common belief, i 
a pleasing prospect of the future state—a 
purpose not originally contemplated, and 
perhaps introduced from Egypt. The pre¬ 
siding or initiating priest was termed a 
hierophant. To reveal the secrets of the 
Eleusinian mysteries was looked upon as a 
crime that could not fail to draw down the 
vengeance of heaven. 

ELEUTHE'RIA (the feast of liberty : Gr.), 
in Grecian Antiquity, a festival celebrated 
at Plataea, in memory of the defeat of 
Mardonius, the general of Xerxes, and in 
honour of those who gallantly sacrificed 
their lives for the liberty of their country ; 
also as a bond of union among the Greeks 
themselves. It was held every fifth year, 
when prizes where contended for. Slaves, 
on obtaining their liberty, kept a festival 
called Eleidheria. 

ELEVA'TION ( elevatio : Lat.), in Archi- 






























elevator] ^L\)t Jj'Cttnttfic rntfr 244 


tecture, an orthographic drawing of the 

face or side of a building.- Elevation, 

in Astronomy, altitude; the height of the 
equator, pole, or stars, &c., above the hori¬ 
zon.-In Gunnery, the angle which the 

chase of a cannon or mortar makes with 

the plane of the horizon.- Elevation of 

the Host, in the Roman Catholic church, 
that part of the ceremony of the mass 
which consists in the priest’s raising the 
host above his head for the people to 
adore it. 

EL'EVATOR (elevo, I lift up: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, the name of several muscles, 
which serve to raise those parts of the body 
to which they belong; as, the elevator of 

the external ear, the epiglottis, &c.- 

Elevator, a surgical instrument, used for 
raising depressed portions of the skull in 
trepanning. 

ELF {wife: Sax.), a term now almost ob¬ 
solete, but formerly used to denote a fairy 
or hobgoblin, an imaginary being, the crea¬ 
ture of ignorance, superstition, and craft. 

ELF'-ARROWS, a name given to flints in 
the shape of arrow-heads, vulgarly supposed 
to be shot by fairies. They are frequently 
met with in Great Britain, and there is 
reason to believe they were weapons of 
offence among the ancient Britons. 

EL'GIN MAR'BLES, a collection of splen¬ 
did bassi-rilievi and fragments of statuary, 
which were sent chiefly from the Parthenon 
of Athens to England, in 1812, by Lord Elgin 
(hence the name). They are now in the 
British Museum, having been purchased by 
government in 1816 for 35,0001. They are 
unquestionably most valuable remains of 
ancient art, and offer the finest subjects 
for study. The most important part of the 
collection consists of sculptures, which were 
placed on the eastern and western pediments 
of the Parthenon at Athens. One set repre¬ 
sented, when entire, the miraculous birth of 
Minerva from the head of Jupiter; theotlier 
the contest of Minerva and Neptune for the 
guardianship of Athens. They were exe¬ 
cuted under the superintendence of Phidias. 

ELIMINATION {elimino, I turn out of 
doors : Lat.), in Algebra, the causing an 
unknown quantity to disappear from an 
equation. By means of this process, an 
equation having only one unknown quan¬ 
tity is obtained from any number of equa¬ 
tions having the same number of unknown 
quantities. 

ELIQUA'TION {eliquatio, a liquefying: 
Lat.), in Metallurgy, a separation of the dif¬ 
ferent parts of mixed metals by the different 
degrees of heat required to melt them. 

ELI'SION ( elisio, from elido, I strike out: 
Lat.), in Grammar, the cutting off or sup¬ 
pressing a vowel at the middle or end of 
a word for the sake of sound or metre; as, 
tli' ensanguined field. 

ELIX'IR {Arab.), an old pharmaceutical 
term, expressing certain essences or tinc¬ 
tures : thus, the mixture of an aromatic tinc¬ 
ture with sulphuric acid was called elixir 

of vitriol. -Also, solutions employed by the 

alchemists in their attempts to effect the 
transmutation of metals. 

ELK, or Moose, a quadruped of the deer 
family, of which it is the largest species. 


It is a native of the northern regions of 
Europe and America. It is very shy and 
wary, requiring great skill on the part of 
the hunter to bring it within range of his 
gun. The height at the shoulders is fre¬ 
quently more than six feet, and the male 
carries a pair of horns which are very broad 
at the upper end, and weigh sometimes 
nearly 50 lbs. From the short neck and long 
legs, the animal is not graceful. The great 
Irish elk {Megaceros hibemicus), whose fos¬ 
sil remains are sometimes found in bone- 
caverns, was a still larger animal, and is 
now extinct. The skull and antlers have 
been known to weigh 86 lbs. 

ELL, a measure, of different lengths in 
different countries. That formerly used in 
England was the English or Flemish ell: 
the former being three feet nine inches, or 
one yard and a quarter, and the latter only 
twenty-seven inches, or three-quarters of a 
yard. 

ELLIP'SIS ( elleipsis, literally a defi¬ 
ciency : Gr.), in Geometry, an oval or curved 
line returning into itself, and produced 
from the section of a cone by a plane ob¬ 
liquely cutting both its sides. It received 
its name from it3 plane forming with the 
base of the cone a less angle than that of 

the parabola. -In Grammar, a figure of 

syntax, by which one or more words are 
omitted, which the reader may supply ; as, 

‘ the horse I rode,’ for ‘ the horse which, I 

rode.’-In Rhetoric, a figure of speech, by 

which the orator, through excessive emo¬ 
tion, passes over many things, which, had 
he been cool, ought to have been mentioned. 

ELLIP'SOIB {elleipsis, an ellipse; and 
eidos, form : Gr.), in Geometry, an elliptical 
spheroid, being the solid generated by the 
revolution of an ellipse about either axis. 

ELM ( ulmus: Lat.), Ulmus campestris, a 
large forest tree, the wood of which is very 
serviceable where it may be continually 
either dry or wet. Accordingly it is proper 
for water-works, mills, pumps, aqueducts, 
and ship-planks beneath the water-line. It 
is also used for naves of wheels, handles 
for single saws, axletrees, and the like. 
Three or four species are ascribed to Britain, 
including the wych elm ( ulmus montana). 
About twenty species are known, all in¬ 
habiting the colder parts of the northern 
hemisphere. 

ELMO’S FIRE, St., an appearance caused 
by fiery meteors in the atmosphere, often 
seen playing about the masts and rigging 
of ships. It is undoubtedly an electrical 
phenomenon, and is caused, most probably, 
by the atmospheric electricity being gra¬ 
dually attracted by pointed bodies, such as 
masts of ships. It may be illustrated on the 
small scale by taking or giving out elec¬ 
tricity with a point, in a dark room. 

ELOCUTION {elocutio, from eloquor, 1 
speak out: Lat.), the art of choosing and 
adapting words and sentences to the ideas 
which are to be expressed ; or, as it is more 
usually employed, the management of 
the voice, countenance, and gesture, in 
speaking. 

ELO'HIM ( Lleb.), a word used in the Pen 
tateuch to signify the Deity; sometimes 
in place of, sometimes along with, the word 
















245 


SUterarj) Crotfurg. 


[embezzlement 


Jehovah. Some critics believe that the 
passages containing these words may be 
separated into two distinct narratives, 
which seem to have been written by diffe¬ 
rent hands, and the writers have been 
accordingly designated Elohistic and Jelio- 
vistic. 

ELONGA'TION, in Astronomy, the appa¬ 
rent distance of a planet from the sun. 

EL'OQUENCE ( eloquentia , from eloquor, 
I speak out: Lat.), the art of clothing the 
thoughts in expressions the most suited to 
produce conviction or persuasion. Strictly 
speaking, the term should be applied only to 
public speaking; but it is frequently extended 
to written language. We may infer from 
Homer, that eloquence was very early in 
great esteem among the Greeks; and it at¬ 
tained the highest perfection in Demosthe¬ 
nes. The Romans, for a long time, had 
but little leisure for the cultivation of elo¬ 
quence : but at length they produced many 
celebrated orators, the chief of whom was 
the illustrious Cicero, who was exceeded 
only by Demosthenes. Eloquence, as an art, 
comprises invention, disposition, elocution, 
and delivery. And a formal oration should 
contain an exordium or introduction ; & nar¬ 
ration ; a proposition, proof, or refutation; 
and a peroration. The Romans distinguished 
three kinds of eloquence ; the demonstra¬ 
tive, the deliberative, and the judicial. Our 
division is, that of the bar, the senate, and 
the pulpit. Among the moderns, eloquence 
is far more subdued and moderate in its 
character than among the ancients, who 
permitted very strong expressions, and the 
most violent gesticulation. 

E'LUL, the name of a Jewish month, 
which nearly corresponded to our August; 
it was the twelfth month of the civil, and 
sixth of the ecclesiastical year. 

ELUTRIA'TION ( elutrio, I wash out: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, the separation of sub¬ 
stances, by washing them in large quanti¬ 
ties of water; the heavier particles fall to 
the bottom ; and the lighter, being suspend¬ 
ed in the fluid, are obtained by gradual 
subsidence. Elutriation is a .most conve¬ 
nient way of procuring a substance in the 
state of an impalpable powder. 

ELY'SIAN FIELDS, or ELY'SIUM ( elu¬ 
sion pedion, or elusion, the pedion being 
left out by later writers : Gr.), in Heathen 
Mythology, the supposed residence of the 
blessed after death. The poets describe 
this region as consisting of beautiful mea¬ 
dows, alternating with pleasant groves, 
where a serene and cloudless sky was spread 
over them, and a soft celestial light shed 
a magical brilliancy over every object. The 
heroes there practised their favourite 
sports, danced to the sound of the lyre, from 
which Orpheus drew the most enchanting 
tones, or wmndered through odoriferous 
groves, where warbling birds carolled forth 
their harmony by the side of refreshing 
fountains. There the earth teemed with 
plenteous fruits, and the verdure of spring 
was perpetual; while all cares, pains, and 
infirmities were exchanged for the purest 
bliss.— Also, a place on the coast of 
Campania. 

ELYTRA ( elutron , tjie sheath of a beetle’s 


wing: Gr.), in Entomology, a name for the 
hard external sheaths of beetles, under 
which the membranous wings used in flying 
are placed when the insects are walking or 
at rest. They are often adorned with rich 
colours and a metallic lustre. 

EMANA'TION (e, out of; and mano, I 
flow: Lat.), in Theology, another term for 
Pantheism, which see. 

EMANCIPATION (emancipatio: Lat.), in 
the Roman law, the setting free a son from 
subjection to his father. It differed from 
manumission, as the latter was the act of a 
master in favour of a slave, whereas eman¬ 
cipation put the son in a situation to ma¬ 
nage his own affairs, and to marry without 
his father’s consent, although a minor. The 
word emancipation has been applied to the 
liberation of negroes from Christian slavery, 
and to the abolition of the disabilities of 
Roman Catholics in England. 

EMAR'GINATE (emargino, I take away 
the edge: Lat.), in Botany, having the edge 
notched. According to the kind of notches, 
a leaf is said to be obtusely or acutely emar- 
ginate. 

EMBALM'ING ( balsamon, balsam : Gr.), 
the opening a dead body, taking out the 
intestines, and filling their place with odo¬ 
riferous and desiccative drugs and spices, 
to prevent putrefaction. The ancient Egyp¬ 
tians have always been celebrated for the 
skill with which they exercised the art of 
embalming. The term is derived from the 
use of balsamic substances in the operation, 
in addition to those wbich were saline, and 
to tanning materials. It appears to have 
been a dogma among some ancient nations, 
inculcated by their religion, that the soul 
continued with the body. Modern chemis¬ 
try has made us acquainted with many 
means of counteracting putrefaction, more 
simple and more effectual than the laborious 
processes of the ancients. 

EMBAR'GO (Span.), a prohibition issued 
by the authorities of a country, to prevent 
merchant vessels leaving their ports. It 
is generally imposed in time of war, or 
during fear of invasion; and in such cases, 
the ships under embargo are used in arma¬ 
ments, expeditions, &c. 

EM'BER WEEK ( cemyrian, ashes: Sax.); 
or, perhaps, an abbreviation for Quatember, 
from quatuor tempora, the four times : 
Lat.), four seasons in the year more par¬ 
ticularly set apart for prayer and fasting, 
namely, the first week in Lent, the weeks 
next after Whitsuntide, the 14th of Sep¬ 
tember, and the 13th of December.-- 

Ember Days, particular days of fasting 
and humiliation in the Ember weeks. 

EMBERI'ZA, in Ornithology, a genus of 
passerine birds, including the yellow-ham¬ 
mer, the common and other buntings, and 
the ortolan (Eniberiza hortulana), which is 
esteemed a great delicacy for the table. 

EMBEZZLEMENT ( embesler, to filch : Old 
Fr.), in Law, a felony, which consists in a 
class of acts committed by one employed 
as a clerk or a servant, which would, if 
committed by others, amount to larceny. 
It differs from the latter by relating to 
property not at the time in the actual or 
legal possession of the owner. 











C()e J?ctmttftc autf 


246 


emblem] 

EM'BLEM (emblema, a tesselated pave¬ 
ment : Gr.), a kind of painted enigma, or 
certain metaphorical figures, painted or cut, 
expressing some action, or teaching some 
moral truth. 

EM'BLEMENTS ( emblaver , to sow with 
wheat: Fr.), in Law, a word used for 
the produce of land sown or planted hy a 
tenant for life or years, whose estate is de¬ 
termined suddenly, by the act of God, after 
the land is sown or planted, and before a 
harvest. The tenant’s executors shall have 
the emblements; but, in the case of a tenant 
I for years, they include only what is not 
ripe before midsummer. Fruits on a tree, 
or natural grasses, are not emblements. 

EM'BOLISM ( embolisma , a patch : Gr.), in 
Astronomical Chronology, the insertion of 
days, months, or years, in an account of 
time, to produce regularity. 

EMBOS'SING (bosse, a protuberance: Fr.), 
the forming of works in relief, whether by 
raising, or by depression. It is, in short, a 
kind of sculpture, where the figures project 
from the plane on which they are cut; and 
according as they are more or less promi¬ 
nent, they are said to be in alto, mezzo, or 

bassorilievo. - Embossing Cloth. Cotton, 

woollen cloth, silk, paper, and other fabrics, 

- are embossed by the powerful pressure of 
| revolving cylinders on which the required 
patterns are engraved. 

EMBOU'CHURE (a mouth: Fr.), in Mu- 
j sic, the aperture of a flute or other wind 
instrument. 

EMBRA'CERY (embrasscrie: Fr.), in Law, 

| the endeavouring to corrupt or influence a 
jury; it is punishable by fine and imprison¬ 
ment. 

EMBRASU'RE (Fr.), in Architecture, an 
enlargement of the aperture of a door 

or window, on the inside of the wall.-In 

Fortification, a hole or aperture in a para¬ 
pet, through which guns are pointed and 
discharged. 

EMBROCATION (en, on ; and brccho, I 
wet the surface: <?r.),in Pharmacy, a lotion 
or combination of medicinal liquids, with 
which any diseased part is washed or fo¬ 
mented. 

EMBROID'ERY ( broderie: Fr.), figured 
work wrought on silk, cloth, stuffs, or mus¬ 
lins. The art of embroidery was invented 
in the East, probably by the Phrygians or 
Persians : it was certainly introduced from 

Persia into Greece.- Embroidering Ma- 

! chine. Until of late, embroidery was per- 
| formed entirely by hand, and was practised, 

I on account of its elegance, by ladies of rank; 

1 but various ingenious machines have been 
j invented for this purpose, and are now used 
; very extensively in England, France, and 
; Germany. One of these machines, having 
130 needles, will do as much work as fifteen 
expert hand embroiderers, and requires 
merely the labour of one grown-up person 
] and two assistant children. 

! EM'BRYO ( embruon, from bruo, I cause 
to burst: Gr.), the first rudiments of the 
i animal in the womb, before it becomes a 
fmtus. -In Botany, a fleshy body occupy¬ 

ing the interior of a seed, and constituting 
the rudiments of the future plant. It con- 
i sists of the phimula or growing point, the 


radicle or root, and tho cotyledon or coty¬ 

ledons. [See Reed.] 

EMENDATION (emendatio: Lat.), an al¬ 
teration made in the text of any book, by 

verbal criticism.-In Law, the correction 

of abuses. 

EM'ERALD (emeraude: Fr.), a well-known 
gem of a beautiful green colour, somewhat 
harder than quartz; it occurs in prisms 
with a regular hexagonal base, and ranks 
next in value to the Oriental ruby and 
sapphire. It becomes electric by friction, 
is often transparent, but sometimes only 
translucent, and before the blow-pipe is 
fusible into a whitish enamel, or glass. It 
consists chiefly of glucina, with silica, alu¬ 
mina, a very little lime and iron. Its 
colouring matter is probably a very minute 
quantity of oxide of chrome. The most 
intensely coloured and valuable emeralds 
are brought from Peru-In Heraldry, an¬ 

other name for vert, or tho green tincture 
in coat armour. 

EMER'SION (emergo, I come forth : Lat.), 
in Astronomy, the reappearance of the sun 
or moon after an eclipse; also of a star 
that passes from within the rays of the 
sun. 

EM'ERY (from Cape Fmeri, in the island 
of Naxos), in Mineralogy, a compact variety 
of Corundum, very generally regarded as a 
kind of iron ore. It is of a blackish-grey 
colour, and so very hard as to scratch 
topaz. It consists of alumina, silica, and 
iron; and is used in tho form of a powder 
for polishing hard minerals and metals. 
The lapidaries cut ordinary gems by sprink¬ 
ling their wheels with the moistened pow¬ 
der of emery ; but it will produce no effect 
on the diamond. 

EMET'IC ( emetikos from emeo, I vomit: 
Gr.), a medicine for emptying the stomach 
by vomiting. Twenty grains of ipecacu¬ 
anha is a very safe and good emetic, for 
evacuating the stomach, when it is dis¬ 
ordered by improper food ; it produces an 
effect in from ten to twenty minutes, and 
its action may be assisted by chamomile 
tea or warm water. 'When poison has been 
swallowed, the stomach is often insensible 
to the ordinary means of acting upon it, 
particularly if a large dose of opium has 
been taken. In such a case, half a drachm 
of sulphate of zinc, or of sulphate of cop¬ 
per, may be given, dissolved in three ounces 
of warm water; a third part to be taken 
every ten minutes, until it operates. The 
stomach-pump, however, is most to be 
relied upon. 

EM'ETINE ( cmetos, a vomiting: Gr.), in 
Medicine, a peculiar vegetable principle, 
obtained from the root of the Ipecacuanha, 
of whose emetic properties it is conceived 
to be the sole cause. In a dose of half a 
grain it acts as a powerful emetic, followed 
by sleep; and six grains produces violent 
vomiting, stupor, and death. 

EMICA'TION ( emicatio, a springing forth: 
Lat.), a flying off in small particles, as from 
heated iron or fermenting liquors. 

EMIGRATION (emigratio, a removal, 
Lat.), the removal of inhabitants from one 
country to another, for the purpose of per¬ 
manent residence. Prohibitions of eml* 





























247 llttcrarn 


gration are unjust, as well as Impolitic, and 
always prove that a government which 
sanctions them has an incorrect idea of its 
duties. The power of reproduction is so 
great, that the vacuum caused by any 
amount of emigration is soon filled up. 

EM'INENCE ( emincntia , excellence, lite¬ 
rally a prominence: Lat.), an honorary title 
given to various dignitaries at different 
times, but appropriated to cardinals by a 
decree of the pope in 1630. 

E'MIR (a chief: Arab.), a title of dignity 
among the Saracens and Turks. It was at 
first given to all the caliphs, but it is now 
confined to those who are considered the 
descendants of Mahomet, by his son-in-law 
Ali and his daughter Fatima. Joined to 
another word, indicative of a particular 
office, it is a common title : thus, Emir al 
Ornrah, that of viziers and pashas. 

EMOLLES'CENCE ( emollio , I make soft: 
Lat.), in Metallurgy, that degree of softness 
in a fusible body which alters its shape. 

EMOL'LIENTS (same deriv.), in Medicine, 
such remedies as are supposed to relax the 
living animal fibre. 

EMPA'LEMENT (in, on; and palus, a 
stake: Lat.), a cruel kind of punishment, in 
which a stake was thrust up through the 

body.-In Heraldry, a conjunction of 

coats of arms, pale-wise. 

EM'PEROR (imperator: Lat.), among the 
ancient Romans, a title of honour conferred 
on a general who had been victorious; but, 
on the fall of the republic, it was applied 
to the head of the state. The Roman em¬ 
perors united in their own persons many 
of the chief offices of the state. Thus, 
Octavius was emperor, proconsul, tribune, 
and pontifex maximus ; also, perpetual 
consul, censor, prince of the senate, and 
augustus—the latter designation descend¬ 
ing to those who reigned after him. The 
emperors appointed their own successors, 
who enjoyed the title of Caesars. Charle¬ 
magne assumed the imperial dignity after 
his coronation at Rome, and since that time 
j it has been claimed by the sovereigns of 
Germany. When the German empire was 
dissolved in 1805, the title passed to the 
emperor of Austria; and it was assumed 
in the same year by Napoleon in France. 
The czars of Russia have claimed it since 
the reign of Alexander. 

EM'PHASIS (Gr.), in Rhetoric, a particu¬ 
lar stress of utterance, or force of the voice 
and action, given to such parts or words of 
an oration as the speaker intends to spe- 
: dally impress upon his audience. 

EMPHYSE'MA (emphusema, an inflation : 
Gr.), in Surgery, a puffy tumour, formed by 
the air insinuating itself into the cellular 
membrane, and rendering the part affected 
tense and elastic: it crepitates when pressed. 

EM'PIRE (Fr.; from imperium: Lat.), the 
territory or government of an emperor. 
The term was first applied to the dominions 
of ancient Rome, which were ultimately 
divided into the Eastern and Western em¬ 
pires. The Eastern was called also the 
Lower empire. The Western became, about 
the end of the 9th century, the German, or 
Holy Roman Empire. The word is often 
used to indicate an extensive territory, not 


Crcrttfut'iu [enamel 


governed by an emperor: thus, the British 

Empire. 

EMPIRTC (empeirikos, from pair a, an 
experiment: Gr.), one whose knowledge is 
founded on experience. The empiric school 
of medicine was opposed to the dogmatic . 
The empirics were generally a pretending 
and ignorant sect; and hence the word i 3 
used for a quack or charlatan of any kind. 

EMPLAS'TICS (emplastilcos, fit for shut¬ 
ting up the pores : Gr.), an appellation given 
to medicines which constipate and shut up 
the pores of the body. Hence, emplastic 
means viscous, or adhesive, like a plaster. 

EMPO'RIUM (empurion, a mart; from 
emporos, one who goes on shipboard as a 
passenger : Gr.), a common resort of mer¬ 
chants for trade; particularly a city or town 
of extensive commerce, or in which the 
commerce of an extensive country centres, 
or to which sellers and buyers resort from 
different countries. 

EMPYEMA (empuema, a suppuration: 
Gr.), in Medicine, a disorder in which puru- 
leut matter is contained in the thorax or 
breast, after an inflammation and suppura¬ 
tion of the lungs and pleura: it is attended 
with a difficulty of breathing and an inabi¬ 
lity to lie on the side opposite to that which 
is affected. 

EMPYRE'UM, or EMPYRE'AN (empu- 
reuo, I set on fire: Gr.), a term used by di¬ 
vines for the highest heaven, where the 
blessed enjoy the beatific vision. It derives 
its name from having been supposed to be 
the region of fire.-We use the word em¬ 

pyreal as pertaining to that region of space 
which is above the utmost limits of the 
atmosphere. 

EMPYREU'MA (empureuma, a coal to 
preserve a smouldering fire; from empu- 
reuo, I set on fire : Gr.), in Chemistry, the 
peculiar smell produced from burnt sub¬ 
stances. Hence oils obtained by distilling I 
organic matters at high temperatures are 
called empyrcumatic oils. 

EMPYREU'MATA (same deriv.), in Medi¬ 
cine, the remains of a fever after the dis¬ 
ease has abated. 

EMU, the JDromaius Nova} Hollandice of 
ornithologists, a large bird of the ostrich 
family. It attains the length of seven feet, 
and has brown and grey plumage. It is a 
shy bird, and being a fleet runner, is chased 
with dogs. The male hatches the eggs, 
whilst the female keeps guard. 

EMUL'GENT ( emulgeo, I milk out: Lat.), 
a term applied to the artery and vein of the 
kidney. 

EMUL'SION (same deriv.), in Medicine, 
any milklike mixture prepared by uniting 
oil and water by means of another sub¬ 
stance : as almond emulsion. 

EMUNC'TORY (emungo, I blow the nose : 
Lat.), in Anatomy, a term for any part 
which serves to carry off the matters 
thrown off by the blood and other hu¬ 
mours : thus, the skin is the emunetory of 
the body. 

ENAL'LAGE ( enallag?,m exchange: Gr.), 
a figure in Grammar, where there is a cliango 
of one case or mood for another. 

ENAM'EL (tmail: Fr.), a vitriflable sub¬ 
stance, chiefly formed of the oxides of lead 




























EIjc J^cicnttftc autf 


248 


ENANTIOSIS] 


and tin, with soda and silica, in the shape 
of powdered quartz or flint. These, when 
melted together, yield a white enamel. 
Other metallic oxides are employed to com- 
! inunicate colours to the white basis. Ena¬ 
mels are distinguished into transparent 
and opaque: in the former, all the elements 
have experienced an equal degree of lique¬ 
faction, and are thus run into crystal glass, 
whilst in the others, some of their elements 
have resisted the action of heat, so that 
their particles retain sufficient aggregation 
to prevent the transmission of light. Ena¬ 
mels are used either in imitating precious 
stones, in painting in enamel, or in the or¬ 
namentation of gold, silver, and other me¬ 
tals. The faces of watches are commonly 
enamelled. Of modern enamels, the Champ- 
levd, the Cloisonne, and Limoges, are most 
I prized by collectors. This art is of such 
! great antiquity as to render it difficult, if 
| not impossible, to trace it to its origin. It 
j was practised by the Egyptians in very ro- 
[ mote times, as appears from the ornaments 
I that have been found on the envelopes of 
j mummies. It passed from Egypt into 
Greece, and afterwards into Rome and its 
provinces, whence it was probably intro¬ 
duced into Great Britain, as various Roman 
antiquities have been dug up in different 
parts of the island, particularly in the bar- 
rows, in which enamels have formed por¬ 
tions of the ornaments. Iron cooking 
vessels are now coated with enamel, and in 
a very permanent manner, the fire having 
no effect on them. Artificial eyesare formed 
so skilfully in enamel, that it is difficult, 
when in use, to discover that they are not 
- real.-Painting in enamel, &c., is per¬ 

formed on plates of gold or silver, but more 
commonly of copper, previously' coated 
with the white enamel: the colours are 
melted in the fire, where they take a lustre 
i like that of glass. This painting is prized 
j for its peculiar brightness and vividness, 
which are very permanent, the colours not 
being effaced or sullied by time. Jean 
Petitot, a Genevese, born in 1607, acquired 
great celebrity as a painter in enamel, and 
his works are much sought after by collec¬ 
tors. [See Limoges Enamel.] 

ENANTIO'SIS (a contradiction: Or.), a 
rhetorical figure, by which that which is 
spoken negatively is to be understood af¬ 
firmatively. 

ENARTHRO'SIS (Gr.: from en, in; and 
artliron, the socket of the joint), in Ana¬ 
tomy, that species of articulation which 
consists in the insertion of the round end 
of a bone into the cavity of another, form¬ 
ing a movable joint. 

ENCiE'NIA ( enkainia: from en, in; and 
icainos, new: Gr.), in Antiquity, anniversary 
feasts to commemorate the completing or 
consecrating any new and public work, such 
as the founding of cities, consecration of 

temples, &c.- Encaenia, among the Jews, 

the anniversary of the dedication of the 
Temple. In modern times, this term is 
used for any commemorative festival. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINT'ING ( enliaustilcos , 
belonging to burning: Gr.), a mode of 
painting used by the ancients, the nature 
of which is not well understood. The 


colours were kept in boxes with divisions, 
and sometimes were made into crayons by 
means of wax, and melted on the picture by 
subjecting them to heat as they were ap¬ 
plied. When finished, the picture was co¬ 
vered with a varnish of wax, and, lastly, 
was well polished. Though resins, &C., 
were used, wax was indispensable: it kept j 
the work from cracking. The burning-in 
also was necessary. The colours were very i 
brilliant, and were not acted on by the wea¬ 
ther. It has been attempted to revive this [ 

art in Germany.-Some have used the 

term encaustic for painting on porcelain and | 
work in enamel; and in the same way, it 
was given to the painting on glass of the 
middle ages, such as is still to be seen in 
the windows of some Gothic churches, &c. 

It has also been just as erroneously applied 
to works in metal, where gold and silver 
were inlaid, melted, or laid on, which was 
called gold or silver encaustic; and to 
everything gilt or silvered by fire. 

ENCE'INTE (Fr.), in Fortification, the 
wall or rampart which surrounds a place, 
sometimes composed of bastions and cur¬ 
tains. Flanked by round or square towers, 

it is called a Roman wall.-In Law, a term 

for a state of pregnancy. 

ENCH A'SING. [See CHASING.] 

ENCHIRID'ION (Gr.: from cm, in; and 
clieir, the hand), a manual or small volume. 
Ariau, the disciple of Epidetus, the stoic 
philosopher, compiled certain aphorisms of 
his master under the title of Enchiridion. 

ENCLAVE' (enclosed : Fr.), in Heraldry, 
something let into another, especially when 
the piece so let in is square. 

ENCLIT'IC ( enklitikos, that which leans : 
Gr.), in Grammar, a particle so closely 
united with any other word as to seem part 
of it; thus, que in virumque. 

ENCRATI'TES (enlcrateia, a holding fast, I, 
and hence a restraining one’s self: Gr.), or 
Continentes, in Church History, a sect 
which appeared towards the end of the 2nd 
century : so called because they abstained 
from marriage, and the use of wine and 
animal food. 

EN'CRINITE ( krinon, a lily: Gr.), tho 
fossil remains of a radiate animal, fre¬ 
quently called the stone lily, found in tho j 
mountain limestone and other formations. 
The jointed stalk by which it was attached 
to a rock was crowned by a disc, surrounded 
by ten ray-like arms, tho centre being oc¬ 
cupied by the mouth. This head somewhat 
resembles a flower, whence the name. A 
close ally of this animal is now living in 
the West Indies, and is called by naturalists 
Pentacrinus caput-medusce. 

ENCROACII'MENT, in Law, an unlawful 
intrusion upon the rights and possessions 
of another. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA. [See Cyclopaedia ] 

ENDEC'AGON or UNDEC'AGON ( endelca, 
eleven ; and gOnia, an angle : Gr.), a plane 
figure bounded by eleven sides. When tho 
latter are all equal, the surface is the square 
of one side multiplied by 9'36564. 

ENDEM'IC (cm, amongst; and demos, the 
people: Gr.), a non-infectious disease, pecu 
liar to a certain district, and arising from 
local causes. It differs from an epidemic, 



































249 mtcrarj) ^Trca^UtJI. [ENGLISH 

which is a disease that spreads over a whole 
country. 

EN'DIVE (Fr.), the Cicliorium endiuia of 
botanists, a herbaceous composite plant, 
used in salads. 

ENDO'GENOUS (endon, within ; gennao, 
I produce : Gr.), an epithet for plants, the 
growth of whose stems takes place by addi¬ 
tions of vascular bundles internally. In 
endogenous plants there is no distinction 
of pith-wood, bark, and medullary rays, as 
in exogenous steins. Palms, grasses, orchids, 
and lilies, fall into this important division : 
all the plants constituting it being mono- 
j cotyledonous. 

ENDOR'SING ( endorser , to write on the 
back of anything: Fr.), the writing one’s 
name on the back of a bill of exchange, by 
which responsibility for its amount is in¬ 
curred, if duly presented and not paid. 

EN'DOSMOSE. [See Exosmose.] 

ENDOW'MENT (from dus, a portion : Gr.), 
in Law, the act of giving or assuring a 
dower to a woman. Also, the settlement 
of a property for the support of some reli¬ 
gious or charitable institution, &c. 

ENE'MA (Gr., from enemi, I send into), 
in Medicine, a clyster or injection. 

ENFE'OFFMENT. [See Feoffment.] 

ENFILA'DE (enfiler, to put on a string: 
Fr.), a fire of artillery or musketry, in the 
direction of the length of an enemy’s line. 
A trench, &c., is said to be enfiladed when 
shot can be fired so as to pass through it 
lengthways. 

EISFI'LED (from same), in Heraldry, an 
epithet implying that the head of a man, 
beast, or any other charge, is placed on the 
blade of a sword. 

ENFRANCHISEMENT ( affranchissement : 
Fr.), in Law, the incorporating a person 
into certain societies; as when one is ad¬ 
mitted to the privileges of a freeman_ 

In Feudal Law, a villein was said to be 
enfranchised when made free by his lord. 
The term is also applied to the conversion 
of the copyhold tenure of lands into free¬ 
hold. 

ENGINEE'R (ing&nieur: Fr.), a term 
which, in strictness, means the manager of 
an engine, but which is now applied to any 
one whose pursuits relate to manufacturing 
or constructive operations, in which en¬ 
gines of any kind are used. There are two 
kinds of engineers, military and civil. A 
| military engineer is one who, by a perfect 
knowledge of mathematics, delineates upon 
j paper, or marks upon the ground, forts or 
other works proper for offence and defence. 
He should understand the art of fortifica¬ 
tion, so as to be able not only to discover 
the defects of a place, but to find a remedy 
proper for them ; as also how to attack as 
i well as to defend. It is his business like¬ 
wise to delineate the lines of circumvalla- 
: tion and contravallation, taking all the ad¬ 
vantages of the ground ; to mark out the 
’ trenches, places of arms, batteries, lodg¬ 
ments, &c. Civil engineers are employed in 
delineating the plans and superintending 
the construction of public works, as aque¬ 
ducts, canals, bridges, railroads, &c. 

ENGISO'MA (a fracture of the skull : Gr.), 

( Ip Surgery, a fissure of the cranium, Also, 

— 

a surgical instrument used in fractures of 1 
the cranium. j 

ENG'LAND, CHURCH OF. Although 
Henry VIII. threw off the supremacy of the 
pope, he allowed no freedom in matters of 
belief, and it was not until the accession of 
Edward VI. that the English Church was 
reformed by law. Its constitution was set¬ 
tled by Elizabeth. Few and unimportant 
are the changes which have been made 
since, and there has been no alteration in 1 
the Liturgy since 1661. The government of 
the Church of England is episcopal ; and all 
the bishops, except the one last appointed, 
sit in the House of Lords in right of the ! 
temporal baronies into which their sees 1 
were converted by William the Conqueror. 

ENG'LTSH LAN'GUAGE. The ancient lan- { 
guage of Britain is generally admitted to 
have been the same with that of the Gauls ; 
and, when the country was subdued, the 
original inhabitants retired to the western 
portion of the island, where it continued 
to be spoken without any foreign admixture, i 
The greatest part of Britain having become 
a Roman province, the Roman legions, i 
which resided in Britain for above two 
hundred years, undoubtedly disseminated 
the Latin tongue ; and. the people being 
afterwards governed by laws written in La¬ 
tin, it must have necessarily followed that 
their language would undergo a consider¬ 
able change. In fact, the British tongue 
continued for some time mixed with the 
provincial Latin ; but at length it was in a 
great measure destroyed, and that of the 
Saxons introduced instead of it. What the ; 
Saxon was long before the conquest, viz. 
about the year 700, may be seen in the most 
ancient manuscript of that language, which 
is a gloss on the Evangelists, by bishop ! 
Eadfride, in which the three first articles of 
the Lord’s prayer run thus : ‘Uren fader 
thic arth in heofnas, sic gehalgud thin 
noma, to cymeth thin ric. Sic thin willa : 
sue is in heofnas, and in eortho, &c.’ In tho 
beginning of the ninth century, the ancient 
English acquired a tincture of the Danish ; 
but the Normans, as a monument of their 
conquest, endeavoured to introduce their 
language; and English became, under them, ’ 
a medley. About the year 900, the Lord’s 
prayer in the ancient Anglo-Saxon was as I 
follows : * Thu ure fader the eart on 
heofenum, si thin nama gelialgod; cuine i 
thin rice si thin willa on corthan swa, swa 
on heofenum, &c.’ And, about the year 
1160, pope Adrian, an Englishman, thus 
rendered it in rhyme : 

* Ure fader in heaven rich, 

Thy name be hayled ever lic.h. 

Thou bring us thy micliell blisse : 

Als hit in heaven y-doe, 

Evar in yearth beene it also, &c.’ 

The English language continued to undergo 
various mutations till the year 1537, when 
the Lord’s prayer was thus printed : ‘Oure 
father which arte in lieven, halowed be thy 
name : let thy kingdome come, thy will be 
fulfiled as well in erth as it is in heven ; 
geve us this dave in dayly bred, &c.’ Here, 
it may be observed, the diction is brought 
almost to the present standard, the chief 















K T)C ^n'cnttfic nntf 


250 


engraving] 


variations being only in the orthography. 
After the Conquest, it was ordained that all 
law proceedings should be in the Norman 
language; and hence the early records and 
reports of law cases came to be written In 
j Norman. But neither royal authority, nor 
| the influence of courts, could absolutely 
change the vernacular language. After an 
experiment of three hundred years, the law 
J was repealed; and since that period, the 
English has been, for the most part, the 
! official as well as the common language 
| of the nation. Since the Norman invasion, 
the language has not suffered any shock 
from the intermixture of conquerors with 
the natives of England ; but it has under¬ 
gone great alterations, by the disuse of a 
large portion of Saxon words, and the in¬ 
troduction of others from the Latin, Greek, 
French, Italian, and Spanish. In some in¬ 
stances, words have been borrowed by au¬ 
thors, directly from the Latin and Greek; 
but in the rest, They have been received 
through the medium of the French and 
Italian. For terms in the sciences, authors 
have generally resorted to the Greek; and 
from this source, as discoveries in science 
demand new terms, the vocabulary of the 
English tongue is receiving continual aug¬ 
mentation, We have also a few words de¬ 
rived from the German and Swedish, chiefly 
terms in mineralogy; and commerce has 
introduced new commodities of foreign 
growth or manufacture, with their foreign 
names, which now make a part of our lan¬ 
guage. It may then be stated, that the 
English is composed of, 1st, Saxon and 
Danish words of Teutonic and Gothic ori¬ 
gin : 2nd, British or Welsh, which may be 
considered as of Celtic origin: 3rd, Nor¬ 
man, a mixture of French and Gothic : 
4tli, Latin : 5th, French : 6th, Greek : 7th, a 
few words directly from the Italian, Span¬ 
ish, German, and some other languages of 
the continent: 8tli, a few foreign words, 
introduced by commerce, or by political or 
literary intercourse. Of these the Saxon 
portion constitute our mother tongue. The 
Danish and Welsh also are primitive words, 
and may be considered as part of our ver¬ 
nacular language. Taking the sum total of 
words in a large English dictionary at 
43,566, it will be found that 29,853 are of 
Greek or Latin origin, 13,230 come from 
Teutonic sources, whilst the remaining 483 
are of miscellaneous derivation. 

ENGRA'VING ( gravan , to dig : Sax.), the 
art of producing, most usually by the aid of 
an instrument called a graver, representa¬ 
tions on hard substances, such as metal or 
wood, which, by means of ink and a print¬ 
ing-press, may be transferred to paper. For 
th is purpose, copper was formerly used. But 
latterly mixed metals, not liable to be 
corroded in printing, or steel, have been 
introduced. The art of engraving on wood 
is very ancient; and it has been revived 
with great effect, as may be seen in the 
‘pictorial’ editions of various works re¬ 
cently published. It was in use among the 
Chinese, at least when they discovered the 
mode of manufacturing paper, or about 95 
years n.c.; and was very probably introduced 
from that country into Europe, afrer which 


it was long and successfully practised by 
Europeans. The art of engraving on cop¬ 
per was invented in Europe in the early 
part of the 15th century. The earliest book 
in which engravings are found is an edition 
of Dante, published at Florence in 1481. 
Then, and long before, it had been usual to 
decorate church and other plate in niello; 
which consisted in etching the designs, 
with a steel point, upon gold or silver, then 
engraving with a burin, and filling in with 
a combination of silver, lead, copper, sul¬ 
phur, and borax, which was easily fusible, 
and of a black colour. Before melting in 
the niello, the artists were in the habit of 
taking impressions of the design with liquid 
sulphur ; but Finiguerra improved this pro 
cess, by using for the purpose a mixture of 
soot and oil, and pressing damp paper upon 
the plate with a roller. This led to copper¬ 
plate engraving.— Wood Engraving, or 
xylography, ( xulon, wood; and graplio, I 
write: Gr.), is performed on blocks of box 
or pear-tree, cut in a direction perpendicu¬ 
lar to that of the fibres. The subject is 
first drawn with Indian ink, or alead-pencil, 
and then the wood is cut away, so as to 
leave merely the lines which have been 
drawn. Impressions are taken from the 
blocks, in the same way as from printing 
types.- Copper-plate Engraving is ef¬ 

fected by cutting lines representing the 
subject on a plate of copper, with a graver 
or burin, the burr being taken off with a 
scraper.- Etching is an engraving on cop¬ 

per, &c., produced by an acid. The plate 
having been covered with a varnish, and j 
the design having been drawn through the 
varnish with a suitable implement, the acid 
is poured on the plate, and this acts upon 
(or bites, as it is technically termed) the 
plate where the varnish has been removed. 
Stippling differs from etching only in having j 
dots instead of lines.- Mezzotinto En¬ 

graving consists in first scoring the copper 
over thickly in every direction, so that if 
printed from, it would give a uniform black 
impression : the outline is then traced with 
an etching needle; after which the plate is 
scraped, so as to leave enough of the scoring 
to produce the required tints, in the dif¬ 
ferent parts of the work,- Aquatinta 

Engraving gives an effect like that of an 
Indian-ink drawing. It is effected by first 
etching the design, then covering the plate 
with a solution of Burgundy pitch, or 
mastic, in spirits of wine. The rapid eva¬ 
poration of the spirit leaves a granulated 
texture; and aquafortis being poured on 
the plate, it is corroded in the parts left 
uncovered by the spirits or wine. As in 
etching, when the lighter parts are suffi¬ 
ciently acted upon, they are stopped out, that 
is, protected from further action of the acid. 
-Etciiixg on Glass. The glass is co¬ 
vered with bees’wax, and, the design being 
drawn with an etching needle, is subjected 
to the action of sulphuric acid sprinkled 
with powdered Derbyshire spar, which 
causes hydrofluoric acid to be evolved: the 
parts covered with bees’ wax are entirely 
protected from the corroding action of this 
acid. The process may be reversed, by 
drawing the design with a solution of bees’ 























251 


Ettcntni Crea^um. 


wax, in turpentine, and then corroding as 

before.-LITHOGRAPHY ( lithos, a stone: 

and gvapho, I write : Or.). This process was 
discovered in 1800. It depends on the fa¬ 
cility with which certain kinds of stone 
imbibe water, and the mutual repulsion 
between oily or resinous substances and 
that fluid. The stone employed is a lime¬ 
stone, obtained at Solenhofen in Bavaria, 
the rock being a member of the oolite. 
Drawings are made on the stone, which is 
of a fine grain, with a resinous or oily ink: 
it is then wetted, and an ink roller is passed 
over it. The ink will adhere to the lines, 
which constitute the design, but will leave 
the rest of the stone perfectly clean, on ac¬ 
count of the repulsive action of the water, 
with which it is soaked. Impressions may 
be taken every time the ink roller has been 
passed over the stone. A drawing made 
with the proper kind of ink may be trans¬ 
ferred, by pressure, to the stone, while it is 

in a dry state.- Chromolithography 

(chroma , a colour; lithos, a stone; and 
graph?, a drawing: Gr.), is the art of printing 
in colours from stone. A drawing in out¬ 
line is made in the ordinary way, and 
transferred to as many different stones as 
there will be colours employed — some¬ 
times to so many as thirty or more. The 
first stone, generally that required for flat 
local tints, is covered with lithographicink, 
in those places in which there is to be solid 
colour; and the different gradations are 
produced by rubbing the stone with rub¬ 
bing stuff, or tint ink, which is made of 
soap, shellac, &c., and, where necessary, 
with a coloured lithographic chalk. The 
stone is then washed over with nitrous acid, 
&c.; and, as in ordinary cases, a proof is 
taken, after which the lithographic ink is 
immediately washed off with turpentine. 
If the proof is satisfactory, the stone is 
ready for use. The other stones are treated 
in the same way, for the other colours—of 
course each impression must be printed 
with all the stones. The colours are ground 

up with linseed oil. - Zincography. This 

consists in drawing the design with a pro¬ 
tecting medium on zinc : then biting away 
the unprotected portions with an acid; 
which leaves the design prominent, so that 
impressions may be taken from it. 

EN'GYSCOPE ( engus , near ; and slcopeo, I 
examine: Gr.), a kind of microscope, for 
viewing small bodies more distinctly. 

ENHARMON'IC ( enharmonikos, in ac¬ 
cord : Gr.), in Music, an epithet applied 
to such species of composition as proceed 
on very small intervals, or smaller inter¬ 
vals than the diatonic and chromatic. 

ENTG'MA ( ainigma, from ainisso, I speak 
darkly: Gr.), a dark or ambiguous saying, 
in which the true meaning is concealed 
under obscure language. The enigma is, 
at present, a mere jeu d'esprit: in former 
times it was a more serious matter. The 
Eastern monarclis used to send embassies 
to each other for the solution of enigmas. 
Samson proposed an enigma to the Philis¬ 
tines. 

ENNEAHE'DRIA (ennea, nine; and he- 
dra, a base: Gr.), a genus of columnar and 
double-pointed crystals, composed of a 


[ENTASI3 


trigonal column, terminated at each end by 
a trigonal pyramid. 

ENNEAN'DRIA ( ennea , nine; and aner, a 
male: Gr.), the name of the ninth class in 
Linnams's sexual system; consisting of 
plants which have hermaphrodite flowers, 
with nine stamens. 

ENNEATTCAL DAYS (ennea, nine : Gr.), 

every ninth day of a disease.- Enneati- 

cal Years, every ninth year of a person’s 
life. 

EN'NUI (TV.), a word expressive of lassi¬ 
tude, or weariness, arising from the want of 
employment. 

ENS (Lat.), among Metaphysicians, de¬ 
notes entity, being, or existence : this the 
schools call ens reale and ens positivurn, to 
distinguish it from their ens rationis, which 
exists only in the imagination. 

EN'SEMBLE (TV.), a term used in the fine 
arts to denote the general effect of a whole 
work, without reference to the parts. 

EN'SIFORM (ensis, a sword: Lat.), 
sword-shaped, applied by botanists to the 
leaves of the lily, iris, and similar plants. 

EN'SIGN ( enseigne: Fr.), the flag or ban¬ 
ner under which soldiers are ranged, ac¬ 
cording to the different regiments to which 
they belong. Also, he who carries the 
colours; the lowest commissioned officer 

in a company of infantry.-A large flag 

hoisted on a staff, and carried over the 
poop or stern of a ship. A national en¬ 
sign, hoisted with the upper corner down- 
wards, is a signal of distress. Ships do 
not display their ensigns at. sea, except 
on meeting strangers. In harbour, the 
ensign is not shown before 8 a.m. nor after 
sunset. 

ENTAB'LATIJRE (entablement: Fr.), the 
horizontal continuous work which rests 
upon a row of columus. It consists of 
the architrave, which is immediately over 
the columns ; the frieze over this ; and the 
cornice, which is the uppermost portion. 

ENTAIL (entailler, to notch : Fr.), in Law, 
a restriction regarding the alienation of 
lands and tenements, by one on whom they 
had been settled with a limitation to a par¬ 
ticular class of heirs. Estates tail are 
general, where only one person’s body i3 
specified from which the issue must be 
derived ; special, where both the progeni¬ 
tors are marked out. Estates tail being 
contrary to the general policy of the law, 
modes were invented in early times to de¬ 
stroy the special limitations of the gift, and 
create an estate in fee simple, without for¬ 
feiture being incurred. This was formerly 
done by thefiction of common recoveries; but 
the more simple means of an ordinary deed 
of conveyance, duly enrolled, w r as substi¬ 
tuted by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 74. By such a deed 
a tenant in tail in possession (but not a 
tenant for life), may cut off the entail, and 
bar all the remainders over. The tenantfor 
life in possession, and the tenant in tail in 
remainder, frequently join iu executing a 
deed of this description for the purpose of 
resettling the estate. 

ENTA'SIS(a stretching in : Gr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a nearly imperceptible swelling in 
the middle of the shaft of a column, found ! 
in almost all Grecian examples, and pro- 































ente] CIjc j^ctcnttfic anti 252 


venting them from being strictly frusta of 
cones. 

EN'TE (Ft.), in Heraldry, an epithet sig¬ 
nifying grafted or engrafted. 

ENTERITIS ( enteron , the intestines : 
Gr.), in Medicine, inflammation of the intes¬ 
tines ; a disorder always accompanied by 
considerable danger, and consequently re¬ 
quiring immediate attention. 

EN'TEROCELE ( enteron , the intestines; 
and kele, a tumour: Gr.'), in Surgery, a rup¬ 
ture of the intestines. 

ENTEROL'OGY ( enteron , the intestines ; 
and logos, a discourse : Gr.), a treatise or 
discourse on the internal parts of the body. 

ENTEROM'PHALOS ( enteron , the intes¬ 
tines ; and omphalos, the navel: Gr.), an 
umbilical or navel rupture. 

ENTHYME'ME (enthumema; from en, in ; 
and thumos, the mind: Gr.), in Logic, an 
argument having only one premiss of a 
syllogism expressed. Thus, ‘All men are j 
fallible; therefore so is the pope,’ is an j 
enthymeme. The whole syllogism would 
be, ‘All men are fallible; the pope is a 
man ; therefore the pope is fallible.’ 

ENTI'RETY, in Law, the whole of a ! 
thing, in distinction from a part. 

ENTOMOL'OGY ( entoma, insects; and j 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), that branch of 1 
Zoology which treats of insects, a division 
of articulated animals having their bodies | 
in three distinct portions, head, thorax, | 
and abdomen ; antennas on the head ; three j 
pairs of legs ; usually one or two pairs of 
wings, and aerial respiration. Thus defined, 
spiders, centipedes, worms, and crustaceans 
are all excluded from the class of Insects. 
This class is divided by entomologists 
into 15 orders, viz.:—1. Coleoptera, the 
immense order of beetles. 2. Euplexoptera, 
earwigs. 3. Orthoptcra, grasshoppers, lo¬ 
custs, crickets, &c. 4. Thysanoptera, thrips 
insects. 5. Neuroptera, dragon-flies. May¬ 
flies, &c. 6. Trichoptera, caddiee flies. 7. Ily- 
menoptera, bees, wasps, &c. 8. Strepsiptera, 
bee parasites. 9. Lepidoptera, butterflies 
and moths. 10. Ilomoptera, cicadas, lantern 
flies, &c. 11. Heteroptera (or Ilemiptera), 

bugs. 12. Aphaniptera, fleas. 13. Diptera, 
two-winged insects, such as the house-fly, 
blue-bottle-fly, &c. 14. Anoplura, parasites. 
15. Thysanura, spring-tails, &c. The soft 
parts of insects are protected by an integu¬ 
ment, which lias sometimes been termed 
an external skeleton. To this the different 
muscles are attached. The body is usually 
composed of thirteen segments ; some, 
however, are frequently soldered together 
so as to form one piece, whilst others are 
much reduced in size, and concealed under 
the adjacent ones. The head forms the 
first segment. Here are the antennas, the 
eyes, and the mouth, which last organ is 
so greatly varied in structure that, in some 
of the orders, it is taken as a guide in the 
classification. In an ordinary biting insect, 
the mouth is thus composed: above, there 
is a small horny plate, called the labrum, 
forming the upper lip; below, there is a 
pair of horny mandibles, one on each side 
of the orifice, and the principal agents in 
gnawing; behind these there is a second 
pair of jaws, called maxillce, composed of 


! several pieces, and to the outside of each 
maxilla is a jointed organ of touch, called 
a palpus. Sometimes there is a second pair 
of palpi. The lower lip of the mouth is 
armed by the labium, consisting of two 
parts, the mentum, or chin, and the ligula, 
or tongue, and bearing another pair of 
palpi. Instead of this apparatus for biting, 
many insects possess an organ for sucking. 
The moths and butterflies, the two-winged 
flies, the bugs, and many other tribes, aro 
furnished with a suctorial apparatus infi¬ 
nitely varied. The eyes of insects are j 
compound, that is, they consist of a num- | 
her of eyes grouped together, each showing 
itself as a six-sided facet. In the eye of the 
common house-fly there .are 4000 facets, in 
some of the butterflies 17,000 facets com¬ 
pose an eye, and in a small beetle, 25,000. 
The second, third, and fourth body seg¬ 
ments of an insect form the thorax, and 
these are usually separate, when the parts 
are styled the prothorax (the first of them), 
the mesothorax, and the metathorax (the last 
of them); but sometimes they are com- ! 
pletely united. The under side of the tho- | 
rax is called the sternum. The organs of j 
motion are attached to the thorax, three 1 
pairs of legs, and the wings when they are 
present. Each pair of legs is attached to a 
segment of the thorax, and each leg is 
divided into five parts, the last part, the 
tarsus or foot, being usually composed of 
from three to five joints. It is by the 
number and relative size of the tarsi that 
the order of Coleoptera is divided into sec- 
tions. One or more hooked claws are at¬ 
tached to the last joint of the tarsus, and | 
in several insects there is also a pair of 
soft pads called pulvillii The wings, when 
present, are attached to the upper side of 
the thorax, the first pair to the mesothorax, 
the second pair to the metatliorax. The 
wings consist of two membranes in close 
contact with veins, or nervures, between ’ 
them. The wings of many insects are quite 
naked, but in others they are densely co¬ 
vered with scales, which are so minute that j 
their shape can only be made out with the 
help of the microscope. The abdomen is 
composed normally of nine segments, but 
all of these are seldom visible, some being 
usually modified or concealed underneath 
others. At the hinder end of the abdomen 
of female insects, there is often an instru- , 
ment called an ovipostor, for depositing 
their eggs. The blood of insects is nearly ! 
colourless. Its oxygenation is effected by j 
numerous minute tubes, called trachece, 
which convey the atmospheric air that en¬ 
ters through apertures, termed stigmata, 
or spiracles, to every part of the body. 
Nearly all insects are produced from eggs, 
and these eggs are frequently curiously 
covered with a pattern of raised lines. 
After leaving the egg, the great majority 
of insects undergo a series of transforma¬ 
tions, the first stage of which resembles a 
worm. In this, the larval state, they are 
called caterpillars, grubs, or maggots, the 
first name being usually applied to those 
that feed on the outside of plants, the se¬ 
cond to those that burrow inside plauts on 
or in the ground, and the third to those 
















253 Eifrravy Crntfurg. [epact 


that are destitute of feet and a visible 
head. This is the state in which insects do 
so much damage to plants, furniture, 
clothes, furs, &c. After feeding vora¬ 
ciously, and casting its skin several times, 
the larva passes into the quiescent state of 
an aurelia, chrysalis, or pupa. From this it 
emerges as the perfect insect, to flit about 
for a few hours or days, copulate, lay eggs, 
and die. This is the series of changes 
which constitutes a complete metamor¬ 
phosis; but many insects undergo an in¬ 
complete metamorphosis, being hatched 
nearly in the form of the parents, but 
without wings, which they acquire subse¬ 
quently; and other insects undergo no 
metamorphosis at all. In some tribes, the 
male and female closely resemble each 
other, but in others the female is wingless 
and the male winged [see Coccus], and in 
other tribes there are not only male and 
female forms, but neuters, all living to¬ 
gether in colonies. [See Ants and Bees.] 

ENTOMOS'TRACA ( entoma , insects; os- 
trakon, a shell: Gr.), a division of the class 
Crustacea, consisting of minute animals, 
which haunt stagnant freshwater and pools 
on the sea-shore. They are covered with a 
shell of a horny or leathery texture, and 
formed of one or two pieces. In some this 
covering is buckler-shaped, in others it has 
the appearance of a bivalve shell. They 
change their shells as they grow, and this 
change, in some cases, amounts to a kind 
of transformation. Some of the commoner 
entomostracaare popularly known ns water- 
fleas. Many fossil species have been dis¬ 
covered. 

ENTOZO'A ( entos, within; and zbon, an 
animal: Gr.), an extensive series of low- 
organized, invertebrate, and generally ver¬ 
miform animals, most of which are parasitic 
on the internal organs of other animals. 
Their colourless blood circulates in the 
higher organized species in a closed sys¬ 
tem of vessels, without auricle or ventricle. 
They possess no respiratory organs, no arti¬ 
culated members for locomotion, and they 
have no organs of sense. Their digestive 
system consists either of tubes or cavities 
without an anal outlet, and excavated in 
the parenchymatous texture of the body ; 
or of a tube with both oral and anal orifices, 
j freely suspended in the abdominal cavity. 

In those which are more highly organized, 

| a filamentary nervous system has been de- 
i tected, sometimes having a ganglion near 
j the mouth. The generative system is uni- 
j sexual, hermaphrodite, or dimeious. They 
[ are of various shapes, some being short 
and cylindrical, others long and ribband¬ 
like, such as the Tcenia solium, the common 
tape-worm. Some adhere by means of suck¬ 
ing disks, others by the hooks with which 
their mouths are armed. Fourteen species 
of these pests have been found in the hu¬ 
man body, some growing to an extraordi¬ 
nary length, and most possessing wonderful 
powers of reproduction. 

ENTREMETS' (a by-dish: Fr.), small and 
delicate dishes, set between the principal 

ones at table.-In Music, the inferior 

movements inserted in a composition be¬ 
tween those of more importance. 


ENTREPA'S (a broken pace: Fr.), in 
Horsemanship, a short broken pace, nearly 
resembling an arable. 

ENTREPOT {Fr.), a warehouse or maga¬ 
zine, for the deposit of goods which are 
intended for re-exportation, and which 
therefore pay no duty. It is synonymous 
with what, on the continent, is termed a 
free port, and in this country a bonded ware¬ 
house. It is understood popularly as a 
port which exports the productions of the 
country around it, and imports what is 
necessary for the supply of the same. 

ENTRY {entrle, an entrance: Fr.), in Law, 
the act of taking possession of lands and 
tenements, where a man has title of entry. 
Also, a writ showing that the tenant com¬ 
menced possession in an unlawful way, and 

thus disproving his title.-In Commerce, 

the act of setting down in an account book 
the particulars of trade. Book-keeping is 
performed by either single or double entry. 
-Entry, at the custom-house, the exhi¬ 
bition or deposit of a ship’s papers in the 
hands of the proper officers, and obtaining 
permission to land the goods. 

ENUMERATION ( enumeratio , a counting 
up: Lat.), an account of several things, in 
which mention is made of every particular 

article.- Enumeration, in Rhetoric, is 

that part of a peroration in which the 
orator recapitulates the principal points or 
heads of the discourse or argument. 

ENUR'NEY, in Heraldry,an epithet fora 
bordure charged with wild beasts. 

EN'VELOPE {enveloppe: Fr.), in Fortifi¬ 
cation, a small rampart of earth, with a 
parapet 

ENVIRON'NE', in Heraldry, surrounded 
with other things : thus, a lion is said to be 
environnt with so many bezants. 

EN'VOY {envoye: Fr.), a person deputed 
by a government to negotiate some affair 
with a foreign prince or state. There 
are envoys ordinary and extraordinary , as 
well as ambassadors; they are equally under 
the protection of the law of nations, and 
enjoy all the privileges of ambassadors: 
but, being in rank below them, they are not 
treated with equal ceremony. The word 
envoy is also sometimes applied to resident 
ministers. 

E'OCENE {ebs, the morning; and kainos, 
new : Gr.), in Geology, the oldest formation 
of the tertiary or sxipercretaceous group of 
rocks, containing the least amount of or¬ 
ganic remains belonging to living species 
of animals; and therefore indicating the 
dawn, as it were, of the present state of 
animal creation. Eocene strata have been 
divided into three formations, upper, mid¬ 
dle, and lower. The first and second in¬ 
clude various beds developed in the Isle of 
Wight and Hampshire. To the lower eocene 
belong the strata of the London basin, from 
the London clay proper to the sands of 
Thanet, which rest upon the chalk. 

E'PACT ( epaktos, supplemental: Gr .), in 
Chronology, the moon’s age at the end of 
the year; or the number of days by which 
the last new moon has preceded the begin¬ 
ning of the year. The annual epact is 11 
days, the common solar year being 365 days, 
and the common lunar year 354, In the 














€f)C Scientist ant? 


254 


epagoge] 


calendar of the Church of Eng and, Easter 
and other movable feasts are determined 
in the same way as in the Roman Catholic, 
except that the golden numbers are pre¬ 
fixed to the days of the full, instead of the 
new moons; and, therefore, epacts are not 
used. 

EPAGO'GE ( epagoge , literally a bringing 
on : Gr.), in Rhetoric, a figure of speech, 
which consists in demonstrating universal 
propositions by particulars. 

EPAN'ODOS (Gr., literally a return), in 
Rhetoric, a figure, in which the same or 
similar words are used in two or more 
I sentences. 

EPAPH/E'RESIS (epaphairesis , literally 
I a second taking away : Gr.), in Medicine, a 
| removal or taking away; applied particu¬ 
larly to repeated phlebotomy. 

EP'ARCHY ( eparchia, a province: Gr.), 
the prefecture or territory under the juris¬ 
diction of an eparcli or governor. 

EPAU'LE (a shoulder: Fr.), in Fortifica¬ 
tion, the shoulder of the bastion, or the 
angle of the face and flank ; which is often 
called the angle of the epaule. 

EPAU'LEMENT (Fr., from (paule, a 
shoulder), in Fortification, a work raised to 
cover laterally, made of earth, gabions, &c. 
It also denotes a mass of earth, called a 
square orillon, raised to cover the cannon of 
a casemate, and faced with a wall. 

EPAULETT'E or EP'AULET (Fr.: from 
(paule, the shoulder), an ornamental badge, 
usually formed of gold lace, and worn on 
the shoulder by military and naval officers. 
In the English army, all commissioned 
officers wear two epaulettes. In the navy, 
masters and commanders have one epau¬ 
lette on the left shoulder; post captains 
under three years, one epaulette on the 
right shoulder, afterwards two epaulettes ; 
rear-admirals have one star on the strap of 
the epaulette, vice-admirals two stars, and 
admirals three stars. 

EFr-NTHESIS (Gr.), the insertion of a 
letter or syllable in the middle of a word ; 
as, alituum for alitum. 

E'PHAH or E'PHA, a Hebrew measure 
both for liquids and dry goods. 

EPHE'LIS (freckles brought out by the 
sun : Gr.), in Medicine, a broad solitary or 
aggregated spot, on the face, back of the 
hand, or breast, arising front exposure to 
the sun. 

EPHE'MERA (ephemeros, living but a 
day: Gr.), a genus of neuropterous insects, 
so called from their living only about a 
day. [See Day-fly and May-fly.] 

EPHEM'ERIS (Gr.: from epi, on; and 
hemera, a day), in Astronomy, a table or 
collection of tables, showing the daily state 
of the heavens, or the places in which all 
the planets are to be found every day at 
noon. It is from these tables that the 
eclipses, conjunctions, and aspects of the 

planets are calculated.-In Medicine, ephe- 

merides were those diseases which were 
supposed to return at particular times of 
the moon. 

EPHIAL'TES (Gr., literally one who 
leaps upon), in Medicine, the incubus, or 
nightmare. 

EPHIDRO'SIS (an after perspiration: 


Gr.), in Medicine, a violent and morbid 
perspiration. 

EPH'OI) (Ileh., from apliad, to clothe), 
an ornament or upper garment worn by the 
J ewish priests. It is supposed to have been 
a sort of girdle, which, being brought from 
behind the neck over the two shoulders, 
and hanging down before, was put across 
the stomach, then carried round the waist, 
and used as a girdle to the tunic. 

EPH'ORI (ephoroi, literally overseers: 
Gr.), in Grecian Antiquity, magistrates es¬ 
tablished in ancient Sparta, to control all 
others, even the kings. The authority of the 
cphori, who were five in number, was very 
great: they judicially decided important 
causes, presided over shows and festivals, 
had the care of the public money, specially 
superintended the education of youth, and 
were the arbiters of war and peace. Ephori 
were common to many Dorian constitutions 
in very ancient times. 

EP'IG (epikos, from epos, averse: Gr.), or 
heroic poem, a poem narrating a story, 
which may be partly true or altogether fic¬ 
titious, representing, in an elevated style, a 
series of striking events connected with 
the history of the human race or some of 
its nations. The great epic writers of anti¬ 
quity are Homer and Virgil; among the 
moderns, Milton, Tasso, Camoens, Dante, 
and Ariosto. 

EPICAN'THIS (epi, upon; and kantlios, 
the corner of the eye: Gr.), in Medicine, a 
tumour in the inner corner of the eye. 

EPICHIRE'MA (epicheireo, I put my hand 
to: Gr.), in Logic, a mode of reasoning, 
which comprehends the proof of one or 
both the premises of a syllogism, before 
the conclusion is drawn. 

EPICCE'NE (epikoinos, literally common: 
Gr.), in Grammar, an epithet applied to 
those Greek and Latin words to which the 
masculine and feminine article may be 
indifferently attached. 

EPICRA'NIUM (epi, upon ; and kranion, 
the skull: Gr.), in Anatomy, the common 
integuments, aponeurosis, and expansion 
of the occipito-frontalis muscle, which lie 
upon the cranium; by some, it is considered 
to comprise only the last: and by others, 
to consist merely of the skin. 

EPICURE'ANS, a numerous sect of phi¬ 
losophers in Greece and Rome, the disciples 
of Epicurus, who flourished about 300 years 
n o. They maintained that the gratification 
of the senses ought to be man’s chief aim ; 
that the world was formed by a concourse 
of atoms, and not governed by Providence; 
that the gods resided in the extramundane 
spaces, in soft inactive ease, and eternal 
tranquillity; that future rewards and pun¬ 
ishments were idle chimeras ; and that the 
soul was extinguished with the body. They 
are mentioned in the seventeenth chapter 
of the Acts of the Apostles. The doctrines 
of Epicurus himself were more dignified 
than those held by the generality of his 
followers: he maintained, indeed, that plea¬ 
sure was the chief end of human rursuit; 
and this pleasure he placed in an exemption 
from pain and a perfect tranquillity uf body 
and mind; but the means which he pointed 
out as conducive to attain it were prudence. 




















255 


mtcrarj) &m£uri}. 


temperance, fortitude, and justice, in the 
union of which perfect happiness consists. 
i He pursued pleasure, therefore, in its most 
rational acceptation. He maintained that 
the pleasures and pains of the mind exceed 
those of the body, and that to obtain hap¬ 
piness it is necessary to rule our desires by 
the help of reason. He thought that the 
imperfections of the world exhibiting them¬ 
selves in pain and misery were a sufficient 
proof that it could not have emanated from 
an intelligent cause, such an origin being, 
moreover, inconceivable and not recon¬ 
cilable with the nature of the gods. What 
appear marks of design and contrivance are 
only fortuitous coincidences. The soul has 
a corporeal nature, but more refined than 
the body, and both perish together by the 
dissolution of their component atoms. 

EPICY'CLE ( epilcuklos , literally upon a 
circle: Gr.), in Ancient Astronomy, a small 
circle whose centre is in the circumference 
of a greater. 

EPICY'CLOID ( cpikuklos , an epicycle; 
and eidos, form : Gr.), in Geometry, a curve 
generated by a point in one circle, which 
revolves about another circle, either on the 
! concavity or convexity of its circumference, 
and thus differs from the common cycloid, 
which is generated by the revolution of a 
circle along a right line. 

EPI'DEMIO (epi, upon ; demos, the people: 
Gr.). [See Endemic.] 

EPIDEN'DRA (epi, upon ; and dendron, a 
[ tree: Gr.), in Botany, a term sometimes 
used for plants which grow on other 
plants; as the mistletoe, dodder, &c. 

EPIDEli'MIS (Gr.: from epi, upon; and 
derma, the skin), in Anatomy, the cuticle or 
scarf skin ; a thin membrane covering the 
cutis, or true skin of animals. In plants 
this name is given to a skin which lies 
under the superficial pellicle, and covers all 
parts of the plant except the stigma. 

EP'IDOTE, a mineral, found crystallized 
in rhombic prisms variously modified, both 
laterally and at its extremities. Its colour 
is usually some shade of green. It is com- 
| posed of silica and alumina with other 
: bases. There are several varieties, one of 
1 which, Zoizite, contains lime; Tremolite con- 
; tains lime and magnesia. Fine crystals, 

S two or three inches in length, and between 
! one and two in diameter, are found at 
j Arendal, in Norway, and have received the 
name of Arendalite; but they are not much 
| esteemed in jewellery. 

EPIGASTRIC (epigastrion, the region 
! front the breast to the navel: Gr.), pertain¬ 
ing to the upper part of the abdomen.-—- 
Epigastric Vessels, the arteries and 
veins belonging to the epigastric region; 
the former being branches of the cceliac 
artery, and the latter of the iliac veins. 

EP'IGENE (epigenes, after-growing: Gr.), 
a term applied to forms of crystals not 
natural to the substances in which they are 
j found. 

EPIGLOTTIS (Gr.: from epi, upon; and 
glotta, the tongue), in Anatomy, one of the 
cartilages of the larynx: its use is to coyer 
the glottis when food or drink is passing 
into the stomach, to prevent it from enter¬ 
ing the larynx and obstructing the breath. 


[EPIPHYTE 

EP'IGRAM (epigramma, an inscription: 
Gr.), a short composition in verse, treating 
only of one thing, and ending with some j 
lively, ingenious, and natural thought or 
point. From its concise and expressive 
character, it is well fitted for satire; but 
an epigram may be didactic, satiric, comic, 
lyric, or elegiac. Originally, epigrams were j 
inscriptions on tombs, statues, temples, 
triumphal arches, &c. 

EPTGRAPH (epigrapho, I inscribe: Gr.), ! 
a quotation from an author, or a sentence 
written for the purpose, placed at the com¬ 
mencement of a work, or of a division. 

EP'ILEPSY (epilepsia, from epilam'oano, I 
lay hold of: Gr.), a disease which deprives 
the patient of sensation and volition, ac¬ 
companied by involuntary contraction of 
the muscles. It is popularly called the 
falling sickness, because those who are 
attacked by it fall suddenly to the ground. 

EPILO'BIUM, in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Onagracece. 

EP'ILOGUE (epilogos: Gr.), in the Drama, 
a speech addressed to the audience when 
the play is ended. In modern tragedy, the 
epilogue is usually smart and lively, being 
intended to compose the strong feelings 
which may have been raised in the course | 

of the representation.-In Rhetoric, the [ 

conclusion of a speech, containing a reca¬ 
pitulation of the whole. 

EPINI'CION (epinilcion: from epi, upon ; 1 
and nike, a victory: Gr.), in Greek and Latin 
poetry, a poem or composition celebrating 
a victory. Also, a festival on account of a 
victory. 

EPIPH'ANY (epiphania, literally a mani¬ 
festation : Gr.), a Christian festival observed 
on the 6tli of January (the twelfth day alter 
Christmas), in commemoration of Christ 
being manifested by the miraculous appear¬ 
ance of a star to the magi, or wise men, wdio 
came to adore him and bring him presents. | 
In some countries the day is styled the day | 
of the kings. The Greek fathers applied 
the word to the appearance of Christ in the 
world, the sense in which St. Taul uses it, 

2 Tim. i. 10. 

EPIPHONE'MA (epiphunema, an excla¬ 
mation : Gr.), in Rhetoric, a sententious 
exclamation or remark, not closely con¬ 
nected with the general tenor of the ora¬ 
tion, and usually expressed with vehe¬ 
mence ; or a sentence added as a conclusion 
to a speech. 

EPIPH'ORA (Gr., from epiphero, I lay 
upon),in Rhetoric and Poetry, an emphatic 
repetition of a word, or a series of words, at 
the end of several sentences or stanzas.-—- j 
In Medicine, a morbid defluxion of the eye's. 

EPIPH'YSIS (epiphusis, an aftergrowth: 
Gr.), in Anatomy, a bony substance, or as it , 
were a smaller bone, affixed to a larger or 
principal bone by a cartilage. 

EPI'PHYTE (epi, upon; and phuton, a 
plant: Gr.), a plant which has its home 
upon another plant. In the forests of j 
Brazil, the trunks and branches of the trees 
are covered, not with mosses and lichens, 
but with orchids, cacti, arums, and other 
plants of epiphytous habits. Most of these 
derive their nourishment from the mois¬ 
ture of the bark of the tree on which they 































EPIPLEXIS] 


Elje Jrctrnttftc nntf 


256 


are seated, or on the decayed matter of 
lowlier forms of vegetation, but some are 
, truly parasitical, that is, their roots pene¬ 
trate into the tree and feed upon its juices. 

EPIPLEX'IS (epiplexis, a chastisement: 
Gr.), a Rhetorical figure, which, by an ele¬ 
gant kind of upbraiding, endeavours to 
convince. 

| EPIP'LOCE (epiploic?, a plaiting together: 

Gr.), a Rhetorical figure, by which one 
| aggravation, or striking circumstance, is 
added to another; as, ‘He not only spared 
the rebels, but encouraged them; not only 
encouraged, but rewarded them.’ 

EPIP'LOOELE (epiplolcele: from epiploon, 
the omentum ; and Idle, a rupture : Gr.), in 
Surgery, a rupture of the omentum. 

EPIP'LOON (the omentum : Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the omentum or caul. 

EPIR'RHEOLOGY ( epirreo, I influence: 
and logon, a discourse: Gr.), a branch of 
botany treating on the influence of external 
agents on plants. 

EPIS'COPACY (episcopos, literally an 
overseer: Gr.), the form of church govern¬ 
ment which includes bishops. 

EPISCOPA'LTANS (same deriv.), an ap¬ 
pellation given to those who adhere to the 
episcopal form of church government and 
discipline. Until the Test Act was repealed, 
none but episcopalians, or members of the 
Church of England, were qualified to fill 
any office, civil or military. 

EP'ISODE (epeisodion: from epi, at; and 
eisodos, an entrance: Gr.), in Poetry, a 
minor story which a poet adds to the main 
story of the piece by way of giving variety. 
The story of Dido, in the ZEneid, the story 
of Dorothea, in Don Quixote, and the loves 
of Lorenzo and Jessica, in the Merchant of 
Venice, form episodes in the respective 
pieces. In epic poetry, there is much more 
room for the episode than in dramatic, 
where the poem is confined to a present 
action. The term episode has also been 
transferred to historical painting, in a sense 
analogous to that which it bears in poetry. 

EPISPAS'MOS (Gr.), in Medicine, a quick 
Inspiration of the breath. 

EPISPAS'TIC (epispastikos, attracting: 
Gr.), in Medicine, a blister, or a topical 
remedy for attracting the humours of the 
skin. 

EPISTAX'IS (epistazo, I trickle : Gr.), in 
Medicine, a repeated bleeding from the nose. 

EPIS'TROPHE ( epistrophe, a return : Gr.), 
in Rhetoric, a figure of speech in which 
several successive sentences end with the 
same word or affirmation, as, ‘Are they 
Hebrews ? so am I. Are they Israelites ? so 
am I. Are they of the seed of Abraham ? so 
am I,’ &c. 

EP'ISTYLE (epistulion: from epi, upon ; 
and stulos, a column : Gr.), in Ancient Archi¬ 
tecture, a term used by the Greeks for what 
we call the architrave, viz. a massive piece 
of stone, &c., laid immediately over the 
capital of a column. 

EP'ITAPH (epitaphion: from epi, upon : 
and taphos, a tomb: Gr.). The Romans in¬ 
scribed their epitaphs, which sometimes 
were full of moral sentiments, to the manes 
(dii8 manibus) ; and frequently introduced 
the dead as speaking to the living. During 


the first twelve centuries of the Chris¬ 
tian era, monumental inscriptions in this 
country were written in Latin. French 
was adopted about the 13th century, and 
the vernacular tongue began to be used 
from the middle of the 14th ; butthelearned 
have continued to prefer the Latin. 

EPITA'SIS (Gr., literally a stretching), 
in Ancient Poetry, the second part or di¬ 
vision of a dramatic poem, in which the 
plot., entered upon in the first part, or pro¬ 
tasis, was carried on, and worked up, till it 

arrived at its height, called catastasis. -■ 

In Medicine, an increase of the paroxysm 

of a fever.-In Rhetoric, that part of an 

oration in which the orator addresses 
himself most forcibly to the passions. 

EPITHALA'MIUM (epiihalamion: Gr.), a 
nuptial song, or poetical composition in 
praise of the bridegroom and bride, with 
wishes for their prosperity. Among the 
Greeks and Romans, it was sung by young 
men and maids at the door of the bridal 
chamber. Amongst the poems of Ben 
Jonson and other poets of the time of 
Elizabeth and James, will be found several 
specimens of epithalamia. 

EP'ITHEM (epithema, a cover: Gr.), in 
Medicine, any external application used as 
a fomentation. 

EPIT'OME ( epitom?, a cutting short: 
Gr.), a brief summary or compendium, con¬ 
taining the substance or principal matters 
of a book. To epitomize, therefore, is to 
shorten a literary production by judicious 
abridgment. 

EPIT'ROPE or EPIT'ROPY (epitrope, a 
surrender: Gr.), in Rhetoric, a figure of 
speech, by which something is granted with 
a view to obtain an advantage ; as, ‘I con¬ 
cede the fact, but this very concession 
overthrows your own argument.’ 

EPIZEUX'IS (a joining: Gr.), in Rhetoric, 
a figure which repeats the same word, 
without any other intervening: such is that 
of Virgil, ‘ nunc, nunc, insurgite remis.’ 

EPJZO'OTY (same deriv.), a pestilence 
among brutes. 

E'POCH (same deriv.), a certain fixed 
period, or point of time, made famous by 
some remarkable event, and serving as a 
standard in chronology and history. An 
epoch is the commencement of an era. [See 
Era.] 

EP'ODE (epode: from epi, upon ; and Ode, 
an ode : Gr.), in Lyric Poetry, the third or 
last part of the ode, the ancient ode being 
divided into strophe, antistrophe,and epode. 
The word is now used for any short verse or 
verses, that follow one or more greater: 
thus, the epodes of Horace are supplemen¬ 
tary odes. 

EPOPEE' or EPOPCE'IA (epopoi'ia: from 
epos, a discourse; and poieo, I make; Gr.), 
in Poetry, the fable, or subject of an epic 
poem. 

EPOP'TZE (epopteuo, I inspect: Gr.), in 
Antiquity, a name given to those who were 
admitted to view the secrets of the greater 
mysteries, or religious ceremonies of the 
Greeks. 

EPO'TIDES (Gr.: from epi, upon; and 
Ota, the ears : Gr.), in ancient Naval Archi¬ 
tecture, two thick blocks of wood, one on 













257 


2£ttcnm» Crea^uni. 


[equinox 


each side the prow of a galley, for warding 
off the blows of the rostra of the enemy’s 
vessels. They had somewhat the appearance 
of ears ; hence the name. 

EPROUVETT'E (Fr.), the name of an 
Instrument for ascertaining the strength 
of gunpowder, or comparing the strength 
of different kinds of gunpowder. It con¬ 
sists of a small gun which is fastened to a 
frame, and is capable of swinging on a 
1 horizontal axis. “When this gun is fired, 

] the recoil moves the frame; and the arc 
through which it passes shows the strength 
of the powder. 

EP'SOM SALTS, in Chemistry, sulphate 
of magnesia, which was formerly procured 
by boiling down mineral water from the 
spriner at Epsom. 

EPULO'TIC ( epoulotikos , from epoulos, I 
cicatrize: Gr.), in Medicine, an application 
for cicatrizing and healing wounds or 
ulcers, or disposing the parts to recover 
soundness. 

EQUATION ( equatio , a making equal: 
Lat.), in Mathematics, a statement of a re¬ 
lation of equality between two functions of 
a magnitude. Thus a-+ b = x, and b — c = y, 
are simple forms of equations. An equa¬ 
tion is the basis of all mathematical inves¬ 
tigation. [See Algkbua.]-Equation, 

in Astronomy, a term used to express the 
quantity added to, or subtracted from, 
the mean position of a heavenly body to 

obtain the true position.- Equation of 

Payments, in Arithmetic, a rule for find¬ 
ing a time when, if a sum be paid which is 1 
equal to the sum of several others due at 
different times, no loss will be sustained by 

either party.- Equation of Time, the 

reduction of the apparent time or motion 
of the sun to equable, mean, or true time. 
The difference between true and apparent 
time arises from the excentricity of the 
earth’s orbit, the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
and the perturbations of the moon and 
[ planets, which sensibly affect the sun’s 
motion in longitude. 

EQUATOR. ( aequo , I make equal: Lat.), in 
Astronomy and Geography, a great circle 
of the terrestrial globe, equidistant from its 
poles, and dividing it into two hemispheres, 
one north and the other south. It is called 
the equator, because, when the sun i3 over 
! it, the days and nights are of equal length ; 
hence it is called also the equinoctial, and, 
when drawn on maps and globes, the equi- ; 
noctial line, or by mariners simply the line. 
All places through which it passes have in¬ 
variably equal days and nights. It crosses 
the centre of Africa, the islands of Sumatra, 

■ Borneo, Celebes, &e., in Asia; then tra¬ 
verses the Pacific Ocean; and, having gone 
through South America, by Quito and the 
mouth of the Amazon, proceeds by the At¬ 
lantic back to Africa.-To cross the line, 

in Navigation, is to pass over the equator. 

EQUATO'RIAL, an astronomical instru¬ 
ment, contrivedforthepurpose of directing 
a telescope to any celestial object, of which 
the right ascension and declination are 
known; and of keeping it in view, notwith¬ 
standing the diurnal motion. 

E'QUERRY (ecuver: Fr.), in this country, 
an officer of state under the master of the ( 


horse. The chief equerry is styled the Clerk 
Marshal: there are four equerries in ordi¬ 
nary, and an equerry of the crown stable. 
Their duties are to accompany the sovereign 
on horseback when taking exercise, &c. 

E'QUES AURATUS (a gilded knight: 
Lat.), a knight bachelor, so called because 
none but knights were allowed to gild their I 
armour. 

EQUESTRIAN OR'DER, in Roman An- : 
tiquity, the second rank in Rome, and the i 
next to that of the senators. [Sec Equites.] 

EQUIAN'GULAR (cequus, equal; and an- ■ 
gulus, an angle : Lat.), in Geometry, a term 
applied to figures whose angles are all equal; 
thus, to a square, an equilateral triangle, a 
parallelogram, &c. 

EQUICRU'RAL ( cequus , equal; and crus, 
a leg: Lat.), in Geometry, having equal legs, 
but longer than the base ; as, an equicrural 
triangle. Such triangles belong to the spe¬ 
cies termed isosceles. 

EQUIDLF'FERENT ( cequus , equal; and 
differentia, a difference : Lat.), in Mathema¬ 
tics, a term applied to such things as have 
equal differences, or are arithmetically pro¬ 
portional.-In Crystallography, having a 

different number of faces presented by the 
prism and by each summit; but their num¬ 
bers form a series in arithmetical progres¬ 
sion, as 6, 4, 2. 

EQ UIL AT'E RAL (aequilateralis : from 
cequus, equal; and lat us, a side: Lat.), in 
Geometry, having all the sides equal; as an 
equilateral triangle. 

EQUIL'IBRIST (from next), one who 
keeps his balance in unnatural positions 
and hazardous movements, entertaining the 
spectator by his skilful motions and vary¬ 
ing attitudes. Equilibrists are very com¬ 
mon iu the East, and their feats are truly 
surprising. 

EQUILIB'RIOI (an even balance: Lat.), 
in Statics, a state in which two or more 
forces balance each other; that is, counter¬ 
balance each other’s effect, so as to leave 

the body at rest.-In the Fine Arts, the 

due combination of light, shadow, Ac. 

EQUIMULTIPLE ( cequus , equal; and 
multiplex, manifold: Lot.), in Arithmetic 
and Geometry, one of two or more numbers 
multiplied by the same number orquantity. 
Hence equimultiples are always in the same 
ratio to each other as the simple numbers 
or quantities before multiplication. Thu3, 
if 2 and 3 are multiplied by 4, the multiples 
8 and 12 will be to each other as 2 and 3. 

EQUINOCTIAL (aquinoctialis, from 
cequinoctium, the equinox : Lat.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, a great circle of the sphere, under 
which the equator is situated. It is so 
called, because, whenever the sun comes to 
it, the days and nights are equal all over 
the globe ; as it is the circle which the sun 
seems to describe at the time of the two 
equinoxes of spring and autumn.- Equi¬ 

noctial Points, the two points, Aries and 
Libra, where the equinoctial and ecliptic j 

cross each other.- Equinoctial Co- 

luhe, the great circle passing through 
the poles of the sphere and the equinoctial i 
points. 

E QUINOX (cequinoctium: from cequus 
equal; and nox, night: Lat.), in Astronomy, 

S 
























equipage] 


(ii)c Scientific antr 


2oS 


the time when the sun enters either of the 
equinoctial points, where the ecliptic inter¬ 
sects the equinoctial. When the sun is in 
this situation, the horizon of every place is 
divided into two equal parts by the circle 
bounding light and darkness: hence the 
sun is visible everywhere 12 hours, and in¬ 
visible for the same time, in each 24 hours. 
As the sun is in one of them in the spring 
(about March 21), it is called the vernal 
equinox; and as it is in the other in au¬ 
tumn (about September 23), it is called the 
autumnal equinox. At all other times, ex¬ 
cept under the line, the lengths of the day 
and night are unequal, and their difference 
is the greater the nearer we approach either 
pole; but in the same latitude their relative 
lengths are everywhere the same. Under 
the line this inequality entirely vanishes; 
there, during the day, which is equal to 
the night, the sun always ascends six hours, 
and descends six hours. 

EQ'UIPAGE {Ft.), the furniture of an 
army or body of troops, infantry or cavalry, 
including whatever is necessary for a mili¬ 
tary expedition. Camp equipage includes 
tents, and everything required for accom¬ 
modation in camp. Field equipage con¬ 
sists of arms, artillery, wagons, tumbrils, 

&c.-When we speak of a body of troops 

being furnished with arms and warlike 
apparatus, we say they are equipped for 
service. 

EQUIPOL'LENCE (r equipollcns , equiva¬ 
lent : Lat.), in Logic, an equivalence or 
agreement in the grammatical sense of 
any tvvo or more propositions; that is, when 
they signify one and the same thing, though 
they express it differently. 

EQUl'RIA (equus, ahorse: Lat.),\n Anti¬ 
quity, games which were instituted by Ro¬ 
mulus in honour of Mars, and consisted in 
horse-racing. They were celebrated every 
year, and if the Campus Martius happened 
to be overflowed by the Tiber, they were 
solemnized on the M<ms Ccelius, which was 
thence called Martialis Campus. 

EQUISE'TUM (Lat.), in Botany, a genus 
of cryptogamic plants: nat. ord. Equiseta- 
cece. The species are common in marshy 
places, and are known as horsetail. 

EQ'UITAKT (equito, I ride: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a term used in the foliation of plants, 
for leaves that ride, as it were one over 
another. 

EQ'UITES (Lat.), among the Romans, 
the knights, who constituted the second de¬ 
gree of nobility, and immediately succeeded 
the senators in point of rank. They 
were ordinarily the cavalry of the Roman 
state: at first their number was only 300. 
They received a horse or money to purchase 
it, and its maintenance from the treasury ; 
but subsequently a class of knights was 
instituted who found their own horses, but 
received pay. Ultimately, all who possessed 
the property which qualified for knight¬ 
hood, that is 400 sestertia, or about 3,200/., 
were considered equUes; but the dignity of 
the order was then greatly lessened. The 
badge of equestrian rank was a ring, which 
was given by the state. 

EQ'UITY (cequitas: Lat.), a branch of juris¬ 
prudence. Blackstone says, ‘ Since the laws 


in all cases cannot be foreseen or expressed, 
it is necessary that, when the general de¬ 
crees of the law come to be applied to par¬ 
ticular cases, there should be somewhere 
vested a power of defining those circum¬ 
stances which (had they been foreseen) the 
legislator himself would have expressed.’ 
The English judges have constantly as¬ 
sumed the authority to pronounce cases to 
be within the ‘equity,’ as it is termed, of 
statutes or rules, when they are not within 
its words. But, at present, the word equity 
is applied to a separate body of law, created 
and sustained on the strength of precedents, 
and administered by tribunals distinct from 
the common law courts of the country. 
Equity, then, is the law administered by 
the judges of the court of chancery giving 
remedy in cases to which the courts of law 
are not competent. It will remove legal 
impediments to the fair decision of a ques¬ 
tion pending at law. It will prevent a party 
from improperly settingup at a trial some 
title or claim which would be inequitable. 
It will compel him to discover, on his 
own oath, facts which he knows are mate¬ 
rial to the right of the other party, but 
which a court of law cannot compel the 
party to reveal. It will provide for the 
safety of property in dispute, pending liti- 
tion. It will counteract, control, or set 
aside fraudulent judgments. It will also 
exercise, in many cases, exclusive jurisdic¬ 
tion ; particularly in granting special relief, 
beyond the reach of the common law. It 
will grant injunctions to prevent waste ox- 
irreparable injury, or to secure a settled 
right, or to prevent vexatious litigation, or 
to compel the restitution of title deeds ; it 
will appoint receivers of property, where it 
is in danger of misapplication; it will pro¬ 
hibit a party from leaving the country in 
order to avoid a suit; it will decree a spe¬ 
cific performance of contracts respecting 
real estates; it will in many cases supply 
the imperfect execution of instruments, 
and reform and alter them according to 
the real intention of the parties; it will 
grant relief in cases of lost deeds and secu¬ 
rities ; and in all cases in which its interfer¬ 
ence is asked, its general rule is, that he 
who ask3 equity must do equity. Thecourt 
of chancery requires the defendant to put in, 
on his oath, a written answer to the plain¬ 
tiff’s charge. [See Chancery.] 

EQ'UITY OF REDEMPTION, in Law, 
the right which a mortgagee has in a court 
of equity to redeem the mortgaged pro¬ 
perty on repayment of the money borrowed, 
and interest thereon. Such a right exists, 
notwithstanding the expiration of the time 
mentioned in the deed for repayment, until 
the mortgagee has obtained a decree of fore¬ 
closure, that is, a decree depriving the 
mortgagee of his right to redeem. Although 
at law the estate on non-payment of the 
money at the date mentioned on the deed 
becomes vested in the mortgagee, yet in 
equity it is still considered only a pledge 
for the money. 

EQUI V'ALENTS (egim'a/ens.having equal 
power: Lat.), a term employed in Chemistry 
to express the proportional weight or quan¬ 
tity of any substance which is necessary to 



























2o'J 


Htterarj) S£r*a£urj). [ermine 

saturate auy other with which it 

can com- 

EQUIV'OCAL ( equivocus , ambiguous: 

hiue. The following is a table of the che- 

Lat.), in Logic, a word that has several sig- 

mical equivalents or atomic weights of the 

nifications, and is, therefore, applicable to 

elementary substances, 

hydrogen 

being 

different objects, is said to be equivocal. 

considered as unity 




A word is employed equivocally in a syllo- 






gism when the middle term is used in dif- 

Name. 

Symb. 

Equiv. 

Sp. Grav. 

ferent senses in the two premises. 

Aluminium 

. A1 . 

13-67 

. 

2-56 

EQ'UIVOQUE (Fr.), a word or phrase sus- 

Antimony 

. Sb . 

129-00 

• 

6-70 

captible of different significations. 

Arsenic 

. As . 

75-00 

, 

5-67 

ERA'DIATION (e, from; and radiatio, a 

Barium 

. Ba . 

68-50 


4-70 

sending forth of rays: Lat.), emission of 

Bismuth . 

. Bi . 

213-09 

. 

9'80 

rays of light, heat, &c. 

Boron 

. B . 

11-00 

• 

2-68 

ERADICATED ( eradico , I pluck up by the 

Bromine . 

. Br . 

80-00 

• 

5-411 

roots: Lat.), in Heraldry, an epithet for a 

Cadmium . 

. Cd . 

56-00 

. 

8-63 

tree or plant torn up by the root. 

Caesium 

. Cm . 

133-00 



ERA'SED (reiser, to erase: Fr.) in He- 

Calcium 

• Ca • 

20-00 

• 

1-58 

raldy, an epithet for the head or limb of 

Carbon 

. c . 

6-00 

• 

0-829 

any creature violently torn from the body, 

Cerium 

. Ce . 

46-00 



so as to give it a jagged appearance. 

Chlorine . 

. Cl . 

35"50 

• 

2 453 

ER'EBUS ( erebos: Gr.), according to Ho- 

Chromium. 

. Cr . 

26-27 


5'90 

mer, this was a dark region under the earth. 

Cobalt 

. Co . 

2950 

• 

853 

through which was the passage to Hades, 

Copper 

. Cu . 

3200 

, 

8-72 

the abode of departed souls.-Also, in 

Didymium. 

. D . 

68-00 



Greek Mythology, a son of chaos, to whom 

Erbium 

. E . 




Night bore iEther and Day. 

Fluorine . 

. FI . 

19-00 

• 

1-327 

ERECT' ( erectus, upright: Lat.), in Bo- 

Glucinum . 

. G . 

697 



tany, an epithet for a stem, leaf, or flower. 

Gold . 

. Au . 

9833 

• 

19-5 

&c.: as, erectus caulis, a stem standing 

Hydrogen . 

. H . 

1-00 

• 

0-0692 

perpendicularly from the ground ; flos erec- 

Ilmenium . 

. 11 . 




tus, an erect flower, or one which has its 

Indium 





aperture directed upwards, &c.-In He- 

Iodine 

. I . 

127-00 

• 

8-7827 

raldry, an epithet for anything upright, or 

Iridium 

. Ir . 

98-56 

• 

1863 

perpendicularly elevated, as wings erect, &c. 

. Iron . 

. Fe . 

28-00 

• 

7'84 

EREMACAU'SIS (erenios, waste ; kausis, 

Lanthanum 

. La . 




burning : Gr.), a term applied by some clio- 

Lead . 

. Pb . 

104-00 

• 

11-30 

mists to that process of decay which takes 

Lithium . 

. L . 

7-00 


0-5936 

place in moist organic substances, when 

Magnesium 

. Mg. 

12 00 

• 

1-75 

freely exposed to the air; putrefaction be- 

Maugauese 

. Mn. 

26 00 

• 

8-00 

ing limited to decomposition under water. 

Mercury . 

. Hg. 

100-00 

• 

13-50 

One theory as to the origin of the diamond 

Molybdenum 

. M . 

48-00 

• 

8-60 

is, that it was formed from an organic com- 

Nickel 

. Ni . 

29-50 

• 

8-63 

pound by a process of eremacausis. 

Niobium . 

. Nb . 




EREMITTCAL ( er'emos, a desert: Gr.), 

Nitrogen . 

. N . 

14-00 

• 

09713 

living in solitude or in seclusion from the 

Norium 

. No . 




world. 

Osmium . 

. Os . 

9841 

• 

io-oo 

ER'GOT (Fr.), in Farriery, a stub, like a 

Oxygen 

. 0 . 

8-00 

• 

1-1056 

piece of soft horn, situated behind and 

Palladium . 

. Pd . 

5324 

• 

11-50 

below the pastern joint.-Also, a diseased 

Pelopium . 





condition of rye and other grains, by which 

Phosphorus 

. P . 

32-00 

• 

4-284 

the ovary assumes the form of a long spur. 

Platinum . 

. Pt . 

9900 

• 

21-50 

and becomes of a dark colour. This is caused 

Potassium. 

. K . 

39-00 

• 

0865 

by a minute fungus. The eating of such 

Bhodium . 

. Ro . 

52-16 

• 

11-20 

diseased grain has been known to produco 

Rubidium . 

. Itub 




a dreadful disease ; nevertheless, it is some- 

•Ruthenium 

. Ru. 

52-11 

• 

8-60 

times administered medicinally. 

Selenium . 

. Se . 

40-00 

• 

7-696 

ERICA'CE^E, a nat. ord. of exogenous 

Silicon 

. Si . 

21-00 



plants, with evergreen leaves and monope- 

Silver. 

. Ag . 

108-00 

• 

10-43 

talous flowers. They are not of much use to 

Sodium 

. Na . 

23-00 

• 

097 

man, but several genera bear very hand- 

Strontium . 

. Sr . 

4400 

• 

254 

some flowers, such as the genera erica (the 

Sulphur 


16-00 

• 

2214 

heaths, which contains some hundreds of 

Tantalum . 

. Ta . 




species), rhododendron, azalea, and kalmia. 

Tellurium . 

. Te . 

64-08 

• 

6-30 

The heaths abound at the Cape of Good 

Terbium . 

. Tb . 




Hope; the rhododendrons in the Himalayas 

Thallium . 

. T1 . 




and in North America. 

Thorium . 

. Th . 

5950 



ERIOM'ETER (erion, wool; and metron, 

Tin . . . 

. Sn . 

59-00 

• 

7-29 

a measure: Gr.), an instrument for measur- 

Titanium . 

. Ti . 

2412 

• 

5-28 

ing the fibres of wool, silk,‘&c. 

Tungsten . 

. w . 

92-00 


175 

ER'MINE (from Armenia), the Mustela 

Uranium . 

. U . 

60-00 

# 

1015 

erminea of zoologists, an animal of the 

Vanadium . 

. V . 

6346 



weasel tribe, between nine and ten inches 

Yttrium 

. Y . 




in length. A great number of skins are an- 

Zinc . 

. Zn . 

3252 


6-91 

nually imported by our furriers. In winter. 

Zirconium . 

. Zr . 

3358 



the whole body of the ermine is of a pure 














K\)t Jjjctentttfc antr 


260 


erotic] 


snow white, except the tip of the tail, 
which is of a deep black; in summer, the 
upper part of the body is of a pale tawny 
brown colour. The fur of the ermine is 
greatly prized ; it was formerly one of the 
insignia of royalty, and is still used by 
judges, of whose ‘unspotted ermine’ ive 
speak figuratively. The ermine worn by 
the queen and the royal family is distin¬ 
guished from that of the nobility and judges 
by being thickly set with the black paws of 
the Astrakhan lamb. That worn by noble¬ 
men indicates therank of the wearer by the 
number of tail tips with which it is spotted. 
The ladies of England make extensive use 
of it without licence from the herald’s of¬ 
fice. In Russia and Austria the use of er¬ 
mine is restricted to the imperial families, 
and in Germany, Spain, and Portugal to the 
sovereigns. This animal inhabits the nor¬ 
thern climates of Europe, Asia, and Ame¬ 
rica, and in its habits strongly resembles 
the Weasel, frequenting barns and out¬ 
houses, and feeding not only on mice and 
rats, but destroying poultry, birds, eggs, 

&c.- Ermine, in Heraldry, a fur used in 

j coat armour, and supposed to represent the 
linings and doublings of mantles and robes. 

ERO'TIC PO'ETRY (erotikos, amatory; 
from eros, love: Gr.), a term for amatory 
poetry. 

ERBETOL'OGY. [See Herpetology.] 

ERRA'TUM (Lat.), in the plural Errata, 
an error of the press. A list of errata is 
sometimes printed at the beginning or end 
of a book. 

ERU'GINOUS ( ceruginosus , from aerugo, 
the rust of brass: Lat.), covered with rust. 
Statues of bronze have always been consi- 
j dered to be improved by aerugo, which see. 

ERUPTION ( eruptio, a bursting forth : 
Lat.), a violent breaking or bursting forth 
of anything, particularly of flames and lava 

from a volcano.-In Medicine* a sudden 

and copious excretion of humours on the 
skin in pustules. 

ERYSIP'ELAS ( erusipelas: from eruthros, 
red; and pella, the skin : Gr.), in Medicine, 
an inflammatory affection, particularly of 
the skin, attended with fever. This disease 
is often called St. Anthony’s fire; it is 
brought on by the various causes that are 
calculated to excite inflammation, such as 
injuries of all kinds, the external application 
of stimulants, exposure to cold, and ob¬ 
structed perspiration. 

ERYTHRI'NA ( eruthros, red : Gr.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a genus of leguminous trees with 
handsome flowers, commonly called Coral 
trees. 

ESCALA'DE (Fr.), in the Military art, a 
furious attack made upon a rampart or 
fortification, by scaling the walls with lad¬ 
ders, the ditches being filled up with bun¬ 
dles of fagots, called fascines, without 
proceeding in form, breaking ground, or 
carrying on regular works to secure the 
men. 

ESCAPA'DE (Fr.), unconscious impro¬ 
priety of speech or behaviour. 

ESCA'PE ((chopper, to escape: Fr.), in 
Law, the act by which a person arrested 
gains his liberty before ho is delivered by 
\aw. In civil cases, after the prisoner has 


been suffered wrongfully to escape, the 
sheriff is liable for the damage actually 
sustained by the judgment creditors in re¬ 
spect of the escape, and to an attachment 
besides. In criminal cases, the escape of a 
person arrested is an offence against public 
justice, and the party aiding is punishable. 

ESCA'PEMENT ( (chappement: Fr.), in 
Horology, a mechanical contrivance for 
transmitting, in a modified way, the power 
of a clock or watch, to the regulator, whe¬ 
ther the latter is a balance or pendulum, for 
the purpose of restoring the motion lost at 
each vibration by friction, &c. 

ESCAR'GATOIRE (Fr., from escargot, a 
shell-snaiH, a nursery of snails. 

ESCARP'MENT (Fr.), in the Military Art, 

the exterior surface of the revetment.- 

In Geology, the steep face presented by the 
sudden termination of strata, so as to form 
a precipice. 

ES'CHAR (eschara : Gr.), in Surgery, the 
crust or scab occasioned by burns or caustic 
applications. 

ESCHAROT'IC (escharotikos, forming an 
eschar; from same : Gr.), in Medicine, a 
caustic application, or one which has the 
power of searing or destroying the flesh. 

ESCHEAT' (eschct, from f,choir, to fall 
due : Fr.), in Law, the reversion of land to 
the original grantor. It occurs when a 
tenant in fee simple dies without having 
left any heir to the laud. On sentence of 
death for murder, but not forotlierfelonies, 
which leave the offender the power of dis¬ 
posing of his estate after death, the land 
goes to the lord of the fee. There is no 
escheat of equitable estates. 

ES'CORT (escorte: Fr.), a guard or com¬ 
pany of armed men attending an officer, or 
baggage, provisions, or munitions, con¬ 
veyed by land, to protect them from an 
enemy, &c. 

ESCRO'LL (escrou, a scroll: Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, one of the exterior ornaments of 
the escutcheon, representing a slip of 
parchment or paper, on which the motto is 
generally put. 

ES'CROIV (same dcriv.), in Law, a deed 
given to a third party, to be the deed of 
the party making it when a certain con¬ 
dition is fulfilled, until which it has no 
effect. 

ES'CUAGE or SCU'TAGE (scutum, a 
shield: Lat.), in feudal customs, a pecu¬ 
niary satisfaction, paid in lieu of military 
service by tenants in chivalry. 

ESCULA'PIAN (from JEsculapius, the 
physician), pertaining to the healing art. 

ES'CULENT (esculentus, from esca, food : 
Lat.), an epithet for such plants or roots as 
may be eaten. 

ESCU'RIAL, a celebrated palace and 
monastery in Spain, about 22 miles from 
Madrid, which took its name from the vil¬ 
lage at which it was erected, and which, in 
Arabic, signifies the place of rocks. It is 
in the shape of a gridiron, and contains the 
king’s palace, St. Lawrence’s church, the 
monastery of Jeronymitcs, and the free 
schools. It was erected by Philip II. in 
consequence of a vow made by him on 
the day of the battle of St. Quentin, in 
1557, and dedicated to St. Lawrence, whose 

















261 Ettcraq? Cvca^urji. [essoin 


festival occurred upon ttiat day, and who is 
said to have suffered martyrdom on a grid¬ 
iron. Though the building is immensely 
large, and the most superb in the kingdom, 
Its exterior has rather the austere sim¬ 
plicity of a convent than the elegance of a 
palace. The principal facade, looking to¬ 
wards the west, is 740 feet long, and 60 feet 
high to the cornice : it is cut up into five 
ranges of windows. Towers which are 200 
feet high flank the edifice at each angle. 
The eastern front is 1100 feet long, and the 
southern 580. The church of the monastery 
is 364 feet long, 230 feet wide, and 170 feet 
high. The Escurial occupied 22 years in 
building. 

ESCUTCH'EON (tcusson: Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, the shield on which a coat of arms 
is represented. It is an imitation of the 
shields anciently used in war. 

ES'DRAS, the name of two apocryphal 
books, usually bound up with the Scrip¬ 
tures. They were always excluded from 
the Jewish canon. 

ESOTEll'IC ( esoterikos , from eso, within : 
Gr.), an epithet applied to the private in¬ 
structions and doctrines of Pythagoras; 
opposed to exoteric (exo, without: Gr.), or 
public. 

ESPA'LIER (Fr.), a fruit tree, having 
the branches trained to a frame, or fastened 
to stakes, and spread laterally. Espaliers 
are usually planted in rows about a garden 
so as to enclose separate portions. 

ESPAR'TO, a species of grass, the Ly- 
geum Spartam of botanists, growing abun¬ 
dantly on the European and African shores 
of the Mediterranean. It is imported into 
England for the use of the paper maker. 
Baskets, mats, ropes, flsliing-nets, and 
brushes, are made of it in the. countries 
where it grows ; and in the north of Africa 
it is the principal food of camels and horses 
during a journey. 

ES'PIONAGE ( espionnage: Fr.), a system 
of employing spies, or secret emissaries, 
either in military or political affairs. 

ESPLANA'DE (Fr.), in Fortification, the 
glacis of the counterscarp, or sloping of 
the parapet of the covered way towards the 
country. The word is now also used for a 
sloping walk or promenade. 

ES POP'SALS (Spousailles: Fr.), in Law, 
a contract or mutual promise of marriage 
between a man and woman. A promise to 
marry hereafter merely gives a right to an 
action for damages. If the party making 
it is not t-.vcnty-oue years of age it is not 
■ binding in any way. 

ESPRI'T I>E CORPS, a French phrase, 
signifying that species of attachment 
which persons, and more especially military 
men, feel towards the service to which they 
belong. 

ESQUIMAUX, ES'KIMOS, a race of 
people who live on the shore of a vast 
extent of country in the extreme north of 
America, and also in Asia. They appear to 
be a distinct race from the Red Man, with 
whom they have very little intercourse. 
They are strictly a littoral people, never 
going far inland. They live in villages, and 
feed on the flesh of reindeer, birds, whales, 
seals, and fish. In personal courage they 


are superior to the neighbouring Indians, 
and they have made a greater advance in 
civilization. They make light and swift 
canoes, which they manage with great 
address, and they have sledges, which are 
drawn by dogs over the snow in winter. 
The name by which they are known to Eu¬ 
ropeans is of uncertain derivation, but 
some say that it comes from Indian words 
signifying eaters of raw flesh. Their own 
name for their nation is Iowit. A belief in 
witchcraft, and in the agency of evil spirits, 
prevails amongst them ; and they attribute 
to certain persons amongst them the power 
of sorcery. 

ESQUI'RE (ecuyer: Fr.), anciently a 
shield or armour bearer: the person that 
attended a knight in time of war, and 
carried his shield. It is now a title given 
to the sons of knights, or those who serve 
the king in any important appointment; 
thus, to officers of the king’s courts, bar¬ 
risters-at-law, &c. It has, however, be¬ 
come a sort of vague and undefined com¬ 
pliment, placed at the end of a man’s name, 
and-may be regarded more as an expression 
of respect than anything else. 

ES'SAY (essai: Fr.), in Literature, a 
composition intended to prove or illustrate 
a particular subject, and usually shorter 
and less methodical than a treatise. 

ES'SENCE (essentia: Lat.), in Philosophy, 
that which constitutes the particular na¬ 
ture of. a being or substance, and which 
distinguishes it from all others.- Arti¬ 

ficial Essences, in Pharmaceutical Che¬ 
mistry, a number of compounds used in 
flavouring spirituous liquors or confec¬ 
tionery, and consisting chiefly of ethers 
and essential oils. The flavours of several 
fruits are thus successfully imitated. 

ESSE'NES or ESSE'NIANS, one of the 
three ancient Jewish sects; it was more 
exact than the Pharisees, in attending to 
the most rigorous observances. The Es- 
senes admitted a future state, but denied a 
resurrection from the dead. Their way of 
life was very singular: they did not marry, 
but adopted the children of others, whom 
they instructed in the tenets and ritual of 
their sect; they despised riches, and had 
all things in common. They are not once 
mentioned in the New Testament. 

ESSEN'TIAL OILS (essentia, an essence : 
Lat.), in Chemistry, volatile oils, which have 
a strong aromatic smell, and are usually 
drawn from plants by distillation with 
water. Their taste is acrid and burning, and 
their odour very pungent; both their taste 
and smell generally resembling those of the 
vegetables affording them. The principal 
volatile or essential oils are those of tur¬ 
pentine, aniseed, nutmeg, lavender, cloves, 
caraway, peppermint, spearmint, sassafras, 
camomile, and citron. Perfumers style 
the essential oils used by them ottos.- Es¬ 

sential Properties, in Logic, such as | 
necessarily depend upon, and arc connected 
with, the nature of a thing; all others are 
accidental. 

ESSOIN' (exoine: Fr.), in Law, an excuse, 
by reason of sickness or any other just 
cause, for one that was summoned to appear 
andauswer an action, &o. Itwas not neces* 




























Cl )t Scientific antf 


2G2 


essorant] 


eary that there should he any ground for 

this excuse.-The first day of every term 

was formerly called the essoin day, because 
the court sat on It to take essoins. 

ES'SORANT (drying: Fr.), in Heraldry, 
a term for a bird standing on the ground 
with its wings expanded, as if it had been 
wet and was drying itself. 

ESTABLISHMENT (ctablissement: Fr.), 
in a military sense, the quota of officers 
and men in an army, regiment, or company, 
which, being much greater in war than in 
peace, has given rise to the distinctive 
terms of war establishment and peace 

establishment. -The word is also used 

when speaking of the ministers of a church 
established by law; as, belonging to the 
establishment. 

ESTACA'DE ( estocade: Fr.), in the Mili¬ 
tary art, a dyke constructed with piles in the 
sea, a river, or morass, to oppose the entry 
of troops. 

ESTAPET'TE (an express: Fr.), a mili¬ 
tary courier sent from one part of an army 
to another, or a speedy messenger who 
travels on horseback. 

ESTATE (etat: Fr.), in Law, the title or 
interest that one has in lands, tenements, 
or other real property. Also the property 
itself, in which sense estates are either 
real, consisting of lands, tenements, or 
hereditaments; or personal, consisting of 
goods, money, and all other movables, 
and of such rights and profits as relate to 
movables; otherwise distinguished into 
freeholds, which descend to heirs ; or chat¬ 
tels and effects, which go to executors or ad¬ 
ministrators.— Estates op the Realm, 
the distinct parts of any state or govern¬ 
ment ; as, the king, lords, and commons in 
England. 

EST'HER, a canonical book of the Old 
Testament, containing the history of a 
Jewish virgin dwelling with her uncle 
Mordecai at Shushan, in the reign of Alia- 
suerus, one of the kings of Persia. Arch¬ 
bishop Usher supposes Darius Hystaspesto 
be the Ahasuerus of Scripture, and Arty- 
stona to be Esther. Scaliger considers him 
as Xerxes, and his queen Hamestris as 
Esther. Josephus asserts that Ahasuerus 
was Artaxerxes Longimanus, and the 
Septaagint, throughout the whole book of 
Esther, translates Ahasuerus by Artaxerxes. 
Some admit the canonicity of Esther only 
as far as the third verse of the tenth 
chapter, which, according to the most an¬ 
cient opinion, is the only portion that is 
canonical. 

ESTIVATION. [See ^Estivation.] 

ESTOP'PEL (6touper, to stop: Fr.), in 
Law, an impediment or bar to the right of 
action, arising out of a person’s own act, or 
that to which he is privy. 

ESTO'VEItS, in Law, a reasonable allow¬ 
ance out of lands or goods, for the subsist¬ 
ence of a man accused of felony, during his 
imprisonment. Also, certain allowances of 
wood made to tenants, and called, from the 
Saxon, house-bote, hedge-bote, plough-bote, &c. 

ESTRAPA'DE (Fr.), the motion of a res¬ 
tive horse, which, to get rid of its rider, 
rear? high, and kicks violently. 

ESTltAY', a tame beast found without 


any known owner, -which, if not reclaimed 
within a year and a day, falls to the lord of 
the manor. 

ESTREAT' OF RECOG'NIZANCE ( extras- 
turn, extracted from : Lat.), in Law, a copy 
of a recognizance which has been forfeited, 
taken from among the other records, and 
sent up to the exchequer. 

ESTUARY ( cestuarium, from cestus, the 
tide : Lat.), an arm of the sea ; or the broad 
mouth of a river, &c., where the tide meets 
the current. 

ETCHTNG ( etzen, to etch ; from eeten, to 
eat: Ger.), a method of engraving on copper, 
in which the lines and strokes are eaten in 
with aquafortis. [See Engraving.] 

ETE'SIAN WINDS ( etesiai, literally 
yearly ; from etos, a year : Gr.), a term ap¬ 
plied to yearly or regularly periodical winds, 
answering to the monsoons of the East 

Indies.-The Etesian winds of ancient 

writers are such as blow at stated times of 
the year, from whatever part of the compass 
they may come. 

ETHER (. aither, pure air: Gr.), Sul¬ 
phuric, in Chemistry, a light, volatile, and 
inflammable liquid, the product of the dis¬ 
tillation of equal quantities of alcohol and 
sulphuric acid. In Chemical Language, it is 
the oxide of Ethyl, and is composed of one 
atom of oxygen united to one of that radical. 
Pure ether is colourless; its specific gravity 
at 60= jg o-720, and it boils at 96°. It has 
never been frozen by the severest cold. It 
burns with a white flame. Fats and oils are 
dissolved by it.—Physicists, to explain their 
theories, often invoke the aid of a subtle 
gas of extreme tenuity, which they term 
ether. In this the motions take place which 
are supposed to cause the phenomena re¬ 
quiring explanation. 

ETH'ICS ( ethikos, arising from custom; 
from ethos, manners: Gr.), the science of 
morals, or that which treats of the duties 
of men as intelligent and social beings. 

E'THIOPS MIN'ERAL ( aithiops, sun¬ 
burnt : Gr.), in Chemistry, black sulphuret 
of mercury. Etliiops, Martial, black oxide j 
of iron. Etliiops per se, black oxide of 
mercury. 

ETH'MOID ( ethmos, a strainer; and eidos, 
form : Gr.), in Anatomy, one of the most 
curious bones in the human body ; it is 
exceedingly light and spongy, and consists 
of many convoluted plates, which form a 
network like honeycomb. It is curiously 
enclosed in the os frontis, between the 
orbitary processes of that bone. One hori¬ 
zontal plate receives the olfactory nerves, 
which perforate it with such a number of 
small holes that it resembles a sieve, and 
hence is named the cribriform bone, or cri- 
brosum os, which see. Other plates, drop¬ 
ping perpendicularly from this, receive the 
divided nerves, and give them an opportu¬ 
nity of expanding with the organ of smell. 
The bones upon which the olfactory nerves 
are spread out, and which are called the 
spongy bones, are so much convoluted as to i 
greatly extend the surface devoted to this 
sense. Another flat plate lies in the orbit 
of the eye; and, being very smooth, that it 
may not impede the rolling of the eye, it is 
named the os planum, or smooth bone. So 





















263 HttcnU'J) Areas'unj. [euphorbium 

that the ethmoid hone supports the fore 
part of the hrain, receives the olfactory 
nerves, forms the organ of smell, and 
makes a chief part of the orbit of the eye. 

ETH'XICAL ( ethnikos , belonging to the 
nations, heathenish : Gr.), pertaining to the 
heathen nations, or those which were not 
converted to Christianity. 

ETHNOL'OGY (ethnos, a people; and 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), that branch of 
science which is concerned with ascertain¬ 
ing the relationship of the races of men. 
For the purpose of arriving at true conclu¬ 
sions, anatomists, who have examined the 
physical structure of men of different races, 
linguists, who have studied the languages 
they speak, and travellers who have re¬ 
corded their traditions and manners, are 
consulted. 

ETHOL'OGY (ethos, custom ; and logos, a 
discourse: Gr.), a treatise on morality or 
the science of ethics. Hence, one who 
writes on the subject of manners and mo¬ 
rality is termed an ethologist. 

ETHYL', in Chemistry, a compound radi¬ 
cal, consisting of four atoms of carbon and 
five of hydrogen, and forming a colourless 
liquid. It is the base of alcohol and a 
great number of ethers. Thus, the oxide 
of ethyl is ether; the hydrate of the oxide, 
alcohol; the nitrate of the oxide, nitrous 
ether (the basis of the sweet spirits of nitre 
of the shops), &c. 

ETIOLA'TION, the operation of being 
whitened, by excluding the light of the 
sun : a term used by botanists and garden- 
! ers. 'llie stalks of the leaves of celery are 
! designedly etiolated. 

ETIOL'OGY ( nitiologia: from aitia, a 
cause; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), an ac¬ 
count of the causes of anything, particu¬ 
larly of diseases. 

ETIQUETTE (Fr.), the rules and ceremo¬ 
nies which good manners require to be ob¬ 
served towards particular persons. 

EU'CHARIST ( euchciristia, gratitude : 
Gr.), the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper; 
so called because Christ’s death is thereby 
commemorated with thankful recollection, 
and bread and wine are taken ‘ in remem¬ 
brance of him.’ The Roman Catholics 
maintain that the bread and wine cease to 
exist in the Eucharist, the body and blood 
of Christ taking their place. The Lutherans 
believe that Christ’s body and blood are 
present along with the bread and wine. 
[See Tuan substantiation and Consub- 

S TA.NTIATION.] 

EUCHLO'RINE (eu, very; and chldros, 
green: Gr.), in Chemistry, oxide of chlorine. 

EUCHOL'OGY (euchologion: from euche, 
prayer; and lego, I collect: Gr.), the ritual 
of the Greek church, in which are set down 
the order of ceremonies, sacraments, and 
ordinances. 

EUCHY'MIA or ETJ'CHYMY (eu, well; 
and cliumos, juice: Gr.), in Medicine, a good 
state of the blood and other lluids of the 
body. 

EUCHYSTD'ERITE (eu, easily; and chu- 
8is, a melting: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a species 
of Pyroxene, consisting of silicate of lime, 
magnesia, and protoxide of iron. 

EU'CLASE (eu, easily; and klasis, a break- 

ing: Gr.), a species of emerald, of a greenish 
colour. It is a rare mineral, consisting of 
silicate of glucina and alumina. 

EU'CRASY (eulcrasia: from eu, right ; 
and Jcrasis, a mixing: Gr.), in Medicine, 
such a well-proportioned combination of 
qualities in bodies as to constitute sound 
health. 

EUDI'ALYTE (eu, easily; and dialutos, 
dissolved : Gr., from the facility with which 
it is gelatinized by hydrochloric acid), a i 
mineral from Greenland, of a red colour, 
containing silica, zirconia, lime, and soda, 
with the oxides of iron and manganese. 

EUDIOM'ETER (eudia, calm air; andtuc- 
tron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
ascertaining the purity of air—erroneously 
supposed to be dependent on the quantity j! 
of oxygen present, which, however, is 
found to be invariable. The best kind of ; 
eudiometer is a glass tube, in which a mix- j 
ture of atmospheric air and hydrogen is 
exploded : one-third of the gas, which, be- j 
ing formed into water, disappears, is oxy¬ 
gen, and the proportion which it bears 
to the quantity of atmospheric air em¬ 
ployed, is known. 

EUHARMON'IC (eu, correctly ; and liar- 
monilcos, harmonic : Gr.), in Music, pro¬ 
ducing harmony or concordant sounds. 

EUK'AIRITE (eukairos, rich : Gr.), a na¬ 
tive seleniuret of silver and copper, from 
Sweden. 

EU'LOGY (eulogia: from eu, well; and 
logos, a discourse : Gr.), a speech or writing 
in commendation of a person. 

EU'PEPSY (eupepsia: from eu, right; and 
pepsis, digestion : Gr.), in Medicine, a good 
action of the stomach ; perfect digestion. 

EU'PIIEMISM (euphemismos : from eu, 
agreeable; and phenie, a speech: Gr.), in 
Rhetoric, a figure by which things in them¬ 
selves disagreeable or offensive, are ex¬ 
pressed in terms neither offensive to good 
manners nor repulsive to ‘ ears polite.’ 

EU'PHONY (euplionia: from eu, agree¬ 
able; and phone, a sound : Gr.), an easy and 
smooth enunciation of words. A gramma¬ 
tical licence, by which a letter that is too 
harsh is converted into a smoother, contrary 
to the ordinary rules, for the purpose of 
promoting smoothness and elegance in the 
pronunciation. 

EUPIIOR'BIACE^E, an extensive order 
of plants, of which many abound with a 1 
poisonous juice that is usually milky. The | 
flowers are unisexual. The secretions of , 
some are used in medicine, and a nutritious 
starch is obtained from others. To this 
order belong the common box, the croton ! 
oil tree, the physic nut tree (Jatropha pur - 
gans), the manihot, from the root of which 
Cassava and Tapioca are obtained, the 
Castor Oil plant, Siphonia elastica, yield¬ 
ing India rubber, and Stillingia sebifera,. the 
Tallow-Tree. Some species are highly 
ornamental plants, cultivated in hot-houses, 
whilst others curiously resemble cactuses, j 
and some are common weeds. In England 
there are several wild herbaceous species 
belonging to the genus Euphorbia, so named 
by Linmeus after Euphorbus, physician to 
king Juba of Mauritania. 

EUPHOR'BIUM, in Medicine, a concrete 








































eukite] (Efjc ^ctcnttftc nnU 264 

gum-resin, the produce of the Euphorbia 
officinalis. When first chewed it has little 
taste, hut it soon gives a very acrid burning 
sensation to the tongue, palate, and throat, 
which is very permanent, and almost in¬ 
supportable. Its very dust is a dangerous 
stimulant to the nose. 

EU'RITE (eurus, broad : Gr.), in Geology, 
very small-grained granite, with the parts 
so intimately blended as often to appear 
compact. The name is also applied to a 
rock, in which common felspar predomi¬ 
nates, without any mica. It is thin, of a 
white colour, and maybe called a felspathic 
granite. 

EU'RYTHMY ( euruthmia: from etc, right; 
and ruthnios, proportion : Gr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, Painting, and Sculpture, a certain 
majesty, elegance, and ease in the various 
parts of a body, arising from its just pro¬ 
portions.-In Medicine, a good action of 

the pulse. 

EUSTA'CIIIAN TUBE (named after the 
celebrated anatomist Eustachius), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the communication between the ear 
and mouth. Persons who have a perforated 
tympanum can blow tobacco-smoke through 
it; deafness results if it is stopped. Though 
its discovery has been attributed to Eusta¬ 
chius, Aristotle, who accurately describes 
it, quotes an earlier Greek anatomist as 
having known it. 

EUSTA'THIANS, the followers of Eusta¬ 
thius, who, in the 4tli century, under pre¬ 
tence of great purity and severity, intro¬ 
duced many extravagant notions. His teach¬ 
ing was condemned by the councilof Gangra, 
held soon after the council of Nice. 

EU'STYLE (eustulos : from eu, correct; 
and stulos, a column : Gr.), in Architecture, 
a style of building in which the columns are 
placed at the most convenient distances 
from each other, most of the intercolum- 
niations being generally two and a quarter 
diameters of the column. 

EUTY'CIIIANS, a religious sect in the 
5th century, called after Eutyclies, abbot of 
a monastery at Constantinople, who main¬ 
tained, among other things, that the human 
nature of Christ was absorbed by the divine, 
so that there was only one nature in him, 
and that the divine. This was in opposition 
to the Nestorians, who asserted the distinct¬ 
ness of the two natures of Christ so far, 
that they considered the human nature as 
the mere dwelling-place of the divine. The 
Eutychian doctrine was the occasion of a 
long and violent controversy, and led to a 
civil war. It was first condemned, and Eu- 
tyches excommunicated, by an occasional 
council. Eutyclies was then acquitted by 
the general council of Ephesus a.d. 449. 
By the council of Clialcedon, 451, he w j as 
again condemned. 

EYAN'GELIST ( euangelistes , a bringer of 
good tidings : Gr.), a general name given to 
those who write or preach the gospel of 
Jesus Christ. But it is specially applied to 
the writers of the four Gospels, viz. Mat¬ 
thew, Mark, Luke, and John.-The word 

also denotes certain ministers in the primi¬ 
tive church, who assisted the apostles in 
diffusing the knowledge of the gospel, and 
travelled, about to execute such commis- 

sions as they were intrusted with, for the 
advancement of Christianity. 

EVAPORATION ( evaporatio: Lot.), in 
Natural Philosophy, that conversion of 
substances into vapour, which is caused by 
heat. The vapour which rises from water, 
in consequence of becoming lighter than 
the atmosphere, ascends considerably above 
the surface of the earth, and afterwards, by 
condensation, forms clouds. When water 
is heated to 212°, it is rapidly converted into 
steam; and if the heat is applied below, it 
boils. The same change takes place at much 
lower jtemperatures; but in that case the 
evaporation is slower, and the elasticity of 
the vapour is less. The vapour, and the 
fluid from which it rises, are always of the 
same temperature; the caloric which dis¬ 
appears being required on account of the 
greater capacity which the vapour has for 
caloric: steam at 212° contains 1000° more 
heat than water at the same temperature. 

As a very considerable proportion of the 
earth’s surface is covered with water, and 
as this water is constantly evaporating and 
mixing with the atmosphere in the state j 
of vapour, a precise determination of the 
rate of evaporation must be of very great 
importance in meteorology. 

EVEC'TICAor EVEC'TICS ( euektikos , con¬ 
ducive to sound health : from eu, well; and 
echo, I keep myself : Gr.), that part of medi¬ 
cine which teaches how to acquire a good 
habit of body. 

EVEC'TION ( evelio , I raise up: Lat.), of 
the moon, in Astronomy, one of her most 
considerable irregularities, caused by the 
action of the sun upon her; the general 
effect of which is to diminish the equation 
of the centre at the syzygies, and to in¬ 
crease it in the quadratures. When the 
transverse axis of the lunar orbit lies in the 
same direction with the line of the syzygies, 
or that joining the sun and earth, the quan¬ 
tity by which the solar force diminishes the 
gravitation of the moon is greatest if the 
moon is in apogee, and least if in perigee. 
The difference between the moon’s gravita¬ 
tion at her apogee and perigee is therefore 
increased by the solar action, and conse¬ 
quently her orbit seems to have its excen- 
tricity augmented. When the line of the 
apsides is in the quadratures, the contrary 
happens : the difference of her gravitation 
is diminished, and the excentricity of her 
orbit seems also diminished. The result is, 
that the moon is alternately in advance and 
in arrear of her elliptic place by about 

E'V ENING or EYE (efen; Sax.). In strict¬ 
ness, evening commences at the setting of 
the sun, and continues during twilight; 
and night commences with total darkness. 

But it sometimes includes a portion of the 
afternoon; and in customary language it 

extends to bed-time.- Evening Star, in 

Astronomy, Hesperus or Vesper; Venus, 
when visible in the evening. 

EV'IDENCE (evidential Lat.), in its most 
general sense, means the proofs which es¬ 
tablish, or have a tendency to establish, any 
facts or conclusions. It may be divided into 
three sorts, mathematical, moral, and legal. 

The first is employed in the demonstrations 
which belong to pure mathematics ; the 

















2G5 


Sitcrarg Cirasttrji. 


[excellency 


second, in the general affairs of life, and in 
those reasonings which are applied to con¬ 
vince the understanding in cases not ad¬ 
mitting of strict demonstration; the third 
is that which is adduced before judicial 
tribunals, for the purpose of obtaining de¬ 
cisions upon the rights and wrongs of liti¬ 
gants. According to our system of juris¬ 
prudence in common-law trials, it is the 
peculiar province of a jury to decide all 
matters of fact. The verdict of the jury is, 
however, to be given, and the trial is to 
take place, in the presence of a judge or 
judges who preside, and are bound to decide 
all matters of law which suggest themselves 
in the course of the trial. Whenever, there¬ 
fore, a question arises, whether anything 
offered as proof at such trial is or is not 
proper to go before the jury as evidence, 
that question is to be decided by the court, 
and, unless permitted by the court, it can 
never legally come before the consideration 
of the jury. Hence, whatever is so per¬ 
mitted to be brought before the jury, for 
the purpose of enabling them to decide any 
matter of fact in dispute between the par¬ 
ties, is, in a legal sense, evidence , and is so 
called in contradistinction from mere argu¬ 
ment and comment. This gives rise to a 
very important distinction, at common law, 
as to the competency and the credibility of 
evidence. It is competent, when, by the 
principles of law, it is admissible to estab¬ 
lish any fact, or has any tendency to prove 
it. It is credible, when, being introduced, 
it affords satisfactory proof of the fact. It 
follows, therefore, that evidence may be 
competent to be produced before a jury, 
when it may nevertheless not amount to 
credible proof so as to satisfy the minds of 
the jury ; and, on the other hand, it maybe 
such that, if before them, it would satisfy 
their minds of the truth of the fact, but 
yet, by the rules of law, it is not admissible. 
Whether there is any evidence of a fact is a 
question for the court; whether it is suffi¬ 
cient is a question for the jury. 

EVOCA'TI (Lat., from evoco, I call out), 
soldiers among the Romans, who, having 
served their full time in the army, went 
afterwards as volunteers at the request of 
some favourite general; on which account 
they were called by the honourable names 
of Emeriti and Beneficiarii. 

. EV'OLUTE ( evolutus, unrolled : Lat.), in 
Geometry, an original curve from which 
another is described. 

EVOLUTION ( evolutio, an unrolling : 
Lat.), in Algebra, the extraction of roots 

from powers; the reverse of involution. - 

In Geometry, the unfolding or opening a 
curve, and making it describe an evolvent. 

-In Military tactics, the complicated 

movement of a body of men when they 
change their position by counter-marching, 
wheeling, &c. 

EVOL'VENT ( evolvo, I unroll: Lat.), in 
Geometry', the curve described from the 
evolute. 

EW'RY (eycr, a ewer: Norm. Fr.; from 
eye, water: Sax.), a department in the royal 
household, which had charge of the table- 
linen, &c., in former times. 

EXACERBATION (exacerbo, I aggravate: 


Lat.), in Medicine, the increased violence 
of a disease. The term is generally re¬ 
stricted to the periodical increase of remit¬ 
tent and continued fevers, where there is 
no absolute cessation of the fever. 

EXHS'RESIS (exairesis, a taking out: Gr.), 
in Surgery, the operation of extracting or 
taking away something that is hurtful to 
the human body. 

EXAGGERATION ( exaggerate , literally 
a heaping up: Lat.), in Rhetoric, a kind of 
hyperbole, in which things are augmented 
or amplified by saying more than the strict 
truth would warrant.-In Painting, the re¬ 

presentation of things in a manner stronger 
than the ideality. 

EXALTATION ( exaltatio, a raising up: 
Lat.), in Astrology, the dignity which a 
planet acquires in certain signs or parts of 
the zodiac, and which is supposed to give 
it an extraordinary efficacy and influence. 

EXAMINATION (examinatio: Lat.), in 
judicial proceedings, an attempt to ascer¬ 
tain the truth, generally on the oath of the 
party examined. 

EXAM'INERS ( examinator: Lat), in Law, 
officers in the Court of Chancery, who are 
appointed to examine witnesses on either 
side. The evidence taken by them follows 
the same rules as that given in a court of 
common law. 

EXANTHEMA, or EXANTHE'MATA (ex¬ 
anthema, a flower, and hence an eruption: 
Gr.), among physicians, any kind of efflo¬ 
rescence or eruption ; as in measles, small¬ 
pox, scarlatina, &c. The term is now li¬ 
mited by systematic nosologists to such 
eruptions as are accompanied with fever. 
-The adjective is exanthematous. 

EXANTHRO'PIA ( exanthropos, degraded: 
cx, away from ; and anthrbpos, a man : Gr.), 
in Medicine, a species of melancholy mad¬ 
ness, in which the patient fancies himself a 
brute. 

EXARCH ( exarchos: Gr.), in Antiquity, 
an ofllcer sent by the emperors of the East 
into Italy as prefect or governor.- Ex¬ 

arch also denotes an officer still found in 
the Greek church, who visits the provinces 
in order to see whether the bishops and 
clergy do their duty. 

EXARTICULATION (ex, out of; and 
articulus, a joint: Lat.), in Surgery, the 
dislocation of a joint. 

EXOALCEA'TION (excalceo, I take off the 
shoes : Lat.). Among the Jews, a widow, 
whom her husband’s brother refused to 
marry, had a right to summon him to a 
court of justice, and, upon his persevering, 
to pull off one of his shoes and spit in his 
face, both which actions were considered 
very ignominious. 

EX'CELLENCY ( excellence: Fr.), a title 
of honour, formerly confined to kings and 
emperors, but now given to governors, 
ambassadors, and diplomatic ministers. 
The title of excellency is in no case here¬ 
ditary or transferable, but exclusively be¬ 
longs to the office; and it is borne, on the 
European continent, only by ministers in 
actual service, by the highest court and 
military dignitaries, and by ambassadors 
and plenipotentiaries. Foreign ministers 
are addressed as your excellency, by way 






























Ci)c gricnttfic rm'tf 


266 


exception] 


of courtesy, even if they have no rank 
which entitles them to tliisdistinction; but 
charges d'affaires never receive this title. 
The lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and the go¬ 
vernors of British colonies, are styled 

COCCBllCTI Cl/, 

EXCEPTION (exceptio: Lat.), in Law, 
the denial of the matter alleged in bar of 
action. In Chancery, what is alleged against 

the sufficiency of the answer.- Bill op 

Exceptions, a statement of exceptions 
to the direction or decision of a judge at a 
trial, on account of his misstating the law, 
&c., tendered to him by one of the parties, 
and which the judge must sign or seal. 

EXCESS' (excis: Fr.), in Arithmetic and 
Geometry, the difference between any two 
unequal numbers or quantities; or that 
which is left after the less is taken from or 

out of t he greater.-In Trigonometry, the 

difference between the sums of the three 
angles of a spherical triangle and two right 
angles. 

EXCHAN'GE (Fr.), in Commerce, traf¬ 
fic by permutation, or the act of giving 
one thing or commodity for another. Also, 
the receipt or payment of money in one 
country for the like sum in another, by 
means of bills of exchange. Thus, A in Lon¬ 
don is creditor to B in Paris to the amount 
of 1001.; G in London is debtor to D in Paris 
in a like sum. By the operation of the bill 
of exchange, the London creditor is paid 
by the London debtor, and the Paris cre¬ 
ditor is paid by the Paris debtor; and con¬ 
sequently two debts are paid, though no 
specie is sent from London to Paris, or from 
Paris to London. This is the principle of 
! a bill of exchange; and its great conve- 
nience is the foundation of exchange itself. 
That variation above and beloio par, which 
is called the course of exchange, results 
from the same causes that act upon the 
price of commodities of every other kind. 
If bills upon Paris be scarce, that is, if 
Paris is but little indebted to London, the 
London creditor, who wants bills on Paris 
to remit to that city, is obliged to purchase 
them dearly; then the course of exchange 
is above par. If, on the other hand, London 
owes less to Paris than Paris owes to Lon¬ 
don, Paris bills will be proportionably 
plenty, and the exchange with that city 
below par. Hence, it is a maxim that, when 
the course of exchange rises above par, the 
balance of trade runs against the country 
where it rises.-In London, bills of ex¬ 

change are bought and sold by brokers, who 
go round to the principal merchants and 
discover whether they are buyers or sellers 
of bills. A few of the brokers of most in¬ 
fluence, after ascertaining the relative sup¬ 
ply of and demand for bills, suggest a price 
at which the greater part of the transactions 
of the day are settled, with such deviations 
as particular bills, from their being in very 
high or low credit, may be subject to. In 
j London and other great commercial cities, 

! a class of middlemen speculate largely on 
j the rise and fail of the exchange, buying 
I bills when they expect a rise, and selling 
them when a fall is anticipated..-. Ex¬ 

change (often contracted into Change, and 
termed in Prance the Bourse), a building or 


other place in considerable trading cities, 
where the merchants, agents, bankers, bro¬ 
kers, and other persons concerned in com¬ 
merce, meet at certain times to confer and 
treat together on matters relating to ex¬ 
changes, remittances, payments, adven¬ 
tures, assurances, freights, and other mer¬ 
cantile uegociations both by seaand by land. 

- Course of exchange, the rate at which bills ' 

of exchange may be obtained. It is affected ! 
by variations which may be either real or no¬ 
minal. They are real when they grow out of I 
circumstances affecting trade; nominal, \ 
when they arise from any discrepancy in 
the actual weight or fineness of the coin 
(which in scarcely any foreign country cor- : 
responds to our Mint standard), from the 
use of paper money, &c. A fall of the nomi¬ 
nal exchange has no effect on trade; but an 
unfavourable real exchange has, since it in- I 
creases exportation and decreases importa- I 
tion. The true par forms the centre of the j 
oscillations arising from the favourable and j 
unfavourable states of the real exchange. | 

- Arbitration of exchanges, the mode of 

estimating the value of the money of any ! 
one place, not drawn directly, but through ! 

one or more other places..- 'Exchange ' 

op Prisoners, in War, the act of giving up 
men on both sides, upon certain conditions 
agreed to by the contending parties. -Ex¬ 

change, in Arithmetic, the finding what 
quantity of the money in one place is equal 
to a given sum in another, according to a 
certain course of exchange. 

EXCHEQ'UElUdc/iiquier: Fr.), in British j 
Jurisprudence, an ancient court of record, 
in which all causes concerning the revenues 
and rights of the crown were heard and 
determined, and where the crown revenues 
were received. It took its name from j 
the cloth that covered the table, which was 
parti-coloured or chequered. This court is 
said to have been established by William 
the Conqueror. In its modern form, it is a 
combination of several distinct ancient 
courts. It acquired concurrent jurisdiction 
with the other two superior courts, in all 
personal actions, by the fiction of the com¬ 
plaining party being debtor to the king—a 
fiction now obsolete. It has exclusive ju¬ 
risdiction in cases in which the king’s reve¬ 
nue is concerned. It had also an equitable 
jurisdiction, exclusive with respect to mat¬ 
ters connected with the revenue, concur¬ 
rent with the Court of Chancery in civil 
suits and in tithes; but all its power and j 
jurisdiction as a court of equity has been ! 
transferred to the Court of Chancery, and 
it is now only a court of revenue and of 
common law. Its chief, and four Puisne or 
younger judges, are termed barons. 

EXCHEQ'UER-BILLS, bills for money, 
or promissory notes, issued from the ex¬ 
chequer under the authority of government, 
and bearing interest, generally from 1 id. to j 
2d. per day, per 100k Advances made by the ! 
bank to government are made on exchequer i 
bills. 

EXCI'SE (Fr.), an inland duty, paid in 
some instances upon the commodity con¬ 
sumed, or on the retail, which is the last 
stage before consumption; but paid in 
others at the manufactories. The excise 





























267_ mtcr arg 

was first Introduced by the parliament 
which beheaded Charles I., its founder be¬ 
ing Pym; and it is now one of the most 
considerable branches of the national re¬ 
venue. It was formerly farmed out, but is 
at present managed for the government by 
commissioners, who receive the whole pro¬ 
duce of the excise and pay it into the 
exchequer. 

EXCIS'ION (exc.isio: Lat.), in Surgery, a 
cutting out or cutting off any part of the 
body. 

EXCITABIL'ITY ( excito , I stimulate : 
Lat.), susceptibility of increased vital action 
by the force of stimulants. 

EXC L AM ATI O N ( exclamatio: Lat.), em- 
phatical utterance, or the sign by which 
emphatical utterance is marked: thus (I). 

■-In Grammar, a word expressing •won¬ 

der, fear, &o. 

EXCOMMUNICATION ( excommunicatio: 
Lat.), an ecclesiastical censure, by which a 
I person is excluded from communion with 
| the church, and deprived of some civil 
rights. In the Church of England, the 
j practice of excommunication has long been 
obsolete. Roman Catholics say that an ex- 
communication is fulminated (fulmen, li gli t- 
uing: Lat.), to signify the solemn pro¬ 
nouncing of it after several admonitions, 
and to indicate wliat they believe to be its 
awful character. This fulmination princi¬ 
pally consists in curses and execrations. 

- Excommunication, amongst the Jews, 

was of three kinds or degrees. The first 
was called Niddui, and was a separation for 
a few days. The second was Cherem, a se¬ 
paration attended with execration and 
malediction ; the third was Shammatha, and 
•was the last and most solemn.- Excom¬ 

munication, amongst the Greeks and 
Romans, excluded the person on whom 
it was pronounced from the sacrifices and 
temples, and delivered him over to the 
Furies. 

EXCRES'CENCE ( excresco, I grow out of : 
Lat.), in Surgery, a tumour which arises 
upon the skin, either in the form of a wart 
or tubercle. 

EXCRETION ( excretus, sifted out: Lat.), 
In Medicine, a separation of some fluid 
mixed with the blood, by means of the 
glands. The term is applied also to the dis¬ 
charges from the bowels, w'hich are called 
ulvine excretions. 

EX'E AT (let him go out: Lat.), in Ecclesi¬ 
astical History, a term expressing the per¬ 
mission which a bishop grants to a priest 
to go out of his diocese, for the purpose of 
receiving an ecclesiastical appointment in 
another. 

EXECUTION (executio: Lat.), in Law, the 
completing or finishing some act, as the 
signing, sealing, and delivering a written 
deed. Also, the carrying into effect a sen¬ 
tence or judgment of court. 

EXEC'UTIVE ( exequor, I accomplish, li¬ 
terally I follow to the end: Lat.), in Politics, 
that branch of the government which exe¬ 
cutes the functions of governing the state. 
The word is used in distinction from legis¬ 
lative and judicial. The body that delibe¬ 
rates and enacts laws is legislative; the body 
that judges or applies the laws to particular 


[exhibition I 


cases is judicial; and the body that carries 
the laws into effect, or superintends their 
enforcement, is executive. In all monarchi¬ 
cal states the executive power vests in the 
prince. 

EXEC'UTOR (from same), in Law, a per- j 
son appointed by any one in his last will 
and testament to have the execution of it 
after his decease, and the disposing of his 
goods and effects according to the intent of 
the will. 

EXEC'UTORY (from same), in Law, sig¬ 
nifies that which is to take effect on a future 
contingency; as an executory devise or re¬ 
mainder. 

EX'EDRA or EXHE'DRA {Gr.: from ek, 
provided with ; and hedra, a chair), in Anti¬ 
quity, a covered walk or space in front of 
a house; also, a hall, in baths and other 

buildings, appropriated to conversation.-• 

A general name for such buildings as were 
distinct from the main body of the churches, 
and yet within the limits of the consecrated 
ground. 

EXEGE'SIS ( exegesis, an explanation : 
Gr.), a discourse intended to explain or 
illustrate a subject, particularly the sacred 
Scriptures. 

EXEM'PLAR {Lat.), a pattern or model: ; 
the ideal model which an artist endeavours ! 
to imitate. 

EXEQUATUR (let it be carried out: 
Lat,.), an official recognition of a person as 
consul or commercial agent, authorizing j 
him to exercise his powers. 

EXER'GUE (Fr.), a term used by medal- j 
lists to denote the small space around, and 
without, the work or figures of a medal, for 
an inscription, &o. 

EXHAUSTION {exhaustus, emptied: 
Lat.), in Mathematics, a method of proving ; 
the equality of two magnitudes, by showing 
that their difference is less than any assign¬ 
able magnitude. As the ancients admitted j 
no demonstrations which were not strictly 
rigorous, they did not consider curves as ! 
polygons with an infinite number of sides; ! 
but they regarded them as the fixed terms 
or limits to which the inscribed and circum- j 
scribed polygons continually approach, and 
approach the nearer as the number of their 
sides is increased. They exhausted, as it 
were, the space between the polygons and 

the curves.-In Pneumatics, the amount 

of rarefaction produced by the air-pump. \ 
EXHEllEDA'TION {exhccredutio : Lat), 
in the Civil Law, the excluding a child 
from inheriting any part of his father’s 
estate. 

EXIITB'IT {exhibition, something shown : 
Lat.), any paper produced or presented to a 
court, or to auditors, referees, or arbitra¬ 
tors, as a voucher, &c.-In Chancery, a 

deed or writing produced in court and 
sworn to, or referred to in an affidavit sworn 
out of court. A certificate of identity is j 
indorsed on it by the examiner or commis¬ 
sioner. 

EXHIBITION {exhibitio: Lat.), a public 
display of whatever is interesting, either in 
nature or art. Also, a fund settled for the 
benefit of scholars in the universities, j 
who are not on the foundation. The person 
receiving this is called an exhibitioner. - 


r 










































exigent] Cfje ^rtcuttfic autf 263 


Exhibition was anciently an allowance for 
meat and drink, such as the religious ap- 
propriators made to the poor depending 
vicar.-Medical men speak of the exhibi¬ 

tion, that is, the administering of such or 
such a medicine. 

EX'IGENT (they shall demand: Lat.), in 
Law, a writ or part of the process of out¬ 
lawry. The exigent or exigi facias requires 
the defendant to be summoned by procla¬ 
mation, in five county courts successively, 
to deliver himself up; and if he does not, 
he is outlawed. 

EX'ILE ( exilium: Lat.), a state of banish¬ 
ment or expulsion from one’s country by 
authority. 

EXISTENCE (existo, I am: Lat.), the 
state of being, or having an actual essence. 
Locke says that we arrive at the knowledge 
of our own existence by intuition ; of the 
existence of God, by demonstration; and of 
other things, by sensation. 

EX'IT (he goes away : Lat.), a departure; 
a term used to denote the action of quitting 
the stage by a player after he has performed 
his part. 

EXOCCE'TTJS {Lat.), in Ichthyology, a 
genus of flying-fishes. The Exocoetus exiliens, 
or the Mediterranean flying fish, is about 
fourteen inches in length, and found prin¬ 
cipally in the Mediterranean and the Atlan¬ 
tic, frequently alone, and sometimes in 
small shoals. By the extraordinary length 
of its pectoral fins it is enabled to quit the 
water and continue flying, about three feet 
above the surface, for the distance of SO or 
100 yards. These fishes are persecuted by 
the dolphin under the water, and by the 
gull or the albatross above its surface, and 
thus often escape destruction by the one 
only to incur it from the other. 

EX'ODUS {cxodos, a going out: Gr.), a 
canonical book of the Old Testament, being 
the second of the Pentateuch or five books 
of Moses. It contains a history of the de¬ 
parture of the children of Israel from Egypt, 
whence the name. 

EX-OFFI'CIO (on account of his office: 
Lat.), in Law, the power a person has, by 
virtue of his office, to do certain acts with¬ 
out special authority.- Ex-officio In¬ 

formations are prosecutions commenced 
on behalf of the Crown by one of the law 
officers. 

EXO'GENOUS ( exo, on the outside; and 
ginomai, I am produced: Gr.), a Botanical 
term applied to plants which increase by 
successive external additions of their wood 
in contradistinction from endogenous. All 
dicotyledonous plants are exogenous. The 
stems of exogenous trees, for example, the 
oak, beech, and elm, have distinct cellular 
and vascular systems. To the former belong 
the outer bark, the pith, and the medullary 
rays; to the latter, the inner bark, the woody 
layers and the medullary sheath. 

EXOM'PHALOS {ex, away from ; and 
omphalos, the navel: Gr.), in Surgery, a rup¬ 
ture of the navel. 

EX'ORCISM {exorkismos: Gr.), the ex¬ 
pulsion of evil spirits from persons or 
places, by certain adjurations and cere¬ 
monies. Exorcism makes a considerable 
part of the ritual of the church of Rome, 


| which prohibits the exorcising any person 
except with the bishop’s leave, or through 
the ministration of one who has been or* 
| dained exorcist. 

EX'ORCIST {exorkistes: Gr.), one who 
professes to cast out evil spirits by prayers 
or incantations.-A person who has re¬ 

ceived one of the four minor orders of the 
church of Rome. 

EXOR'DIUM (abeginning: Lat.),\n Rhe¬ 
toric, the commencement of a speech, 
serving to prepare the audience for the 
main subject. It may be formal and de¬ 
liberate, or abrupt and vehement, accord¬ 
ing to the nature of the subject and the 
occasion. 

EX'OSMOSE {ex, out of; mo, I seek : Gr.), 
a term denoting the passage outward from 
within, of fluids, through membranes, in 
opposition to endosmose {endon, within: 
Gr.). When fluids of different densities are 
placed on opposite sides of a membrane, 
whether animal or vegetable, a certain por¬ 
tion of each will pass through in opposite 
directions. This process is of universal 
occurrence in living plants. 

EXOS'TOSIS (ea;, away from; and osteon, 
a bone : Gr.), in Surgery, a morbid excres¬ 
cence on a bone, whether attended with an 
erosion or not. 

EXOS'TRA {exostra: Gr.), in Antiquity, a 
bridge thrust out of a turret on the walls 
of a town, by which the besiegers gained 

an entrance into it.-Also, in the ancient 

drama, a machine for representing the in¬ 
terior of a building, where the parts sup¬ 
posed to occur in privacy were recited. 

EXOT'ERIC. [See Esoteric.] 

EXOT'IC .{exotikos: Gr.), an appellation 
for the produce of foreign countries. 

EXPAN'SION {expansio: Lat.), in Natural 
Philosophy, enlargement or increase of 
bulk. It is one of the most general effects 
of heat which produces it iu all bodies, 
whether solid or fluid, or in an aeriform 
1 state. Some bodies expand as they grow 
cold, thus water in the act of freezing; but 
they form no exceptions to the general 
! rule : since the effect is due to a peculiar 
arrangement of their particles during 
crystallization, and is not a regular and 
gradual expansion, like that which occurs 
by means of heat. Several of the metals 
expand, in passing from a fluid to a solid 
state. The degree of expansion produced 
by heat, in different liquids, varies very 
considerably. In general^ the denser the 
fluid, the less the expansion: water expands 
more than mercury; and alcohol, which 
is lighter than water, expands more than 
water. The expansion of aeriform fluids 
may be exhibited by bringing a bladder, 
partly filled with air, and the neck closely 
tied, near the fire : the bladder will soon be 
distended, and, if the heat be strong 
enough, will burst. 

EX-PAR'TE (from a part: Lat.), in Law, 
on one side; as ex-parte statement, a partial 
statement, or that which is made by one 
side only. 

EXPECTANCY {expecto, I look for: Lat.), 
in Law, a state of waiting or suspense. An 
estate in expectancy is one which is to take 
effect or commence after the determination 













Ettcrarji Cmgurg. [extant 


269 


of another estate. Estates of this kind are 
remainders and reversions. 

EXPECTATION ( expectatio: Lat.), in the 
doctrine of chances, is applied to any con¬ 
tingent event, upon the happening of which 

some benefit is expected.- Expectation 

of Life, a term referring to the number of 
years which, according to the data afforded 
by statistical tables, persons at any age 
may he expected to live. 

EXPECTORANTS ( expectoro , I expecto¬ 
rate : Lat.), those medicines which promote 
expectoration, or a discharge of mucus 
from the trachea and respiratory organs. 

EXPERIMENT ( experimentum : Lat.), an 
act or operation designed to discover some 

unknown truth, principle, or effect.-In 

Chemistry, a trial of the results of certain 
combinations of bodies, in order to dis¬ 
cover something of their laws. 

EXPERIMENTAL PHILOS'OPHY (same 
deriv.), those branches of science, the de¬ 
ductions in which are founded on experi¬ 
ment, as contrasted with the moral, mathe¬ 
matical, and speculative departments of 
knowledge. The principal experimental 
science is Chemistry ; but there are many 
others, as Optics, Pneumatics, Hydrostatics, 
Electricity, Magnetism, &c. 

EXPERIMENTUM CRU'CIS(the experi¬ 
ment of the cross: Lat.). [See Crucial.] 
EXPIATION ( expiatio , an atonement: 
Lat.), a religious ceremony, by which satis¬ 
faction is made for sins of omission or 
commission, accidental or intentional. The 
chief mode of expiation among the Jews 

and pagans was by sacrifice.- Expiation 

is applied by divines to the pardon pro¬ 
cured for sin by the obedience and death of 
Christ. 

EXPIRATION ( expiratio: Lat.), in Ani¬ 
mal Physiology, that part of respiration 
which consists in expelling the air out of 
the lungs. 

EXPLO'SION ( explosio: Lat), in Natural 
Philosophy, a sudden and violent expansion 
of an aerial or other elastic fluid, by which 
it instantly overcomes any obstacle that 
happens to be in the way, sometimes with 
I incredible force, and in such a manner as 
I to produce the most astonishing effects. 

! For example, gunpowder explodes on the 
application of heat, by the sudden conver¬ 
sion of a solid into gases. It differs from 
mere expansion, by being sudden and vio¬ 
lent, while the latter acts gradually and 
uniformly for some time. 

EXPO'NENT ( expono, I exhibit: Lat.), in 
Algebra, the literal or numerical quantity 
which, placed above a root at the right hand, 
denotes how many multiplications are ne¬ 
cessary to produce the power. It is a mere 
abbreviation thus, a* is a short way of 
expressing axaxaxa, or aaaa. 

EXPONENTIAL (same deriv.), that which 
relates to exponents. Thus, an exponential 
curve is a curve defined by an exponential 
equation, such as y=a*. 

EXPOSITOR (Lat.), one who explains 
the writings of others; the term is applied 
particularly to those who profess to expound 
the Scriptures. 

EX POST FACTO (from something done 
afterwards: Lat.), An ex post facto law is 


one which operates upon a subject not 
liable to it at the time it was made. 

EXPOSTULATION (expostulatio: Lat), 
in Rhetoric, a warm address to a person 
who has done another some injury, repre¬ 
senting the wrong in the strongest terms, 
and demanding reparation. 

EXPRESS' (exprSs: Fr.), a messenger or 
courier sent to communicate information 
of an important event, or to deliver im¬ 
portant despatches. 

EXPRESS'ED OILS (exprimo, I squeeze 
out : Lat.), in Chemistry, such oils as are 
procured from any substance by simple 
pressure, as the oil of almonds, &c. 

EXPRESSION (expressio: Lat,), in Paint¬ 
ing, the distinct and natural exhibition of 
character or of sentiment in the individuals 
represented. The term expression is fre¬ 
quently confounded with passion; but 
they differ in this: that expression is a 
general term, implying a representation of 
an object agreeably to its nature and cha¬ 
racter, and the use or office it is to have in 
the work; whereas passion, in painting, 
denotes a motion of the body, accompanied 
with certain indications of strong feeling 
portrayed in the countenance; so that 
every passion is an expression, but not j 
every expression a passion.- Expres¬ 

sion, in Rhetoric, the elocution, diction, or | 
choice of W'ords, suited to the subject and 

sentiment.-In Music, the tone and man- [ 

ner which give life and reality to ideas and 
sentiments. 

EXPROPRIATION (ex, from ; and pro- 
prius, one’s own: Lat.), the surrender of a 
claim to exclusive property. 

EXPUI'TION (expuitio, a spitting out: 
Lai,), in Medicine, a discharge of saliva by 
spitting. 

EXPUR'GATORY (expurgatio, a cleans¬ 
ing: Lat.), serving to purify from anything 
considered noxious or erroneous; as, the 
expurgatory index of the Roman Catholics. 
This is a catalogue of the books prohibited 
to be read ; it is very comprehensive, and 
includes all works on religious subjects 
written by heretics, all works written on 
any subjects by heresiarchs, and many 
works seemingly having but little connec¬ 
tion with religious matters. It is particu¬ 
larly strict in the prohibition of the Bible 
in vernacular tongues. The reader of books 
placed on this Index incurs serious eccle¬ 
siastical penalties and censures by the very 
fact. It is published annually at Rome. 

EXSAN'GUIOUS (exsanguis, bloodless: 
Lat.), an epithet for animals which are des¬ 
titute of red blood. 

EXSICCATION (exsicco, I dry up: Lat), 
the act of drying, or the evaporation of 
moisture. 

EXSTIP'ULATE (ex, from; and stipula, 
a husk: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for 
plants which have no stipules. 

EXSUDA'TION (exsudo, I perspire: Lat.), 
in Medicine, a discharge of humours or 
moisture from animal bodies, by sweat or 
through the pores. 

EXTANT (extans, existing: Lat.), an 
epithet for anything which still subsists 
or is in being; thus we say, a part only of 
the writings of Cicero is extant. 







































extempore] 


El)t Jpaenttfic antf 


270 


EXTEM'PORE (on the emergency: Lat.), 
without previous study or meditation. 
Though an adverb, it is often unnecessarily 
and improperly used as an adjective; as, au 
extempore sermon, instead of an extempo¬ 
rary or extemporaneous sermon, &c.-To 

extemporize well requires a ready mind well 
furnished with knowledge. 

EXTEN'SION (extension stretching out: 
Lat.), in Philosophy, one of the common 
and essential properties of matter, or that 
by which it occupies some part of universal 
space! 

EXTEN'SOR ( extendo, I stretch out: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, an appellation given to 
several muscles, from their extending or 
stretching the parts to which they belong. 

EXTENT', in Law, a writ of execution, 
sometimes called an extendi facias (you shall 
cause to be appraised at their full or extend¬ 
ed value), directed to the sheriff, against 
the body, lands, and goods, or the lands 
only of a debtor. It is either extent in 
chief, or extent in aid. The former is a 
proceeding for the king to recover his own 
debt; the latter, a proceeding for recover¬ 
ing the debt due to a crown debtor, and in 
this the crown is the nominal plaintiff, on 
the ground that it is entitled to the debts 
due to the debtor. 

EXTENUATION (extenuatio, a diminish¬ 
ing : Xaf.),theactof representing anything 
less faulty or criminal than it is in fact; it 
is opposed to aggravation. 

EXTINGUISHMENT ( extinguo, I quench: 
Lat.), in Law, the annihilation of an estate, 
&c„ by means of its being merged in or con¬ 
solidated with another. Thus, a term of 
years is extinguished when the lessee ac¬ 
quires the legal reversion. 

EXTRA, a Latin preposition, denoting 
beyond or excess: as, extrarioork, extra-pay, 
&c. It serves as a prefix to numerous Eng¬ 
lish words. 

EXTRACT (extractus, drawn out: Lat.), 
In Pharmaceutical Chemistry, the purer or 
more active parts of any substance extract¬ 
ed from its inert and grosser parts by means 
of decoction, and formerly also by distil¬ 
lation, until they were of the consistence 
of paste. -Extractive Principle, a pe¬ 

culiar principle, supposed to form the basis 
of all vegetable extracts. 

EXTRACTION OF ROOTS (same deriv.), 
in Algebra and Arithmetic, an operation by 
which thereof of a given quantity isfound; 
that is, a quantity which, raised to the 
power indicated by tli eexponent of the root, 
would produce the given quantity. Thus, 
a is the cube root of a 3 , since a raised to the 
cube would be a 3 . 

EXTRAVAGAN'ZA (Ttal.), in Music, a 
kind of composition remarkable for its 
wildness and incoherence Irregular dra¬ 
matic pieces, generally of the burlesque 
cast, are also sometimes called extrasa- 
ganzas.' 

EXTRAVASATION {extra, on the out¬ 
side ; and vas, a vessel: Lat.), a term ap¬ 
plied to fluids when out of their proper 
vessels. Thus, whpn blood is thrown out 
on the brain, it is said to be extravasated. 

EXTRE'ME (extremus, the last: Lat.), in 
Logic, the same as term. In a syllogism, 


the extremes are the terms of the conclu¬ 
sion : the major or greater extreme being 
that found in the major proposition, and 
the minor, or less extreme, that found in 
the minor proposition. Thus, in * Man is an 
animal: Henry is a man, therefore Henry 
is an animal;’ the word animal is the 
greater extreme, Henry the less extreme, 
and man the medium. The subject and 
predicate are the extremes of a proposition, 

the copula being placed between them.- 

In Mathematics, the extremes are the first 
and last terms of a proportion or series. 

EXTRE'ME UNCTION, one of the seven 
sacraments of the Roman Catholic church. 
It consists in the anointing various parts 
of the body, and the recitation of certain 
prayers; and is supposed to cleanse from 
sins not expiated by other means. It de¬ 
rives its name from the fact, that it is not 
administered unless there is some reason 
to believe that the recipient is near death. 
It is intended only for such as are in danger 
of death from sickness; and, therefore, 
is never received by those who are con¬ 
demned to death juridically, or who are 
about to embark in any enterprise, however 
perilous. 

EXTREM'ITY ( extremitas: Lat.). In 
Painting and Sculpture, the extremities of 

the body are the head, hands, and feet.-. 

In Anatomy, this term is applied to the 
limbs, as distinguishing them from the 
other divisions of the animal, the head and 
trunk. 

EXU'VLE (Lat.), in Natural History, the 
cast skins, shells, or coverings of animals. 

EY'AS (niais, simple: Fr.), in Falconry, 
a young hawk just taken from the nest, 
not able to procure its own food. It is a 
contraction of faucon niais. 

EYE (eag: Sax.), in Anatomy, the organ 
of sight amongst mammals. It consists of 
many parts. The outermost membrane of 
the ball of the eye is called the sclerotic 
(skleroo, I harden : Gr.), and to this the mus¬ 
cles that move the eye are attached. Its 
internal surface is lined by the choroid (so 
called from a fancied resemblance to 
another membrane, termed chorion: Gr.), 
and this is continuous with the iris, a mov¬ 
able curtain floating in the aqueous humour, 
with a rounded opening at its middle, 
known as the pupil. This opening is con¬ 
tinually varying when the eyelids are sepa¬ 
rated, according to the quantity of light. 
When the light is strong the pupil is made 
smaller; when the light is less abundant, it 
is enlarged. The crystalline lens is a pellu¬ 
cid body, enclosed in a delicate capsule, and 
placed in the concave depression of the 
front of the vitreous humour, a transparent 
and pellucid pulpy matter, filling the ball of 
the eye behind the lens, and covered ex¬ 
ternally by the hyaloid or arachnoid mem¬ 
brane. The optic nerve enters the back of 
the eyeball by a perforation in the sclerotic 
and choroid coats, and is spread on the 
posterior and interior surface of the latter, 
forming a nervous expansion, termed the 
retina. The eye is moved by six muscles. 
In speaking of the mechanism of the organ 
of vision, we may not improperly liken it to 
a natural camera obscura, provided with a 






















271 


[facade 


ICttcravg Crca&trg* 


lens, winch, at the hack of the eye, forms a 
picture on the retina. When the lens Is 
too convex, the picture falls short of the 
nerve, and the person is short-sighted: 
when the picture tends to form beyond the 
nerve, owing to the lens not being suffl- 
, ciently convex, then the person is long¬ 
sighted. In the first case, a concave glass 
is required, and in the latter a convex, as in 
aged persons. The principal appendages of 
the eye are the eyelids, with their cilice or eye¬ 
lashes ; the lachry mal glands, which secrete 
the tears; the tunica conjunctiva, a thin trans¬ 
parent membrane, which lines the posterior 
surface of the eyelids and the front part of 
the eyeball. Its outer surface is always' 
moist. The small red tubercle at the inner 
angle of the eyelids is called the caruncula 
lachrymalis, in front and without which are 
the apertures known as puncta laclirymalia, 
one situate on each lid opposite the other. 
These are the external openings of the 
lachrymal ducts, along which the tears 
travel from the lachrymal sac, a membra¬ 
nous bag, situate at the inner angle of the 

orbit- Eye, in Architecture, any round 

window made in a pediment, an attic, the 

reins of a vault, &c.- Ey'e, in Gardening, 

a small bud or shoot, inserted into a tree, 

by way of graft.- Eye of a volute, the 

centre of the volute, or that point in which 


the helix or spiral of which it is formed 

commences.- Eye of an anchor, the hole 

by which the ring of the anchor is put into 

the shank.- Eyes of a ship, the parts 

which lie near the liawscholes, particularly 

in the lower compartments.- Eye of a 

dome, an aperture in the top of a dome, as' 
that of the Pantheon in Rome, or of St. 
Paul’s in London ; it is usually covered with 
a lantern. 

EY'EBOLT, in ships, a bar or holt of iron, 
with an eye, formed to he driven into the 
deck or sides, for the purpose of hooking 
tackle to. 

EY'EBRIGHT, the common name of an 
English wild plant, belonging to the genus 
Euphrasia, nat. ord. Scropliulariacece. It 
was at one time supposed to be efficacious 
in diseases of the eye. 

EYE'-PIECE, the lens or combination of 
lenses, placed next the eye, in telescopes 
and microscopes. 

EY'E-SERVICE, service performed only 
■while under the inspection of an employer. 

EYRE (Fr.; from itinere, on a journey: 
Eat.), an old law term applied to judges when 
travelling through the country to adminis¬ 
ter justice. They were then called justices 
in eyre. 

EY'RIE, or EY'RY (ey, an egg : Teut.), the 
nest of a bird of prey. 





F, the sixth letter of the English and 
Latin alphabets, is a labio-dental aspirate, 
formed by placing the upper teeth on the 
under lip, while emitting the breath. Its 
kindred letter is v, which is distinguished 
from it chiefly by being more vocal. The 
Romans borrowed the cligamma or F of 
the Greeks, and used it inverted for some 
time; thus, j, for V consonant, as DIj I for 
DIVI. Some have supposed that this was 
done first by Claudius; but many inscrip¬ 
tions belonging to periods much anterior 
to his time exhibit this singular use of 
the letter. As an abbreviation on medals, 
monuments, &c., F. stands for Fabins, Fu- 
rius, Felix, Faustus, &c.—With merchants, 
* it signifies folio (page). F, in medical pre¬ 
scriptions and on documents, is often used 
for fiat (let it be made or done). It also 
stands for Fellow, as F.A.S. Fratemitatis 
Antiquariorum Socius (Fellow of the Anti¬ 
quarian Society). F, as a numeral, with the 
Romans, signified 40; and with a dash over 
it, 40,000. —In Music, /. over a line means 
forte; ft. fortissimo or molto forte; and F is 
the nominal of the fourth note in the na¬ 
tural diatonic scale of C. 

FA, in Music, oneof the syllables invented 
by Guido Aretino, to mark the fourth note 
(F) of the modern scale, which rises thus : 
ut (do), re, mi, fa, &c. 

FA'BIAN, an epithet signifying that line 
if military tactics which declines the risk¬ 


ing of a battle in the open field, but seeks 
every opportunity of harassing the enemy 
by countermarches, ambuscades, &c. It is 
so called from Q. Fabius Maximus, the Ro¬ 
man general opposed to Hannibal. 

FA'BLE (fabala: Lat.), a short fictitious 
narration, forming a didactic allegory. 
Fables are congenial with an undeveloped 
stage of thought; they pleased the man of 
early times and the children of modern 
days. Jotham’s fable of the trees is the 
oldest that is extant. Nathan’s fable of the 
poor man is next in antiquity. We find 
H2sop in the most distant ages of Greece ; 
and in the early days of the Roman com¬ 
monwealth, we read of a mutiny appeased 
by the fable of the belly and the members. 

_Fable, the plot of an epic or dramatic 

poem: this, according to Aristotle, is the 
principal part, and, as it were, the soul of 
the entire poem. 

FAB'ULOUS AGE (fabulosus, from fabula, 
a fictitious narrative : Lat.), that period in 
the history of every nation in which super¬ 
natural events are represented to have 
happened. The fabulous age of Greece and 
Rome is called also the heroic age. 

FAQA'DE (Fr.), in Architecture, the front 
or face of an edifice. As, in most build¬ 
ings, only one side i3 conspicuous, viz. 
that which faces the street, and usually con¬ 
tains the principal entrance, this has been, 
in a special manner, denominated the faqade, 





















pace] djc Jrctcnttfte antf 272 

warrants, &c., and his bond fide contracts 


PACE (Fr.), in Geometry, one of the 
plane surfaces of a polyhedron.-In For¬ 

tification, aline of rampart, or the extent 
between the two outermost points of two 
adjacent bastions. 

FA'CETS (facettes: Fr.), small faces or 
planes in brilliant and rose diamonds. 

FA'CIAL LINE or AN'GLE. These 
terms are used in describing the conforma¬ 
tion that exists in the bones of the face. 
A small angle indicates projecting jaws, a 
high angle, that the forehead overhangs 
the jaws. Suppose a straight line drawn at 
the base of the skull from the great occi¬ 
pital cavity across the external orifice of 
the ear to the bottom of the nose. If we 
draw another straight line from the bottom 
of the nose, or from the roots of the upper 
incisor teeth, to the forehead, then both 
lines will form an angle, which will be more 
acute in brutes, the less the shape of their 
face resembles that of men. In apes, 
this angle is only from 45° to 60° ; in the 
orang-outang, 63° ; in the skull of a negro, 
about 70°; in a European, from 75° to 85°. 
In Grecian statues, this angle ordinarily 
amounts to 90°, that is a right angle. 

FA'CIES HIPPOCR AT'IC A (Hippocratic 
face: Lot.), in Medicine, that deathlike 
appearance which consists in the nostrils 
being sharp, the eyes hollow, the temples 
low, the tips of the ears contracted, the 
forehead dry and wrinkled, and the com¬ 
plexion pale or livid. It is so called from 
Hippocrates, by whom it has been so cor¬ 
rectly described in his Prognostics. 

FAC-SIM'ILE (faccre, to make; and si¬ 
mile, like : Lat.), an imitation of an original 
in all its traits and peculiarities. 

FACTION (factio: Lat.), in Antiquity, 
one of the troops or companies of com¬ 
batants in games of the circus. They were 
four in number; the green, blue, red, and 
white, to which the purple and yellow were 

added by Domitian.- Faction, in modern 

times, a party in political society, combined 
or acting in union, in opposition to the 
government. The term is usually, but not 
necessarily, applied to a minority, and is 
now employed in an opprobrious sense. 

FACTITIOUS (factitius, artificial: Lat.), 
in Chemistry, &c., any epithet for what is 
made by art, in distinction from what is 
produced by nature; as, factitious cinna¬ 
bar. 

FACTOR (a maker : Lat.— he is a maker 
of bargains), in Commerce, an agent em¬ 
ployed to dispose of goods, consigned or 
delivered to him by or for a principal, and 
paid by a commission. He may buy or 
sell for his principal in his own name, whilst 
a broker must always name his principal. 
He is entrusted with the possession, con¬ 
trol, and disposal of the goods. He has a 
special property in them, and a lien on 
them for what may be owing to him. He 
may pledge the goods for advances, made 
on account of the principal, or for ad¬ 
vances to himself as far as his lien extends. 
A factor is liable criminally for pledging 
goods for his own benefit in violation of 
good faith. A buyer or pawnee without 
notice is protected in his dealings with a 
factor, who has possession of bills of lading, 


are valid. 

FACTORY (factura , a making: Lat.), an 
establishment supplied with machinery for 
the purpose of carrying on any branch of 
manufacture. Until 1802, no statutes ex- i 
isted regarding the employment of children 
in mills or factories. In 1833, inspectors 
of factories were appointed ; and it was pro- 
hibited by law to employ any young person i 
or female under eighteen years of age in | 
any factory, before six in the morning or 
after six in the afternoon, or on Satur¬ 
days after two in the afternoon; and all 
young persons under thirteen years of age 
are bound to attend school during some 
period of the day. 

FAC'UL.E < facula, a little torch: Lat.), , 
in Astronomy, a name given to certain 
bright spots in the sun. 

FAC'ULTY (facultas: Lat..), a term used 
to denote the powers or capacities of the 
human mind, viz. understanding, will, 
memory, imagination, &c. If it be a 
power exerted by the body alone, it is called 
a corporeal or animal faculty ; if it belong 
to the mind, it is called a rational faculty; 
and it may further be distinguished into 
a natural faculty, or that by which the 
body r is nourished, and a vital, or that by 

which life is preserved, &c.- Faculty, a 

term applied to the different departments 
of a university, divided according to the 
arts and sciences taught there. In most 
universities there are four faculties: of 
arts, including humanity and philosophy ; 
of theology ; of physic; and of civil law. 
The degrees in the several faculties of our 
universities are those of bachelor, master, 

and doctor.- Faculty, in Law, a privilege 

granted to a person, by favour and indul¬ 
gence, of doing that which, by the strict 

letter of the law, he ought not to do.- 

Faculty op Advocates, a term applied to 
the college or society of advocates in Scot¬ 
land, who plead in all actions before the 
court of session, justiciary, and exchequer. 
Their elective president is termed Dean of 
Faculty. 

F-cE'CES (Lat), in Chemistry, dregs, im¬ 
purities, or sediment that settles at the 
bottom after distillation, fermentation, &c. 

FA'GUS (Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Corylaccce, including the 
common beech tree F. sylvatica, which rises 
to the height of sixty or seventy feet. Its 
flowers are produced in globular catkins, and 
are succeeded by angular fruit called mast, 
which, like acorns, serves as food for swine. 
Its bark has a peculiar silvery appearance, 
which, added to the gracefulness of its 
growth and the elegance of its foliage ren¬ 
ders it a beautiful object in forest scenery. 
Its wood is much employed in turnery and 
for chairs. 

FAHL'ERZ, in Mineralogy, grey copper 
ore; sometimes called tetrahedral copper 
pyrites. 

FAH'LUNITE (because found at Fahlun), 
in Mineralogy, a sub-species of octahedral 
Corundum. It is a hydrated silicate of 
alumina. 

FAI'ENCE, or Imitation Porcelain, a 
kind of pottery, superior to the common 



























2 


I o 


lltterari) treasury. 


[FALCONRY 


sorts in its glazing, beauty of form, and rich-1 
ness of painting. It derived its name from 
the town of Faenza, in Romagna, where it 
is said to have been invented in 1299. It 
reached its highest perfection in the 16th 
century; and some pieces which were 
painted by the great artists of the period 
are highly valued as monuments of early art. 

FAINTS (faner , to fade away: Fr.), in the 
distillation of whiskey, the weak spirituous 
liquor that runs off first and last from the 
still. This crude spirit is much impreg¬ 
nated with foetid essential oil, and is there¬ 
fore very unwholesome. 

FAIR {fence, holidays: Lat.), a kind of 
market, on an extensive scale, granted to 
a town, by privilege, for the more speedy 
and commodious providing of such things 
as the place stands in need of. The most 
important fairs now held are probably those 
of Germany; and particularly of Leipsic, 
where books form so important a branch of 
commerce. But neither at home nor abroad 
can they have the importance they formerly 
had, because the communication between 
different places is now so easy, that mer¬ 
chandise may be readily obtained direct 
from the locality in which it is produced or 
manufactured. At all fairs held within ten 
miles of Temple Bar, business and amuse¬ 
ments of every kind must cease at 11 o’clock 
in the evening, and not recommence before 
6 o’clock in the morning. 

FAI'RY ( ferhth: Sax.), an imaginary spirit 
or being. Fairies were supposed to assume 
a human form, though they were of an ex¬ 
tremely diminutive size; to be distinguished 
by a variety of fantastical actions, good or 
bad ; and always to exercise a magic power 
over mortals. In an age of ignorance, the 
imagination easily substitutes a poetical 
mythology in the place of natural causes. 
The Fata of the Italians, whence the 
French derived the word fee, is not iden¬ 
tical with our fairy; being a kind of pro- 
phetess. The Italians, as well as the Ara¬ 
bians, had stories of a country inhabited 

by fairies.- Fairy Ring or Circle, 

a phenomenon frequently seen in the 
fields, consisting of a bare, and seemingly 
beaten track, round a circular space, co¬ 
vered with grass, and formerly ascribed to 
the dances of the fairies. It has been sup¬ 
posed by some, that these rings are the 
effect of lightning; but a more rational 
theory ascribes them to a kind of fungus, 
which grows In a circle from the centre 
outwards, destroying the grass as it ex¬ 
tends. The interior of the circle, being en¬ 
riched by the decayed roots of the fungi, is 
soon covered again with verdure. 

FAKIR' or FAQUIR' (poor: Arab.), a 
devotee, or Indian monk. The fakirs are a 
kind of fanatics in the East Indies, who 
retire from the world and give themselves 
up to contemplation. Their great aim is to 
gain the veneration of the world by their 
absurd and cruel penances, outdoing even 
the mortifications and severities of the an¬ 
cient anchorets. Some of them mangle their 
bodies with scourges and knives; others 
never lie down ; and others remain all their 
lives in one posture. Some classes of them, 
however, avoid these absurdities. 


FALCA'DE {falx, a sickle: Lat., from 
the form assumed by the horse’s legs), in 
Horsemanship, the act by which the horse 
throws himself upon his haunches; as in 
very quick curvets. 

FAL'CATED {falcatus, scythe-shaped: 
Lat.), an epithet for anything in the form 
of a sickle: thus, the moon is said to be 
falcated when she appears horned. 

FAL'CHION ( fauction: Fr.; from falx, a 
sickle: Lat.), a. kind of sword, having its 
extremity turned up somewhat like a hook. 

FAL'CIFORM PRO'CESS {falx, a sickle ; 
and forvia, a form: Lat), in Anatomy, a 
process of the dura mater, in the form of a 
sickle. It separates the two hemispheres of 
the brain. 

FAL'CO (a falcon, from falx, a sickle: 
Lat., on account of the shape of its bill), in 
Ornithology, a genus of ancipitrine diurnal 
birds. They are characterized by a powerful 
beak, generally armed with a kind of tooth 
on each side, near the apex; their wings 
are strong, long, and pointed; and they 
are remarkable for courage and activity. 
The superciliary arch projects above the 
eye, giving them a bold and threatening 
physiognomy. Most of them subsist on liv¬ 
ing prey. Their first plumage differs from 
that of maturity, which is not acquired be¬ 
fore the third or fourth year; but so rapid 
is the growth of the true falcons, that in 
three months the young equal the old ones 
in size. The female is generally one-third 
larger than the male. There are several 
species in the British Isles, the best known 
of which are the Gyr falcon (F. Islandicus), 
the Peregrine falcon (F. peregrinus), the 
Hobby (/<’. subbuteo), the Merlin (F. cesalon), 
and the Kestrel ( F.tirinunculus ). In Her¬ 
aldry, the falcon is usually represented on 
coats of arms with bells,on its legs, and 
also decorated with a hood, virols, rings, &c. 

FALCONET' {falconette, literally a small 
falcon: Fr.), a small cannon, or piece of 
ordnance used in former times. 

FAL'OONRY {falco, a falcon : Lat.), the 
art of training all kinds of hawks, but more 
especially the Falco peregrinus, called the 
gentle falcon, for the sport of hawking. This 
was much practised in Europe and Asia in 
the chivalric ages, and continued a favour¬ 
ite amusement till the 17th century; but the 
invention of firearms gradually superseded 
it. ‘ In the language of Falconry,’ says Yar- 
rell, ‘ the female peregrine is exclusively 
called the Falcon, and on account of her 
greater size, power, and courage, is usually 
down at herons and ducks. The male pere¬ 
grine being sometimes one-third less than 
the female, is called the tiercel or tiercelet, 
and is more frequently flown a.t partridges 
and sometimes at magpies.’ In France, Eng¬ 
land, and Germany, falconry was at one time 
in such high esteem, that during the reign 
of Francis I. of France, his grand falconer 
received a salary of 4,000 livres a year, had 
under him fifteen noblemen and fifty fal¬ 
coners, and enjoyed the privilege of hawking 
through the whole kingdom at pleasure. 
His entire establishment, which cost an¬ 
nually about 40,000 livres, attended the 
ki ng wherever he went, and those who were 
distinguished for their skill in the sport 
T 




























£>ctentitle attfc 


274 


FALDAGE] 


were loaded with royal favours. In England, 
also, falconry was greatly valued as a recre¬ 
ation ; and there is to this day an hereditary 
grand falconer (the Duke of St. Alban’s), 
who, by virtue of his office, presents the 
sovereign witli a cast of falcons on the day 
of the coronation A similar service is per¬ 
formed by the person who represents the 
Stanley family, in the Isle of Man. 

FAL'DAGE ( faldagium: Mod. Lat.; from 
fald, a fold : Sax.), a privilege which certain 
lords anciently reserved to themselves of 
setting up folds for sheep in any fields 
within their manors, the better to manure 
them. 

FAI/LACY ( fallacia , deceit: Lat.), a lo¬ 
gical artifice, ’or an argument framed so as 
to deceive; a sophism. The word is now 
frequently employed erroneously to signify 
a simple mistake. 

FALL'ING SICK'NESS. [See Epilepsy.] 

FALL'ING STARS. [See Aerolites.] 

FALLO'PIAN TUBES, in Anatomy, two 
canals or ducts arising in the womb and 
terminating in the ovarium. They received 
their name from Gabriel Fallopius, a cele¬ 
brated Italian anatomist and physician of 
the 16th century, who is said to have first 
ascertained their office. 

FAL'LOW ( falewe , pale yellow: Sax.), a 
term applied to land which is left unculti¬ 
vated for one or more years. A naked fallow 
is one in which the soil remains a whole 
year without any kind of crop. A turnip or 
green crop fallow is one in which the land is 
left idle from harvest till the beginning of 
summer, and is then sown with turnips, or 
similar crops, in rows. Fallowing was prac¬ 
tised by the Romans, and it was very com¬ 
mon among ourselves until the middle of 
the last century. But where a proper rota¬ 
tion is adopted, fallowing is unnecessary, 
except in strong clays; and probably not 
even in these, if they are properly drained. 

FAL'LOW-DEER (same deriv.), the Dama 
vulgaris of zoologists. It has a brownish 
bay colour with pale spots. Its horns are 
broad andpalmated: their extremities point 
a little forward, and are branched on the 
hinder sides ; unlike the stag, every branch 
of whose horn is shaped like the stem that 
supports it, the fallow-deer has two sharp 
and slender brow antlers, and above them 
two small slender branches. These horns 
are made into knife-handles, and similar 
articles. This animal usually forms one of 
the ornaments of English parks. Persia is 
its native country. 

FALSE CA'DENCE (falsus, false': Lat.), in 
Music, one in which the bass rises a tone 
or semitone, instead of rising a fourth or 
falling a fifth. 

FALSE KEEL, the timber added below 
the main keel, both as a defence and as a 
means of making the ship hold a better 
wind. 

FALSE ROOF, in Carpentry, that part of 
a house which is between the roof and the 
covering. 

FALSET'TO (Ital.), in Music, that species 
of voice in a man, the compass of which 
lies above his natural voice. 

FAMILIAR, SPIRITS {familiaris, fami¬ 
liar: Lat.), demons, or evil spirits, supposed 


to be continually within call, and at the 
service of their masters; sometimes under 
an assumed shape, sometimes compelled by 
magical skill, and sometimes doing volun¬ 
tary service. In Eastern stories, nothing 
is more common than the mention of magic 
gems, rings, &c., to which are attached 
genii, sometimes good, sometimes bad. The 
genius or daimdn, which Socrates and some 
other celebrated ancients were said to have 
had as companions, was a kind of familiar. 

FAM'ILY ( familia: Lat.), in Natural His¬ 
tory, a tribe of animals or vegetables allied 
to each other by certain distinctive charac¬ 
teristics.- Family of Curves, in Mathe¬ 

matics, a congeries of several kinds of 
curves, all of which are defined by the same 
equation,but in a different manner, accord¬ 
ing to their different orders. 

FANATTC (fanaticus, from fanum, a tem¬ 
ple : Lat.), an enthusiastic visionary person, 
who, in religious matters, adopts extrava¬ 
gant opinions. The expression was an¬ 
ciently given to a set of prophetic priests, 
who passed their time in temples ( fana ), 
and being often seized with a kind of en¬ 
thusiasm, as if inspired by the divinity, 
exhibited wild and frantic gestures. 

FANDAN'GO, an old Spanish dance, which 
proceeds gradually, from a slow and uniform, 
10 the most lively motion. It is seldom 
danced but at the theatre, and in the parties 
of the lower classes; nor is it, in these cases, 
even customary to dance it with those vo¬ 
luptuous looks and attitudes which distin¬ 
guish the true fandango. There is another 
species of fandango, called the bolero, the 
motions and steps of which are slow and 
sedate, but grow rather more lively towards 
the end. In these dances the time is beaten 
by castanets. 

FANFAR'E (Fr.), a short, lively, loud, 
and warlike piece of music, composed for 
trumpets and kettle-drums. Also, short 
lively pieces, pci-formed on hunting-horns, 
in the chase. From it are derived fanfaron , 
a boaster, and fanfaronade, boasting. 

FAN-PALMS, palms with leaves'like fans. 
[See Palm.] 

FANTA'SIA (a fancy: Ital.), in Music, 
the name generally given to a species of 
composition, supposed to be struck off in 
the heat of the imagination, and in which 
the composer is allowed to give free range 
to his ideas, unconfined by the rules of 
science. Some limit the term to mere ex¬ 
temporaneous effusions, which are transi¬ 
tive and evanescent; differing from the 
capriccio in this—that though the latter is 
wild, it is the result of premeditation, and 
becomes permanent; whereas the fantasia, 
when finished, is thought of no more. 

FARCE (farcire, to stuff: Lat.), a dramatic 
piece or entertainment, of a low, comic cha¬ 
racter. It was originally a droll, or petty 
show, exhibited by mountebanks and their 
buffoons in the open streets to gather the 
people together. It has, however, long 
been removed t? the theatre; and instead 
of being performed by merry-andrews, to 
amuse the rabble, is acted by comedians, 
and has become the entertainment of a 
polished audience. As the aim of a farce 
is to promote mirth, the dialogue is not 




















U 0 


Hfterarg (Krcarfury. 


refined, nor is there any opportunity lost 
to excite laughter, however wild or extra¬ 
vagant the plot, or however ridiculous the 
characters. The farce is restricted to three 
acts, and frequently contains only two. 
The French vaudeville corresponds to the 
English farce. 

FARI'NA (Lat.), the mealy albumen of 
cereal grains. It consists chiefly of starch. 

FAR'MEItS-GE'NERAL. These were per¬ 
sons who, under the old French monarchy, 
farmed the government taxes; that is, they 
paid a certain sum into the treasury, and 
then collected the taxes on their own ac¬ 
count. In 1728 these contractors were 
formed into a company. Although they 
were at a vast expense in the collection, 
they made large profits. One chief cause of 
the Revolution was the oppressive nature 
of the taxes thus collected, and by that 
outbreak the fermiers-gen&raux were swept 
away. 

FAR'RIERY ( ferrier , a farrier; from fer, 
iron : Fr.), the art of preventing or curing 
the diseases of horses. This is now generally 
called the veterinary art; and the smith 
whose business it is to shoe horses is de¬ 
nominated a farrier. 

FAS'CES ( Lat .), in Roman Antiquity, 
bundles of rods, with an axe projecting 
from one end of each bundle, and carried 
by officers called Victors, before consuls and 
others. They were popularly believed to 
have been derived from the kings, and they 
were considered emblems of supreme power, 
the axe signifying the power to decapitate, 
and the rods the power to beat the criminal, 
as was usual before capital execution. The 
civic prietors had two fasces, proconsuls 
and provincial praetors six, consuls twelve, 
and dictators twenty-four. The consuls 
had all their fasces in turn. 

FAS'CIA Vital.), in Architecture, any flat 
member having a considerable breadth and 
but a small projecture, as the band of an 

architrave, larmier, &c.-In Astronomy, 

the bright stripes or belts observed on the 
discs of some planets, particularly Jupiter. 

-In Anatomy, the tendinous expansions 

of the muscles. 

FASCIC'ULITE (fasciculus, a bundle: 
Lat.; and lithos, a stone: Gr.), in Minera¬ 
logy, a variety of fibrous hornblende, of a 
fascicular structure. 

FASCIC'ULUS (a bundle: Lat.), in Medi¬ 
cine, denotes a handful, or, according to 
some, as much as can be taken up in the 

arm when bent.- Fasciculus, in Botany, 

I a species of inflorescence similar to the 
corymbus, except that the expansion is 
centrifugal instead of centripetal. 

FASCINA'TION (fascinatio: Lat.), the 
fact of being charmed, operated upon, or 
influenced.by the look of certain persons : 
It is generally taken in an evil sense. A 
belief in fascination appears to have been 
very generally prevalent in most ages and 
countries. Until very recently, it was 
, prevalent among the Scotch Highlanders 
and the inhabitants of the western islands, 
where the fear of the evil eye has led to 
various precautions against its influence; 
and in some remote districts it is not even 
yet extinct. In Turkey, when a child is born. 


[fat 


it is immediately laid in the cradle and 
loaded with amulets, while the most absurd 
ceremonies are used to protect it from the 
noxious fascination of some invisible de¬ 
mon. Nay, the evil eye is there feared at 
all times, and supposed to affect persons of 
all ages, who, by their prosperity, may be 
the objects of envy. It is equally a source 
of terror to the lower orders at Naples. 

FAS'CINES (Fr.), in Fortification, small 
branches, or bavins, bound up in bundles, 
and used in raising batteries, filling up 
moats, binding ramparts where the earth 
is bad, making parapets, &c. 

FASH'ION-PIECES, in ships, the hind¬ 
most timbers which terminate the breadth, 
and form the shape of the stern. 

FAS'SITE, in Mineralogy, a variety of 
augite, found in Fassa, in the Tyrol. 

FAS'TI (Lat.), in Antiquity, the name 
given to the Roman calendar, in which 
were set down all days of feasts, pleadings, 
games, ceremonies, the names of public 
officers, and the different important mat¬ 
ters, changeable each year. Ovid wrote a 
poem, describing the Roman festivals, their 
origin, &c., but only half of it has come 
down to us. 

FASTS (fasten, to fast: Ger.), occasional 
abstinence from food, on days appointed 
by public authority to be observed in fast¬ 
ing and humiliation. Solemn fasts have 
been observed in all ages and nations, espe¬ 
cially in times of mourning and affliction. 
The Jews, besides their stated fast days, 
occasionally enjoined others in the time of 
any public calamity. They were observed 
upon the second and fifth days of the week, 
beginning an hour before sunset, and con¬ 
tinuing till midnight of the following day. 
The Jews, on these occasions, always wore 
sackcloth. ne\t their skins, rent their clothes, 
which were of coarse white stuff, sprinkled 
ashes on their heads, went barefoot, and 
neither washed their hands nor anointed 
their bodies as usual. They thronged the 
temple, made long and mournful prayers, 
and had every external appeara ice of hu¬ 
miliation and dejection. In order to render 
their abstinence complete, they were al¬ 
lowed to eat nothing at night but a little 
bread dipped in water, with some salt for 
seasoning, unless they chose some bitter 
herbs and pulse. In the Roman Catholic 
church fasting differs from abstinence, in 
being a refraining for a certain time from 
all kinds of food. The distinction was not 
known in ancient times. 

FAT (Jett: Ger.), oleaginous matter se¬ 
creted by the blood, and deposited in the 
adipose tissues of animal bodies.—Fats 
vary in consistence, colour, and smell, ac¬ 
cording to the animals from which they aro 
obtained : thus, they are generally fluid in 
the cetaceous tribes, soft and rank-flavoured 
in the carnivorous, solid and nearly scent¬ 
less in the ruminants, usually white and 
copious in well-fed young animals, yellowish 
and more scanty in the old. Their consist¬ 
ence varies also according to the organ of 
their production, being firmer under the 
skin, and In the neighbourhood of the kid¬ 
neys, than among the movable viscera. The 
animal oils and fats combine with the 
























%l\)z ‘gjrtcnttftc antt 




276 


fatalism] 


alkalis, and form perfect soaps. With some 
of the earths, and metallic oxides also, 
they produce saponaceous compounds ; and 
they even facilitate the oxidation of some 
of the metals, as copper and mercury, by 
the atmospheric air. Animal fat is not 
homogeneous, but consists of four proxi- 
j mate principles, viz. stearine, margarine, 

| oleine, and glycerine, the two former being 
[ solid, and the two latter fluid, at ordinary 
' temperatures. The first three are com- 
! pounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
with water; the last is a compound of car- 
| bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, withoutwater. 
I As to the applications of the fats, see Can¬ 
dles and Soap. 

FA'TALISM ( fatalis , fatal: Lat.), the be¬ 
lief in an unchangeable destiny, to which 
everything is subject, or the doctrine which 
teaches that all events take place by an in¬ 
evitable necessity. 

FA'TA MORGA'NA (the fairy Morgana: 
Ital.), a singular aerial phenomenon occa¬ 
sionally seen in the straits of Messina. 
This peculiar atmospherical refraction is 
not, however, altogether confined to that 
locality, having occasionally been seen on 
our own coasts. It consists in the appear¬ 
ance in the air, over the surface of the sea, 
of multiplied images of the objects on the 
surrounding coasts. They are cases of an 
unusually strong mirage. 

FATE ( fatum: Lat.), destiny depending 
on a superior cause, and uncontrollable. 
According to the Stoics, every event is the 
result of fate. In the sense in which the 
moderns use the word, it implies the order 
or determination of Providence. 

FATHER ( yater: Ger.), a term applied, in 
Church History, to ancient authors who 
have preserved in their writings the tradi¬ 
tions of the Church. No author who wrote 
later than the 12th ceutury is dignified with 
the title of father. The primitive fathers 
are usually considered to be : Clemens Ro- 
manus, bishop of Rome, who d. a.d. 100; 
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, who d. 107; 
Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, who suffered 
martyrdom, 167; Justinus, who suffered 
martyrdom at Rome; Tlieophilus, bishop of 
Antioch, who d. about 180; Irenseus, who 
suffered martyrdom; Clement of Alexan¬ 
dria, who d. about 220 ; Cyprian, bishop of 
Carthage, who suffered martyrdom about 
258; Origen of Alexandria, who d. about 
254; Gregory, bishop of Neo-Caesarea, who 
d. about 264; Dionysius, bishop of Alexan¬ 
dria, who d. 265; Tertullianus, who died in 
the reign of Alexander Severus. In the 
fourth century, after Christianity had been 
embraced by the emperors, the following 
are enumerated as the fathers of the Greek 
or Eastern Church; Eusebius of Ctesarea, 
d. 340 ; Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, 
d. 371; Basilius the Great, bishop of Cmsa- 
rea; Gregorius Nazianzenus, d. 389; Grego¬ 
rius, bishop of Nyssa, d. 396; Cyril, bishop 
of Jerusalem, d. 386; St. John Chrysostom, 
patriarch of Constantinople, d.407 ; Epipha¬ 
nies, bishop of Salamis, d. 403; Cyril, bishop 
of Alexandria, d. 444; Ephraim the Syrian, 
d. 378. The fathers of the Latin or Western 
Church were Lactantius, d. 316; Hilarius, 
bishop of Poictiers, d. 368; Ambrose, arch¬ 


bishop of Milan,d. 397; Jerome, d.420; Au¬ 
gustine, bishop of Hippo, d. 430. 

FATIl'OM (feedm.: Sax.), a measure of 
six feet, used chiefly at sea in sounding the 
depth of water. 

FAULT {fautes: Fr.), a term applied by 
miners and geologists to a fracture across 
a series of strata, one side of which has 
been elevated or depressed out of corre¬ 
spondence with the other side. In the Great 
Pennine Fault, in the north of England, 
there is a difference of 1000 yards in height 
between the beds on one side aud the same 
beds on the other. 

FAU'NA ( fauni, rural deities: Lat.), a 
general term by which the whole of the 
animals of a country are designated. Avi- \ 
fauna, the birds of a particular country. 

FAUNS ( fauni: Lat.), rural deities, among 
the Romans, represented with horns on 
their heads, sharp pointed ears, and the rest 
of their bodies like goats. They were the 
mythological demi-gods of woods and fo¬ 
rests, and hence w r ere called sylvan deities. 

FAUX JOUR (a false light: Fr.), a term 
used in the fine arts, and signifying that a 
picture is placed so that the light falls upon 
it in a direction differing from that in 
which the painter has represented the light 
as thrown upon the objects it represents; 
or that it is covered with a bright glare, 
so that nothing can be properly distin¬ 
guished. 

FAWN (faon, from fauve, fawn-coloured: 
Fr.), a young deer; a buck or doe of the 
first year. 

FE'ALTY (fidelitas, faithfulness: Lat.), 
in Feudal Law, an oath taken on the ad¬ 
mittance of any tenant, to be true to the 
lord of whom he held his land. Under the 
feudal system of tenures, every vassal or 
tenant was bound to be true and faithful 
to his lord, and to defend him against his 
enemies; the tenant w r ns called a liegeman, 
the land a liege fee, and the superior a liege ( 
lord. 

FEASTS or FESTIVALS (festivitas, a 
festival : Lat.), in a religious sense, anni- J 
versary times of feasting and thanksgiving, 

such as Christmas, Easter, &c.-Among 

Christians, they were observed in the 
church from the very beginning. But, in 
process of time, the number became incon¬ 
veniently great. The English church retains 
only the Nativity, Circumcision, Epiphany, 
the death, resurrection, and ascension of 
Christ; the purification and annunciation of 
the Virgin; 'Whit-Sunday, Trinity Sunday, | 
the festivals of the most remarkable apostles I 

and evangelists, and All-Saints. Festivals 
are either movable or immovable. The former 
depend on Easter: the latter are assigned I 
to fixed days. 

FEASTS OF THE AN'CIENTS. These 
were conducted with great ceremony. The 
guests wore white garments, decorated 
themselves with garlands, and often anoint¬ 
ed the head, beard, and breast with fragrant 
oils. The banqueting-room was also often 
adorned with garlands; and roses were 
hung over the table, as the emblem of 
silence : hence the common phrase, to com¬ 
municate a thing sub rosd (under the rose). 
The luxurious Romans drank out of crys- 



































277 


Httararg 


tal, amber, and the costly murra (a kind of 
porcelain Introduced by Pompey), as well as 
onyx, beryl, and elegantly wrought gold, 
set with precious stones. After the meal 
was ended, flute-players, female singers, 
dancers, and buffoons of all kinds, amused 
the guests ; or the guests themselves joined 
in various sports and games. 

FEATH'ERS (feder: Ger.), consist of a 
tube, a shaft, and barbs or vanes. The tube 
is a hollow, transparent, horny cylinder; the 
i shaft is elastic, and contains a white, dry, 
and very light pith ; the barbs, which run in 
a uniform direction and cover each side of 
the shaft, are broad on one side and narrow 
on the other: the barbules are attached to 
the sides of the barbs. The feathers of 
birds are periodically changed, which is 
called moulting. When part of a feather 
; is cut off it does not grow again ; and a bird 
j | whose wings have been clipped remains in 
that state till the next moulting season, 
when the old stumps are shed, and new 
| feathers are produced. Chemically analyzed, 

! feathers seem to possess nearly the same 
I I constituents as hair.—They may be consi¬ 
dered as of four kinds: 1. quills, or the 
feathers of the wings; 2. those which 
i! cover the body; 3. the down which grows 
; close to the skin; and 4. the long ones of 
the tail. The goose, the turkey, and the 
! crow supply those of the first description, 
j, employed in writing. The down of the swan 
is sometimes made into muffs and other 
: articles of dress. Goose feathers are most 
j esteemed for beds: and they are best when 
plucked from theliving bird, which is done, 
very inhumanly, thrice a year, viz. in the 
spring, midsummer, and beginning of har¬ 
vest. The plumage of the eider-duck, called 
eider-doicn, possesses in a superior degree 
all the good qualities of goose down, but 
should be used only as a covering to beds, 
since much pressure destroys its elasticity. 

-Feathers make a considerable article in 

commerce, particularly thoseof the ostrich, 
heron, swan, peacock, turkey, goose, and 
duck. They also afford a source of employ¬ 
ment to the artisans who prepare them 
for female use, or for military purposes. 

■-Ostrich feathers are imported from 

Algiers, Tunis, Alexandria, Madagascar, 
and Senegal. 

FEB'RIFUGE ( febris , a fever: and fugo, 
I drive away : Lat.), in Medicine, an appella¬ 
tion given to such medicines as mitigate 
i orremove a fever. 

FEB'ItUAltY (februum, in the Sabine 
language, a purification), the second month 
; of the year, reckoning from January. Feb- 
| ruary derived its name from the Februa, a 
feast held by the Romans on the 15th of 
this month, in honour of Lupercus, the god 
of fertility, and as a purification of the land. 
In a common year it consists of only 28 days, 
! but in the bissextile year it has 29, on ac- 
i count of the intercalary day then added to it. 

FED'ERAL GOVERNMENT ( feedus , a 
league : Lat.), one that consists of several 
independent provinces or states, united 
under one head; but the extent to which 
such states give up their individual rights 
may be very different, although, as relates 
to general politics, they have one common 


[felloes 


interest, and agree to be governed by one 
and the same principle. The United States 
of America afford an example of this form 
of government. 

FEE, ESTATE IN (feoh, cattle : Sax., be¬ 
cause the only property in very early states 
of society), in Law, properly signifies an in¬ 
heritable estate in land, held of some su¬ 
perior or lord ; and in this sense it is dis- | 
tinguished from allodium, which is an 
absolute property in land. It is the theory 
of the English law that all the lands of the 
kingdom, except the royal domains, are 
held in fee, or by a tenure, of some superior 
lord, the absolute or allodial property being 
only in the king ; so that all the tenures are 
strictly feudal. The most ample estate a 
person can have is that of fee-simple , or one 
which he holds to himself and his heirs 
general, both lineal and collateral, male 
and female; and such an estate can be had 
only in property that is inheritable, and of 
a permanent nature. Fee conditional, or fee- 
simple conditional, is when the estate to a 
man and his heirs is qualified by a condition , 
or limitation, such as his paying a certain 
sum of money on a stipulated day, &c. But 
it is generally understood to refer to a limi¬ 
tation, in the form of donation to some 
particular heirs; as, the heirs of his body. 

-Fee-Farm, a kind of tenure without 

homage, fealty, or other service, except that 
mentioned in the feoffment; which was 
usually the full rent. The nature of this 
tenure was, that if the rent was in arrear 
or unpaid for two years, the feoffor or 
his heirs might have an action for the re*- 
covery of his lands. No grant in fee-farm 
can now be made. 

FEEL'ERS {fuhlen, to feel: Ger.), or Pal¬ 
pi, in Entomology, short jointed processes 
proceeding from the mouth, and very con¬ 
spicuous in some insects. They are not to 
be confounded with antemice., which are 
jointed bodies, situated on each side of the 
head. 

FEEL'ING ( fuhlend: Ger.), one of the five 
physical senses, by which we obtain the 
ideas of solid, hard, soft, rough, hot, cold, 
wet, dry, and other tangible qualities. This 
sense is the coarsest, but at the same time 
it is the surest of the five ; it is besides the 
most universal. We see and hear with small 
portions of our body, but we feel with all. 
Nature has bestowed that general sensation 
wherever there are nerves, and they are 
everywhere, where there is life. All the 
nervous solids, while animated by their 
fluids, have this general sensation ; but the 
papillae in the skin, those of the fingers in 
particular, have it in a more exquisite 
degree. 

FEINT (feigned: Fr.), in Military tac¬ 
tics, an attack made to conceal the true one. 

FE'LIDiE (felis, a cat: Lat.), a family of 
carnivorous mammals, including the lion, 
tiger, leopard, jaguar, lynx, cat, and other 
animals. In this family the organs of de¬ 
struction reach their highest development. 
They are strong and agile, armed with sharp 
talons and teeth, set in powerful jaws. 

FEL'LOES (Jelge: Dan.), the pieces oi 
wood which form the circumference or cir¬ 
cular part of a wheel. 


























fellow] 


®i )t Jbcfeuttifc antf 


27S 


FEL'LOW (Jelow: Sax.), a superior 
member of a college. Fellows are, in 
general, graduates; and, in most cases, are 
obliged to abandon their fellowships at a 
certain time, if they do not take orders: 
there are, however, lay fellowships. Fel¬ 
lowships are vacated by the marriage of 
the holder. In some colleges, there is a 
distinction, in point of emolument, be¬ 
tween senior and junior fellows. Fellowships 
are very various in value, some being worth 
1001. per annum, or less, and others 6001.; 
the average is from 1501. to 3001.—The mem¬ 
bers of most societies incorporated by 
charter for the prosecution of some branch 
of seien ce are usually styled fellows. • 

FELLOWSHIP (same deriv.), in Arith¬ 
metic, a rule by which the loss and gain of 
each particular person in a joint-stock con¬ 
cern is discovered. 

FE'LO-DE-SE (a felon with reference to 
himself: Mod. Lat.), in Law, a person who, 
being of sound mind, and of the age of 
discretion, wilfully causes his own death. 
The goods and chattels^of a felo-de-se are 
forfeited to the king; but the coroner’s 
jury, summoned to inquire into the cause 
of death, &c., frequently saves the for¬ 
feiture, by finding a verdict of lunacy, on 
the supposition that it is impossible for a 
person in his senses to do a thing so con¬ 
trary to nature. Formerly, persons com¬ 
mitting suicide were buried in the high¬ 
way, with a stake driven through theheart: 
at present, the law requires that their inter¬ 
ment shall take place in a burial-ground, 
between the hours of nine and twelve at 
night. 

FEL'OXY (felon , a felon : Fr.; from fel: 
Sax.), comprehends all crimes which, at 
common law, occasion the forfeiture of 
lands and goods; and therefore, strictly 
speaking, it includes treason, though, in 
common language, it is not understood to 
do so. Its punishment, unless otherwise 
marked out, is death. The principal species 
of felony are1. Murder, manslaughter, 
rape, and other serious crimes against the 
person. 2. Larceny. 3. Embezzlement. 
4. Burglary. 5. Malicious injury to pro¬ 
perty, such as arson, riotous demolition of 
churches, houses, &c. 6. Forgery. 7. Many 
offences of a public nature. 

FET/SPAR or FELD'SPAR (feldspath , 
literally fle’d-spar: Ger.), a mineral com¬ 
pound of silica, alumina, and potash, with 
traces of lime, and often of oxide of iron. 
It is one of the constituents of granite, 
is softer than quartz, and usually white, 
greyish, or reddish. The general figure 
of the numerous crystals of felspar is an 
oblique prism, with unequally produced 
planes, whose number varies from four to 
ten. These prisms are terminated by sum¬ 
mits, ordinarily composed of two large cul¬ 
minating faces, and several smaller faces, 
which seem to obey no constant law of 
arrangement: hence it results, that the 
forms of felspar are among the most diffi¬ 
cult of any to understand and describe. 
Common felspar, in which potash is the pre¬ 
dominant alkali, is often called orthoclase. 
Where soda is the predominant alkali, it 
has received the name of albite. In the 


variety called Labradorite, there is from 
8 to 11 per cent, of lime present. A fourth 
variety is termed oligoclase. In its decom¬ 
posed state, felspar furnishes the petuntse, 
or Cornish stone, so much used in the 
porcelain and best pottery manufactures. 

FELT (Jilz: Ger.), coarse wool, fur, or 
hair, matted together in a peculiar way, 
and used in the making of hats, &c. The 
method of working up such materials into 
a species of cloth, independently of either 
spinning or weaving, is called felting, and 
consists in causing the hairs to interlace 
with each other, which they readily do by 
virtue of tbeir tendency to curl, and of the 
minute serratures with which they are 
ringed throughout their length. For this 
purpose, they are intimately mixed to¬ 
gether by the operation of bowing, which 
is effected by means of the vibrations of 
an elastic string, the rapid alternations of 
whose motion are peculiarly well adapted to 
remove all irregular knots and adhesions 
among the fibres, and to dispose them in a 
very light and uniform mass. This, when 
pressed under cloths and leather, readily 
unites into a fabric of some firmness; and 
this is brought to the proper shape by va¬ 
rious subsequent operations. 

FELBC'CA ( Ttal.),a small vessel, carrying 
two masts, and propelled by oars and sails. 
Also, small war-boats. Feluccas are used 
in the Mediterranean. 

FE'MALE SCREW, a screw, the spiral 
thread of which is cut on the inner surface 
of a hollow cylinder. 

FEME COV'ERT (femme couverte, a shel¬ 
tered woman : Fr.), in Law, a married 
woman who is under covert of her hus¬ 
band. By the common law of England, the 
legal capacity of a woman to contract, or 
sue and be sued, separately, ceases on her 
marriage; and her husband becomes ac¬ 
countable for her debts existing at that 

time.- Feme sole, a single woman.- 

Feme-sole merchant, a woman who car¬ 
ries on trade alone, or without her hus¬ 
band. 

FEM'ORAL (femur, the thigh : Lat), be¬ 
longing to the thigh ; as, the femoral artery. 

FEN (fenn: Sax.), a portion of land, in 
which the sub-soil is constantly saturated 
with water, and the surface liable to be 
overflowed in spring and autumn. The soil 
is generally dark and rich, and produces 
bushy crops of grass and corn. Fens can 
seldom be drained naturally; but when this 
is done by machinery, they are highly pro¬ 
ductive. Windmills were formerly much 
employed in draining them; but steam is 
now preferred, as most to be depended on. 

FEN'CING (defense: Fr.), the art of using 
skilfully a sword or foil, either in attack or 
defence. In practising this art, foils or 
thin swords are used, which,being blunted 
or covered at the points, and bending 
readily, are harmless. 

FEN'DERS (defendre, to defend: Fr.), a 
sea term for pieces of old cable, &c., hung 
over the sides of a ship, to prevent injury 
from contact with other ships. 

FENES'TRA (a window: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a term applied to two openings, or 
foramina, within the ear, distinguished by 









































270 


lltteraru CrcaSurn. 


the name3 of the oval and the round 
fenestra 

FEN'XEL (fenouil: Fr.), the common 
name of the Anethum fcenicnlum, an umbelli¬ 
ferous plant, with a peculiar fragrance. It 
is wild in England. 

FEO'DUM, FE'OD, or FEUD ( feodum, a 
flcf: Mod. Lat.), in Feudal Law, the right 
which the vassal had to use and take the 
profits of land, &c„ rendering to his lord 
j such fees, duties, and services as belonged 
to military tenure. But the actual pro¬ 
perty in it always remained to the lord. 

FEOFF'MENT {fief, a fief : Fr.), the old 
I common law method of conveying lands 
to another in fee, that is, to him and his 
; heirs for ever, by delivery of seisin, and 
1 possession of the estate granted. The giver 
is called the feoffor, and the person who is 
thus invested is called the feoffee. This mode 
of conveyance is very seldom used. 

FE'R.E (wild beasts: Lat.), in Zoology, 
an order of mammals, including the rapa- 
j cious beasts, or those that subsist, more or 
j less exclusively, on the flesh of other aui- 
| mals. They are characterized by the pos- 
i session of incisors, canine, and molar teeth, 

! and unguiculate extremities, without an 
opposite thumb on the forefoot, but with 
I the power of rotation in the forearm. It 
includes five families: Felidce, the cat- 
1 tribe; Ursidce, the bears; Talpidce, the 
moles; Macropidce, the kangaroos; and 
Plwcidcp,, the seals. 

FETLE NATU'RiE (of a savage nature : 
Lat.), in Law, beasts and birds that are 
wild ; as foxes, hares, wild ducks, &c., in 
which no person can claim any property. 

FERA'LIA {Lat.), in Antiquity, a festival 
observed among the Romans in February, 
| in honour of the manes of their deceased 
friends and relations. During the cere¬ 
mony, which consisted in making offerings 
at their graves, marriages were forbidden, 
and the temples of the divinities shut up. 
They fancied that, while this festival lasted, 
departed spirits suffered no pains in hell, 
but were permitted to wander about their 
graves, and feast upon the meats prepared 
for them. 

FER DE FOURCHETT'E (an iron fork: 
Fr.), in Heraldry, a cross, having at each 
end a forked iron, like that formerly used 
. by soldiers to rest their guns on. 

FE'RIA {Lat.), a term applied, in the Ro- 
: man Catholic breviary, to the several days 
of the week ; thus, Monday is the feria se- 
cunda, Tuesday the feria tertia, and so on. 

FE'RLE {Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, holi¬ 
days, or days upon which no business was 
transacted. The ferice were either Publiccs 
or Privates, the latter being observed only 
by families or individuals. The Ferice Pub¬ 
licce were divided into Ferice Stativce, or 
stated festivals; Ferice Conceptivce, or mov¬ 
able feasts ; and Ferice Imperatives, or oc¬ 
casional festivals, enjoined by the consuls, 
or other magistrates, on some public occa¬ 
sion. The Ferice Latincs, kept on Mount 
Albanus by the thirty Latin towns, were 
Ferice Conceptivce, tend, were observed by the 
consuls before they set out for their pro¬ 
vinces. The Ferice Nundince were days in 
which the country people assembled, and 


[ferns 


exposed their commodities for sale—so 
called on account of being held every ninth 
day. They were, for a£long time at least, 
dies fasti, or those on which business could 
be transacted, for the people only; but, for 
the patricians, they were dies nefasti, or 
holidays. 

FERMENTA'TION ( fermento, I ferment: 
Lat.), a peculiar change to which certain 
complex organic bodies are liable, under 
the influence of an external disturbing 
force. If to a solution of sugar there be 
added a little blood, flour, paste, or other 
putrescible azotised matter, fermentation 
will set in, and the sugar will be converted 
into alcohol, carbonic acid being at the 
same time disengaged. Nothing acts more 
powerfully as an exciter of fermentation 
than yeast—the matter thrown off by beer 
when fermenting. A certain amount of 
heat is required, and the presence of at¬ 
mospheric air is necessary at the com¬ 
mencement. In making wine the vegetable 
albumen of the must absorbs oxygen from 
the atmosphere, and thus excites the action 
of fermentation in the sugar of the juice, 
which becomes changed into alcohol. Iu 
brewing, the liquor in which malted grain 
has been infused is caused to ferment, by 
the addition of yeast, and this results in the 
conversion of the saccharine liquor into 
beer. In this case, however, the fermenta¬ 
tion is not allowed to run its full course. 
The beer is drawn off i*to casks at a par¬ 
ticular stage of the fermenting action, and 
a very slow fermentation afterwards goes 
on, which charges the liquor with carbonic 
acid. Fermentation is also made use of in 
preparing the weak spirit from grain, which 
is afterwards distilled into what, when rec¬ 
tified and flavoured, is called gin. The pre¬ 
ceding are cases of alcoholic or vinous fer¬ 
mentation. Acetous fermentation takes 
place if weak alcohol be mixed with a little 
yeast, or other azotised organic matter, 
liable to putrefy, and be then exposed to the 
air. Oxygen is absorbed from the atmo¬ 
sphere, and the alcohol is converted Into 
acetic acid or vinegar. Carbonic acid is not 
disengaged during this fermentation. Vine¬ 
gar is usually made either from wine by 
spontaneous acidification, assisted by a 
temperature of about 80° F., or from a kind 
of beer prepared for the purpose. 

FERNS ( feam : Any. Sacc.), the filices of 
botanists, an order of cryptogamic plants, 
of which examples occur in all parts of the 
world. The great majority have short stems, 
which creep upon or under the surface of 
the ground, but in some regions, such as 
New Zealand, a trunk rise* to the height of 
several feet, rough with the stalks of 
withered fronds (leaves).and bearing green 
fronds at the summit, so as to resemble in 
some degree a small palm. The shapes of 
tliefronds are very varied ; some are entire, 
others much divided. The reproductive 
organs are borne on the back of the frond 
or at the margin, and consist of collections 
of spore cases containing spores, which are 
the true seeds, minute as dust. The spore 
cases are usually surrounded by an elastic 
ring, by the bursting of which, when ripe, 
the spores are thrown into the air. Ferns 












































ferret] 


3Tf)c £>ctcnttfic anti 


280 


are of little use In any point of view, but 
for the sake of their elegant fronds they are 
much cultivated in greenhouses, and in 
those small glass cases called Wardian, after 
their inventor. From the neatness with 
which the dried fronds can be arranged 
upon paper, dried collections are common. 
In Great Britain, about 45 species have been 
found belonging to 19 genera. The world 
contains probably 3,000 species. 

FER'RET ( furet: Fr.), the Putoris Furo of 
j naturalists, a blood-thirsty animal of the! 
weasel tribe ( Mustelidas ). It is a native of 
Africa, but has been domesticated with us 
for the purpose of killing rabbits and rats. 
It has white fur and red eyes. 

FER'RIO ( ferrum , iron : Lat.), pertaining 

to or extracted from iron.- Ferric Acid, 

| an acid composed of one equivalent of iron 
united to three of oxygen. 

FERRICAL'CITE (Jcrrum, iron ; and calx, 

\ lime: Lat.), in Mineralogy, a species of cal- 
! careous earth or limestone, combined with 
a large amount of iron. 

FER'RILITE ( ferrum , iron : Lat.; and 
lit.hos, a stone: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a variety 
of trap, containing iron in the state of 
oxide. 

FERROCY'ANIDE, in Chemistry, a com¬ 
pound of ferrocyanogen and a base. 

FERROCYAN'OGEY, in Chemistry, a 
radical, consisting of one atom of iron and 
three cyanogen; known, in combination 
with two atoms of hydrogen, as ferrocyanide 
j of hydrogen, or liydroferrocyanic acid; and 
with two atoms of potash, as ferrocyan¬ 
ide of potassium, or yellow prussiate of 
! potash. 

FERROSIL'ICATE, in Chemistry, a com¬ 
pound of ferrosilicic acid, with a base : a 
substance analagous to a salt. 

FERROSILI'CIC, in Chemistry, a term 

I i designating a compound of iron and silex. 

II FERRU'GINOUS (ferrugineus: Lat.), of 
' the colour of rust or oxide of iron. 

FER'ULA (a rod : Lat.), in Ecclesiastical 
History, a place in which the audientes 
I were kept. It was separated from the 
i church, which such persons were not al- 

J lowed to enter.-Under the Eastern em- 

] pire, the ferula was the emperor’s sceptre, as | 
is seen on a variety of medals: it consisted 
I of a long stem, or shank, and a flat square 

head.- Ferula, in Botany, a genus of 

umbelliferous plants, known as giant fen¬ 
nel. Asafoetida is the dried milky juice of 
several of the species. 

FER'ULiE {Lat.), in Surgery, splinters or 
j chips of different matter, as of wood, bark, 
leather, paper, &c. The term is applied also ! 

! to bones that have been disjointed, when 
i they are set again. 

FESCENNI'NE VER'SES (from Fescennia, 
j a city of Etruria), among the Romans, a 
| kind of extemporary dialogue, in which 
the performers, using a gross and rustic 
kind of raillery, reproached each other, as 
well as their audience, with their vices and 
foibles. Though they are said to have re¬ 
ceived their name from the town where this 
species of rude poetry was first used, it is 
not likely that they were peculiar to any 
one locality. Under cover of them much 
j indecency prevailed; and the emperor 


Augustus prohibited them, as tending to 
corrupt the public morals. 

FESSE {fascia, a wide belt: Lat), in He¬ 
raldry, one of the nine honourable ordi¬ 
naries, consisting of a line or belt drawn 
directly across the shield, from side to side, 
and containing the third part of it. When 
figures are contained within the breadth of 
the fesse, it is said to be charged, and they 
are said to be in fesse. When a fesse does 
not extend to the sides of the escutcheon, 
it is said to be couped. The diminutives 
of a fesse are the bar, the closet, and the 
barulet. A fesse, with a barulet on each side 
of it, is said to be cotised. A fesse removed 
to the top of the escutcheon is termed a 
chief, and is considered an honourable aug¬ 
mentation.- Fesse Point, the exact cen¬ 
tre of the escutcheon.- Fesseways, or 

in fesse, denotes anything borne in the 
way of a fesse: that is, in a rank across i 

the middle of the shield.- Parte per 1 

fesse, a parting across the middle of the ; 
shield, from side to side, through the fesse 
point. 

FESTIVALS. [See Feasts.] 

FESTOO'JST {feston: Fr.), in Architecture, 
Sculpture, &c., an ornament representing 
flowers, fruits, and leaves, gracefully inter¬ 
mixed or twisted together; suspended at 
the ends, and falling down in the form of ! 
an inverted arch. 

FESTU'CA (a stem : Lat.), in Botany, a 
genus of perennial grasses, known as I 
fescue grass. 

FET'IOHISM or FET'ICISM, the worship 
of idols among the negroes of Africa, 
among whom fetich is a name by which an 
idol is designated. They believe that the 
household or family fetich narrowly inspects 
the conduct of every individual in the house, 
and rewards or punishes each according to 
his deserts. 

FET'LOCK (for foot-lock), a tuft of hair 
that grows behind the pastern joint in the 
feet of many horses. 

FEUD (fehde: Ger.), an inveterate quar¬ 
rel between families, or parties in a state. 
The word is not applicable to wars between 
different nations. 

FEU'DAL SYSTEM (feodum, a fief: Mod. 
Lat.), a form of government anciently sub¬ 
sisting in Europe, and which was fully con¬ 
solidated in the beginning of the 11th cen¬ 
tury. It forms the basis of many modern [ 
customs, and our law of real property was 
moulded with reference to it, and bears to 
this day the strongest marks of its origin. 
With respect to the origin of this system, 
it is probably to be found in the military 
customs of the Celtic or northern nations, 
known by the names of Goths, Vandals, 
Franks, Huns, and Lombards, who overran 
Em-ope on the declension of the Roman 
empire, and brought it with them from the 
countries out of which they emigrated : it 
was entirely unknown to the Romans. 
According to the feudal scheme, a victo¬ 
rious leader took possession of a country as 
supreme lord, and then allotted consider¬ 
able portions of it, called/eoda.iie/s or feuds, 
to his principal officers, who in their turn 
divided their possessions among their infe¬ 
riors ; and the condition upon which these 














































281 Htterarg Cvcas'ury* [fibula 

rewards were given was that of faithful 
military service both at home and abroad. 
Their followers engaged themselves to this 
by an oath of fealty; and in the event of 
their not performing the service agreed 
upon, or deserting their lord in time of 
battle, &c.,the lands were to return to their 
original possessor. Every person, there¬ 
fore, who was a feudatory, i. e. who had re¬ 
ceived lands in this way, was bound to do 
everything in his power to defend the lord 
of his fee; while, on the other hand, the 
latter was not less subordinate to his imme¬ 
diate superior ; and so on up to the prince 
himself. Tims the several orders of vassals 
formed a system of concentric circles, of 
which each was under the influence of the 
next ; and all moved round a common 
centre, which was the king, the supreme 
feudal lord. As there was a graduated 
scale from the lowest vassal to the prince, 
or lord paramount of the territory, every 
man’s interest was involved in the security 
of the whole; and every man was a pledge 
of security to his neighbour. In its vigour 
| the feudal system constituted a regular, 

1 powerful, and compact system of govern¬ 
ment, and secured a unanimity which per¬ 
vaded the various departments of the 
state; and while internally the power was 
diffused, it presented to foreign nations a 
united and formidable front. When the 
ideas wdtich originate in the possession of 
property advanced, and the great grew’ 
more avaricious of money than of glory, 
and when, it ought perhaps to be added, 
a love of justice and order had become 
general, nothing w r as heard of but the 
enormities of the powerful, and the suf¬ 
ferings of the humbler classes ; and the 
strength of feudal governments declined 
amidst a spirit of disaffection too uni¬ 
versal to be checked. The ceremonies used 
in conferringaflef w’ereprincipally three 
homage, with or without afeudal obligation, 
the latter only by great feudatories, such 
as those just mentioned ; an oath of fealty ; 
and investiture, or conveyance of the lands, 
either actual or symbolical. The division 
of ranks, under the feudal system, corre- 
! sponded in theory, though not altogether 
in practice, with the territorial division of 
! lands according to their tenures. Those 
who held by knight’s service were the origi¬ 
nal nobility. 

FEUIL'LANS, an order of bare-footed 

1 monks, who observe the same rule as the 
Bernardines. They derive their name from 
! the abbey of Feuillans, five leagues from 
i Toulouse, where the Bernardines w r ere first 
reformed. 

FEWER (febris : Lot.), in Medicine, a 
disease characterized by an increase of heat, 
an accelerated pulse, great thirst, and an 
impaired state of several functions. It 
generally begins with languor of body and 
mind, chilliness amounting to shivering, 
though the skin often at the same time 
feels hot; the pulsation is quicker than 
it ought to be; respiration is hurried or 
laboured ; there are pains in various parts 
of the body, particularly about the head, 
back, or loins; there is a loss of appetite, or 
nausea and vomiting; the mouth is dry; the 

bowels generally constipated; the urine 
small in quantity and deep in colour. The 
varieties of this disease are numerous; but 
the grand division is into remittent fevers, 
which subside or abate at intervals ; inter- \ 
mittent fevers, which intermit or entirely j 
cease at intervals ; and continued fevers, 
which neither remit nor intermit. 

FI'AT (let it be done : Lat.), in Law, a 
short order or warrant, signed by a judge, 
for making out and allowing certain pro¬ 
cesses.-In Bankruptcy, the order of the j 

court by which a person is declared bank¬ 
rupt. 

FI'BRES (ftbra: Lat.). A great number 
of plants afford fibres which are capable of 
being usefully employed by man, yet it is 
only a few of them that serve all the pur¬ 
poses required ; and it is somewhat remark¬ 
able that, with the exception of jute, all the 
vegetable fibres used in the manufactures 
of Europe are derived from the plants, | 
which, in the earliest ages, supplied the 
spindles and looms of Babylonia and Egypt. ! 
The chief fibres employed in textile manu- 
factures are Flax, the produce of the stalks j 
of Linum usitatissimum, a plant grown in 
nearly every part of the world : Hemp, the 
produce of the stalks of the Cannabis sativa, 
a plant allied to the nettles grown chiefly in 
Europe and Asia : Jute and bast, the inner 
bark of an Indian tree, Corchorus capsularis, 
allied to our lime tree : Few Zealand flax, 
obtained from the leaves of a plant, Phor- 
mium tenax, belonging to the lily order : 
Rhea fibre, afforded by the stems of a plant, 
Bcehmeria nivea, or China grass, growing 
in India and China : Sunn Hemp, obtained 
from several leguminous plants : Silk Cot¬ 
ton, or Baraguda cotton, obtained from a j 
large tree, the Bombax ceiba, growing in 
South America: Pine apple fibre, obtained 
from the leaves of pine apples and allied 
plants growing in tropical countries; Ma¬ 
nilla hemp, or Abaca, obtained from the , 
leaf stalks of a banana, Musa textilis, grow- j 
ing in the tropics : Pita fibre, afforded by ' 
the leaves of the American aloe, Agave 
Americana. 

FIBRIL'LA (a dim. ot ftbra, a fibre : Lat.), 
in Botany, the branch or division of a 

radical fibre.- Fibrillje, in Anatomy, | 

small fibres. 

FI'BRINE ( ftbra, a fibre: Lat.), a sub¬ 
stance found in solution in blood. When 
obtained clear of the other constituents, it , 
forms long elastic filaments. More than 
half of dried flbrine consists of carbon, the 
other components being oxygen, nitrogen, 
and hydrogen, with a little sulphur and a 
trace of phosphorus : the proportions of 
these matters being nearly the same as in 
albumen. With the exception of phos¬ 
phorus, the flbrine of flesh has the same 
constituents, but in different, proportions. 
When blood is drawn from the living ani¬ 
mal the flbrine begins to coagulate. 

FIB'ROLITE (ftbra, a fibre: Lat. ; and 
lithos, a stone : Gr.), a mineral that occurs 
associated with corundum ; it is of a white 
or grey colour, and is composed of minute 
fibres. 

FIB'ULA (a brace : Lat.), in Anatomy, 
the outer and smaller bone of the leg. It 

























is nearly of a triangular figure, and stands 
pai-allel to, but distinct from, the tibia. 
Also a brooch, used both by men and women 
amongst the ancient Romans for the pur¬ 
pose of fastening their scarves or cloaks. 
It consisted of a pin and a curved portion. 

FI'CUS (a fig: Lat.), in Botany, a large 
genus of plants, nat. ord. Urticacece, in¬ 
cluding the common fig (F. carica), the 
Banyan (F. indica), and the Pipul, or Sacred 
Pig of India (F. religiosa). Some yield 
caoutchouc of the finest quality: the Ficus 
elastica is particularly remarkable for it. 
Though the ordinary fig is so agreeable a 
fruit, the milky juice of the tree is acrid, 
and of the same nature, though less intense 
in its properties, as the Ficus toxicaria, 
Dcmonum, &c., which receive their names 
from their venomous qualities. ‘ The spe¬ 
cies of fig in hot countries,’ says Dr. Bind¬ 
ley, ‘ often constitute vast forests, and have 
generally very thick trunks with extremely 
strong branches, and a prodigious crown. 
Travellers say that the colossal fig trees are 
among the most grateful presents of nature 
to hot countries; the shade of their magni¬ 
ficent head refreshing the traveller when 
he reposes under their incredibly wide 
spreading branches and dark shining fo¬ 
liage.’ 

FIEF (Fr.), a fee ; an estate held of a su¬ 
perior on condition of military service. 
[See Feudal System.] 

FIELD, in Heraldry, the tincture, or 
combination of tinctures, which forms the 
ground of the escutcheon.-—-In Military 
tactics, the ground chosen for any battle. 

-In Painting, the ground or blank space 

on which anything may be drawn. 

FIELD'FARE, the Turdus pilaris, a mi¬ 
gratory bird of the thrush kind. It passes 
the summer in the northern parts of Eu¬ 
rope, but visits Great Britain in winter. 

FIELD-MAR/SHAL, the highest military 

rank in England.- Field-officer, a 

military officer above the rank of a captain, 

as a major or colonel.- Field-colours, 

in War, small flags about a foot and a half 
square, which are used by the quarter¬ 
master-general, for marking out the ground 

for the squadrons and battalions.- Field- 

pieces, small cannons, from three to twelve- 
pounders, carried along with an army in the 

field.- Field-works, in Fortification, 

those thrown up in besieging a fortress, or 
by the besieged to defend the place. 

FI'ERI FA'CIAS (quod fieri facias cle 
bonis, that you cause the sum or debt to be 
made from the goods: Lat ), in Law, a judi¬ 
cial writ, commanding the sheriff to levy 
the debt or damages on the goods of one 
againgt whom judgment has been had in 
an action of debt. 

FIFTEEN'TH, an ancient tribute or tax 
laid upon cities, boroughs, &c., through all 
England, and so termed becauseit amounted 
to a fifteenth part of the sum at which each 
city or town had been valued; or it was a fif¬ 
teenth of every man’s personal estate, ac¬ 
cording to a reasonable estimate.-In 

Music, an interval of two octaves. Also, a 
stop on the organ, a double octave above 
the diapason. 

FIG (figue: Fr.), the fruit of the fig-tree 


(Ficus Carica), formed of a fleshy hollow 
peduncle, which is covered inside with 
flowers that produce small one-seeded nuts. 
Figs are produced abundautly in Turkey, 
Greece, Italy, Spain, France, and northern 
Africa. They are of an oblong shape, and 
of a dark purple or greenish colour. When 
ripe, they are generally dried in ovens to 
preserve them, and are then packed very 
closely in the small chests and baskets in 
which we import them. Dried figs, with 
barley bread, are the ordinary food of the 
lower classes in Greece and the Archi¬ 
pelago. 

FIG'URAL, or FIG'URATE NUM'BERS 
( figura, a figure: Lat.), such as do or may 
represent some geometrical figure, in rela¬ 
tion to which they are always considered as 
triangular numbers, pentagonal numbers, 
pyramidal numbers, &c. 

FIG'URATIVE (same deriv.), a term ap¬ 
plied to whatever is expressed by obscure 
resemblances; as the types and mysteries 
of the Mosaic law. Also to any expression 
which is not taken in its primary and literal 
sense. 

FIG'URE (Fr., from same deriv.), in As¬ 
trology, a description of the disposition of 
the heavens at a certain hour,in which the 
places of the planets and stars are marked 
within a figure of twelve triangles, called 

houses.- Figure, in Geometry, a space 

bounded on all sides, either bylines or sur¬ 
faces. Or the representation on paper, &c., 
of the object of a theorem or problem, to 
render its demonstration or solution more 
easy to be understood ; in which sense it is 

a diagram. -Figure, in Fortification, the 

plan of any fortified place ; or the interior 
polygon, which, when the sides and angles 
are equal, is called a regular, and, when un¬ 
equal, an irregular figure.- Figure, in 

Rhetoric, a mode of speaking or writing, in 
which words are deflected from their ordi¬ 
nary signification, so as to express a passion 
with more emphasis and beauty than by 
the ordinary way. The principal figures of 
Rhetoric are the metaphor, allegory, simile, 
and personification; which, with their fur¬ 
ther divisions into hyperbole, climax, anti¬ 
thesis, &c., will be found under their re¬ 
spective heads.- Fig ure, in Fainting and 

Designing, the representation of any ani¬ 
mal, but more particularly of a human 

being.- Figures (inaccurately so called), 

in Arithmetic, certain characters by which 
we denote any number. They are more 
correctly termed digits. 

FIL'ACER (fil, a thread or wire : Fr.), an 
officer of the Common Fleas and Queen’s 
Bench, so called from his filing the writs 
on which he makes out processes. 

FIL'AMENT (filum, a thread: Lat.), in 
Natural History, anything slender, like a 
thread; for example, the support of the 
anther in a flower. 

FILA'RIA (same deriv.), a genus of en- 
tozoa, having long slender and filiform 
bodies. They infest even insects and their 
larvte, as well as the larger animals. The 
species most dreaded by man is the Filaria 
medinensis, or Guinea-worm, which is en¬ 
demic within the tropics of Asia and Africa; 
and entering beneath the skin, generally 












































283 ILttenU'J) Ci'Cas'lUJ). [fingering 

of the leg, sometimes produces the most 
excruciating pain. Its length varies from 
six inches to twelve feet, and its body, 
which is cylindrical, is nearly of a uniform 
size throughout. 

FILE (felle: Ger.), in Mechanics, a well- 
known instrument formed of steel, which is 
! cut in small furrows, and used in smoothing 
and polishing mctais. Files are called by 
different names, according to their various 
degrees of fineness; and are also distin¬ 
guished by their shape, as flat, half-round, 
three-square, four-square, and round. 

FILE FISH, so called, either because of 
the skin being rough and cross hatched, 
like a file, or because the first spine on the 
• back somewhat resembles a file. This spine, 
when erected, can be secured in that posi¬ 
tion by the second spine, which has a pro¬ 
jection at its base, locking into a corre¬ 
sponding cavity at the base of the first. 
Until the hinder spine has been depressed, 
the first one cannot be brought down. 
Hence the fish is sometimes called the 
trigger-fish. This fish, which belongs to 
the genus Batistes, in the order of Plec- 
tognallii, is sometimes taken on the British 
coast, but more frequently in the Medi¬ 
terranean. 

! FIL'ICES (ferns: Lat.). [See Ferns.] 

FIL'IFORM (fiium , a thread ; and forma, 
a form : Lat.), having the form of a thread 
or filament; as, a filiform style or peduncle. 

FIL'LET (filet: Fr.), in Architecture, a 
snmll square member, ornament, or mould¬ 
ing, used in various places, but generally 

as a corona over a moulding.-Among 

carpenters and joiners, a small piece, to 
which boards, joists, or quarters are nailed. 

-In Heraldry, a kind of narrow bordure, 

which runs quite round, near the edge. 

FIL'LIBEG, a dress reaching only to the 
knees, worn in the highlands of Scotland. 

FIL'LIGJREE-WORK (filigrune : Fr. ; 
from fiium, a thread; and granum, a grain: 
Lat.), a delicate and elaborate manufacture, 
primarily executed in threads of gold and 
silver, but lately imitated with coloured 
and gilt paper. In Sumatra, manufactures 
of fllligree-work are carried to very great 
perfection. In China, where the filligree is 
chiefly of silver,many beautiful articles are 
produced. Malta has also a celebrity for 
articles of this kind. 

FILTRATION (fiium-, a thread : Lat.—on 
account of the liquid passing off in a 
slender stream), the process by which a 
liquid is freed from solid bodies mixed with 
it, or from any impurities which it holds in 
suspension, by passing it through a linen 
or woollen bag, or filtering paper. Various 
other contrivances have also been invented 
for purifying muddy and putrid water, and 
rendering it fit for drinking; such as the 
use of a porous kind of stone, sand, char¬ 
coal, &c.; and numerous patents have been 
obtained for filtering apparatus, some of 
which are excellent. 

FIM'BRIyE (an extremity: Lat.), appen¬ 
dages disposed by way of fringe round the 
border of anything. Hence, fimbriate is a 
term used in Botany for fringed, or sur¬ 
rounded by hairs; and fimbriated, in He¬ 
raldry, is an epithet for an ordinary, with a 

narrow bordure or hem of another tinc¬ 
ture. 

FI'NAL CAU'SES (finalis, pertaining to 
the end; and causa, a cause: Lai.), the 
purposes or ultimate ends in view. The 
efficient cause is that which produces the 
event or effect; the final cause is that for 
which anything is done. 

FINA'LE ( finalis , pertaining to the end : 
Lat), the concluding part of a musical com¬ 
position. In instrumental pieces, it has 
most usually a character of vivacity, and 
requires a quick movement with lively per¬ 
formance. 

FINAN'CES (Fr.), in Political Economy, 
the revenues of a state. The English sys¬ 
tem of finance rests on the produce of the 
various taxes which have been imposed at 
different periods, the aggregate amount of 
which, after deducting the expenses of col¬ 
lection, together with a few small items 
which cannot properly be called taxes, 
forms the whole of the public income. 
This income is annually appropriated to the 
several branches of the national expendi¬ 
ture: and when, in consequence of any 
extraordinary expenses, it is known that 
the income of the current year will be in¬ 
sufficient to meet all the demands upon it, 
it is usual to borrow the sum necessary to 
make up the deficiency, either from indi¬ 
viduals or public bodies; and to allow a 
fixed rate of interest on the money thus 
obtained, till the principal is repaid, or till 
the period originally agreed upon lias ex¬ 
pired.-A person employed in the econo¬ 

mical management and application of the 
public money is called a financier. 

FINCH (finke : Ger.), in Ornithology, a 
numerous class of passerine birds, forming 
the family Fringillidce, of which the most 
remarkable are the goldfinch, canary, and 
linnet. 

FINE (pcena, a punishment: Lat.), in Law, 
a penalty or amends, made in money, for an 
offence; also money paid for the renewal 
of a lease. There was formerly a mode of 
conveying land by fine and recovery; but 
it has been abolished. It was the termina¬ 
tion of an imaginary action at law, and 
barred issue in tail immediately; but not 
those in remainder or reversiou.exceptwhen 
the tenant had such reversion to himself. 

A fine also was the usual method formerly 
adopted for joining a feme covert in the 
sale, settlement, or incumbrance of an 
estate. [See Entail.] 

FINE ARTS, a term somewhat indefinite 
in its meaning, but generally applied to 
those arts which depend on the mind and 
imagination ; opposed to the mechanical. 

FI'NERY, the furnace in which metals 
are refined, i. e. hammered and fashioned 
into what is called a bloom, or square bar. 

FIN'GER (Ger., from fangen, to seize), 
in Anatomy, one of the extreme parts 
of the hand. The names of the fingers, 
reckoning from the thumb, are—1. pollex ; 

2. index; 3. medius ; 4. annularis ; 5. aari- 
cidaris. In the thumb there are two, in 
each of the other lingers three, bones 
called phalanges, the upper of which are 
much larger than the lower. 

FIN'GERING, in Music, the disposing 























finite] 5H)C detenttftc antf 234 


of the fingers in a convenient, natural, and 
suitable manner, in the performance of any 
instrument, hut more especially of the or¬ 
gan and pianoforte. 

PI'KITE (finitus, hounded; Lat.), in Ma¬ 
thematics, an epithet for a series, line, &c., 
■which is limited in extent, duration, &c.; in 
distinction from infinite. 

FINS (pinna: Lat.), in Natural History, 
well-known parts of fishes, consisting of 
membranes supported by rays, which are 
either stiff spines, or flexible unjointed 
rays, or flexible jointed rays, the lat¬ 
ter being frequently branched. The dor¬ 
sal fins are those on the back. Some 
fishes have none there, others from one to 
fom - . In the Salmon family, the second 
dorsal fin is rudimentary, and is termed 
adipose. The pectoral fins are two, one on 
each side, usually placed about the middle 
of the height of the fish, just behind the 
gill covers. In some fishes they are absent. 
The ventral fins are also two, usually placed 
close together under the pectoral fins, and 
then termed thoracic. If placed in front of 
the pectoral fins, they are termed jugular, 
and if on the belly, at some distance behind 
the pectoral fins, they are called abdominal. 
When they are altogether absent, the fishes 
are said to be apodal, as in the case of the 
eel tribe. The anal fin is placed behind the 
vent: sometimes there are two, very rarely 
three. The caudal fin is placed at the end 
of the tail. It varies much in shape, 
rounded, truncate, lunate, forked, &c. The 
tail, with its fin, is the principal organ of 
locomotion, the other fins serving more to 
steer than to propel. In works on ichthyo¬ 
logy, a notation is employed, which briefly 
hut clearly expresses their characters. The 
fins in the perch are thus described 
D 15,1 + 13; P 14; V l + 5 ; A 2 + 8; 0 17: 
which means that of D, the dorsal fins, 
the first has 15 rays, all spinous or bony; 
the second, 1 spinous, plus 13 that are soft; 
that P, pectoral fin, has 14 rays, all soft; V, 
the ventral fin, 1 spinous ray, plus 5 that 
are soft; 0, the tail, or caudal fin, 17 rays. 
In enumerating the rays of the caudal fin, 
only those which extend from the longest 
ray in the upper portion to the longest ray 
in the lower portion, both inclusive, are 
counted. 

FIN'TO (counterfeited : Ital.), in Music, a 
feint, or an attempt to do something with¬ 
out doing it. Thus, in a cadenza finta, w T hen 
everything proper for a true cadence has 
been done, instead of falling on the right 
final, a higher or a lower note is taken. 

FIR'-TItEE (furli: Sax.), the name of 
several species of the genus Pinus: as the 
Scotch fir, the silver fir, spruce fir, &c. 
[See Pine.] 

FIRE (feuer: Ger.). Informer times, fire 
obtained a place among the elements. It is 
now known that what is ordinarily called 
by that name is merely solid or gaseous mat¬ 
ter at a high temperature. [See Caloric and 

Heat.]- Subterranean fires. The high 

temperature of thermal springs, the effects 
produced formerly by extinct volcanoes, 
and at present by those still in acti¬ 
vity, with the fact that the earth becomes 
Warmer the deeper we descend, have in¬ 


duced philosophers to adopt the idea of a 
central fire. This supposes that the globe 
was once in a state of igneous fusion ; that 
the surface has gradually become solid by 
cooling ; and that the interior of the earth 
is still liquid and hot, and may remain so 
for an indefinite period, during which the 
lost by radiation will become gradually 
more slow. [See Earth, Volcano, &c.] 
FI'RE-ARMS, a general designation fof 
all sorts of guns, fowling-pieces, blunder- 
busses, pistols, &c„ which produce their 
effect by the combustion of gunpowder. 
The manufacture of these weapons in Eng- j 
land is very extensive; and in order to j 
prevent the numerous accidents which ’ 
would otherwise occur from the bursting of 
ill-constructed barrels, the Act 55 Geo. III., I 
c. 59, imposes a fine of 20 1. on any person 
using, in any of the progressive stages of 
its manufacture, a barrel not duly proved; 
on any person delivering the same, except 
through a proof-house ; and on any person 
receiving, for the purpose of making guns, 
etc., any barrels which have not passed 
through a proof-house. 

FI'RE-BALI.S, in Military operations, 
balls which are capable of being ignited: 
such, for instance, as are thrown by night 
from mortars or howitzers towards quarters 

which it is desirable to examine..-In 

Natural Philosophy, globular masses of fire, 
of different magnitudes, occasionally seen 
moving through the atmosphere with 
greater or less velocity. With regard to 
the nature of these phenomena, there are 
various conjectures. [See Falling Stars, 
Meteors, &c.] 

FI'RE-DAMP. [See Damps.] 
FI'RE-DRESS, an invention of the Che¬ 
valier Aldini, consisting of an exterior 
light armour of metallic gauze, which 
was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy to 
be impervious to flame, and of an inner 
covering of a material which is a slow 
conductor of heat. Among flexible fibrous 
substances capable of being spun and 
woven into tissues, the asbestos possesses 
preeminently the property of slowly con¬ 
ducting heat; but wool, cotton, &c., if 
immersed in certain saline solutions, pre¬ 
vent the transmission of injurious heat to 
the body, during an exposure of some 
minutes to the action of flame on the out- 
ward covering of wire gauze. 

FPRE-ENGINE, an engine for extin¬ 
guishing fire. It consists of two forcing 
pumps, so combined that their joint action 
produces a constant and powerful stream of 
water, which, by means of a pipe, may be 
directed at pleasure to any point. The 
handles are so disposed, that, while the 
piston of one pump is up, that of the other 
is down; and they are elongated for the I 
purpose of enabling a greatnumber of men ! 

to work them at the same time.-By an 

ingenious application of steam power to | 
the working of fire-engines, their useful- j 
ness has been greatly increased. As soon , 
as an alarm is given, the flreiskindled, and 
the bellows attached to the engine are 
worked by hand. By the time the horses are 
harnessed, the fuel is thoroughly ignited, 
and tho bellows are then worked by the 





























285 Eftentry 


motion of the wheels; so that generally, 
by the time the engine reaches the fire, the 
j steam is ready. One of the ordinary con¬ 
struction will work in eighteen minutes 
! after the fire is lighted, and will deliver 
about 9000 gallons an hour to a height of 
90 feet, through an orifice of 7-8ths of an 
inch. Some of the insurance companies in 
London have floating fire-engines on the 
Thames, which are extremely serviceable in 
case of fire among the shipping, or build¬ 
ings near the river. 

FI'RE-ESCAPE, any machine or appa¬ 
ratus for enabling persons to escape from 
buildings oil fire. Sometimes the object 
is effected with, and sometimes without, 
external aid. In the first case, a very 
portable kind of ladder, or a contrivance 
for raising by a rope and pulley a basket 
or other means of lowering persons to the 
| ground, is generally used. In the second 
there is usually a rope ladder, or a long 
cord, with something like a seat, and so ar¬ 
ranged that a person may lower himself. 

FI'RE-FLY. Several flying insects give 
out light in tropical countries. Most of 
1 these are beetles, belonging to the order of 
Elateridce. One of the most brilliant is the 
! Pyrophorus noctilucus, an inhabitant of 
; South America. Two or three of these, 
placed under a glass, will give out light 
l sufficient for the reading of a book. 

FI'RE-SHIP, a vessel filled with combus¬ 
tibles, and fitted with grappling irons, 
which, with the advantage of a favourable 
w'ind, hook on to the enemy’s vessels, and 
set them on fire. 

FI'REWORKS, compositions of sulphur, 
saltpetre, charcoal, and other ingredients, 
which produce a brilliant effect when ig¬ 
nited. [See Pyuotechny.] 

FI'RING-IRON, in Farriery, an instru¬ 
ment not unlike the blade of a knife ; 
which, being made red-hot, is applied to a 
horse’s hams, or other places, where there 
! are morbid swellings, farcy knots, &c., in 
order to dissipate them. 

FIR'KIN, an English measure of capa- 
! city, containing nine ale gallons, or seven 
and a half imperial gallons. 

FIR'MAMENT (firm amentum: Lat.), in 
Scripture, denotes the great arch or expanse 
over our heads, in which are placed the 
atmosphere and the clouds, and in which 
the stars appear to be. Its name is due 
! to the supposition that it was a trans¬ 
parent solid, in which the heavenly bodies 
were fixed.-In the Ptolemaic astro¬ 

nomy, the firmament is the eighth hea¬ 
ven or sphere, with respect to the seven 
spheres of the planets which it surrounds. 
It was supposed to have two motions—a 
diurnal, given to it by the primmn mobile, 
from east to west about the poles of the 
ecliptic; and another opposite motion from 
west to east. There is a revolution in this 
direction, which, according to Tycho Brahe, 
is completed in 25,412 years ; according to 
Ptolemy, in 36,000; and according to Coper¬ 
nicus, in 25,800 ; in which time the fixed 
stars would return to the same points in 
which they were at the beginning. This 
period is commonly called the Platonic, or 
great year. 


Ct*ca£uvy. [fisheries 


FIR'MAN, or more properly FER'MAN 
(a command : Pers.), a mandate or certifi¬ 
cate of the sovereign, in Turkey, Persia, 
&c., for various purposes, but best known 
to Europeans as a passport for travellers. 

FIRST-FRUITS, offerings made to God 
by the Jews, of part of the fruit of their 
harvest, as an acknowledgment of his 
sovereign dominion. They were called 
first-fruits because they were offered in the 
temple before any part of the crop was 

touched.- First-fruits, in the church 

of England, are the profits of every spiri¬ 
tual benefice for the first year. Before the 
Reformation, they were given to the pope, 
but since to the sovereign. The valuation 
is that made by Henry VIII. The first- 
fruits and tenths of all livings over 50 1. 
were transferred, in the reign of Queen 
Anne, to a fund called Queen Anne's bounty, 
for the increase of smaller benefices, which 
are freed from any kind of payment. 

FISC or FIS'CUS (a basket used by pri¬ 
vate persons for carrying money: Lat.), in 
Roman Antiquity, the treasury of a prince 
or state. It differs from the cerarium, which 
was the treasury of the public : thus, when 
the money arising from the sale of con¬ 
demned persons’ goods was appropriated 
to the use of the public, their goods were 
said to be publicati; but when it was des¬ 
tined for the support of the prince, con- 
flscati. The flscus did not exist until the 
time of the emperors; and as soon as they 
obtained possession of everything, the dis¬ 
tinction between flscus and cerarium was no 
longer observed. [See 2Eraricm.] 

FIS'CAL (from last), in the Civil Law, 
relating to the pecuniary interest of the 
prince or people. The officers appointed 
for the management of the fisc were called 
procuratores flsci and advocati flsci. 

FISH (<?er.). [See Pisces.].—Fish, in 
Architecture, a piece of wood fastened to 

another to strengthen it.- Fishes, in 

Heraldry, are the emblems of silence and 
watchfulness, and are borne upright, un¬ 
bowed, extended, endorsed, &c. 

FISH'ERIES ( flscherey: Ger.), places where 
fish are caught in great abundance, so as to 
constitute an important article in com¬ 
merce. The principal fisheries for salmon, 
herrings, mackerel, pilchards, &c., are along 
the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ire¬ 
land ; for cod, on the banks of Newfound¬ 
land, Nova Scotia, and Labrador, as also on 
the coasts of Holland; and for whales, in 
those seas which wash the shores of Green¬ 
land, and also in various parts within the 

tropics.- Anchovies are fished for on the 

coast of Provence, in the months of May, 
June, and July, at which season shoals of 
this fish regularly come into the Mediter¬ 
ranean through the Straits of Gibraltar. 
They are likewise found in plentyin the river 
of Genoa, on the coast of Sicily, and on that 
of file island of Gorgona, opposite to Leg¬ 
horn ; those obtained at the latter place are 
reckoned the best. Anchovies are seldom 
fished for but in the night-time; for if a fire 
is kindled on the poops of the vessels, the 
anchovies come in greater numbers into 
the nets. About 120,000 lbs. weight of them 
are annually consumed in Great Britain.—- 












t’iSKING] 


Jraeuttfu' nnU 



The Cod fishery is most important. Tt is 
carried on at the hanks of Newfoundland 
and the neighbouring coasts. The cod are 
usually taken by line, nets being but rarely 
employed ; and as they bite with great vo¬ 
racity, almost anything servesfor bait. The 
number of vessels engaged in the North 
American cod fishery, including the British, 
American, French, Dutch, and Spanish, is 
calculated to amount to 6,000 or 7,000, which 

take about 40,000,000 fish annually.-The 

Herring fishery was at first engrossed almost 
entirely by the Dutch ; but in 1749, parlia¬ 
ment, to encourage it, granted a tonnage 
bounty on vessels employed in it. This had 
not, however, the desired effect, and was 
withdrawn. The most important seats of 
the fishery are on the coast of Scotland. So 
long ago as 1834, 11,000 boats and 82,000 
persons were employed in it. Herrings are 
remarkable for their immense numbers; 
they move in shoals, sometimes occupy- 
i ing many miles in extent, and several fa¬ 
thoms in depth. Their presence is easily 
j discovered, during the day, by the great 
j numbers of birds which accompany them, 
and by the unctuous matter with which the 
water is covered ; and in the night, by the 
! brilliant phosphoric light which they emit. 
They are taken generally by night in nets, 
which are sometimes of enormous extent, 
and are dragged by a capstan. Herrings 
are very plentiful about the Orcades in June 
and July ; in the German Ocean in Septem¬ 
ber and October; and in the English Chan¬ 
nel in October, November, and December. 

•- Mackerel are found in large shoals in 

the ocean, but especially on the French and 
English coasts. They enter the English 
Channel in April; and proceeding as the 
summer advances, about June they are on 
the coasts of Cornwall, Sussex, Normandy, 
Picardy, &c., where the fishery is most con¬ 
siderable. They are taken either with a 
line or nets, the latter being preferable; 
and most usually in the night-time. They 
are eaten fresh, and are also pickled in 

salt or brine.-The Salmon fishery in 

these countries has greatly diminished of 
late. It is carried on chiefly in the rivers, 
and sea-coasts adjoining to the river mouths. 
Those rivers most distinguished for salmon 
in Scotland, are the Tweed, the Clyde, the 
Tay, the Dee, the Don, the Spey, the Ness, 
the Bewly, &c., in most of which it is very 
common, about the height of summer, espe¬ 
cially if the weather happen to be very hot, 
to catch four or five score of salmon at a 
draught. The chief rivers in England for 
salmon are the Tyne, the Trent, the Severn, 
and the Thames. The fishing usually begins 
about January; and ceases in Scotland 
about the 15th of August, because, as it is 
then supposed, the fish come up to spawn. 

-The principal Sturgeon fishery is in the 

mouth of the Volga, on the Caspian Sea, 
where the Russians employ a great number 

of hands.-The Northern Whale fishery, 

on the coast of Greenland, begins in May, 

and continues till the end of July.-The 

Southern Whale fishery consists of three 
distinct branches: 1st, that of the sperma¬ 
ceti whale, which is found in all tropical cli¬ 
mates, but especially on the coasts of New 


Zealand and Japan : the ordinary duration 
of the voyage of a ship from England, em¬ 
ployed in this department of the fishery, is 
about three years. 2nd, that of the common 
black whale of the southern seas, met with 
principally on the coast of Brazil. And, 3rd, 
that of the sea-elephant, or southern walrus, 
met with in the seas near California and the 
islands of Desolation, South Georgia, &e. 
Vast numbers of these animals are annually 
captured, and they furnish an abundance of 

oil.-It appears that, while our northern 

whale fishery has long been declining, the 
American southern whale fishery lias risen 
into great importance. It is, however, 
very generally believed that in the south, 
as well as in the north, there is a very per¬ 
ceptible decrease in the supply of fish, and 
that the whale fisheries have consequently 

passed their zenith.-Besides the before- 

mentioned fisheries, there are several 
others, both on the coasts of Great Britain 
and in the North Seas, which, although not 
much the subject of merchandise, employ 
great numbers of persons; as, the oyster 
fishing at Colchester, Feversham, the Isle 
of Wight, in the Swales of the Medway, 
&c.; and the lobster fishing in the British 
Channel, the Firth of Forth, on the coast 
of Northumberland, the coast of Norway, 
&e., &e. 

FISH'ING ( fischein, to fish: Ger.), the 
art of catching fish, whether by means of 
nets, or of spears, lines, rods, and hooks. 
By several statutes it is provided, that no 
person shall fish in any pond or moat with¬ 
out the owner’s consent, on pain of three 
months’ imprisonment; and if anyone take 
fish in a river without a licence obtained 
from the proprietor, he shall forfeit 10s. to 
the poor, and triple damages to the party 
aggrieved. 

FISH'ING FROG, or Angler, the Lophius 
piscatorius of icthyologists, called also the 
toad-fisli and sea-devil. It is the most ill¬ 
shaped of fishes, resembling the tadpole of 
the frog. The head is larger, circumferen¬ 
tially, than the whole body ; the mouth is 
nearly as wide as the head, and the lower 
jaw is much longer than the upper, and 
bearded ail round the edge,both jaws being 
armed with numerous teeth ; while it lies 
hid in mud, which it stirs up to render 
the water turbid. Upon the snout and head 
are two or three flexible spines covered 
with skin, one of which has a fleshy tag at 
the end. It is said that this acts as a bait 
and brings small fish within reach of the 
unwieldy Lophius. The common angler is 
from three to six feet long. 

FIS'SILE ( fissilis: Lat.), an epithet often 
used in Mineralogy, &c., for that which 
may be cleft or divided in the direction of 
the grain, natural joints, or laminae. 

FIS'SIPED ( fissus, cleft; and pes, a foot: 
Lat.), in Zoology, an epithet for an animal 
whose toes are separate or not connected 
by a membrane. 

FIS'SURE ( fissura: Lat.), a narrow chasm 

made by the parting of any substance.-. 

In Surgery, a crack or slit in a bone, either 
transversely or longitudinally. 

FIS'TULA (a pipe: Lat.), In Surgery, 
a long sinuous ulcer, communicating with a 


























237 


Etterarp 


larger cavity, and Laving a small exter¬ 
nal opening.- Fistula Lachrymalis, a 

disease which attacks the great caruncle 
In the inner corner of the eye; a dis¬ 
order accompanied with a flowing of tears. 
- Fistula, an ancient musical instru¬ 
ment resembling our common flute or fla¬ 
geolet. 

FIS'TULAR (same deriv.), among bota¬ 
nists, an epithet applied to leaves and 
flowers that are tubular, or resemble a 
hollow pipe. 

FISTU'LIFORM ( fistula , a pipe; and 
forma, a form: Lat.), in Mineralogy, an 
epithet for such substances as are in round 
hollow columns. 

FIT (a corruption of fight, because every 
fit of sickness is a struggle for life), a sud¬ 
den and violent attack of disorder, in which 
the body is often convulsed, and sometimes 
senseless: as, a fit of apoplexy or epilepsy, 
&c. We also apply the word to the first 
attack or the return of certain diseases; as, 

a fit of the gout, &c. -Fit, or Fytte, an 

old word for a division of a lyric poem or 
ballad. 

FITCH'ET ( flssau: Fr.), an animal of the 
weasel kind : the polecat. 

FIXED Allt, the name formerly given 
by chemists to the air which was liberated 
from certain compounds of lime, magnesia, 
and alkalis : it is now commonly called car¬ 
bolic acid gas, which see. 

FIXED OILS, in Chemistry, such oils as 
bear a high temperature before they give 
off vapour, in distinction from volatile or 
j essential oils. 

FIXED STARS, in Astronomy, the stars 
I that are exterior to our solar system. The 
great majority of such stars retain the same 
! apparent position and distance with respect 
to each other; and are thus distinguished 
from planets and comets, which are moving 
bodies. 

FLAG, a general name for colours, stan¬ 
dards, banners, ensigns, &c.- To strike or 

lower the flag is to pull it down in token 

of respect or submission.- To strike the 

flag, in an engagement, is the sign of sur¬ 
rendering.- To hang out the white flag is 

to ask quarter ; In some cases, it denotes 
that the vessel, has no hostile intention, 
but comes to tyade, &c. The red flag is a 

sign of defiance and battle.- To hang the 

flag half-mast high is a token or signal of 

mourning.-The chief naval flags are: the 

royal standard; the admiralty flag, an an¬ 
chor on a red ground; and the union or 
jack, in which are blended together the 
crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and 
St. Patrick ; it is carried by the , admiral of 
the fleet. -Flag, a name applied to sev¬ 

eral plants with bladed leaves. There is 
the common flag, or water iris, that grows 
in rivers, and bears a yellow flower, the 
Iris pseudacorus of botanists. The corn- 
flag is a species of gladiolus. The sweet- 
flag, Acorus calamus, a plant that has an 
aromatic odour with an acid taste, and is 
used as a stimulant and tonic. 

FLAG'-OFFICERS, those who command 
the several squadrons of a fleet; as, admi¬ 
rals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals. [See 
Admiral.] 


Creasut*})* [flamingo 


FLAG'-SHIP, a ship which has on board 
an officer, who has a right to carry a flag, ( 
in distinction from the other vessels under 
his command. 

FLA’GELLANTS {flagellans, scourging: 
Lat.), in Church History, a fanatical sect in 
the 13th century, who maintained that re¬ 
mission of sins was not to be obtained 
without flagellation. Accordingly, they 
walked in procession, preceded by priests 
carrying the cross, and publicly lashed 
themselves till the blood ran down their 
naked bodies. They were joined by nobles, 
ecclesiastics, nuns, and children, and their 
pilgrimages extended throughout all the 
provinces of southern Germany, and even 
farther. They were dressed in sombre 
garments, with red crosses on the breast, 
back, and cap, and they carried triple 
scourges, tied in three or four knots, in 
which points of iron were fixed. Even by 
night and in the severest winter they tra¬ 
versed the cities in thousands with burning 
torches and banners, chanting penitential 
hymns. 

FLAME ( flamma: Lat.), a gaseous or 
vaporous body in a state of intdnse ignition. 
When the vapour or gas is intimately mixed 
with a supporter of combustion, such as 
oxygen, the ignition is so sudden and so \ 
general, on the application of heat, as to be ; 
what is termed an explosion. Unless the ! 
supporter is thrown into the interior of the 
flame, as with the blow-pipe, the combustion ] 
is on the exterior of the flame only ; and the 
flame is more elongated, and theignition and 
light less intense, in proportion as the in¬ 
flammable gases come more slowly into con¬ 
tact wi th the requisite quantity of supporter. 
Every one must have remarked that the 
flame of a lamp immediately contracts, and 
the light becomes more brilliant, the in¬ 
stant a glass chimney, which increases the 
current of air, and therefore the supply j 
to the flame, is placed over the burner. A 
flame is gas or vapour at a white heat; I 
anything, therefore, that lowers its tempe- i 
rature, destroys the flame. If a wire gauze 
is placed over a flame, the latter cannot pass 
through the meshes; for the vapour or gas, 
in passing them, is so cooled down as to 
be no longer flame. This is the principle 
on .which Davy’s safety-lamp for miners 
is covered with wire gauze. Ko tem¬ 
perature less than that of flame will ex¬ 
plode mixed gases in the mine; and that 
temperature is lost in passing from the 
interior of the lamp through the gauze. 

FLA'MEN {Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, 
the name of an order of priests, said to 
have been instituted by Romulus or Kuma. ! 
Originally there were three priests so 
called : the Flamen Dialis, consecrated to 
Jupiter ; Flamen Martialis, sacred to Mars; 
and Flamen Quirinalis, who superintended 
the rites of Quirinus or Romulus. But the 
number was afterwards increased with the , 
introduction of new gods and the worship 
paid to deceased emperors. 

FLAMIN'GO {flamma, a flame : Lat.), the 
popular name of a genus of long-legged, 
web-footed birds ( Phcenicopterus ), with 
scarlet plumage, of which one species, P. 
ruber , haunts the shores of the Medi terra- 



























%\)t ^ctcnttftc antt 


iss 


FLANKJ 


nean. Two other species are natives of 
South America. They feed on worms, shell¬ 
fish, &c. 

FLANK (flanc : Fr.), the side of an army, 
or a battalion encamped on the right or 
left.-In Fortification, that part of a bas¬ 

tion which reaches from the curtain to the 
face; or any part of a work that defends 
another work along the outside of its pa¬ 
rapet. 

FLAT, in Music, a character which lowers 
a note one semitone. 

FLATTING, in gilding, the giving a light 
touch to the work in the places not bur¬ 
nished ; it is done with a pencil dipped in 
size, in which a little vermilion is sometimes 
mixed. 

FLAT'ULENCE ( flatus, a blast of air: 
Lat.), in Medicine, air generated in a weak 
stomach and intestines by imperfect diges¬ 
tion, occasioning distension, uneasiness, 
and frequent eructations. 

FLAX (flex: Sax.), the fibre obtained 
from the stalks of the Linum usitatassimum, 
an annual plant with a blue flower, which is 
extensively cultivated throughout Europe 
and in other parts of the world. The most 
suitable soil is a light dry loam, with a mo¬ 
derately tenacious subsoil. The plants are 
pulled by hand, and are then placed in water 
until a certain amount of putrefaction has 
ensued. This is called retting.. The fibre is 
then easily separated from the soft non- 
fibrous portion of the straw by the process 
[ called scutching, which is done by ma- 
| chinery. After scutching the fibre is hackled, 

I that is, it is repeatedly drawn through sets 
of iron teeth, by which the broken pieces 
: are combed out, and the fibres are arranged 
| parallel-wise. It is then ready for the 
spinner. The aggregate value of goods 
| annually manufactured from flax in the 
j United Kingdom is upwards of 15 millions 
sterling; and nearly a million persons are 
employed in the manufacture. 

FLEA (Sax.),an insect of the genus Fulex, 
a member of the order Aplianiptera. The 
j species undergo complete metamorphosis, 

| that is, they are grubs and pupas before they 
: are perfect insects. The muscular power 
| of the flea is truly wonderful. It has 
J been known to draw 70 or 80 times its own 
weight: it resists the ordinary pressure 
[ of the fingers in our endeavours to crush 
it, and leaps two hundred times its own 
length. Hence it is called by the Arabians 
* the father of leapers.’ Supposing the same 
relative force to be imparted to the body of 
a man six feet high, he would be enabled to 
J leap three times the height of St. Paul’s! 
Latreille tells us of a flea which dragged a 
silver cannon 24 times its own weight, 
mounted on wheels ; and was not alarmed 
when this was charged with gunpowder and 
fired. 

FLEAM ( flamme : Fr.), an instrument for 
bleeding cattle: it is a small blade, which is 
projected from a sheath by a spring. 

FLEECE ( fliess: Ger.), a flock of wool, or 
what comes from a sheep at one shearing. 

-Order of the Golden Fleece, an 

order of knighthood instituted by Philip 
III., duke of Burgundy, in 1430. 

FLEET ( flota , a company of ships : Sax.), 


a squadron of ships, either of war or com¬ 
merce.- Fleet ( fleoh, a place where the 

tide comes up : Sax.) was also the name of 
a prison in London, where debtors were 
confined, and to which persons were com¬ 
mitted by the courts of Chancery and Com¬ 
mon Pleas. It was situated in Farringdon 
Street, and derived its name from a stream 
which formerly ran near the building, and j 
was called the Fleet. In time it became 
little more than a sewer, and, being often- j 
sive, was covered over. 

FLESH (fleisch: Ger.), in Anatomy, the 
muscular part of an animal body, in which j 
the blood-vessels are so small as to retain j 
only blood enough to give them a red : 

colour.- Flesh, in Botany, the pulpy 

substance of any fruit or root. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS, in Heraldry, a charge 
supposed to represent an iris ; or, as some j 
have supposed, the head of a javelin. It . 
was borne from an early period in the arms 
of France. 

FLEX'OR (flecto, I bend: Lat), in Ana- ; 
tomy, a name applied to several muscles, ' 
whose office it is to bend the parts to which 
they belong : they are opposed to the exten- \ 
sors, which open or stretch these parts. 

FLEX'URE ( flexura, a bending : Lat.), in 
Geometry, the bending or curving of a line i 
or figure. The point of contrary flexure is 
that point in a curve at which the curva¬ 
ture passes from convex to concave, or vice J 
versd. 

FLINT (Sax.), a semi-pellucid stone, con- i 
sisting of nearly pure silex. It is a sub- ! 
species of quartz, of different shades of 
colour. Flints occur almost always in 
nodules or tubercular concretions of various 
and very irregular forms. They are formed 
in regular layers in chalk strata. How they 
came to be so deposited is a question geolo¬ 
gists have not yet solved. They break I 
with an even, glossy surface; are mode- 1 
rately transparent, very hard, and capable 
of a fine polish; readily strike fire with | 
steel; and burn to whiteness. They are i 
employed in the manufacture of glass and 
pottery-ware. 

FLINT GLASS, or Crystal. It derives 
its name from flint, because that substance 
was formerly employed in its manufacture. 
It is important to the maker of optical in¬ 
struments, as it possesses the property of 
causing a greater dispersion of the rays of 
light, passing through a prism or lens 
formed of it, than any other vitreous sub¬ 
stance—which is due to the lead it contains. 
Hence its use in the manufacture of achro¬ 
matic lenses. [See Achromatism.] But 
then there is great difficulty in obtaining 
large pieces of flint-glass quite free from 
streaks. 

FLOAT ( flott, a float: Ger.), a raft, or num¬ 
ber of pieces of timber fastened together 
and floated down a river with the tide. 

FLOAT'ING (same deriv.), the Art of. 
Persons have sometimes been saved from 
drowning by remembering that the human 
body is specifically lighter than water, and 
will float on it, particularly if the lungs are 
well inflated and it is kept quiet. But it 
must lie along the water on the back, or tho 
mouth will not be above the surface.- 



























289 


Ettcrarn (Emtfttrj). 


[fluks 


Floating Battery, a vessel used as a bat¬ 
tery to cover troops landing on an enemy’s 

coast.- Floating Breakwater, a marine 

contrivance, consisting of a series of square 
frames of timber, connected by mooring 
j chains or cables, and intended to break the 
violence of theagitated waves : vessels may 
| ride within these quadrangular basins, with 
| more safety; and they produce smooth water 

in bathing-places, on a rough coast.- 

Floating Bridge, in War, a kind of double 
| bridge, the upper part of which projects 
beyond the lower. It is capable of being 
j moved forward by pulleys, and is used for 
[ carrying troops over narrow moats in at¬ 
tacking the outworks of a fort. Floating 
bridges, in the form of ferry-boats of a very 
large size have of late been constructed for 
the transit of passengers and goods across 
creeks, harbours, &c., by the application of 
steam-power.- Floating Light, on ship¬ 

board, a hollow vessel of tinned iron-plate, 
with a lantern. It is used for the purpose of 
saving those who may have the misfortune 

to fall overboard in the night.- Float- 

boards, those boards fixed to water-wheels 
or under-shot mills, serving to receive the 
j impulse of the stream, by which the wheel 
is carried round. 

FLOETZ, or FLETZ {fliitz, a layer : Ger.), 
in Geology, a term formerly employed by 
Werner and other German geologists, to 
signify what are now known as secondary 
rocks. 

FLOOD'-GATE (flidh, a flood: Ger.), a 
sluice or gate that may be opened or shut, 
for the admission or exclusion of the water. 

FLOOD'-MARK, the mark which the sea 
makes on the shore at the highest tide: 
high-water mark. 

FLO'RA (the goddess of flowers: Lat.), 
the term used to designate the plants which 
are indigenous in a country, as we say, the 
Flora of Great Britain, meaning the wild 
plants of the country. 

FLOR'ID STYLE ( floridus, flowery: 
Lat.), in Literary Composition, that which is 
much enriched with figures and flowers of 
rhetoric. Longinus uses the terms florid 
and affected style indifferently, and de¬ 
scribes them as quite contrary to the true 
sublime. 

FLOR'IN (Ft., from Florence, in Italy, 
where it was flrst coined), a coin of different 
values ; the silver florin of Austria is worth 
about 2s. Id. The two shilling piece of the 
United Kingdom is called a florin. 

FLOS (a flower: Lat.), in Botany, the 
name of several species of plants. Also a 
general name for the flower. 

FLOS'CULE ( flosculus, a little flower: 
Lat.), in Botany, a floret of a compound 
flower. 

FLOS'CULOUS (same deriv.), in Botany, 
an appellation sometimes given to com¬ 
pound flowers, made up of a number of 
florets enclosed in the same common cup. 

FLOSS SILK, the name given to the 
portions of ravelled silk broken off in the 
filature of the cocoons. It is carded like 
cotton or wool, and spun into a soft coarse 
yarn or thread, for making shawls, socks, 
and other articles where an inferior kind of 
silk may be used. 


FLOT'SAM, in Law, a term for goods 
lost by shipwreck, but which are floating 
on the sea. There are two other uncouth 
terms made use of to describe wrecked 
goods, viz. jetsam and ligan: the former 
is used when the goods are sunk; and the 
latter also when they are sunk, but are 
tied to a cork or buoy, that they may be 
found again. 

FLOUR'ISH ( floresco, I flourish: Lat .— 
used metaphorically), in Music, a prelude or 
preparatory air, which does not follow any 
settled rule. Also the notes which a singer 
or instrumental performer occasionally in¬ 
troduces.-In Military language, the 

sounding of trumpets, on receiving an offi¬ 
cer or other person of distinction. 

FLOW'ER ( fleur: Fr.), that part of a 
plant which contains the organs of fructifi¬ 
cation. The parts are arranged in whorls. 
In a complete flower the outer one consists 
of the calyx formed of one or more leaves, 
termed sepals ; the next is the corolla com¬ 
posed of one or more petals ; the third 
whorl is formed by the stamens, and the 
innermost of the pistils. Sometimes there 
is only one whorl of floral leaves, and then 
the flower is said to be monochlamydeous; 
if neither whorl is present it is termed 
achlamydeous. If both calyx and corolla 
are present, but so blended together that 
they are not easily distinguished, the floral 
envelope is termed a perianth. 

FLOW'ERS, in Chemistry, a term for¬ 
merly applied to a variety of substances 
procured by sublimation; as flowers of 
sulphur, &c. 

FLOW'ERS, ARTIFICIAL, a consider¬ 
able article of manufacture, particularly in 
France. The savages of South America 
manufacture, with feathers derived from 
the brilliant plumage of their birds, flowers 
which closely resemble the products of ve¬ 
getation. 

FLU'ATES, in Chemistry, salts which are 
more correctly termed Fluorides, and con¬ 
sist of fluorine combined with a metal, &c. 

FLU'ID (fluo, I flow: Lat.). From the 
facility with which the particles of fluids 
move among each other, the pressure ex¬ 
erted by a given particle, which depends on 
the specific gravity of the fluid and the 
height of the column above, is equal in 
every direction. The pressure of a fluid on 
any surface is equal to the surfacemultiplied 
by the depth of its centre of gravity below 
the surface of the fluid.* Fluids are divided 
into elastic and non-elastic : these are, how 
ever, relative terms, all fluids being more 
or less elastic. That which is termed an 
elastic fluid, is in the form of an air or va¬ 
pour : it is permanently elastic, if it retains 
its aeriform nature at the ordinary temper¬ 
ature of the atmosphere; but non-perman- 
ently elastic, if, like steam, it becomes a 
liquid in the same circumstances. The 
elasticity of non-elastic fluids is so trifling 
that for a long time it was not certain that 
they had any. Whether a given body shall 
be a solid, liquid, or gas, depends on heat, 
or heat and pressure. 

FLUKE, the common name of a species 
] of Distoma (a genus of intestinal worms), 

I which infests the liver of sheep, and pro- 
u 

























fluoric] 


CTje Scientific anti 


290 


duces the disease called rot. Other species 
are found In the alimentary canal, or other 
internal parts of other mammals, and of 
birds and fishes. These animals, some of 
which are very small, have soft bodies with 
two suckers by which they adhere. One of 
the suckers surrounds the mouth. All are 
destitute of eyes and other organs of special 

I S011S6. 

FLUOR'IC A'CID. [See Hydrofluoric 
Acid.] 

FLU'ORINE, in Chemistry, an element 
presumed to be gaseous, which, when com¬ 
bined with hydrogen in the proportion of 
nineteen parts to one of the latter, forms 
hydrofluoric acid. It has never been 
obtained isolated, in consequence of its 
energetic action on the metals, and espe¬ 
cially silicium, a component of glass. 

FLU'Olt SPAR, in Mineralogy, the fluate 
of lime: a mineral which abounds in nature, 
and consists of calcium in combination 
with fluorine. Though sometimes massive, 
it is almost always regularly crystallized. 
The variously coloured specimens called 
Derbyshire sp nr are, by means of the turn¬ 
ing-lathe, formed into vases and other or- 
! natnents. 

FLUOSILTC'ATE, in Chemistry, a com¬ 
pound containing Huosilicic acid. 

FLUOSIl.IC'IC ACID, in Chemistry, an 
; acid consisting of fluorine and silicon. 

| FLUSH, in Carpentry, a term signifying 
that two bodies joined together make an 
even surface. 

FLUTE {flilte: Fr.), tlie common or Eng¬ 
lish, a musical wind instrument, consisting 
of a tube of wood about eighteen inches in 
length, furnished with holes at the side, 
for the purpose of varying its sounds, by 
stopping and opening them with the fin¬ 
gers. The German Jticte, unlike that just 
mentioned, is blown by a hole at the side: 
besides the other holes at the side, intended 
to be stopped by the fingers, it has brass or 
silver keys, to produce the various fiats aud 
sharps, &c. 

FLUTES or FLU'TTNGS (same deriv.), in 
Architecture, perpendicular channels cut 
! along the shaft of a column or pilaster. 
They are scarcely ever used in the Tuscan 
order: their section is circular, segmental, 
or elliptical. The Doric column has twenty 
round its shaft: columns of the other or¬ 
ders, twenty-four. Theflutings of columns 
are sometimes cabled— that is, have their 
lower parts partly filled up with cylindrical 
pieces, like a cable. 

FLUX (fluxns, a flowing; Lat.), in Che¬ 
mistry, a general term to denote any sub¬ 
stance or mixture added to assist in the 
fusion of minerals. The fluxes made use 
of in experiments consist usually of alkalis, 

| which render earthy mixtures fusible, by 
converting them into glass. When tartar 
is deflagrated witii half its weight of nitre, 

| a mixture of charcoal and carbonate of 
potash remains, which is called black flux. 
When an equal weight of nitre is used, the 
| j entire charcoal Is burned off, and whiteJlux 
| j remains. Limestone, fluor spar, borax, and 
; I several earthy or metallic oxides, are em- 

: ployed as fluxes in metallurgy.-FLCX.in 

1 1 Medicine, an extraordinary issue, or eva¬ 


cuation of some humours of the body.-• 

Flux and Reflux, the regular and periodi¬ 
cal motion of the sea, which happens twice 
in 24 hours 48 minutes. By the flux or ad¬ 
vancing motion of the tide, the water rises; 
by the reflux, orebbing of the tide, it sinks. 

FLUX'IONS ( fluxio , a flowing: Lat.), a 
method of algebraic calculation invented 
by Sir Isaac Newton. In this branch of 
mathematics, magnitudes of every kind 
are supposed to be generated by motion. 
The method is the same as that of limits 
complicated with the idea of-motion. By 
a comparison derived from mechanics, it 
represents the method of prime and ulti¬ 
mate ratios. This method has been aban¬ 
doned by mathematicians for Leibnitz’s in¬ 
vention, the Differential Calculus, 
because it was found weak in resources and 
embarrassing in operation. 

FLY, the popular name of many species 
of winged insects chiefly belonging to the 
vast order Diptkra. The common blue¬ 
bottle fly, Masca vomitoria, and the com¬ 
mon house fly, Mascadomestiea, are amongst 
the best known species.- Fly, in Me¬ 

chanics, a heavy wheel or other body, 
intended to regulate the velocity of a 
machine, or to accumulate power. Its 
efficiency as a regulator arises from the 
comparatively large number of its particles, 
which require a vast increase or diminution 
of motion, in order that the velocity of the 
whole mass may be sensibly changed. It 
absorbs motion when there is too much, 
and gives it out when there is too little. 
In this way it is used as a regulator of the 
steam-engine. It serves as a means of ac¬ 
cumulating force; and suddenly giving 
out the force which it received gradually, 
it enables a power, in coining, &c., to pro¬ 
duce a far greater effect than would be 
possible without such a contrivance. Its 
shape is of little consequence, only so far 
as that the less it is resisted by the air the 
better; but the farther the mass from the 
centre of motion, that is, the greater the 
circle it describes, the more effective it is. 
A fly is generally in the shape of a wheel, or 
of a rod with a heavy ball of metal at each 
extremity.— Fly, among mariners, that 
part of a compass on which the thirty-two 
points are described. 

FLY'-BLOW, thedeposit of eggs by flies, 
which afterwards become larva) or mag¬ 
gots, and ultimately flies. 

FLY'-CATCHER, the common name for 
passerine birds belonging to the genus 
Muscicapa. They eagerly devour insects 
on the wing. Two species are summer 
visitors to England, where they breed. 

FLY-OR'CIIIS, in Botany, the Orchis 
muscifera: a plant, so called fron the re¬ 
semblance it bears in figure to a fly. 

FLY'-TRAP, the Dioncea Musdpula, or 
Venus's Fly-trap, a North American plant 
allied to the Sundew. The leaves are di¬ 
vided into two parts, and each carries three 
minute bristles, which are so extremely 
irritable, that if a fly touches them, the two 
parts of the leaf collapse, and at the same 
time take the fly a prisoner. After a while 
tnev spontaneously open. 

FLY'EllS {Jliegvn, to fly : Ger.), in Archi- 


J 






























291 iLttcrarj) 


tecture, stairs that do not wind, hut are 
made of an oblong square figure, and go 
straight forward, the second standing be¬ 
hind the first, and so on. 

FLY'ING (fliegcn, to fly: £7er.), the pro¬ 
gressive motion of a bird, or other winged 
animal, in theair. The parts of birds chiefly 
concerned in fiyingare the wings, by which 
they arc sustained or wafted along. Flying 
is effected in the following manner:—the 
bird first bends his legs, and springs with 
a violent leap from the ground ; then opens 
and expands the joints of his wings, so as 
to make a right line perpendicular to the 
sides of his body : thus the wings, with all 
their feathers, constitute one continued 
lamina. Being now raised a little above 
the earth, and vibrating the wings with 
great force and velocity against the sub¬ 
jacent air, that fluid resists, both from its 
natural inactivity and elasticity, and thus 
thewhole lmdyof the bird is moved forward. 
Birds never fly upwards in a perpendicular 
line, but always in a parabola. In a direct 
ascent, the natural and artificial tendency 
would oppose and, to a great extent, de¬ 
stroy each other, so that the progress would 
be very slow. In a direct descent they 
would aid one another, so that the fall 
would be too precipitate. 

FLY'ING BUTTRESS, in pointed Archi¬ 
tecture, a buttress connected with the main 
building by an arch, which abuts against 
the springing of another arch in the in¬ 
terior—generally the vaulting of the nave. 
If these buttresses were built solid, their 
appearance would be heavy, and they would 
interrupt the vista along the sides of the 
church, &c. Their stability depends on the 
resistance derived from the weight of the 
vertical buttress, whence they spring. 

FLY'ING FISHES. These belong to the 
genera Exocagtns and Cypsclurus of natu¬ 
ralists. They are allied to the garfish and 
saury pike of our coasts, and are remarkable 
for the extraordinary length of the pectoral 
fins. Voyagers in warm seas have often 
described their habit of rising into the air, 
in large bands, like a flight of larks or sand¬ 
pipers, and sinking again into the sea, after 
a rapid course of several hundred feet. The 
cause of this movement is supposed to be 
an attempt to escape from other fishes. 
Before finally subsiding into the water, 
they frequently undulate, and even touch 
the crests of waves, as if to wet their dry 
fins. It has been denied that they move 
their fins during their flight, but the evi¬ 
dence of several good observers proves 
that they do. They have also been seen to 
change thedirect line of their flight for one 
nearly at right angles, and this a shoal of 
them will do simultaneously. 

FLY'ING PIN'ION, that part of a clock, 
to which is attached a fly or fan, which 
gathers air, and checks the rapidity of the 
clock’s motion, when the weight descends, 
in the striking part. 

FO'CAL DISTANCE (focus, a fire-place: 
Lat.), in Optics the distance between the 
centre of a lens, or mirror, and I he/octes or 
point at which tlie rays are collected, 
i FOC1 M'ETER ( focus: Lat.; and metron, a 

measure : Gr.), au instrument contrived for 


[fog 

the purpose of enabling the photographer 
to ascertain the focus of the photogenic 
rays. The principle of the instrument is the 
placing before the camera at the same mo¬ 
ment a circular arrangement of cards 
formed into segments, each segment being 
at a different distance from the lens. A 
photographic picture of all these is simul¬ 
taneously produced. The picture of some 
one among them will always he found to be 
more distinct than those of the others, and 
it follows that the plate or paper is in the 
photogenic focus corresponding to that one. 

FO'CUS (a fire-place : Lat.), in Optics, the 
point of convergence at which all the rays 
of light meet after passing through a con¬ 
vex lens. It should be observed, however, 
that the focus is not, strictly speaking, a 
point, but a small circle, which hears the 
same relation to the apparent diameter of 
the lens, that the image of any other 
object, formed in the focus of the lens or 
mirror, bears to the object itself. Only 

a point can give the image of a point.-. 

Focus, in Geometry and conic sections. 
The focus of a parabola is a point in the 
axis having this property, that a radius 
drawn from it to any point in the curve 
makes the same angle with the tangent, at 
that point, that the tangent makes with the 
axis. Hence, if parallel rays of light fall 
on the parabola, they are reflected to the 
focus ; or rays emitted from the focus will 
be reflected in a direction parallel to the 
axis. The foci of an ellipse are situated in 
the major axis, at equal distances from the 
centre; and the sum of two straight lines 
drawn from them to any point in the curve, 
is, with the same ellipse, always the same 
quantity. Also these two lines make equal 
angles with the tangent at that point. 
Hence rays of light, &c., emitted from one 
focus, are reflected to the other. The foci 
of an hyperbola are also in the major axis, 
at equal distances from the centre ; but the 
difference between two straight lines drawn 
from them to any point in the curve, is, 
with the same hyperbola, always the same 
quantity ; and these two lines make equal 
angles with the tangent at that point, but 
at opposite sides of the curve. Hence a 
ray of light emitted from one focus will 
be reflected into the direction of a ray 
coming from the other; or rays passing 
towards one focus will be reflected to the 
other. 

FOD'DER ( fatter: Ger.), in Husbandry, 
any kind of food for cattle. Green fodder 
consists of grass, tares, &c.; dry fodder, of 
oats, barley, and beans. 

FCE'TUS (the young of any creature: Lat.), 
in Physiology, the child in the womb of its 
mother, after the fifth month of pregnancy. 
Before that time it is termed an embryo. 

FOG (a storm : Dan.), in Meteorology, a 
dense vapour near the surface of land or 
water. Fogs generally arise from the noc¬ 
turnal cooling of the atmosphere, which 
becomes incapable of retaining in solution 
the same quantity of water it held when at 
a higher temperature. A part, therefore, is 
precipitated as a cloud, which, if near the 
earth, is termed a fog. The heat of the day 
causes the air to redissolve the precipitated 























FOG-BANKj ®t)C ^CtCUttftC Hlltt 292 


vapour, which enables the air to again be¬ 
come clear. The dense and gloomy fog so 
common in London is often due to a dif¬ 
ferent cause. The wind carries the smoke 
of the city'in a long train extending twenty 
or thirty miles; as may be seen in a clear 
day by any person on an eminence five or 
six miles from the city, and looking across 
in the direction of the wind. If the wind 
changes suddenly, this great body of smoke 
will be brought back in an accumulated 
mass, and, as this repasses the city, will be 
augmented by the smoke from every fire. 
Fogs have been observed which contained 
no moisture, and could be accounted for 
only by supposing them to be the vapours 
and ashes ejected by volcanoes, and diffused 
in the atmosphere by the wind. 

FOG'-BANK, an appearance at sea in hazy 
weather which frequently resembles land 
at a distance, but which vanishes as it is 
approached. 

FOIL (feuille, literally a leaf: Fr.), among 
jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed under 
precious stones to increase their lustre and 
improve their colour. Hence anything of a 
different colour or quality, which serves to 
adorn or set off another thing to advantage, 

is termed a foil. -In Fencing, an elastic 

rod of steel, or sword without a point, used 
to fence with by way of exercise. It gene¬ 
rally has at the end a button or piece of 
cork covered with leather. 

FOLIA'CEOUS (foliaceus , leafy : Lat.), in 
Botany, having leaves, or being leaf-like. 
A foliaceous spike is one that has leaves 

intermixed with flowers.-In Mineralogy, 

having the form of a leaf or lamina; as, a 
foliaceous spar. 

FO'LIAGE (feuillage: Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, the representation of leaves, flowers, 
and branches, intended to ornament and 
enrich capitals, friezes, pediments, &c. 

FO'LIATE (Joliatus , having leaves: Lat.), 
in Botany, furnished with leaves. 

FO'LIATED (same deriv.), in Mineralogy, 
consisting of thin plates; lamellar; as, a 
foliated structure. 

FO'LIATING (same deriv.), a term used 
for covering the backs of looking-glasses 
with a thin coat of tin and quicksilver. 

FOLIA'TION ( folium, a leaf: Lat.), in 
Botany, the leafing of plants. 

FO'LIO (a leaf: Ital.), in account books, 
denotes a page, or rather both the right 
and left hand pages, these being marked 

with the same number.- Folio, a book 

of the largest size, the leaves of which are 
formed by once doubling a sheet of paper. 

FO'LIOLE (a dim. from folium, a leaf: 
Lat.), in Botany, one of the single leaves, 
or leaflets, which together constitute a com¬ 
pound leaf. 

FO'LIOUS (Joliosus, leafy: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, having leaves intermixed with the 
flowers. 

FO'LKLAND (folk, the people; and land : 
Sax.), in Saxon Law, land held by the com¬ 
monalty at the will of the lord. 

FO'LKMOTE (folk, the people; and ge¬ 
mote, to assemble: Sax.), a word used "in 
England before the Norman conquest, to 
denote an annual assembly of the people, 
answering iu some measure to a modern 


parliament. Some authors, however, allege 
that the folkmote was an inferior court, or 
the common-council of a city or borough. 

FOL'LICLE (folliculus, a small bag: Lat.), 
in Botany, a seed-vessel, opening on one 
side longitudinally, and containing several 
seeds. Examples may be seen in the fruit 
of larkspur and columbine. 

FOMENTATION (Jomentum, a warm lo¬ 
tion : Lat.), the act of bathing any part of 
the body with hot water, or a decoction of 
herbs, &c., made hot, for the purpose of 
easing pain or dispersing tumours. 

FONT (Jons, a fountain: Lat.), a large 
basin or vessel, in which water is contained 
for baptizing infants or other persons. It 
is so called, probably, because baptism was 
usually performed among the primitive 
Christians at springs or fountains. The 
following Greek inscription, which reads 
backioards and forwards equally well, is 
often found on the walls of baptisteries, 
and on fonts ;-NitoN anomhmata mh 
MONAN OS'IN (nipson anomemata me monan 
opsin)—' Wash away transgressions, not the 

appearance alone.’- Font or Fount, a 

complete assortment of printing types of 
one size, including a due proportion of all 
the letters, points, figures, accents, &c. 

FOOD (futter: Ger.), comprises all sub¬ 
stances capable of digestion and assimila¬ 
tion. But the proximate principles, or 
elements, on which the nutritive properties 
of these depend, are very few. Those of 
vegetable substances are gluten and its 
modifications, starch, gum, sugar, and 
lignin or woody fibre : those of animal sub¬ 
stances, albumen, gelatine, and their mo¬ 
difications. Both animal and vegetable 
substances afford fats and oils. Sometimes 
the nutritious parts of food are so com¬ 
bined with or protected by indigestible 
matters as to resist the solvent powers of 
the stomach, unless prepared or modified. 
Indurated lignin will pass unchanged 
through the stomach aud bowels: hence 
the kernels of the apple, pear, &c.,the seeds 
of the currant, gooseberry, &c., peas, beans, 
&c., wheat, barley, &c., on account of their 
covering of lignin, will not be digestible 
unless these coverings are broken down or 
removed. Much of the digestibility aud 
nutritious power of the food of man is 
due to the chemical operations carried on 
in the kitchen. Meat is not only softened 
by heat, but new substances are generated 
in it: thus, osmazone, which gives such an 
agreeable odour and flavour, by roasting. 
The salt also, and the condiments em¬ 
ployed, have their own uses; the former 
contributing an element to the gastric 
juice, and the latter stimulating the sto¬ 
mach. If the nutritive elements of food 
are few, its ultimate elements are still 
fewer, being little more than carbon, hy 
drogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Among 
vegetable substances, albumen, including 
gluten, is the only one which contains 
much nitrogen ; all the others may actually 
be considered as compounds of charcoal 
and water. An animal cannot subsist long 
on food containing no nitrogen, or on food 
exclusively of one kind, though habit will 
do much in accustoming the stomach to 














293 


lUtcrarw Cmt^ttry. 


[forcing 


particular kinds of food. Nothing is fit for 
food which has not undergone organization 
by forming a part of an animal or a vege¬ 
table. Hence food never can be made from 
Its ultimate elements. 

FOOL’S PARS'LET, the JEthusa Cyna- 
I phan of botanists, an umbelliferous plant, 
found abundantly in waste ground, and 
resembling parsley sufficiently to deceive 
the ignorant. It is poisonous, acting like 
hemlock. 

FOOT {fuss: Ger.). Animals are distin¬ 
guished, with respect to tiie number of 
, their feet, into bipeds, two-footed, as men 
and birds; and quadrupeds, four-footed, as 
most land animals. The human foot consists 
of the tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges 
i or toes. The tarsus is composed of seven 
bones in two rows, in the first of which is 
the os calcis or heel bone. The metatarsus 
Is composed of five bones, one to each toe; 
whilst the toes are composed, like the 
phalanges of the fingers, of fourteen bones, 
the big toe having two, the rest three each. 
Man is distinguished from his relatives in 
the zoological scale, amongst other things, 
by being able to plant his foot flat on the 
ground, whilst the foot of the quadrumana, 
when attempting to walk, rests on its outer 

side. -Foot, a measure of length, varying 

in different countries, but in all divided 
j into twelve parts. A square foot is a square 
surface, each of whose four sides is a foot 
in length. A cubic or solid foot is a solid 
contained within six surfaces, each of 
which is a square foot. A square foot con¬ 
i' tains 144 square inches, and a cubic foot 
I 1728 cubic inches. 

FOOT'STALK, in Botany, the stalk by 
which a leaf is connected with the branch ; 
a petiole. Leaves destitute of petioles are 
termed sessile. 

FOR'AGE {foutrage: Fr.), all kinds of pro- 
vender for cattle, especially for horses in 

time of war.- A foraging party is a body 

of men sent out to collect provisions, either 
for the horses or for the troops. 

FORA'MEN ( Lot .), in Anatomy, a small 
opening. The foramen ovale is the opening 
between the two auricles of the heart of 
the foetus, which before birth allows the 
blood to pass from one to the other without 
going through the lungs. It closes when 
the child is born; for, the blood being no 
longer purified by passing through the 
lungs of the mother, it is indispensable 
that it should now pass through the lungs 
j of the infant. Hence, if a child has ever 
breathed, its lungs will float in water, from 
their air-cells having been rendered light 
by inflation. In Botany, the foramen is an 
opening through the integuments of an 
ovule ‘by which the fecundating iufluence 
of the pollen reaches the nucleus. 

FORAMIN'IFERA (same deriv.), animals 
belonging to a very low type of organiza¬ 
tion, inhabiting small shells, usually calca¬ 
reous, which are frequently of elegant form, 
j They belong to the class of Rhizopods, and 
have received their name from the shell 
being, in many instances, pierced with mi¬ 
nute holes, through which the animal ex¬ 
tends parts of its body for the purpose of 
collecting food. The animals are destitute | 


of special organs, and consist of a mass of 
featureless matter called sarcode. The shells 
are sometimes one-chambered, but gene¬ 
rally they are divided into several chambers, 
being increased by additional chambers as 
the auimal grows. The forms are very va¬ 
ried, globular, flask-shaped, dagger-shaped, 
nautilus-like, &c. Some of the minute 
forms are interesting objects for the micro¬ 
scope. They are all inhabitants of the sea, 
and, whilst some are found on shore-sea¬ 
weed, others have been brought up from 
a depth of 1800 fathoms. Their fossil re¬ 
mains abound in prodigious numbers in the 
tertiary beds. The miliolite limestone of 
the Paris basin, which is largely employed 
in building, is composed entirely of fora- 
minifera. [See Nummulite.] a consider¬ 
able portion of the chalk beds is formed of 
minute foraminiferous shells. 

FORCE {Fr.), in Mechanics, whatever 
produces, modifies, or destroys motion. The 
effect of a force depends on its intensity, 
the point of the body at which it acts, and 
its direction. It may be either uniform or 
variable. If uniform, as long as it continues 
to act on a body, it uniformly accelerates its 
velocity. If variable, the effect is corre¬ 
spondingly modified. Sometimes there is a 
combination of forces, that is, two or more 
forces act together on the same body; aud 
the resultant, that is, the resulting force, 
except when their directions are parallel, is 
in the direction of none of them.- Phy¬ 

sical Force, the force of material 

bodies.- Moral Force, the power of 

acting on the reason in judging and deter- / 

mining.- Force, in Law, signifies any 

unlawful violence offered to the person or 
to property. A forcible entry is a violent 
and actual entry into houses or lands; 
and a forcible detainer is a violent with¬ 
holding the possession of lands, &c., so 
that the person who has a right of entry is 

hindered therefrom.- Living Force, or 

vis viva, a term formerly used by Mathema¬ 
ticians to denote the action of a force when 
it is modified in such a way as to be propor¬ 
tional to the square of the velocity.- 

Conservation op Force. It is an axiom 
in physical science that force can neither 
be created nor destroyed. Since matter is 
only known by its forces, to admit that 
J force is destructible would be to admit that 
matter can cease to exist. When we see a 
1 case of the apparent disappearance or sus¬ 
pension of a force, it is simply the transfer¬ 
ence of its exertion from one into some 
other direction. Inertia is a pure case of the 
conservation of force. It has a strict rela¬ 
tion to force in any way acting upon a body, 
and it enables a body to take up and conserve 
a given amount of force, until that force is 
] transferred to other bodies, or is changed 
into an equivalent of some other form. 

FOR'CEPS ( Lat .), in Surgery, an instru¬ 
ment for holding or gripping anything. 
Also, a pair of scissors for cutting off or 
dividing the fleshy membranous parts of 
. the body. 

FOR'CING ( forcer, to force: Fr.), in Hor- 
ti culture, a method of obtaining fruits and 
flowers before their season, by theapplica- 
ti n of heat.-The artificial ripening of 



















fore] fOje £?ctnittfu anti 294 


wines by means of heat, and their fining 
down, so as to render them fit for imme¬ 
diate use, are also called forcing. 

FORE ( Sax .), a sea term for near the 
stem; ‘fore and aft’means from stem to 
stern. 

FO'RECASTLE, a short deck in the fore- 
1 part of the ship above the upper deck. It 
contains the berths of the common sailors. 

FO'REOLOSURE, in Law. [See Eqoity 
of Redemption.] 

I FO'ltEMAST, the mast of a ship which 
is placed in the forepart or forecastle, and 
carries the foresail and foretopsail yards. 

- Foremast-men, those who take in the 

topsails, furl the sails, &c. 

FORE-SHORT'ENING, in Painting, the 
art of correctly conveying to the mind the 
impression of the entire length of an object, 
when represented as viewed in an oblique 
or receding position. 

FOR'EST ( forst: Ger.), a large tract of 
land covered with trees; differing from a 
ivood chiefly in its extent, and from a plan¬ 
tation in Its young trees growing of them¬ 
selves without being sown or planted.- 

The forests in England are of such great 
antiquity that, excepting the iCew Forest 
in Hampshire, made by William the Con¬ 
queror, and Hampton Court, by Henry 
VIII., it is said that there is no record 
or history which makes any certain men¬ 
tion of their origin; though they are 
noticed by several writers, and in many of 
our laws and statutes. The four principal 
forests are the New Forest in Hampshire, 
Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire, 
Dean Forest in Gloucestershire, and 
Windsor Forest in Berkshire. 

FO'RESTALLING (fore, a front; and 
stal, a station : Sax.),.the act of buying or 
bargaining for any provisions or merchan¬ 
dise, before they reach the market to which 
they are going, with an intent to sell the 
same again at higher prices. It was for¬ 
merly punishable. 

FO'ltESTAY, in a ship’s rigging, a rope 
reaching from the foremast head towards 
; the bowsprit end, to support the mast. 

FOR'FEITURE ( forisfactura, an expul- 
; si on or outlawry: Lat.), in Law, the loss of 
' some right, privilege, estate, goods, lands, 
or employments, &c., for neglecting to do 
one’s duty, or for some crime committed. 

FORFIC'HLA (a small pair of shears: 
Lat.), in Entomology, the Earwig, which see. 

I FORGE ( Fr.), a small furnace, in which 
! smiths and other artificers in iron, steel, 
&e., heat their metals red hot, in order to 
soften and render them more malleable. 
The word forge is also used for a large 
furnace or ironworks, in which the ore 
| taken from the mine is melted down. [See 
I Iron.] 

FOR'GERY (forgeur, a forger: Fr.), in 
Law, the fraudulent making or altering any 
deed or writing, to the prejudice of another 
man’s right; particularly the counterfeiting 
the signature of another with intent to 
defraud. 

I FORGET'-ME-NOT, the MyosoUs palustris 
1 of botanists (nat. ord. Scrophulariacece), a 
small herbaceous plant, growing in damp 
places, whose blue flowers are well known. 


It bears a similar name in German, Dutch., 
and Danish. 

FORLO'RN HOPE, in Military affairs, a 
detachment of men appointed to lead in an 
assault, to storm a counterscarp, enter a 
breach, or perform any other service at¬ 
tended with great and imminent peril. 

FORM (forma, an appearance: Lat.), in 
Physiology, the essential and distinguish¬ 
ing modification of the matter of which 

any body is composed.- Form, in Law, 

the rules established and requisite to be 

observed in legal proceedings.- Form 

also denotes the external appearance or 
surface of a body, or the disposition of its 
parts, as to length, breadth, and thickness. 

-—-Form, in Printing, the pages or columns 
of type, properly arranged, and enclosed 
and locked in an iron frame called a chase, 
for the purpose of being put to press. 
There are two forms required for every 
sheet, one for each side; and each form 
consists of more or fewer pages, according 
to the size of the books. 

FOR'.MA PAU'PERIS (in the character of 
a pauper: Lat.), a Law term. When a per¬ 
son has just cause of suit, but is so poor 
that he cannot defray the usual charges of 
suing at law or in equity, on making oath 
that he is not worth bl. except his wearing 
apparel, and producing a certificate from 
some lawyer that he has good cause of suit, 
the judge will admit him to sue in form A 
pauperis: that is, without paying any of 
the usual fees to court, counsel, &c. He 
will be exempt from these as plaintiff, but 
not as a defendant. If he lose his suit lie 
will not have to pay costs ; but lie may be 
made to suffer other punishment, at the dis¬ 
cretion of the judges. He may recover costs. 

FORMATION (formatio, a fashioning: 
Lat.), in Geology, any assemblage of rocks 
having some common character, such as 
origin, nge, or composition. 

FOR'MIC A'CI D (formica, the ant: Lat.), 
an acid which received its name from being 
found in the bodies of ants. It may be 
obtained by several methods. It is com¬ 
posed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. 
Its salts are termed formates. 

FOIt'MU LA (a rule: Lat.), a short way of 
expressing acts by notation. Thus, in Che¬ 
mistry, carbonic acid consists of one atom 
of carbon, with two of pxygen; and is indi¬ 
cated by CO 2 .-In Mathematics, a general 

theorem or literal expression for resolving 
any part of a problem. — In Medicine, a 

prescription.-In Theology, a profession 

of faith. 

FOR'MYLE (formic; and ule, the mate¬ 
rial of which a thing is made: Gr.), a 
chemical compound, the hypothetical radi¬ 
cal of formic acid. 

FORTIFICATION (fortis, strong: and 
facio, I make: Lat.), the art'or science of 
fortifying a place, or of putting it in such 
a state, that every one of its parts defends, 
and is defended by, some other parts, by 
means of ramparts, parapets, moats, and 
other bulwarks ; so that a small number of 
men within may be able, for a considerable 
time, to withstand the assaults of a nume¬ 
rous army without_ Ancient Fortifi¬ 

cation. In early times, when the sling and 



























295 


bow were the principal weapons of offence, 
a single wall, or a bank of earth, behind 
Which missiles could be discharged at 
assailants, was a sufficient protection. 
Projecting towers, afterwards added, in¬ 
creased the front of the besieged, and 
enabled them to attack tlie besiegers in 
flank when they attempted to scale the 
wall. The invention of the battering-ram 
rendered it necessary to increase the thick¬ 
ness of the wall; and projecting galleries, 
called machicolations, were constructed 
along its summit, and round the towers, 
through the pierced floors of which stones 
and other missiles were showered down. 
Apertures or loop-holes for discharging 
arrows were pierced in the walls and battle¬ 
ments; and the whole was surrounded with 
a vioat or deep ditch—if possible, filled with 
water. But the invention of gunpowder 
rendered a different system of fortification 
necessary; walls of masonry, which, how¬ 
ever thick, could not long withstand the 
assault of artillery, were exchanged for 
mounds of earth.- Modern Fortifica¬ 

tion. The principal works belonging to a 
modern fortification are the ditch or trench 
made round each work; the rampart, or ele¬ 
vation of earth, raised along the faces of 
any work, to defend the inner portion ; the 
I parapet, or that part of a rampart which 
serves to protect the troops planted there; 
the bastion, that part of the inner enclo¬ 
sure of a fortification making an angle 
towards the field; the counterscarp, the 
slope of the ditch facing the body of the 
place; the covered way, the space extend¬ 
ing round the counterscarp; and the glacis, 
the part beyond the covered way, to which 
it serves as a parapet, in recent times, 
however, fortification has undergone im¬ 
portant changes, and engineers have 
adopted different systems; but those which 
have acquired the greatest reputation in 
| Europe, are the systems of count Pagan, 

I the baron de Coeliorn, von Scheiter, and 
marshal Vauban. 

FO'RUM, in Rome, a public place, where 
causes were judicially tried, and orations 
delivered to the people. It was a large open 
parallelogram, surrounded by porticoes. 
There were six of these forums, viz. the 
Romanian, Julianum, Avgustum, Palla¬ 
dium, Trajanum, and Sal lust ii forum. The 
chief of these was the forum Romanian, 
called, by way of eminence, the forum. In 
it was the rostrum, or pulpit, where the 
Roman orators pleaded, or harangued the 
people, &c. Here too was the comitium, or 
hall of justice, with the sanctuary of Sa¬ 
turn, the temple of Castor, &c„ altogether 

producing a most splendid effect.-The 

word forum was also applied to a place of 
* traffic, or market place: of these there 
were vast numbers, as the forum piscarium, 
olitoriurn. Sic. They were generally called 
fora venalia, in distinction from the flrst- 
mentioimd, which were called fora civilia. 

■ -Forum, in Law, a term sometimes 

used for a court of justice; the place where 
disputed rights are settled. Hence forum 
competens, a competent jurisdiction ; forum 
incompetens, a court not authorized to try 
the cause, &c. 


[FOUNDER 


FOSS l fosse: Pr.; from fnssio, a digging: 
Lat), in Fortification, a ditch, commonly 
full of water, lying between the scarp and 

the counterscarp.-Foss, or Fossa, in 

Anatomy, a kind of cavity in a bone, with 
a large aperture, but no exit or perfo¬ 
ration.- Foss-way, one of the four prin¬ 

cipal ancient highvvaysof England, having 
a ditch on one side. They crossed the king¬ 
dom in various directions, and are sup¬ 
posed to have been the work of the Romans. 
One of them readied from Totness, in 
Devonshire, to Barton-on-the-Humber. 

FOS'SILS (Jossile: Fr.; from same deriv.), 
in Natural History, the remains of ancient 
organic existences discovered in the earth. 
They are usually converted entirely into 
stone, all the animal matter having been re¬ 
moved. The substituted material is in some 
cases silex, in others lime. Of vertebrate 
animals, not only have the hones and teeth 
been preserved in this way, hut their foot¬ 
prints have been retained for our inspec¬ 
tion. Shells are the most abundant forms 
of animal remains. Sometimes only the 
impression of the external surface is left; 
sometimes only that of the internal sur¬ 
face, leaving a cast or mould; and occa¬ 
sionally the space between the outer and 
inner surfaces having been left vacant by 
the gradual destruction of the shell, it has 
been afterwards filled up by the infiltration 
of another substance, and thus an accurate 
representation of both the exterior and in¬ 
terior surfaces is obtained. As to vege¬ 
table remains, sometimes there is only an 
impression of the exterior, sometimes the 
vegetable matter itself is preserved as car¬ 
bon, and sometimes the vegetable is con¬ 
verted into mineral matter. Travellers 
have often expressed their astonishment at 
finding the trunks of trees, many feet in 
circumference, changed into silex in such a 
manner that every vessel and microscopic 
pore lias been perfectly preserved. 

FOTH'ERING, a sea term for stopping 
leaks in the boctom of a ship, by letting 
down a sail by the corners, and putting 
chopped rope-yarn, wool, oakum, &c., be¬ 
tween it and the ship’s side. By repeating 
this operation several times, these sub¬ 
stances are sometimes sucked into the 
cracks, so as either wholly or partially to 
stop the leak. 

FOUGA'SS (Fr.), in military engineering, 
a small mine, from six to eight feet under 
ground. 

FOUNDATION ( fondation: Fr.; from finv- 
damentum: Lat.), the basis or groundwork 
of anything; usually that part of a building 
which lies under the ground.- Founda¬ 

tion denotes also a donation or legacy, 
either of money or lands, for the mainte¬ 
nance and support of some community, 
school, or charitable institution. 

FOUN'DER ( fundator: Lat.), one from 
wliom anything originates ; as tlie founder 
of a sect of philosophers, the founder of a 
family. Also one who endows any public 
establishment.— Founder < fun do, 1 pour 
out: Lat.), likewise implies an artist who 
casts metals in various forms for different 
uses; as a founder of cannon, bells, statues, 
printing type, Sic. -To Founder, in 


Httcnmi CutR^ttrn. 































{£!)? «ntf 


296 


foundry] 


Nautical Language, is to sink to the bottom 
of the sea, an expression derived from the 
French fondre, which is connected with the 
Latin fundus, a bottom. 

FOUN'DRY {fonderie: Fr.), from fundo, 
I pour out: Lat.), the building in which 
metals are cast in moulds or shapes. Va¬ 
rious furnaces are used in the operation. 
Th e wind f urnace is either square or circu¬ 
lar ; it has generally three apertures—one 
above, for the purpose of introducing the 
crucible and fuel, usually closed by a tile or 
brick; another below, to admit the air, 
which is to pass through the fuel; and the 
third communicating with the chimney, 
which should be lofty, and supplied with a 
damper. The blastfurnace differs from the 
wind furnace, in having no grating, and in 
the air being supplied by a bellows or a 
blowing machine. The reverberating furnace 
is so constructed that the flame and hot air 
from the fire-place are directed into a sepa¬ 
rate cavity, called a hearth, where the mate¬ 
rials to be fused ai - e laid. The melted 
metal is either run out through an aperture 
in the bottom, or lifted out with ladles. 
The moulds are made of a variety of ma¬ 
terials : those for stereotype founding, of 
plaster of Paris; those for bronze, of a mix¬ 
ture of plaster of Paris and brickdust, 
prepared with the greatest care. Iron is 
generally cast in sand; brass, and other 
metals, in clay; and sometimes the moulds 
are of cast iron. Iron founding is far the 
most important branch of the art carried 
on in this country, which abounds with the 
two substances almost indispensable to it 
—iron ore and coal. 

FOUN'TAIN (fonlaine: Fr.; from fons: 
Lat.), in Natural Philosophy, a spring or 
source of water rising out of the earth. 
Among the ancients, fountains were held 
sacred, and even worshipped as a kind of 

divinities.-An artificial fountain, or jet 

iVeau, is water ejected from a pipe, by being 
either raised to a higher level than the top 
of the pipe, or forced out by an engine, &c. 
[See Artesian Wells.] 

FOVIL'LA {foveo, I nourish : Lat.), in 
Botany, the matter contained within the 
grains of pollen, and the fructifying prin¬ 
ciple of the plant. 

FOX (Juchs: Ger.), the Yulpcs vulgaris of 
zoologists, a well-known animal, closely re¬ 
lated to the dog, with a sharp muzzle and a 
long bushy tail. It is a native of Europe 
and the northern parts of Asia and America. 
It burrows in the earth, and is generally 
described as crafty and cunning beyond 
measure. Foxes prowl about in the night, 
and prey on poultry, rabbits, and hares; but 
they are very timid, fleet, and, when old, 
sagacious in evading their enemies. They 
emit an odour which enables dogs to scent 
and follow them. Foxes breed only once a 
year, and bring forth commonly in April 
four or five young, which, like puppies, are 
born blind. 

FOX'-GLOVE, the Digitalis purpurea of 
botanists, nat. ord. Scrophulariacece. Its 
leaves, when carefully dried and powdered, 
or made into a tincture or infusion, are 
used in medicine. In small and repeated 
doses, it lowers the pulse in a very extraor- 


| dinary way, and produces debility and 
fainting; combined with other substances, 
it forms an ingredient in some powerful 
diuretics. 

FRACTION (fractio, a breaking : Lat.), in 
Arithmetic and Algebra, a combination of 
numerical or literal quantities represent¬ 
ing one or more parts of a unit or integer; 
thus I is a fraction, formed by divi¬ 
ding a unit into five equal parts, and 
taking four of them. A fraction consists 
essentially of two numbers, usually placed 
one over the other, and separated by a 
line : the lower tells the number of parts 
into which the unit is divided, that is, the 
denomination of the quantities in question, 
and is called the denominator; the upper 
tells what number of these parts is taken, 
and is called the numerator. If the nume¬ 
rator is equal to, or greater than, the deno¬ 
minator, since the quantity is then not 
less than unity, it is called an improper \ 
fraction. If the denominator consists 
of 10, or some power of 10 — that is, if it 
consists of 1, with one or more ciphers 
to the right hand —it is a decimal frac¬ 
tion : otherwise it is a vulgar fraction, j 
Thus yjju is a decimal fraction, a vulgar ‘ 
fraction. Decimal fractions are too fre- j 
quentiy confounded with decimals. Decimal 
fractions consist of a numerator and deno¬ 
minator, like any other fractions. Decimals 
follow the laws of the ordinary system of 
numbers; the value of a quantity expressed ! 
by them being marked not by a denomina¬ 
tor, but by their position with reference to 
the decimal point, rioo Is a decimal frac¬ 
tion ; 0'003, its quotient or equivalent, is a 
decimal. 

FRACTURE ( fractura: Lat.), in Mine¬ 
ralogy, the manner in which a mineral 
breaks, which is one of its specific charac¬ 
ters. The fracture is either compact or 
smooth, foliated or lamellar, conchoidal, 

striated, or nodular, &c.- Fracture, in 

Surgery, the breaking of any bone by an 
external act of violence. It is simple when 
the bone only is divided; compound, when 
the bone is broken, with a laceration of the 
integuments. 

FR.-E'NUM (a bridle : Lat.), in Anatomy, 
a term applied to some membranous liga¬ 
ments of the body : as, the frcenum linguce, 
or ligament under the tongue. Sometimes 
it ties down the tongue too close to the bot¬ 
tom of the mouth, and then requires to be 
incised or divided, in order to give this 
organ its proper and free motion. 

FRANC (from being originally stamped 
with the figure of a Frank or Frenchman), 
a French coin, worth 9 - 69 d. sterling. 

FRAN'CIIISE {Fr.), in a general sense, 
signifies some privilege, or exemption from 
ordinary jurisdiction. A franchise may be 
vested either in bodies politic or corpora¬ 
tions ; in borough towns, or in individuals. 
Corporate liberties, being usually held by 
charter, are all said to be derived from the 
crown, but some lie in prescription without 
any charter. 

FRANCIS'CANS, Friars-Minor, or Grey- 
Friars, the religious order of St. Francis, 
by whom they were founded about the year 
1209. 




















297_ Eftcran? 

FRANK (franc, free: Fr.), an exemption 
of letters from paying postage, which, 
before the ‘penny postage’ act came into 
operation, January 10,1840, was enjoyed to 
a certain extent by all members of parlia¬ 
ment. It is said that, before this act 
abolished the privilege of franking, nine 
millions of letters were annually sent post- 

free.- Frank-ai.moigne, in Law, a tenure 

by which a religious corporation held lands 
| to them and their successors for ever, on 
| condition of praying for the soul of the 

; donor.- Frank-chase or free chase 

1 was the liberty of keeping beasts of chase 
or royal game, protected even from the 
owner of the land himself, with a power of 

hunting them. - Frank-fold, a privilege 

which the lord had of folding his tenant’s 

sheep within his manor.- Frank-free, 

a term much used in our old law: thus 
frank-pledge freemen were pledges or 
sureties for the good behaviour of those 
who were of their community. 

FltANK'INCENSE, the gum-resin Oli- 
banum, which is the produce of an Indian 
tree, the Boswellia serrata, nat. ord. Amy- 
ridaccce. Sprinkled on live coals, it exhales 
a fragrant and powerful odour. 

FRANK'LINITE, a ferriferous oxide of 
zinc, found in New Jersey, North America, 
and named from Dr. Franklin. 

FRANKS, an appellation given by the 
Turks and other nations of Asia to all the 
people of the western parts of Europe, 
English, French, Italians, &c. 

FRATElt'NITIES (fratemitas, a brother¬ 
hood : Lak), in the middle age consisted 
of pious laymen, who formed societies for 
the purpose of relieving the sick and desti¬ 
tute and performing other Christian duties. 

FREE-BENCH, in law, a widow’s dower 
in a copyhold estate. 

FREE'HOLD, a legal term which refers 
either to thequantity of estate which a man 
may have in lands or tenements, or to the 
tenure by which lands and tenements are 
held. As to the quantity of estate he may 
have, it may be either of inheritance or not 
of inheritance : if of inheritance, it may be 
either fee-simple, fee-tail, or fee simple 
conditional; if not of inheritance, it is for 
life, or an uncertain period limited within 
the term of a life. As to the tenure, free¬ 
hold tenure is derived from the ancient 
free socage: hence copyholds are not with¬ 
in this denomination, but lands held by 
custom of the manor, not by a copy of court 
roll, are customary freeholds. 

FREE'HOLDER, the possessor of a free¬ 
hold estate, who is thereby qualified to vote 
for a knight of the shire, or representative 
of the county in parliament, if the estate is 
of the annual value of 40s. 

FREE'MAN, in the middle ages one who 
belonged to a class below the gentry, but 
above the villeins. The citizens and bur¬ 
ghers of chartered towns, the socagers 
whose tenure was free, and tenants for 
term of life, were freemen. At the present 
day, a freeman is one who has been in due 
form admitted to the freedom of a city or 
borough. 

FREE'MASONRY. A well-known insti¬ 
tution, the origin of which has given rise 


Crca^ttri). [freight 


to great discussion. There is no doubt 
that the fraternity of architects or builders 
| was very widely diffused in the middle 
j ages, and it is thought that we owe to it 
! the erection of the magnificent cathedrals, 
&c., so different from the other efforts of 
those times. It is not known when the 
society became changed from a professional 
body to one that admitted persons of every 
description. 

FREE'STONE, a hard and durable kind 
of gritstone, so called from its being of 
such a nature as to cut freely in any direc¬ 
tion : such are the Portland stone and the 
freestone of Kent. A granite which works 
freely is in some places called freestone. 

FREE'ZING ( frieren , to freeze : Ger.), in 
Philosophy, the conversion of a fluid body 
into a firm and solid mass by the action of 
cold. Upon the principle of the absorption 
of heat are founded the various artificial 
methods of producing cold and congela¬ 
tion. Evaporation causes cold, particularly 
when the vapour is removed as fast as pro¬ 
duced. If a body suddenly liquefies with- 
i out the application of external heat, cold is 
produced; this is the principle of freezing 
i mixtures. When a body, air for instance, is 
! made suddenly to expand, it abstracts heat 
from the surrounding bodies. In Spain, a 
kind of earthen jars, called buxaros, is 
used, the material of which is so porous, be¬ 
ing only half baked, that the outside is kept 
moist by the water that filters through it; 

; and, though placed in the sun, the water in 
the jar becomes as cold as ice. It is a com¬ 
mon practice in China to cool wine or other 
liquors by wrapping a wet cloth round the 
bottle and hanging it up in the sun. The 
water in the cloth evaporates, and thus 
cold is produced. Ice may be made at any 
time by the evaporation of ether. The 
most intense cold yet known is obtained 
by the evaporation of a mixture of solid 
carbonic acid and sulphuric ether, the 
temperature being lowered to 166° Fahr.be- 
i low the freezing point. The old nobles of 
Russia used to obtain very strong and in¬ 
toxicating drink by placing their wines and 
spirits in the ice of their rivers: the water 
they contained froze and separated from 
the spirits so as to be easily removed. 
This plan has been adopted for concen¬ 
trating lemon juice, &c. [See Ice-making 
Machines.] 

FREIGHT (fret: Fr.), in Navigation and 
Commerce, the hire of a ship, or of a 
part of it, for the conveyance of goods 
from one place to another; or the sum 
agreed on between the owner and the 
merchant for the hire and use of a vessel. 
In a more extended sense, it means the 
burden of such ship. Freight being the 
return made for the conveyance of goods 
or passengers to a particular destination, 
no claim arises for its payinentin the event 
of a total wreck; and our law authorities 
have decided, that, in case of a total loss j 
with salvage, the merchant may either take 
the part saved or abandon it. But after the 
merchant has made his election, he must 

abide by it.- Freight is now used in a 

large portion of America as a term to in¬ 
dicate the merchandise sent by a goods 




























FRENCH] CIj£ S'ftentiftc anU 



train on a railway, the latter being called a 
freight train. 

FRENCH CHALK, in Mineralogy, a va¬ 
riety of indurated talc, in masses composed 
of small scales. It combines with grease, 
and is useful in drawing. 

FRENCH HORN, a musical wind Instru¬ 
ment made of copper. It possesses a com¬ 
pass of three octaves, and is capable of pro¬ 
ducing tones of great sweetness. 

FRENCH POL'ISH, a solution of shel¬ 
lac In spirits of wine, with sometimes a 
little gum elemi ; a small quantity of lin¬ 
seed-oil is added to it at its application. It 
is laid on with a ball of cotton wool, and 
rapidly rubbed in the direction of the fibres 
of the wood ; and when dry, it is finished 
by friction with tripoli and oil. 

FRES'CO (fresh: Itul.), a species of 
painting with mineral colours on walls, 
which will endure the weather. It is exe¬ 
cuted on fresh plaster, so that the colours 
incorporating with it, and drying on the 
wall, become very durable in favourable 
] climates. In our humid climate it does not 
succeed. This mode of painting is of very 
early invention. It is asserted that there 
are specimens of fresco-painting extant of 
; the time of Constantine the Great. Fresco 
i was long neglected, but began to revive in 
the 15th century; but though Michael An¬ 
gelo and Raphael produced some noble spe¬ 
cimens of the art, it fell again into disrepute 
until practised by the Germans in recent 
times. As it is very difficult to alter the 
colour when once absorbed, it requires 
great exactness. 

FRET ( frethan , to adorn: Sax.), in Ar¬ 
chitecture, an ornament consisting of two 
lists or small fillets variously interlaced or 
interwoven, and running at parallel dis- 
tanees equal to their breadth.- Fret¬ 

work is sometimes used to fill up and 
enrich flat empty spaces; but is most fre¬ 
quently employed in roofs which are fretted 
over with plaster-work. -Fret, in He¬ 

raldry, a bearing composed of six bars, 
crossed and interlaced; by some called a 

true lover's knot. - Frets, in Music, certain 

short pieces of wire fixed on the finger¬ 
boards of guitars, &c., at right angles to 
the strings, and which, as the strings arc 
brought into contact with them by the 
pressure of the fingers, serve to vary and 
determine the pitch of the tones. Formerly 
these frets or stops consisted of strings 
tied round the neck of the instrument. 

FRETTS (/rotter, to rub: Fr.), a term 
used by miners to express the worn sides 
of the banks of rivers in mine countries. 

FRI'AIi ( frire , a brother: Fr.), a term 
common to all monks, hut specially applied 
to those of the mendicant orders, the four 
chief of which were the Dominicans, Fran¬ 
ciscans, Carmelites, and Augustinians. In 
London there are several places that retain 
the names of the friars who formerly had 
their monasteries there, Black Friars, 
"White Friars, Austin Friars, &c. 

FRIC'TION (frictio: Lat.), in Mechanics, 
the rubbing of the parts of engines and 
machines against each other, or upon sur¬ 
faces along which they may be drawn or 
rolled, whereby a great part of the power 


applied is lost. The amount of friction 
depends on 1. The roughness cf the con¬ 
tiguous surfaces. 2. The irregularity of 
the figure, which arises either from im¬ 
perfect workmanship or from the pressure 
of one body on another. 3. An adhesion, 
or attraction, which is more or less powerful 
according to the nature of the bodies in 
question. 4. The interposition of ex¬ 
traneous bodies, such as moisture, dust, 
&c. it has been found by experiment 
that friction diminishes with the veloci¬ 
ty, and it varies with the surface rubbed 
or with the specific pressure, i. e. the pres¬ 
sure on the unit of surface. There is no 
extra amount of friction on starting from 
rest to motion. The resistance arising from 
friction performs important offices in 
nature and the works of art. Were there 
no friction, all bodies on the surface of Hie 
earth, that is, almost everything con¬ 
structed by man, would fall in pieces with 
the slightest strain, as the wedge, the 
screw, and the nail would be powerless to 
keep them together. The least motion 
would be likely to dash one thing against 
another; but at present, whenever a body 
acquires a great velocity, it soon loses 
it by friction against the surface of the 
earth. The friction of water against the ! 
surfaces it runs over soon reduces the rapid 
torrent to a gentle st ream. The fury of the 
tempest is lessened by the friction of the 
air on the surface of the earth, and the 
violence of the ocean is subdued by the 
friction of its own waters against coasts, 
&c. Friction may be greatly diminished 
by causing surfaces working together to be 
of different materials, which prevents the 
attraction of cohesion from coming so 
powerfully into action ; by interposing oil 
or some anti-friction substance; by using 
wheels and friction rollers, which make the 
friction as much less than it otherwise 
would be, as the diameter of the axle is less 
than that of the wheel or roller attached to 
it. Friction is one of the most effective 
means of arresting motion. Hence the use 
of breaks on railways, and friction bands 

with machinery.- Friction, in Medicine, 

the rubbing any part of the body with the 
hand, flesli-brush, flannel, or other sub¬ 
stance, or with oils, liniments, &c., with a 
view to the preservation or restoration of 
health ; it is often found a most efficacious 
remedy. 

FRI'DAY (Freitag: Gcr.), the sixth day 
of the week, so called from Frea, or Friga, 
a goddess worshipped by theSaxonson this 
day. Every Friday, unless Christmas day 
fall upon it, is either a day of abstinence or 
a fast day in the Roman Catholic church. 

FRIEZE (/rise: Fr.), in Architecture, | 
that part of the entablature which is be¬ 
tween the architrave and cornice. It is 
usually enriched with figures of animals or 
other sculptured ornaments. 

FRIG'ATE (frigate: Fr.), a ship of war, 
having one covered gun-deck, and more 
than 28 guns. 

FRIGAtoO'N, a Venetian vessel, built 
with a square stern, without any foremast: 
it is used in the Adriatic. 

FRI'GID ZONE (frigidus , cold: Lat.), the 













































299 mterarjj Creagurj). [fuel 


space about either polo of the earth, termi¬ 
nated by a parallel of 701 degrees of lati¬ 
tude, called the polar circles. Within the 
latter, the sun remains visible in summer, 
and invisible in winter, for a space of time 
depending on the distance of the place from 
either pole. At the pole itself the sun re¬ 
mains half a year above and half a year 
below the horizon. [See Cumate.] 

FRINGILI/ID.-E, in Ornithology, the fa¬ 
mily of (Inches, including several genera 
with well known species, such as the chaf¬ 
finch, house sparrow, goldfinch, and 
linnets. 

P| FRIT or FRITT (fritte: Ger.), in the glass 
I manufacture, the ingredients of which 
glass is to be made after they have been 
* calcined in a furnace. It is of different 
kinds, according to the quality of the glass, 
but is chiefly composed of silex and alkali. 

1 ) FRITH {/return, a narrow sea: Lat.), an 
arm of the sea, or the opening of a river 
into the sea ; as, the frith of Forth, the 
1 frith of Clyde, &c. 

1 1 FRITH'GILD (frith , peace; and gild, a 
j fraternity: Sax.), in Arclueology, a guild- 
j hall: also a company or fraternity. 

FRITI LLA'III A, a genus of bulbous- 
rooted plants with showy flowers, nat. ord. 
Liliacere. 

I FR1ZE ( Frise, Friesland: Fr .—because 
first made there), a coarse kind of woollen 
cloth. 

FROG (frnscli: Ger.), a well-known animal 
; I of the Batrachlan order, in the class of 
| | Amphibia. It is oviparous, and the young 
; when hatched are called tadpoles. They 
I have a tail, but no legs, and being furnished 
with gills, they live in the water. The tail 
afterwards drops off, legs are developed, the 
gills disappear, and lungs are substituted. 
Having undergone this metamorphosis, 
they live henceforth on land. Frogs remain 
in a torpid state during winter. Besides 
I the common frog, there are a great many 
| other species, the most singular of which 
is that called the bull-frog, a native of the 
northern parts of America. This animal, 
when the limbs are extended, measures 
nearly two feet, the trunk of its body being 
about eight inches long and four or live in 
|! breadth. It is very voracious, and fre- 
i j queritly swallows the young of water-fowl 
before they have strength to shift for them- 
i selves. Its croaking is so loud as to re- 
j; 1 seinble the roaring of a bull heard at a 

i distance, whence its name- Frog, in 

Farriery, the hard projecting substance in 
the hollow of a horse’s foot. 

1 FROND (frons, a leafy branch ; Lat.), in 
Botanv, the leaf of a fern. 

FRONDES'OENCE ( frovdesco, I get leaves: 
Lat.), in Botany, the precise time of the 
year and month in which each species of 
plant unfolds its leaves. 

FRONT {frons, the forehead : Lat.), in 
Perspective, a projection or representation 
of the face or fore part of an object, or of 
that part directly opposite to the eye. 

FRONTAL (frontalia, an ornament for 
the forehead; Lat.), in Architecture, a small 
pediment or frontispiece over a small door 

or window.-In Medicine, a preparation 

to be applied to the forehead.- Frontal 


Bone, in Anatomy, the front bone of the 
head, which forms the forehead. 

FRONTA'LIS (same deriv.), in Anatomy, 
an epithet for a muscle of the forehead, 
which serves to contract the eyebrows. 

FRONTISPIECE (frontispice: Fr.), in Ar¬ 
chitecture, the principal face of a building. 

-An ornamental engraving fronting the 

first page of a book. 

FROST (Ger.), in Meteorology, the conge¬ 
lation of water, or of the vapours of the at¬ 
mosphere, by cold. This occurs when the 
mercury, in Fahrenheit’s thermometer, 
sinks to 32°. At this temperature, water 
begins to freeze unless kept in motion. 
Frost is very injurious to vegetables, par¬ 
ticularly when they are saturated with 
moisture, on account of a previous thaw or 
heavy rains. Masses of ice formed within a 
tree, by the expansion which takes place at 
the moment of congelation, cause a rupture 
of the vegetable fibre. Hoar frost, which 
occurs chiefly in autumn and spring, is 
merely frozen dew. 

FRUCTIFICATION (fructus, fruit; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), in Botany, tie part 
composing the fruit. 

FRUIT (Fr.; from fructus: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tanical language, the ovary arrived at ma¬ 
turity ; but the term is generally e-xtended 
to whatever is combined with the ovary, 
when it is ripe. 

FRUSTUM (a fragment: Lat.), in Mathe¬ 
matics, part of some solid body, separated 

from the rest.- Frustum ok a Cone, the 

part of a cone that remains when the top Is 
cut off by a plane parallel to the base; if cut 
off otherwise, it is called a truncated cone. 

FRUTES'OENT (frutex, a shrub: Lat.), in 
Botany, an epithet for that which, from 
herbaceous is becoming shrubby ; as a fru- 
tescent stem. Fruticose signifies shrubby. 

FRUTEX (Lat.), in Botany, a shrub, a 
plant having a woody stem, but under the 
height of 17 or 18 feet. 

FU'CUS (Lat.), the name given by the 
ancients to a plant, from which a material 
for dyeing woollen and linen cloths was 
procured. It was probably the lichen Roc- 
cella tinctoria, and the other species, from 
which orchil and cudbear are obtained. In 
modern botany, it is a genus of marine 
algal. The word, or its plural form fuci, is 
frequently applied to the whole tribe of 
seaweeds.-Fucus, a composition an¬ 

ciently applied on the face to beautify it and 
heighten the complexion. The fucus-of the 
Roman ladies was a kind of white earth or 
chalk, brought from Chios and Samos. 

FU'EL ( fuayl: Nor. Fr.), any material 
■which serves to maintain fire ; as alcohol, 
tallow, coal, &c.; but the term is more 
properly limited to coal, coke, charcoal, 
wood, and a few other common sources of 
heat. Whatever the substance used as fuel, 
its ultimate elements are carbon, hydrogen, 
or both; and the heat obtained is derived 
from their combination with the oxygen 
of the air. Unless fuel is free from mois¬ 
ture, much of the heat which would be 
otherwise available is lost in converting 
the water into vapour. Hence the superi¬ 
ority of dry over green wood, and of charcoal 
over -wood: hence also coke gives a greater 




















fugue] 


Cfje auH 


300 


heat than coal, which contains vaporizable 
bodies which must be driven off at an ex¬ 
penditure of heat. The following are the 
quantities of water which may be raised 
from 32° to 212° Fahr. by one pound of the 
most ordinary kinds of fuel:— 


Fresh wood 
Dry wood . 

Turf . 

Turf when dense 
Pit coal 
Coke . 

Dry charcoal . 


25 lbs. of water. 
35 ,, ,, 

25 ,, •» 

30 ,, ,, 

50 ,, ,, 

55 ,, ,, 

/ 3 ,, ,, 


Charcoal has a very great tendency to ab¬ 
sorb water from the atmosphere, which 
greatly diminishes its heating powers. 

FUGUE (Fr.; from fug a, a flight: Lnt.), 
inMusic, a species of composition, in which 
the different parts follow one another, each 
repeating in order what the first had per¬ 
formed, but at a certain interval above or 
below the preceding part. 

FUL'CRUM (a prop : Lat.), in Mechanics, 
the prop or support' by which a lever is 
sustained. 

FULGURA'T10N (fulguratio, sheet light¬ 
ning : Lat.), in the art of assaying, a term 
for the sudden brightening of the melted 
gold and silver in the cupel, when the last 
film of oxide of lead, or copper, leaves the 
surface. 

FUL'LER’S EARTH, a mineral, essentially 
consisting of silex and alumina, with about 
24 per cent, water. Like other soft alumi¬ 
nous minerals, it has the property of ab¬ 
sorbing grease, and it was at one time 
largely employed in fulling cloth, that is in 
cleaning it from greasy matters, but it lias 
been to a great extent superseded by soap. 

FULL'ING (fullo, a fuller : Lat.), the art 
of cleansing, scouring, and pressing cloths, 
to make them stronger, closer, and firmer, 
which is done by means of a fulling or 
scouring mill. 

FUL'MAR PETREL, a web-footed sea- 
nird, the Procellaria glacialis of naturalists. 
It is larger than a gull, possessing, like all 
the petrels, the singular faculty of spouting 
from Its bill a quantity of pure oil. It 
abounds in northern latitudes. 

FUL'MINATING POW'DER ( fulmcn, 
lightning: Lat.), a powder that explodes 
upon the application of certain degrees of 
heat or concussion, with instantaneous 
combustion and a loud noise. Fulminating 
powders are sometimes made with metals, 
and sometimes without. If that which is 
made of nitre, potash, and the flowers of 
sulphur, triturated in a warm mortar, is 
fused in a ladle, and then set on fire, it will 
explode with a noise like thunder. If a 
solution of gold be precipitated by ammo¬ 
nia, the product will be fulminating gold, a 
grain of which, if held over a flame, will 
explode with a sharp loud noise. But of all 
these explosive compounds, that which from 
a manufacturing point of view is the most 
useful, is the fulminate of mercury, now so 
extensively employed, mixed with a little 
sulphur and nitre, for charging percussion 
caps. Fulminating silver detonates even 
more powerfully than fulminating mercury. 

FULMINA'TION (a thundering: Lat.), in 


Chemistry, an explosion or detonation, ac 
companied with a loud report. All tlies< 
equally imply rapid combustion with or 
without flame ; and the intensity of sound 
alone distinguishes the idea of fulmination 
from those of detonation and explosion. 

FULMIN'IC A'CID, in Chemistry, the ex¬ 
plosive constituent of fulminating mercury 
and fulminating silver; it is generated by 
the reaction of alcohol and the acid nitrates 
of these metals. This curious acid is com¬ 
posed of 4 equivalents of carbon, 2 of nitro¬ 
gen, and 2 of oxygen, but all attempts to 
obtain it have hitherto failed. 

FUMARO'LE (Ital.), orifices in the earth, 
emitting vapours of different kinds. They 
occur in volcanic countries. 

FUMIGATION ( fumigo, I fumigate: from 
fumus, smoke; and ago, I act with: Lat.), a 
process by means of which disinfecting va¬ 
pours are diffused through the atmosphere, 
in order to purify apartments, goods, or 
articles of apparel supposed to be imbued 
with some contagious poisons. The most 
effectual agents for this purpose are chlo¬ 
rine and nitric acid vapour, but particularly 
the former. 

FUNCTION (functio, a performing; Lat.), 
in Algebra, any mathematical expression, 
considered with reference to its form, and 
not to the value which it receives, by giving 
particular values to the symbols contained 
in it. Thus a + x, and a- + x~, are func¬ 
tions of x, though of different forms. In 
whatever way a function may be compound¬ 
ed of constant and variable quantities, it is 
a function of the variable quantities only. 
The calculus of functions may be considered 
as standing in the same relation to algebra 
that algebra does to arithmetic. In the 
calculus of functions, the generalization is 
carried still further than in algebra. 

FUNCTIONS (same deriv.), in Physiology. 
There are two classes of functions by which 
life is manifested in animals. 1. Those of 
animal life being functions of relation, in¬ 
cluding sensation and voluntary motion ; 
2. Those of vegetative life, or functions of 
nutrition and reproduction. The functions 
of the first class bring us into relation with 
the world around us; those of the second 
are necessary to the support of life and the 
perpetuation of the species. 

FUNDS (Jundo, I pour into: Lat.), the 
public funded debt, due by government. 
Money was first borrowed to meet the ex¬ 
penses of a war in the reign of William 
III., and at the beginning was obtained on 
the security of some tax, or portion of a 
tax, which was to pay the interest and 
principal. But, instead of paying off old 
loans, fresh ones were obtained, on similar 
securities : and at length theplan of borrow¬ 
ing for a fixed period, or, as it was called, 
upon terminable annuities, was given up, 
and most loans were made on those which 
were interminable, or until it might be con¬ 
venient for the government to pay off the 
principal. [See Debt, National.] At the 
commencement of the system, the word 
fund signified the taxes or funds appro¬ 
priated to pay off the loans obtained, and 
the interest arising from them; but it 
gradually came to mean, not the security. 


' 

—— 























301 


Ettcranj Cmtfurg. 


but the loan Itself. The rate of interest at 
first paid by government was high ; and it 
varied according to the abundance of dis¬ 
posable capital, and the public confidence. 
In the reign of George II., the rate of 
Interest was fixed at three or three and a half 
per cent.; but to pay, for example, at the 
: rate of four and a half per cent., govern¬ 
ment gave nearly 1501. of stock for 1001. in 
money: hence the present national debt 
amounts to about two-fifths more than the 
sum which was actually lent. This uniform 
rate of interest renders the debt more 
manageable, and its transfer, from sellers 
to buyers, more simple and convenient. 
Any amount may be bought in the funds, 
the buyer paying the interest due on it 
at the time of purchase, along with the 
price of the stock, as it is called, which 
; is bought. The interest obtained by a pur- 
j chaser is generally more than the nomi¬ 
nal interest, since lie rarely gives 1001 for 
1001. of stock. If the funds were up to par, 
that is, if 1001. stock would bring 1001. in 
money, it would show that money was ex¬ 
tremely plentiful, or that profitable and 
safe modes of investment were very hard to 
be obtained. [See Sinking Fund.] 

FU'NERAL GAMES (funereus , belonging 
to a funeral: Lat .) Among the Greeks these 
generally consisted of horse-races: the 
prizes were of different sorts and value, 
according to the quality and magnificence 
of the person that celebrated them. The 
garlands given to victors on these occasions 
were usually of parsley, which was supposed 
to have some particular relation to the dead. 
Among the Romans, the funeral games 
consisted chiefly of processions ; but some¬ 
times also of mortal combats of gladiators 
around the funeral pile. 

FU'NERAL RITES (.same deriv.), cere¬ 
monies accompanying the interment or 
burial of any person. These rights differed 
among the ancients, according to the diffe¬ 
rent genius and religion of each country. 
The ancient Christians abhorred the pagan 
custom of burning the dead, and always 
deposited the body entire in the ground ; 
and it w T as usual to bestow the honour of 
embalming upon the martyrs, at least, if not 
upon others. 

FUN'GATE (fungus , a mushroom : Lat.), 
in Chemistry a compound of fungic acid 
and a base. 

FUN'GIA, a genus of corals which some¬ 
what resemble mushrooms. 

FUN'GIC A'CID (same deriv .), in Chemis¬ 
try, an acid obtained from mushrooms. 

F UN'GI FORM (fungus, a mushroom ; and 
forma, a form : Lat.), in Mineralogy, having 
a termination similar to the head of a 
mushroom. 

FUN'GIN, the fleshy part of mushrooms, 
purified by digestion in hot water. It is now 
i considered as a peculiar vegetable principle. 

FUN'GUS (a mushroom : Lat.), in Botany, 
the old name of a genus of cryptogamic 
plants, of which the common mushroom 
may be taken as an example. The name 
Fungi or Fungales is now applied to the ex¬ 
tensive class containing’ this and many 
allied forms. They are distinguished from 
Algae by their deriving their nutriment 


[furlough 


from the substances to which they are at¬ 
tached, and not from the surrounding me¬ 
dium. They vary greatly in appearance. 
Some grow in living animals, or on animal 
substances; others on living vegetables, 
such as the rusts and mildews, or upon de¬ 
caying vegetable matter. Some are hard 
and horny, others soft and fleshy. Even the 
yeast of beer has been pronounced to be an 
abnormal form of fungus. A few are edible, 
such as the mushroom, morel, and truffle; 
but the majority are poisonous. In Tierra 
delFuego a fungus growing on living beech 
trees is a staple article of food to the savages. 

-Fungus, in Surgery, a term applied to 

any morbid excrescence, whether arising 
from wounds, or spontaneously. 

FUR, the hair of animals living in the 
colder parts of the globe. The furs of com¬ 
merce are the dressed skins of such animals 
with the hair attached. Immense quantities 
of rough skins are annually imported, as 
they are well adapted for articles of cloth¬ 
ing during winter. A great number of 
persons are employed in trapping the ani¬ 
mals that yield the furs in request in the 
prairies and wilds of North and South 
America, the deserts of Africa, the steppes 
of Russia and Siberia, and the jungles of 
India. The Hudson’s Bay Company had ! 
vast hunting grounds in Arctic America, 
where the half-savage trappers roamed in i 
pursuit of their calling, and collected those \ 
shiploadsof skins which were annually sent 
over here. Furs were at one time used in 
this country as emblems of rank. In the 
sumptuary laws of Henry VIII. it was or¬ 
dered that no nobleman should use sable 
unless he was above a viscount. In the 
time of Edward III. only the royal family 
might wear ermine ; and that fur under the 
heraldic name of miniver still denotes, on 
state occasions, the rank of the wearer, ac¬ 
cording to the manner in which it is worn. 
Ermine is the most valuable of furs, there 
being a great demand for it in Europe. The 
Sable ranks next to the ermine in value, 
and then the fur of the Silver Fox, a native 
of the neighbourhood of the Columbia 
River in Oregon. The fur is long and black, 
except that of a part of the back, which is 
white. Skins of the blue fox are much 
sought after, and a single specimen highly 
dressed has fetched forty guineas in Lon¬ 
don. Chinchilla fur is a great favourite 
with ladies, from its extreme softness. It 
is obtained from a small rodent animal, a 
native of South America. Many other furs 
are imported, such as those of the mink, 
several species of marten, and the glutton, 
all animals allied to the weasel; the wild 
cat; several species of fox, including the 
black fox, which has a white tipped tail 
(for a very fine skin as much as 1001. have 
been given), and the red fox, with a bright 
fur much prized by the Turks. Even the 
skins of monkeys are imported for their 
handsome fur. 

FUR'LONG (furlang: Sax.), a measure of 
length equal to one-eighth of a mile, or forty 
poles. It is also used in some law-books 
for the eighth of an acre. 

FUR'LOUGH ( urlaub: Ger.), leave granted 
to a non-commissioned officer or soldier to 



















furnace] 


dje &ctrnt(ftc antf 


302 


be absent for a given time from his regi¬ 
ment. 

FUR'NACE (fnrnnx, a Vault: Lat.), an 
apparatus for melting metals, &c., variously 
constructed, according to the use for which 
it is intended. It consists of a suitable 
fire-place, and receptacles to contain the 
substances to be operated upon ; and is 
sometimes supplied with a dome, so as 
to reverberate the heat and flame. [See 
Foundry.] 

FUSE or FUZE (fusio: Fr.), a small tube, 
filled with combustible materials, by which 
fire is communicated to the powder in a 
bomb, &c. A sits contents burn slowly, time 
is given, before the charge takes fire,for the 
bomb to reach its destination. It is used 
also in m ining,&e., but has, in a great degree, 
been superseded by the use of a galvanic 

current in producing ignition.- Fusee, 

in Watch work, the conical piece round 
which the chain of a clock, watch, &c., 
moved by a spring, is wound. It is of 
varying diameter, acting with least power 
when the watch, &c., is first wound up, that 
is, when the spring is strongest, and with 
most when the watch, &c., has run nearly 
down, that is, when the spring is weakest; 
and thus the power applied to the watch, 
<Xrc.., is rendered nearly uniform. The 
speed with which the spring uncoils to pro¬ 
duce a given effect, and by consequence 
the quantity of chain unwound from the 
fusee, are constantly varying, since, in ac¬ 
cordance with a well-known mechanical law, 
what the spring wants in power it must 
make up in velocity, and vice versa. 

FU'SEL OIL (fusel, impure spirit: Ger.), 
an acid volatile oil, found in the crude spirit 
manufactured from potatoes and grain. It 
exhales a powerful and suffocating odour. 
It is supposed to be a product of the fer¬ 
mentation of sugar. When purified it is 
styled by chemists the hydrated oxide of 
amyl. 

FUSI'L ( Fr .), a light musket, similar 
to a carbine, but better finished: it was 
formerly used by officers in light companies, 


and has given its name to several regiments. 

-In Heraldry, a bearing of a rhomlxmlal 

figure, more slender than a lozenge, its 
upper and lower being more acute than its 
middle angles. 

FUSILEE'R (fusilier: Fr.), a soldier be¬ 
longing to what is termed the light in¬ 
fantry. One of the regiments of Life¬ 
guards is known as the Fusileers. They are 
distinguished by the white cockade. 

FU'SION (fusio: Lat.), the liquefaction 
of a solid body by means of heat; as in the 
case of metals, glass, and similar bodies. 
Those substances which admit of being 
fused are termed fusible, but those which 
resist the action of fire or heat are termed 
refractory. Aqueous Fusion, the melt¬ 
ing of a salt in its water of crystallization ; 
the resulting liquid is a saturated hot solu¬ 
tion. 

FUS'TIAN ( futaine: Fr.), a kind cf coarse 
thick twilled cotton, of which velveteen, 

corduroy, and thick-set are varieties.- 

In Literature, an inflated style of writing 
in which high-sounding and bombastic 
terms are used, instead of such as are 
natural, simple, and suited to the sub¬ 
ject. 

FfJS'TTC, the wood of a species of mul¬ 
berry (A torus tinctoria), a large tree grow¬ 
ing in North and South America, and the 
West India Islands. It is very extensively 
used as an ingredient in the dyeing of yel¬ 
low, for which purpose large quantities of 
it are annually imported. There is another 
kind, called Zante, or young fustic, obtained 
from the Rhus Cotinus, a small shrub of 
the sumach genus. This imparts a beau¬ 
tiful bright yellow dye to cottons, &c., 
which, when proper mordants are used, is 
very permanent. 

FUT'TOCKS (corrupted from foot-hooks), 
in Naval Architecture, the lower timbers 
raised over the keel that hold the ship 
together. The small shrouds in a ship’s 
rigging, passing from the mainmast, fore¬ 
mast, and mizenmast shrouds, to those of 
the topmast, are termed futtock shrouds. 


G 


G, the seventh letter in the English al¬ 
phabet ; butin tlieGreekand all theoriental 
languages, it occupies the third place. It is 
a mute, and cannot be sounded without the 
assistance of a vowel. It has a hard and a 
soft sound, as in game and gesture; and in 
many words, as in sign, reign, &c., the 
sound is not perceived. As an abbreviation, 
it stood for Genius, Gens, Gaudium, & c. 
G.V. signified Genius urbis (the genius of 
the city); G.L. Genius loci (the genius of 
the place): G.I’.R. Gloria pop nil Romani (the 
glory of the Roman people). With us it 
stands for Grand, Garter, Gratia, &v., as 
O.C.B. Grand Cross of lhe Bath; K.G. Knight, 
of the Garter; D.G. Dei gratia (by the grace 


of God); &c. As a numeral, it formerly 
stood for 400, and, with a dash over it, for 
400,000. On French coins, it indicates the 

city of Poitiers.-In the Calendar, it is 

the seventh Dominical letter.-In Music, 

it is the nominal of the fifth note in the 
natural diatonic scale of C, and to which 
Guido applied the monosyllable sol. It 
is also the name of the highest or treble 
clef. 

GA'BIONS (Fr.), in Fortification, baskets 
made of osier-twigs, of a cylindrical form, 
six feet high and four wide, which, being 
filled with earth, serve as a shelter from 
the endin'? fire. 

GAB'RON ITE ( gabro, a rock consisting of 























303 


Ettcravy Crca^ury. 


[gall 






I 


I 


diallage and felspar: Ital.), a silicate of 
alumina, soda, and potash, found in a vein 
of titaniferous iron, near Arendal, in Nor¬ 
way. It has also bceu termed fuscite and 
compact scapolite. 

GAD (a club: Sax.), among miners, a tool 
in the form of a pointed wedge, having its 
Bides of a parabolic figure. 

GAD'FLY, the GSstrus Boms, a dipterous 
insect, which deposits its eggs on the 
backs of oxen, where it raises a tumour 
called worblc by farmers. Another species 
lays its eggs in the nostrils of the sheep, 
whence the larvae climb up into the interior 
of the head, where they feed. A third spe¬ 
cies deposits its eggs amongst the hairs of 
the horse's hide. The animal licks the part, 
and the larvae are hatched in the mouth, 
whence they pass into the intestines, and 
form the well-known Dots. [See Breeze- 
Fly.] 

GAD'OLTNITE, a mineral, containing 
yttria and oxide of cerium, found almost 
exclusively in Sweden, and named after 
Gadolin, its discoverer. 

GA'DITS, in Ichthyology, a genus of ma- 
lacopterygian fishes, containing the com¬ 
mon cod-fish, Gadus morrhaa, the whiting, 
O. merUmgics, the haddock, G. ceglefinus, the 
coal-fish, G. carbonarius, the pollack, G. pol- 
lachius, and other less known species. 

GAE'LIC, or Erse, that dialect of the 
ancient Celtic language which is spoken 
In the highlands of Scotland. It is a com¬ 
monly received opinion, that the Celtic, 
at the time of the Roman invasion, was 
universally spoken over the west of Eu¬ 
rope; for all its numerous dialects show 
the clearest proofs of a common origin. 
The languages at present known to be cer¬ 
tainly of the Celtic stock are the Welsh, 
the Bas-Breton or Armorican, the Irish, the 
Erse or Gaelic, the Manx, and the Cornish. 
The Scotch and Irish dialects are almost 
Identical. The Gaelic, which,from a variety 
of causes, lias retained much of its original 
purity, is bold, expressive, and copious. It 
derives no assistance from the language 
either of Greece..or Rome, from which it 
differs in its structure and formation. More 
than two-thirds of the names of places in 
Great Britain and Ireland are of Celtic ori¬ 
gin, which, if other proofs were wanting, 
would establish the fact of its once having 
been the language of the country. 

GAFF (gaffe, a harpoon : Fr.), in Nautical 
language, a sort of boom or pole, used to 
extend the upper edge of sails, as the 
mainsail of a sloop, &c. 

GAGE or GAUGE (jauger , to measure: 
Fr.), an instrument for making measure¬ 
ments of different kinds. -Gage, an appa¬ 

ratus for measurements of various kinds. 
Thus, a sliding gage, used by mathematical 
instrument makers for measuring and 
Betting off distances ; a tide-gage, for de¬ 
termining the heights of tides; a wind- 
gage, an instrument for measuring the 
force of the wind on any given surface, &o. 

GAIL'LIARDE (Ital.), an ancient Italian 
dance, of a sportive character and lively 
movement. It was sometimes called a Ro¬ 
manesque, because it was said to have come 
originally from Rome. 


GAL'AXY ( galaxias , from gala, milk : Gr.), 
in Astronomy, the Via lactea, or Milky 
Way; a long, white, luminous track, which 
seems to encompass the heavens like a 
girdle, forming nearly a great circle of the 
celestial sphere. This, like most other phe¬ 
nomena of nature, lias suggested some 
beautiful ideas to the poet. The invention 
of the telescope has confirmed the conjec¬ 
ture of the earlier astronomers that it con¬ 
sists of a multitude of stars, too remote to 
be separately distinguished by the naked 
eye, but scattered in millions on the dark 
ground of the general heavens. We are 
indebted to the labours and researches of 
the Herschels for most of the knowledge 
we possess regarding the milky way. It is 
thought that the vast collection of stars 
which surround us on every side, and of 
which our sun is one, is shaped like a fiat 
circular zone, or thin slice of a sphere. This 
disc-like cluster is divided through one- 
third of its whole extent into two arms. 
When we look upon the milky way, we must 
be supposed to be looking towards the edge 
of the disc, that is, the thickest portion of 
our stellar universe, but in other directions 
the stars glitter distinct from each other, 
because then we are looking upon the thin¬ 
nest portions of the cluster. In many parts 
of the milky way, the most powerful tele¬ 
scopes seem to perceive the farthest stars 
upon a black starless ground, but in others 
there are masses and clouds of stars which 
the best telescope cannot resolve. 

GAL'BANUM ( Lat .), in Medicine, a foetid 
gum-resin, the produce of a Persian um¬ 
belliferous plant, the Opnidia galbanifera, 
and perhaps of other umbellifers. 

' GAL'BULUS (cypress fruit: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, the fleshy fruit of the Junipers, trees 
belonging to the coniferous order. 

GALE'NA (Lat.), in Mineralogy, thenative 
sulphuret of lead, obtained both in masses 
ami crystallized. It occurs in primitiveand 
transition mountains, but is more fre¬ 
quently found in secondary rocks, especially 
in compact limestone. It constitutes beds 
and veins, and is found more ot less in 
every country. In England it is very abun¬ 
dant, and it is also widely diffused over 
the United States of America. Most of the 
lead of commerce is procured from galena, 
and usually contains a little silver. [See 
Lead.] 

GALEN'IC, in Medicine, that mode of 
treating disease which is founded upon the 
principles of Galen, or which that physician 

introduced.- Galenical medicines, those 

that are formed by simple means from 
vegetables, as by infusion or decoction, 
&c.; while the chemical, to which they are 
opposed, are those produced by extracting 
the more active principles by elaborate 
processes, as by calcination, digestion, fer¬ 
mentation, &c. 

GALL (gatle : Sax.). [See Bile.] 

GALL'-BLADDFR (same deriv.), a mem¬ 
brane situated in the concave side of the 
liver. Its use is to collect the bile, first 
secreted m the liver, and, mixing it with 
its own peculiar product, to elaborate it 
further; to retain it for a certain time,and 
then expel it as it Is required. 





















dje Scientific anti 


304 


gall-fly] 


GALL'-FLY. [See Cynips.] 

GALL'-NUT, a protuberance or tumour 
produced by the puncture of gall-flies, spe¬ 
cies of the hymenopterous genus Cynips, 
on plants and trees of various kinds, but 
more particularly on the oak. The fly punc¬ 
tures the surface of a leaf, bud, or stalk, 
and deposits an egg in the interior, along 
with a drop of an irritating fluid: in the 
course of a few days, an excrescence is 
thrown out, affording nourishment to the 
young insect, and protecting it from ex¬ 
ternal injury until it has attained its full 
size, when, after having undergone meta¬ 
morphosis, it eats through the excrescence, 
and escapes into the open air. 

GALL'-STONES, calculous concretions 
frequently formed in the gall-bladder, and 
sometimes occasioning great pain during 
their passage through the ducts into the 
duodenum, before they are evacuated. 

GAL'LEON ( galeon: Fr.), ships of war 
formerly used by the Spaniards and Por¬ 
tuguese. In more recent times, those 
vessels were called galleons, in which the 
Spaniards transported treasure from their 
American colonies. 

GAL'LERY ( galerie: Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a long narrow room, the length of 
which is at least three times as great as its 
breadth, by which proportion it is distin¬ 
guished from a saloon. Corridors also are 
sometimes called galleries. Since a gallery 
is generally decorated with paintings, in 
oil or fresco, a large collection of pictures, 
even if contained in several adjoining 

rooms, is called by that name.- Gallery, 

in Fortification, a walk across [a ditch in a 
besieged town, made of strong planks, and 
covered with earth. It was formerly used 
for carrying a mine to the foot of the ram¬ 
parts.- Gallery, in Mining, a narrow 

passage, or branch of a mine, carried under 
ground to a work intended to be blown up. 

-Gallery, in Shipbuilding, a balcony, 

projecting from the stern of a ship of war, 
or of a large merchantman. 

GAL'LEY (gal&re: Fr.), a kind of low, 
flat-built vessel, furnished with one deck, 
and navigated with sails and oars, found 

chiefly in the Mediterranean.-An open 

boat used on the Thames by custom-house 

officers, &c.-The cook-room or kitchen of 

a ship.-The war galleys, or naves longce, 

of the Romans, were variously named from 

their rows or banks of oars.- Galley- 

slave, a person condemned to work at the 
oar on board a galley, being chained to the 

deck.-In France, the galleys, in which the 

convicts labour and are confined, resemble 
the hulks of Great Britain. 

GAL'LIC A'CID, in Chemistry, an acid 
which forms one of the astringent prin¬ 
ciples of plants. It is obtained by the oxy- 
dation of tannic acid, or tannin, which 
abounds in nut-galls, oak bark, &c. It is 
slightly acidulous and styptic to the taste, 
but inodorous; and crystallizes in white 
silky needles, which are soluble in boiling 
water or alcohol. Its constituents are 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When an 
infusion of galls is dropped into a solution 
of sulphate of iron, it produces a deep purple 
precipitate, which becomes black by ex- 


I posure to the air. It is a very long time in 
I subsiding, and, in writing-ink, is retained 
I in suspension by mucilage. 

I GAL'LICAN CHURCH, the distinctive 
title of the Roman Catholic church in 
France, which, in opposition to ultramon- 
tanism, long maintained a certain degree of 
independence with regard to the see of 
Rome. The liberties of the Gallican church 
were first asserted in the pragmatic sanc¬ 
tion, in 1438, but were defined and conflrined 
in 1682. It was then decided that the pope 
has no temporal power in France, and only 
a spiritual power limited by canons and 
councils, and that the decisions of the holy 
see are subject to reversal by the body of 
the clergy. 

GAL'LICISM (Galius, a Frenchman : Lat.), 
an idiom or phrase, of the French language, 
introduced in speaking or writing another 
language. 

GALLI'NiE ( gallina, a hen : Lat.), in Or¬ 
nithology, the order of birds under which 
are comprehended the peacock, pheasant, 
turkey, partridge, grouse, domestic cock, 
&c. 

GAL'LIOT C galliotte : Fr.), a small galley 
or Dutch vessel, used informer times. It 
carried a main and mizen mast, and a large 
galf-mainsail; but was built very slightly, 
and was designed only for chase. It could 
both sail and row, and had sixteen or twenty 
oars: all the seamen on board were soldiers, 
and each had a musket by him as he sat at 
his oar. 

GAL'LON, a measure of capacity both 
for dry goods and liquids, holding four 
quarts. The imperial gallon contains 10 lbs. 
avoirdupois of distilled water, equivalent 
to 277,274 cubic inches. The old English 
gallon, wine measure, contained 231 cubic 
inches; and the old gallon, beer measure, 
282. 

GALLOO'N (.galon: Fr.), a narrow thick 
kind of ferret, or lace, used to edge or 
border cloths. 

GALLOPA'DE (galopcr, to gallop : Fr.), 
in the manege, a sidelong or curvetting 
kind of gallop. Also the term for a sprightly 
and active kind of dance. 

GALLS, local diseases of plants, caused 
by the puncture of insects in depositing 
their eggs. They are produced by concen¬ 
tric layers of dried sap, and do not affect 
the general health of the tree. 

GAL'VANISM, the development of elec¬ 
trical phenomena without the aid of fric¬ 
tion, and by means of a chemical action 
which takes place between certain bodies. 
It derived its name from Galvani, a pro¬ 
fessor at Bologna, who, in a course of ex¬ 
periments on animal irritability, observed 
the first striking phenomena that led to 
its discovery, which occurred in the follow¬ 
ing manner. One of his assistants hap¬ 
pened to bring the point of his scalpel 
to the crural nerves of a skinned frog 
lying near the electrical conductor, upon 
which the muscles of the limb were agitated 
with strong convulsions. After this, he 
continued his experiments in various ways, 
and ascertained that the mere agency of 
metallic substances, provided they were dis- 
similar metals, would produce such convul- 











805 


Httcrarj) ®rnt£ttrin 


[gamb 


slons. This subject engaged the attention of 
experimentalists both before and after the 
death of Galvani, which happened in 1798; 
but none added anything of great impor¬ 
tance to Galvani’s discovery except Volta, 
who repeated his experiments, and found 
that whenever two pieces of metal of 
different kinds were placed in different 
parts of an animal, and were brought either 
into contact, or into connection by means 
of a metallic arc, convulsions ensued, and 
that this effect was strongest when the 
metals were zinc and silver, particularly 
when several pairs of the metals, having 
pieces of moist cloth between them, were 
employed. This led him to the construction 
of an apparatus for the purpose of accumu¬ 
lating electricity .which has since been called 
the Galvanic battery or Voltaic pile. Several 
improvements upon the voltaic pile were 
soon made by other philosophers ; and the 
discoveries in galvanism multiplied with a 
rapidity, and to an extent, surpassing any¬ 
thing before known in the history of 
science. It has been ascertained that che¬ 
mical action is indispensable to theproduc- 
tion of galvanic electricity. The least com¬ 
plicated galvanic arrangement is termed a 
simple galvanic circle. It consists of three 
conductors, of which one at least must 
be solid, another Huid, and the third 
may be either solid or fluid. This is pos¬ 
sessed but of feeble powers, yet they are 
often sufficiently striking. Compound 
galvanic circles, or galvanic batteries, are 
formed by multiplying those arrangements 
which compose simple circles. [See Bat¬ 
tery, Galvanic.] - Chemical effects of Gal¬ 

vanism. The most simply chemical effect of 
the galvanic battery is the ignition and 
fusion of metals; the facility with which 
the different metals are ignited, being in¬ 
versely proportional to their power of con¬ 
ducting heat. Hence platina, which has the 
lowest conducting power, is most easily 
ignited; and silver, which conducts heat 
with greater facility than any other metal, 
is the most difficult to be ignited. The 
most striking effect of the voltaic bat¬ 
tery, however, is the intense light which is 
produced by placing two pieces of charcoal, 
cut into the shape of pointed pencils, at the 
two ends of the wires of an interrupted 
circuit. When the battery is very power¬ 
ful, and the charcoal points are brought 
within the thirtieth or fortieth of an inch 
of each other, a bright spark is produced. 
By withdrawing the points from each 
other, a constant discharge takes place, 
through the heated air, in a space of from 
one to four or more inches, according to the 
energy of the apparatus, producing a most 
brilliant arch of light, of considerable 
breadth, and in the form of a double cone. 
Platina, introduced into this arch, melts as 
wax does in the flame of a candle: and the 
light equals the brilliancy of the sun. But 
decomposition is the most important che¬ 
mical effect of galvanism. The substance 
first decomposed by it was water. When 
two gold or platina wires are connected 
with the opposite poles of a battery, and 
their free extremities are plunged into 
the same cup of water, but without touch¬ 


ing each other, hydrogen gas is disengaged 
at .the negative wire, and oxygen at the 
positive. By collecting the gases in sepa¬ 
rate tubes, as they are liberated, they are 
found to be quite pure, and in the exact pro¬ 
portion of two measures of hydrogen to one 
of oxygen. In decomposing water or any 
other compound, the same element is al¬ 
ways disengaged at the same side of the bat¬ 
tery; so that the elements which collect 
around each pole have a certain analogy: in¬ 
flammable bodies, alkalis, and earths, go 
to the negative pole, while oxygen and 
acids go more to the positive. Hence the 
terms electro-positive and electro-negative. 
It is also found that not only are the 
elements of a compound fluid conveyed, 
by galvanic energy, to the opposite poles 
situated in distant parts of the containing 
vessel, without the movement of these ele¬ 
ments being perceptible; but that they may 
even be evolved in separate portions of the 
fluid placed in distinct vessels, and con¬ 
nected only by some slight link, as a few 
fibres of moist cotton or amianthus. Many 
phenomena,indeed still more extraordinary, 
present themselves in connection with 
these interesting experiments. The ele¬ 
ments of compound bodies are actually con¬ 
veyed, by flie influence of the electric cur¬ 
rent, through solutions of substances on 
which, under other circumstances, they 
would have exerted an immediate and 
powerful chemical action, without any such 
action being produced. [See Electricity, 
Magnetism, and Voltaic Electricity. 

GALVANI'ZED IRON, the commercial 
name of iron coated with zinc, to prevent 
rust. 

GALVANOM'ETER ( galvanism ; and ma¬ 
tron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring minute quantities of electricity, 
or the operations of galvanism. It consists 
of one, and sometimes more, delicate mag¬ 
netized needles, suspended horizontally by 
some very slender fibre, and surrounded by 
a great number of coils of very thin insu¬ 
lated copper wire. When the electric current j 
to be examined is transmitted through the j 
wire, the needle is deflected in a direction, 
and to an extent, dependent on the direc- ! 
tion and intensity of the current. [See j 
Electro-Magnetism.] 

GA'MBIT, at Chess, a word derived from 
an Italian phrase used in wrestling, and 
signifying a tripping-up. The player who 
opens the game places a pawn in such a posi¬ 
tion that it can be taken by the adversary 
in order to give freedom of movement to 
his superior pieces. There are several gam¬ 
bits, known to chess players by different 
names. 

GAMBO'GE ( Gambodia, in India, whence 
it was first brought), a gum-resin, the 
inspissated juice of various species of Gar- 
cinia trees belonging to the nat. ord. Gut- 
tifferce, and growing in the East Indies, 
Ceylon, &c. It is obtained in commerce in 
masses of a dull orange colour, possessing 
no smell, and a slightly acrid taste; and 
affords a beautiful yellow colour, much used j 
by painters. Its medicinal properties are 
violently cathartic. 

GAME LAWS ( gaman , to sport; Sax,) 

X 















Cfjc Jj’rirnttfic antt 


306 


games] 


Any person taking out a proper certificate 
may kill game on liis own land, or that of 
another with his leave ; and anyone having 
sucli a certificate may sell game to any per¬ 
son licensed to deal in it. Any person, in the 
actual possession of enclosed lands, or the 
owner of them, if he has the right of kil¬ 
ling game on them, may by himself, or any 
one authorized by him in a certain form of 
writing, take, kill, and destroy hares, 
without paying duty or obtaining a certi¬ 
ficate. 

GAMES (same deriv'.), in Antiquity, pub¬ 
lic diversions, or contests, exhibited on 
certain occasions as spectacles for the grati¬ 
fication of the people. Such, among the 
Greeks, were the Olympic, Pythian, Isth¬ 
mian, and Nemaean games; and,among the 
Romans, the Apollinarian, Circeusian,Capi- 
toline, &c. The Romans had three sorts of 
games, viz. sacred, honorary,and ludicrous. 
The first were instituted in honour of some 
deity or nero. The second were those exhi¬ 
bited by private persons, to please the peo¬ 
ple ; as, the combats of gladiators, the 
scenic games, and other amphitlieatral 
sports. Tne ludicrous games (Indus, a sport: 
Lett.) were much of the same nature witli 
the games of exercise and hazard among us : 
such were the Indus Trojanus tessera :, &c. 
By a decree of the Roman senate, it Was 
enacted that the public games should be 
consecrated, and united with the worship of 
the gods ; whence it appears, that feasts, 
sacrifices, and games made up the greatest 
part, or ratlier the whole, of the external 
worship offered by the Romans to their 
deities. 

GAMOPET'ALOUS (gamas, union; pet- 
alon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet 
given to a corolla with the petals united; 
monopetalous. 

GAM'UT or GAM'MUT, in Music, the 
table or scale of notes laid down by Guido, 
and marked by the monosyllables ut, re, mi, 
fa, sol, la, &c., derived from syllables com¬ 
mencing the lines of one of the hymns of St. 
John the Baptist, in the Roman breviary, 

‘ Ut queant [axis resonare fibris mini gesto- 
rum /amuli tuorum,’ &c.; ut has been 
changed for do, as more convenient for 
singing. 

GANG ( gangan, to go : Sax.) , in seamen’s 
language, a select number of a ship’s crew 
appointed on any particular service. 

GANG'LION ( ganglion, a knot: Gr.), an 
enlargement in the course of a nerve. Also, 
a tumour in the sheath of'a tendon. 

GAN'GRENE ( gangraina, from gnao, I 
gnaw: Gr.), in Medicine, the first stage of 
mortification before the vitality of the part 
is completely extinct: when thepart is aRo- 
gether dead, it is termed sphacelus. 

GAN'GUE, in Mining, the mineral sub¬ 
stances which contain the ore of a metal, or 
are mingled with it without being che¬ 
mically combined. 

GANG'WAY, among seamen, the name of 
several ways or passages from one part of a 
ship to another; hut it is especially applied 
to a range of planks laid horizontally along 
the upper part of a ship’s side from the 
quarter-deck to the forecastle, and fenced 
©n the outside by iron stanchions, and ropes, 


rails, or netting.- To bring up to the gang¬ 

way is to punish a sailor by flogging him 
there. 

GAN'NET, or Solan Goose, the Sida alba 
of ornithologists, a palmiped bird, about 
the size of a common goose, with a bill six 
inches long, jagged at the sides, and 
straight almost to the point, where it in¬ 
clines downwards. The plumage in the 
young bird is dark with white spots ; when 
mature it is white. Gannets are found in 
the nortli of Scotland, Norway, Newfound¬ 
land, and many other places; hut they 
abound to an almost incredible extent in 
the Hebrides and other solitary islands of 
North Britain, where, in the months of 
May and June, it is difficult to walk without 
treading on their eggs, which are a source 
of considerable profit to the inhabitants. 

GANOID (ganos, brilliancy : Gr.). In Ich¬ 
thyology, those scales which are covered 
with a coat of enamel are termed ganoid. 
Many fossil fishes had scales of this 
nature. 

GANT'LET or GAUNT'LET (gantelet : 
Fr.) a large kind of glove, made of iron, 
the fingers being covered with small plates: 
it was formerly worn by cavaliers, armed 

at all points.- To throw down the gantlet 

is a phrase signifying to challenge or 
defy. The expression derives its origin 
from the days of chivalry, when he who 
challenged an opponent in the lists threw 
down liis glove, and he who accepted the 
challenge took it up. 

GANT'LOPE (gant, all; and loopen, to 
run: Dan.), or GANT'LET, an old military 
punishment, in which the criminal, runhing 
between the ranks, received a lash from 
every man. A similar punishment is used 
on hoard ships: hut it is seldom inflict¬ 
ed, except for such crimes as are calcu¬ 
lated to excite general disgust among the 
seamen. 

GAOL DELIVERY, a term in law for the 
clearing of a prison by a judicial trial 
of the prisoners; also a commission from 
the king to deliver or clear the gaols. 

GAIl'DENING (garten, a garden: Ger.), 
that branch of cultivation which teaches 
how to dispose fruit-trees, flowers, and 
herbs, to the best advantage, whether for 
profit or pleasure; and how to prepare the 
soil for sowing the different kinds of seed ; 
as well as how to treat the plants during 
their various stages of vegetation, till they 
arrive at maturity. The subject is divided 
into Horticulture, which relates to the culti¬ 
vation of culinary vegetables and fruits; 
Floriculture, which relates to the cultivation 
of ornamental and rare flowers, shrubs, and 
trees; Arboriculture, which relates to the 
cultivation of trees and shrubs used for 
various purposes in the arts and general 
economy ; and Landscape gardening, or the 
general arrangement of the scenery or land¬ 
scape about a country residence. We may 
perceive from ancient authors that the for¬ 
mation of beautiful gardens very early at¬ 
tracted the attention of the polished nations 
of antiquity; but the art seems to have 
been forgotten amid the desolation caused i 
by the irruption of barbarous hordes into j 
the provinces of the Roman empire. When | 
























3°7 _ Httenuj) 

the taste for ornamental gardening re¬ 
vived, it was corrupted; stiffness was mis¬ 
taken for beauty, and regularity was car¬ 
ried to an extravagant excess. This was 
succeeded, amongourselves, by the opposite 
extreme. A gardener should study nature 
not less than the painter; but it is not ne¬ 
cessary that he should avoid exhibiting 
any traces of art. Above all things, the 
style of the garden should be suited to that 
of the dwelling it is intended to adorn. 

GAIt'-FISH (gar. a lance : Sax.), in Ich¬ 
thyology, the Sea needle, a long slender fish, 
with the jaws projecting into an elongated 
beak. Itis the Belone vulgaris of naturalists. 
The head and back are a dark green, the 
sides paler, and the belly of a bright silvery 
colour. It makes its appearance on the 
English coast just previous to the arrival 
of the mackerel, which it resembles in 
flavour. 

GAi! 'LIC (gar, a lance: Sax.; and leek), 
the Allium sativum of botanists, a plant 
with a bulbous root, consisting of many 
small tubercles included In its coats. It 
has a strong smell and an acrid taste, but is 
much used as a condiment. 

GAIt'NET ( gravat: Oer.), in Mineralogy, 
a precious stone of great beauty, usually 
occurring in crystals more or less regular, 
and having numerous sides. It is a silicate 
of alumina with oxide of iron : when ex¬ 
tremely line, it has been sold for ruby. Its 
prevailing colour is red of various shades, 
but it is often brown, and sometimes green, 
yellow, or black. Precious garnet is always 
red: flue specimens are found in Ceylon, 
Pegu, Brazil, &c.; and the term oriental 
sometimes applied to it indicates not a lo¬ 
cality where it is found, but its excellence. 
Garnets are usually disseminated, and occur 
in all the primitive strata from gneiss to 
clay slate. In some parts of Germany, they 
are so abundant as to be used as fluxes for 
iron ores; in others, the garnet gravel is 
Washed, pounded, and employed as a sub¬ 
stitute for emery. Varieties have the 
names of the precious or oriental, the py- 
rope, the topazolite, the melanite, the gros- 
sular, the pyreneite, and the colophovite. 

GAlt'TEli, Order op the, a military 
order of knighthood of ancient institution. 
Its origin and name have been often dis¬ 
cussed. One tradition runs that it was in¬ 
stituted by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, 
where he caused twenty-six knights, who 
firmly stood by him, to wear thongs of blue 
leather about their legs. Another account 
attributes its origin to Edward III., when 
lie picked up at a court entertainment the 
countess of Salisbury’s garter, and rebuked 
the laughing bystanders by the words, 
‘Hunt soltqui mal y pense,’ words adopted 
as the motto of the order. Previous to the 
reign of Edward VI. it was generally called 
the order of St. George. The number of 
knights was originally twenty-six, and it 
lias never much exceeded this number. 
Princes of the blood are added as super¬ 
numeraries, and special statutes are occa¬ 
sionally made for the admission of foreign 
potentates, and even of British subjects in 
excess of the ordinary number. The king 
or queen is sovereign of the order, of which 


Cmttfun*. [gas 


about GO foreign crowned heads have been 
members. This order is never conferred 
but upon persons of high rank. The habit 
and ensigns are, the garter, mantle, cap, 
and collar. The badge of the older is the 
image of St. George, called the George : and 
the motto is Honi suit qui vial y pease, or 
‘ Evil he to him that thinks evil hereof.’ 
The bishop of Winchester is the prelate of 
the order, and the bishop of Oxford the 
chancellor. 

GAS (gaz, from geist, a spirit: Cer.), a 
general term employed in chemistry to ex¬ 
press all permanently elastic aerial fluids, 
whether produced by chemical experiments 
or evolved in natural processes. Four of 
the elementary bodies are gases, viz. oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine. Each 
species has its distinguishing characters 
and its own peculiar and uniform specific 
gravity, or weight, though, in all cases, 
several hundred times less than that of I 
water. Gases possess many extraordinary 
properties, and play an important part In ; 
almost all chemical, and in many natural 
phenomena. [See the different gases under 
their respective names.] One of the pro- i 
perties of gases is, that if two or more are 
confined together, and the circumstances are 
such that they will not combine with each ! 
other, they will mix and interfuse although j 
their specific gravities may he very ciif- | 
fereut. Gases are highly elastic. According' 
to Boyle’s law (often attributed to Mar- 
riotte), the volume of a gas is inversely as 
the pressure, whilst the density and elastic 
force are directly as the pressure, and in- j 
versely as the volume. Thus a cubic foot 
of gas under a pressure of thirty indies of 
mercury will expand to two cubic feet if ( 
the pressure he reduced to one half. But 
if the pressure he doubled, the gas will only 
occupy half a cubic foot. Thedensity of a 
cubic foot of gas will be doubled if the vo¬ 
lume he reduced by pressure to one half, and ; 
halved if the diminished pressure allows 
the gas to expand to the volume of two cu¬ 
bic feet. The elastic force or tension follows ! 
the same rule. It is known that the elasti- ; 
city nf nearly all gases can he so far counter¬ 
acted by great pressure that they will he- i 
come liquid. The common process is to ex- j 
pose them to tlie pressure of their own atmo- I 
spheres. Thus, carbonate of soda and sul¬ 
phuric acid, mixed together in a perfectly 
close vessel, generate carbonic acid gas, 
which soon not only fills tlie vessels, but be¬ 
comes condensed by the mutual pressure 
of its own particles. Liquid carbonic add 
is highly volatile, and therefore, by the 
rapid expansion and evaporation conse¬ 
quent upon its issue from a receiver, is 
capable of producing a temperature so low 
as 189' J below the freezing point of water. 
The solid carbonic acid which is produced, 
cold as it is, may be held in the band with 
impunity, or retained in glass in the open 
air for a considerable time, because it im¬ 
mediately becomes surrounded with its own 
vapour, and is not in contact with the sub¬ 
stance upon which it apparently rests. In 
order, therefore, to use the liquefied gas as 
a cooling agent, it must he brought into 
contact with another substance of a very 























gas] VL\)t J^ctenttfte anfr 308 


different temperature, by means of a tliird, 
which should be a good conductor of heat. 
Ether is used for this purpose, because it 
will bear their contact and still retain its 
liquid state. Now, although the carbonic 
acid thus dissolved is not so cold as solid 
carbonic acid, if the Anger is placed in it, 
the effect will be the same as if it were 
plunged in melted metal. 

GAS FOR ILLUMINATION. When 
treating of carburetted hydrogen, we al¬ 
luded to the constituents of gases for illu¬ 
mination. The substance most ordinarily 
used for the production of these is bitumi¬ 
nous coal; and the gas obtained from it is a 
mixture of two or more gases or vapours, 
with small portions of other gaseous bodies, 
particularly hydrogen and carbonic oxide. 
I)r. Clayton, about the year 1735, examined 
the Atness of coal gas for the production 
of artiAcial light; but its application to 
economical purposes was unaccountably 
neglected for about sixty years after. At 
length, in 1798, Mr. W. Murdoch, in the em¬ 
ployment of Messrs. Watt and Boulton, of 
the Soho foundry, erected a gas apparatus 
on a large scale at the foundry. In 1803, Mr. 
Winsor exhibited gas illuminations in the 
Lyceum, London; and proved the practi¬ 
cability of lighting the streets of cities by 
lighting Pall Mall. Since that time, gas 
has been more extensively employed every 
succeeding year, till at length almost all 
factories, and even the smaller towns, are 
I lighted by it. So great, indeed, were the 
advantages which the public derived from 
this brilliant light, that, in less than twenty 
years from Mr. Winsor’s experiments in 
Pall Mall, there were four large gas com¬ 
panies established in the metropolis. In 
1852, there were eighteen public companies 
in London, each having gas works ; which 
supplied gas for 134,300 private, and 30,400 
street-burners. About 890 tons of coal 
were consumed daily ; 7,120,000 cubic feet 
of gas were used in the longest night; 
408,000 tons of coal were used during the 
year; and the product of gas was 4000 mil¬ 
lions of cubic feet. When coal is subjected 
to destructive distillation, that is, raised to 
a red heat in closed vessels, it yields per¬ 
manent gases, vapours condensible into the 
liquid or solid state by cooling, and solid 
matter as residuum. These must, in the 
manufacture of coal gas, be separated. For 
this purpose, the coal is placed in cast-iron 
retorts, which communicate by pipes with 
the hydraulic main, a large horizontal pipe, 
partially Ailed with tar and ammoniacal 
liquor, into which the pipes from the re¬ 
torts dip. This hydraulic main condenses 
the more volatile vapours into a liquid, 
which runs off by an ovcrAow-pipe. The 
gas passes into the puriAers, where the car¬ 
bonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen are 
removed by a mixture of lime and water; 
thence it is conducted into the gas-holders, 
or, as they are improperly called, gasometers 
where it is stored up for use. In order to 
obtain agood gas from coals, the distillation 
should commence with a retort, previously 
heated to a cherry-red, which heat should 
be steadily continued during thewliolepro- i 
cess, that is, from Ave to eight hours ; but 1 


the operation should be stopped some time 
before gas ceases to come over, lest com¬ 
pounds having feeble illuminating power 
should impoverish the contents of the 
gasometer.-—O il Gas contains no mixture 
of sulphuretted hydrogen, and requires 
no other puriAcation than transmission 
through a refrigerator; and as less of it is 
required for any given quantity of light, 
the atmosphere of a room is less heated and 
contaminated by its combustion. It is, 
however, considerably more expensive than 
the gas from coal; although the Arst outlay 
of capital for a manufactory upon a large 
scale is less, on account of the smaller size 
of the necessary pipes and apparatus. Oil 
gas is obtained by dropping Ash oil, and sub¬ 
stances not At for lamps, on iron, coke, or 
bricks, raised to a high temperature. One 
cubic foot of oil produces from 600 to 700 
cubic feet of gas, or, on an average, 98 per 
cent, by weight. When resin is used for 
the production of gas, it must Arst be ren¬ 
dered fluid by solution in oil of tar, &c. One 
pound of resin yields from 14 to 23 cubic 

feet of gas.- Wood Gas. Gas obtained 

by the destructive distillation of wood has 
been tried; but it totally failed on account 
of the feeble illuminating power which it 
possesses. 

GAS-BURNERS, either simple beaks of 
metal perforated with a small round hole, 
or a circle with a series of holes which form 
an argand flame; or two holes drilled ob¬ 
liquely, to make the jets cross each other, 
so as to form a flame like a swallow’s tail; 
or a slit which produces a sheet of flame, 
and is used with most of the street lamps. 
The burners are mounted with a stop-cock 
for regulating the supply of gas. 

GAS-METER. Before the gas is consumed 
it is usually passed through an instrument 
called a meter, in order to ascertain the 
number of cubic feet which are used in a 
given time, or in a particular place. The 
instrument consists of a kind of revolving 
drum, having compartments which measure 
the gas, and deliver it, as they pass round 
in succession; water, which, before the 
next revolution, is replaced by gas, taking 
its place. It is Ailed with that fluid up to a 
certain height through an orifice in the side 
of the vessel, in which a plug is fltted. The 
gas enters by a pipe at one side, escapes 
from an oriflee into a pipe at the other, and 
is thence conveyed to the burners. By 
means of a train of wheel-work in connec¬ 
tion with the axis of the drum, an index is 
turned, which points out on the index-plate 
how many cubic feet have passed through 
the meter. 

GASOM'ETER, or more correctly GAS- 
IIOLDER, a hollow cylindrical vessel, 
usually made of metal plates, open at one 
end, and placed upon its open end in a 
j cistern, or a cylindrical ring of water. It 
serves not merely as a magazine for receiv¬ 
ing the gas when it is purifled, and keeping 
it in store for use, but also for communica¬ 
ting to the gas, in the act of burning, such 
a uniform pressure as may secure a steady 
■ unflickering flame. 

GASTRIC JUICE ( gaeter , the stomachs 
Gr.), in the animal economy, a thin pellucid 











309 Etterarg 


liquor, separated by the capillary exhaling 
arteries of the stomach. It is the principal 
agent in digestion; for it acts with a chemi¬ 
cal energy in dissolving food, which is not 
merely reduced by it to very minute parts, 
but its taste and smell are quite changed, 
and it acquires new and very different pro¬ 
perties. [See Digestion.] 

GASTRITIS (same deriv.), in Medicine, 
inflammation of the stomach. It is at¬ 
tended by great irritability of that organ, 
hiccough, vomiting, and violent pain, with 
general uneasiness, and a small hard pulse. 
There is also fever, accompanied with pros¬ 
tration of strength. It is a very dangerous 
disease. 

GASTROR'APHY ( gaster, the stomach; 
and raphe, a seam : Gr.), in Surgery, the 
operation of sewing up wounds of the 
abdomen. 

GASTROT'OMY (gaster, the stomach ; and 
tome, a cutting: Gr.), in Surgery, the ope¬ 
ration of cutting into or opening the abdo¬ 
men. 

GA'UGING-ROD danger, to gauge: Fr.), 
an instrument used in measuring the con¬ 
tents of casks or vessels. 

GAULT, a bed of fossiliferous clay, hav¬ 
ing an average thickness of 100 feet, which 
forms the lowest member of the upper cre¬ 
taceous group in the south of England. It 
is interposed between the upper and lower 
green sand, and contains a great number 
of well preserved marine shells. It was 
originally line mud deposited in a deep sea. 

GAUZE ( gaze: Fr.), a very thin, slight, 
transparent kind of woven stuff, sometimes 
of silk, and sometimes only of thread. It 
is frequently enriched with flowers of silver 
or gold. 

GAV'EL-KIND (gyfe, give; eal, all; and 
kyn, kind: Sax.), a tenure or custom by which 
tiie lands of a father, dying intestate, 
are divided equally at his death among 
his sons; and the land of a brother, dying 
without issue, descends equally to his 
brothers. And though the ancestor be at¬ 
tainted and hanged, the heir succeeds with¬ 
out any escheat. This species of tenure 
prevailed in England, before the Norman 
conquest, in many parts of the kingdom, if 
not through the realm ; but particularly in 
Kent, where it still exists, in consequence, 
as is affirmed, of the Kentish men having 
submitted upon the express condition of 
retaining their peculiar privileges. 

GAVOT' ( gavotte: Fr.), a kind of dance, 
the air of which has two brisk and lively 
strains in common time, each of which is 
played twice over. 

GAZEL'LE or GAZ'EL, a member of the 
antelope tribe, the Gazella Dorcas of natu¬ 
ralists. It is a native of the north of Africa 
and Asia Minor. Like the goat, it has 
hollow permanent horns, and it feeds on 
shrubs; but in size and delicacy, and in the 
nature and colour of its hair, it resembles 
the roebuck. The beauty and brilliancy of 
its eye is its most remarkable feature. 

GAZETTE, a kind of official newspaper, 
containing an account of public or private 
transactions and events, which are deemed 
sufficiently important for insertion. Ga- 
tetta is said to have been the name of a 


Cl’CaaUVlL [GEMMULE 


Venetian coin, in value between a farthing 
and a halfpenny in England, which was the 
price of the first newspaper; and hence the 
name. The-first gazette in England was 
published at Oxford in 1605. On the return 
of the court to London, the title was 
changed to the London Gazette. It is now 
the official newspaper, and is published on 
Tuesdays and Fridays. 

GAZETTEE'R, a topographical work, 
containing brief descriptions, alphabeti¬ 
cally arranged, of empires, kingdoms, cities, 
towns, and rivers. It may either include 
the whole world, or be limited to a par¬ 
ticular country. The first work of this 
kind, with which we are acquainted, is that 
of Stephen of Byzantium, who lived in the 
beginning of the 6tli century. 

GA'ZONS (Fr.), in Fortification, masses of 
fresh earth, covered with grass, used to line 
the outsides of ramparts, parapets, &c. 

GEH'LENITE, a mineral, found in the 
Tyrol,and named after Gehlen the chemist. 
It is a ferrosilicate of alumina and lime. 

GEL'ATIN or GEL'ATINE (gelatio, a 
freezing: Lat., from its assuming the solid 
form on cooling), a concrete animal sub¬ 
stance, or jelly, obtained by boiling the 
muscles, cartilages, bones, tendons, &c., 
in water; glue and isinglass are examples 
of this substance. About one-half of dry 
gelatine consists of carbon, one-quarter of 
oxygen, and the remainder of nitrogen and 
hydrogen. Alcohol and tannin precipitate 
gelatine from its solution; the former by 
abstracting the water, the latter by com¬ 
bining with the substance itself so as to 
form an insoluble compound. Gelatine 
forms a tremulous solid when cold, and 
again liquefies on the application of heat. 
It may be kept in a dry state for a long 
time, but it soon putrefies in contact with 
water. 

GEM'INI (Lat.), in Astronomy, the Twins, 
a constellation and sign of the zodiac, repre¬ 
senting Castor and Pollux. It is easily 
recognized, by two conspicuous stars of the 
second magnitude very near each other; 
Castor being to the east, and Pollux to the 
west. 

GEMMA' (Lat.), in Botany, a leaf-bud. 
Leaf-buds appear in the axils of leaves, i. e. 
in the angle between a leaf and the stem. 
They are formed at first by prolongations 
from the medullary rays bursting through 
the bark. They are usually protected by 
scales until the leaves have expanded to a 

certain extent.- Gemma:, in the plural, 

is applied to certain structures which are 
thrown off by some cryptogamic plants 
(liverworts, for instance), and are capable 
of forming new individuals. 

•GEMMA'CEOUS (gemma, a bud: Lat.), 
a Botanical term applied to a flower-stalk 
which grows out of a leaf-bud. 

GEMMATION (same deriv.), in Botany, 
the arrangement of leaves in the bud. 

GEMMIP'AROUS (gemma, a bud ; and 
pario, I bring forth: Lat.), an epithet ap¬ 
plied to animals, which propagate by shoots, 
as most of the polypi. 

GEM'MULE (gemmula, the dim. of gemma. 
Lat.), in Botany, the ascending axis or 
plumule of pm embryonic plant. 

























gems] tKije Jj?ctcnttftc aulf sio 


GEMS (gemma, a precious stone: Lat.), 
tlie name given to precious stones in general, 
but more especially to such as by their 
colour, brilliancy, polish, purity, and rarity, 
are sought after as objects of decoration. 
Geni3 of the most valuable kinds form the 
principal part of the crown jewels of sove- 
j reign princes, and are esteemed not merely 
I for their beauty, but as comprising the 
I ! greatest value in the smallest bulk. Gems 
are remarkable for their hardness and 
lustre. Those usually employed are dia- 
\ ! monds, sapphires, emeralds, rubies, to¬ 
pazes, hyacinths, and chrysoberyls, which 
are the most valuable; crystalline quartz, 
pellucid, opalescent, or of different lines; 
amethyst, lapis lazuli, malachite, jasper, 

I agate, chalcedony, onyx, carnelian, and 
blood-stone. They are of various classes, 

J and proportional values.— Gem-exgrav- 
, ixg or Gem-sculpture, called also lithogly plies, 
is the art of representing designs upon 
precious stones, either in raised work, as 
i cameos, or by figures cut below the surface, 

! as intaglios. This art is of great antiquity, 
and was probably practised by the Baby¬ 
lonians. Some think it originated in India; 
s but wherever it began, we have ample evi- 
[ deuce that it was in high esteem among tho 
! Greeks and Romans. 

GEKDAIt'MES or GENS D’ARMES (Fr.: 
literally, armed persons), in the history of 
France, a select body of troops, destined to 
watch over the public safety, and conse¬ 
quently much employed by the police. They 
were so called on account of their succeed¬ 
ing the ancient gendarmes, who were com¬ 
pletely clothed in armour. August 16th, 
( 1830, a royal ordinance abolished the gens 
■ {Pannes, and established anew body called 
| the municipal guard of Paris, to consist of 
! 1443 men, under the direction of tlie prefect 
j of police. 

GEN'DERS (genus: Lat), in Grammar, 
are either masculine, for the male sex; fe- 
| minine, for the female sex; or neuter, for 
nouns which are of neither sex. In Latin, 
the termination of a noun distinguishes the 
gender in many instances, us for the mas¬ 
culine, a the feminine, and um tlie neuter. 
Corresponding terminations are found in 
other languages. In these the idea of sex 
is carried out in nouns that represent 
things which are really sexless and would 
be called neuter by us. The English lan¬ 
guage has very few terminations by which 
, the genders are distinguished, such as 
j count and countess. 

GENEAL'OGY (genealogia: from gcnca, 
descent; and logos, a description : Gr.), a 
history of tlie descent of a person or family 
from a series of ancestors. In various 
1 chapters and military orders, it is required 
that the candidates produce their genea- 

I I logy, to show that they are noble by so 
: many descents. 

GEN'EItAL (generalis, relating to all: 
! Lat.), the highest rank in the British army 
j next to field-marshal. Lieutenant-generals 
i rank next to the generals, and then come 
! the major-generals. These officers have no 
! duties unless specially entrusted with a 
i command. The colonelships of regiments 
j | are distributed amongst them. The chief 


commander of an army is often called, by 

way of distinction, the general-in-chief. -• 

A particular beat of drum which in the 
morning gives notice to the infantry to be 
in readiness to march, is also called the 
general. 

GENER ALIS'STMO (Ttal.), the supreme 
general or commander-in-chief of an army. 

GEN'ERAL IS'SUE, in Law, that plea 
which denies at once the whole declaration 
or indictment, without offering any special 
matter by which to evade it. This is the 
ordinary plea upon which most causes are 
tried, and is now almost Invariably used 
in criminal cases. It puts everything in 
issue, that is, denies everything, and re¬ 
quires the party to prove all that he has 
stated. In many cases, for the protection 
of justices; constables, excise officers, &c., 
they are, by act of parliament, enabled to 
plead the general issue, and give the special 
matter of their justification, in evidence. 

GEN'ERALIZE.in Logic, to comprehend, 
under a common name, several objects, 
agreeing in some point, indicated by the 
common term. 

GENERATING LINE or FIGURE ( gcncro, 

I produce: Lat.), in Geometry, that which, 
by its motion, produces any plane or solid 
figure, &c. Thus, a right line moved 
parallel to itself, generates a parallelo¬ 
gram ; made to revolve in the same plane, 
round one of its extremities, it generates a 
circle. One entire revolution of a circle, 
along the same right line, generates the 
cycloid ; and the revolution of a semicircle 
round its diameter generates a sphere, &c. 

GENERATOR (a producer: Lot.), in 
Music, the principal sound or sounds by 
which others are produced. Thus the low- i 
est C for the treble of the pianoforte, 
besides its octave, will strike an attentive 
ear with its twelfth above, or G in alt, and 
with its seventeenth above, or E in alt. 
Ilcnce C is called their generator, the G and 
E its products or harmonics. 

GENER'IC (genus, a class : Lat), pertain¬ 
ing to or connected with a genus, which see. 

GENESIS (an or gin: Gr.), a canonical 
book of the Old Testament, and the first of i 
the Pentateuch, at five books of Moses. 
The Greeks gave L the name of Genesis, 
from its beginning with an account of the 
creation of the world. 

GENET (genette: Fr.), the Genettavulgaris 
of naturalists, a carnivorous animal, the 
size of a small cat, which is a native of 
Africa, Asia, and the south of Europe. 
Like its ally the civet cat, it produces an 
agreeable perfume, but less powerful and 
less permanent.—Also, a small-sized well- | 
proportioned Spanish horse. 

GENETH'LIACS ( genethliakos, belonging 
to one’s birthday: Gr.), the pretended 

art of calculating nativities.-Also, a 

short poem composed in honour of an in¬ 
dividual. 

GENIC'ULATED (gcniculatus, with a 
bended knee: Lat.), in Botany, bending 
abruptly, like the knee. 

GENIOGLOS'SI ( geneion, the chin ; and 
glossa, tho tongue: Gr.), in Anatomy, a pair 
of muscles with which the tongue is thrown 
out. 
































311 Menu-» 


GENISTA ( Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
leguminous shrubs, including the G. tinc- 
toria, or dyer’s broom, and several other spe¬ 
cies of broom. 

; GEN'ITIVE CASE (genitivus, generative : 
Lat.), the second case in Latin and Greek 
nouns, which denotes possession or relation; 
it is usually marked in English by s with an 
apostrophe, thus (’$). 

GE'NIUS (Lat., from gigno, I produce), in 
the belief of the old Etruscans, a spiritual 
agency of a very indeterminate kind, ap¬ 
propriated not only to every human family 
and individual, but also to Gods, places, and 
things. Among the Romans, it became 
mingled with the Grecian doctrine of de¬ 
mons. According to them, every person 
liad his own genius, that is a spiritual 
being, which introduced him into life, ac¬ 
companied him during the course of it, and 
again conducted him out of it at the close 

of his career.- Genii, among the eastern 

nations, a race of beings created from fire, 
occupying an intermediate place between 
men and angels ; endowed with a corporeal 
form, which they could change at pleasure. 
They are supposed to interest themselves 
greatly about the affairs of men, and to 
have considerable influence over them. 

GE'NltE (Fr.). Pictures representing 
subjects of every-day life, whether real or 
fictitious, but not portraits or landscapes, 
are styled genre pictures. Wilkie's Blind 
Fiddler, Leslie's Sancho Panza and the 
Duchess, and Frith’s Railway Station, may 
be cited as well-known examples. 

GENTIA'NA (Lat, from Gentius, king of 
Illyria), in Botany, a genus of plants, nat. 
ord. Gentianacece, containing many species, 
of which some are wild in Britain, and 
known for their bitter juice. The Gcntiana 
lutea is a native of the mountainous parts 
of Germany, and the Swiss and Austrian 
Alps. Its root, the only part used, has a 
yellowish-brown colour, and very bitter 
taste ; and its infusion or tincture is an 
excellent stomachic bitter. 

GENTILES (belonging to the same race: 
Lat.), a name given in the sacred writings 
to all who were not of the twelve tribes of 
Israel. 

GENTLEMAN (gens, a race: Lat. — the 
English word gentle originally meant be¬ 
longing to a race or family), in Heraldry, 
any one entitled to coat armour; but the 
term is usually applied to those having no 
other title. Certain persons were born or 
made gentlemen, either expressly or by 
their office; but, as a rank, that of gentle¬ 
man is now obsolete. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS, a body of forty 
gentlemen, who attend in uniform in the 
sovereign’s presence-chamber at levees and 
drawing-rooms,and on other state occasions. 
They receive pay, and have a captain at their 
head, usually a nobleman, who retires with 
the ministry. 

GENTOO', a native of India who pro¬ 
fesses the religion of the Bramiiis. [See 

Hindoo.] 

GE'N US (Lat.), in Natural History, a group 
of species having some common characters 
which supply the definition of the genus. 
Thus the Asiatic and the African elephants 


Circa^m'H. [geography 


are so far distinct that they are considered 
separate as species ; but they have so much 
in common, that they are placed in the 
same generic group. In naming a species, 
naturalists give first the name of the genus, 
e. g. Elephas, and then the specific designa¬ 
tion, e. g. Elephas indicus, or Elephas africa- \ 
mis. A genus is itself a subdivision of a 

family or an order. [See Species.] -In 

Logic, one of the predicables, which is con¬ 
sidered the material part of the species of 

which it is affirmed.-In Music, the name 

for any scale of music: thus, the diatonic 
genus, which proceeds by the tones and 
semitones belonging to the key; and the 
chromatic genus, which proceeds entirely by 
semitones. 

GEOCENTRIC (pc, the earth ; and kentron, ' 
a centre: Gr.), in Astronomy, literally hav- \ 
ing the earth for centre. It is opposed to 
heliocentric, having the sun for centre. These 
terms are used only with regard to the 
solar system. The fixed stars are so dis¬ 
tant that they are referred to the same 
place, whether supposed to be seen from 
the earth or the sun. The geocentric place 
of a planet is the place of the centre of the 
planet as it would appear from the centre 
of the earth ; the heliocentric place such as 
it would appear from the centre of the sun. 

-Geocentric Latitude of a planet, the 

angle made by a line drawn from the planet 
to the earth, with the plane of the ecliptic. 

-Geocentric Longitude, the angle at 

the earth, made by two straight lines, one 
drawn from the planet to the first point of 
Aries, the other to the point of the ecliptic, 
intercepted by a perpendicular circle, the 
plane of which passes through the earth 
and planet. 

GE'ODE ( geodes, earthy: from gS, the 
earth ; and cidos, form : Gr.), in Mineralogy, 
a roundish lump of agate or other mineral. 
Sometimes its interior is empty, and the 
sides of its cavity are lined with crystals; 
at others it contains a solid movable nu¬ 
cleus, or is filled with an earthy matter 
- Geodifeiious, producing geodes. 

GEOD'ESY (ge, the earth ; and daio, I 
divide: Gr.), literally a division of the earth, 
in which sense it is synonymous with land 
surveying; but it is applied in a more general 
sense to that part of practical geometry 
which relates to the determination of tho 
magnitude and figure of the earth, or any 
portion of its surface. Hence it includes 
all the geometrical and trigonometrical ope¬ 
rations necessary for the purpose; which 
are called gendesical or geodetical, in oppo¬ 
sition to astronomical, or those required 
for determining azimuths and latitudes. 

GEOG'NOSY (ge, the earth ; and g7i0sis, 
knowledge: Gr.). This word is nearly sy¬ 
nonymous with geology, which see. 

GEOG'RAPHY (geOgraphia: from ge, the 
eartli; and graplie, a description: Gr.), the de¬ 
scription of the earth as a whole, its surface, 
natural divisions, and local characteristics. 
The fundamental principles of geography 
are the spherical figure of the earth, its ro¬ 
tation on its axis, its revolution round the 
sun, and the position of the axis or line, 
round which it revolves, with regard to the j 
celestial luminary ; whence it fallows that j 
























geology] 


Clje 


Jrrtcuttfic autr 


312 


astronomy is the key of all geographical 
knowledge. The figure of the earth is that 
of an oblate spheroid, that is to say, it is 
a globe flattened at each pole. There is 
a difference of about 26$ miles between 
the polar and equatorial diameters. [See 
Earth.] General geography comprehends 
the knowledge of the earth in general, and 
the phenomena common to the whole globe. 
Particular geography has relation to par¬ 
ticular countries, showing their boundaries, 
figure, climate, seasons, inhabitants, arts, 
customs, language, history, &c. When it 
has reference to regions, districts, or parts 
orcountries.it is called chorography; and 
when to particular cities, towns, or villages, 
&c„ it is called topography. Ancient geo¬ 
graphy treats of the countries and places 
existing among the ancients; modern geo¬ 
graphy describes the various countries that 
now exist, and of which we are able to 
glean information from travellers. There 
are also other aspects under which geo¬ 
graphy may be considered; viz. as mathe¬ 
matical, physical, and political. Mathemati¬ 
cal geography determines the form and 
dimensions of the earth ; its relations with 
the celestial bodies ; the relative positions 
and distances of places on its surface, and 
their representation by globes or maps. To 
ascertain the relative position of different 
places, geographers refer them to two great 
circles, that is, circles formed by the inter¬ 
section of planes passing through the 
earth’s centre. One of these, the equator, 
is equally distant from the poles ; and the 
other is a meridian which passes through 
the poles and a given place from which 
the reckoning commences. The latitude of 
any place is its distance north or south 
of the equator, measured on its meridian. 
Latitude, therefore, is equal to the elevation 
of the pole above the horizon. Longitude is 
the distance of the meridian of any place, 
east or west, from what is called the first 
meridian, measured on the equator. For 
a first meridian, astronomers and geogra¬ 
phers generally choose the meridian passing 
through the capital of their own country ; 
though it is manifest that any other 
would do equally well. The first meridian 
of English geographers passes through 
Greenwich ; that of the Parisians through 
the observatory at Paris. Latitude is found 
by astronomical observations; and longi¬ 
tude, by the interval which elapses between 
the times at which any celestial body passes 
over the respective meridians. Distance 
may be ascertained by changing degrees 
into miles. [See Degree.] Physical geo¬ 
graphy in its most extended sense comprises 
geology, hydrography, meteorology, and a 
description of the animal, vegetable, and 
mineral kingdoms ; but it is usually limited 
to a description of the outward features 
of the globe, with an account of their bear¬ 
ings upon one another. Land occupies only 
one-third of the surface of the globe ; and 
of this land, four-fifths are situated in the 
northern hemisphere; it is found chiefly in 
three great masses ; viz. the Old Continent, 
comprising Europe, Asia, and Africa; the 
neio continent, comprising North and South 
America, and New Holland: these are sepa¬ 


rated from each other by great oceans. In ( 
political geography, the earth is considered 
as the abode of rational beings, divided 
into larger or smaller societies, according 
to their diffusion over the globe, and their 
social relations. It considers the language, 
religion, government, degrees of civiliza-; 
tion, population, resources, and local rela¬ 
tions of the different countries; and there¬ 
fore includes history and statistics. As a 
science the ancients knew but little of geo -1 
graphy ; yet we find that they did not over¬ 
look or neglect it. It was a constant custom 
among the Romans, after they had con¬ 
quered and subdued any province, to have 
a map of it carried in triumph, and exposed 
to the view of the spectators. Historians 
inform us that the Roman senate, about a 
hundred years before Christ, sent geogra¬ 
phers into various countries, that an 
accurate survey and mensuration of the 
globe might be obtained; but we now 
know that they saw scarcely the twentieth 
part of it. Before them, Necho, king of 
Egypt, commanded the Phoenicians to make 
a survey of the whole coast of Africa, which 
they accomplished in three years. Darius 
ordered the Ethiopic sea, and the mouth of 
the Indus, to be surveyed ; and Pliny relates 
that Alexander, in his expedition into Asia, 
took two geographers to measure and de¬ 
scribe the roads ; and that from their itine¬ 
raries the writers of the following ages 
gleaned the chief portions of their informa¬ 
tion. The honour of reducing geography to a 
system was, however, reserved for Ptolemy, 
who, by adding mathematical advantages to 
the historical method in which it had been 
treated of before, described the world in a 
much more intelligible manner; delineat¬ 
ing it under more certain rules, and fixing 
the bounds of places from longitude and 
latitude. As a work of science, therefore, 
his system deservedly held the first rank 
among the ancients; and but little was 
added to what he achieved until the time of 
Copernicus, a.d. 1520. From that period to 
the present, the science of geography has 
been steadily advancing ; continual acces¬ 
sions to it having been made, by new dis¬ 
coveries, by accurate accounts of travels by 
land and water, by systematic topographies, 
and more precise measurements. 

GEOL'OGY ige, the earth: logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), the science which investigates 
the structure of the earth and the history 
of the successive changes it has undergone. 
The series of events to be unravelled is 
very complicated, and it requires a close, 
patient and skilful examination of the facts 
before they can be arranged in their true or¬ 
der. The rocks constituting the crust of the 
earth have not all had the same origin. 
Some have evidently solidified from a state 
of fusion: others appear to have been de¬ 
posited in water; and a third series seems 
to have been originally deposited like the 
last in water, but to have been subse¬ 
quently acted upon by heat. Hence arises 
the division of rocks into igneous, sedimen¬ 
tary, and Metamorphic. The igneous 
rocks include Granite and Syenite 
(both of which are conjectured to have 
cooled slowly from a melted state under 












JCttevari? ^rca^ury. [geometry 


313 


great pressure), and the series of Traps 
(Basalt, Trachyte) and Lavas, which 
have issued from the mouths of Volcanoes 
aud flowed along the surface of the earth, 
or over the beds of shallow seas. The ig¬ 
neous rocks are confined to no one age ; they 
are found interposed between or striking 
through sedimentary beds of all ages. It 
is only of late years that the key for unlock¬ 
ing the great difficulties of the road has 
been discovered, and this has been afforded 
by a study of the organic remains which 
most strata of the earth contain. For re¬ 
liable conclusions as to these the geologist 
must look to the comparative anatomist, 
the conchologist, and the botanist. The 
remains are not scattered promiscuously 
throughout all strata; they are confined to 
those which have been deposited by water, 
and in these a given form has a limited 
range, being only found in one bed, or in a 
small series of beds. The older the bed the 
more distinct are the fossil forms from 
existing forms. Moreover, whenever a 
species present in the lower beds of a series 
is absent from the middle beds, it will not 
be found again in the higher beds; it has 
disappeared altogether. Reasoning on 
these facts, the geologist concludes that the 
rocks which contain remains of animals 
resembling existing marine animals were 
deposited by the sea, and that the age of 
any bed of a series is to be determined by 
its relative position,being older than those 
above and newer than those belowit, unless 
there is evidence of local disturbance. 
Moreover, if a bed in a given locality is 
found to contain organic remains resem¬ 
bling those discovered in a bed situate in 
another locality, he will conclude that the 
two beds are of the same age, although 
their mineral constituents may be different, 
so that the date of the latter bed with re¬ 
ference to adjacant beds being known, the 
date of the former with reference to adja¬ 
cent beds is known also. Again, a bed may 
be found whose organic contents agree in 
part with those of one bed of a known 
series and in part with those of a neigh¬ 
bouring bed, in which case it will be classed 
either as chronologically between the two, 
or as contemporaneous with both. On 
these principles the sedimentary rocks are 
arranged in periods and groups, distin¬ 
guished by the peculiarities of the organic 
remains they contain. Each group consists 
of numerous beds which may differ widely 
front each other in most particulars, but 
which agree more or less in their organic 
contents. To say that a bed belongs to a 
given group implies only that it is of a cer¬ 
tain age, and the age is chiefly determined 
by the foreign bodies embedded in the de¬ 
posit and the order of superposition. It has 
been found that the whole series of sedi¬ 
mentary rocks may be naturally divided 
into three periods,viz.: Primary or paheozoic 
(the most ancient), secondary, and tertiary; 
aud each of these is again divided with re¬ 
ference to differences in mineralogical 
characters and the embedded organic re¬ 
mains into systems, which are again sub¬ 
divided into formations. For some account 
of the rocks of which the earth s crust is 


composed the reader may refer to Chalk, 
Clay, Limestone, and Sandstone. As to ! 
the state in which organic remains are 
found, see Fossils. The following is a list 
of the periods and systems into which the 
sedimentary strata of the earth have been 
divided. Some account of each group will 
be found in its alphabetical place 

Post Tertiary, or the Post Pliocene 
system. 

Tertiary, including tho Pliocene, Mio¬ 
cene, and Eocene systems. 

Secondary, including the Cretaceous, 
Oolitic, Liassic, and Triassic systems. 

Primary, including the Permian or Mag¬ 
nesian Limestone, Carboniferous,Devonian, 
Silurian, Cambrian and Laurentian systems. 

A great light was thrown upon many 
difficult geological questions when it was 
ascertained that large portions of the 
earth’s surface .are slowly subsiding, and 
other portions are slowly rising. It is easy 
to conceive how, during a succession of 
ages, dry land may have been sunk below 
the ocean, aud been elevated many times. 
Deposits would thus accumulate upon it 
under different circumstances, and denu¬ 
dation would occur, both in sinking and 
rising, by the action of the waves upon an 
ever-varying shore. The solid matter thus 
removed was of course deposited elsewhere, 
and hence we obtain some notion of the 
complicated series of eventsalreadyalluded 
to, as having acted in forming the shell of 
the globe and sculpturing its surface. [See 
Denudation.] 

GEOM'ETRY (gg, the earth ; and metron, 
a measure : Or.'), that branch of mathema¬ 
tics which treats of the properties of fig¬ 
ured space. The Greeks cultivated geome¬ 
try more than any other people, but from 
the time of Euclid, who died 300 years b.c., 
to the 15th century, geometry was neglected. 
Since its revival, it has benefited by the 
illustrious labours of Napier, Descartes, 
Newton, and Leibnitz. The science of geo- j 
metry is distinguished into the theoretical j 
and the practical. Theoretical or speculative 
geometry treats of the various properties 
and relations in magnitudes, &c. Practical 
geometry comprehends the construction of 
figures, thedrawing of lines in certain posi¬ 
tions, as parallel or perpendicular to each 
other, &c. Speculative geometry is again 
distinguished into elementary geometry, < 
which treats of the properties aud propor- 
tions of right lines and right-lined figures, ! 
as also of the circle and its several parts; j 
and the transcendental geometry, which 
treats of the higher order of curves, &c. j 
Elementary geometry treats only of the right 
line and circle, of figures bounded by right 
lines and circles, and of solids bounded by 
these figures. The construction of alge¬ 
braic equations of the second degree, and all 
problems that can be solved by right lines 
and circles, belong to elementary geometry. 
The following are definitions of great prac¬ 
tical importance. A point is that which 
has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. 

A line has length without breadth or thick¬ 
ness. A superficies, or surface, has length 
and breadth only, the boundaries of which 
are lines. A solid is a figure which has 

























Efjc £>cte»ttftc mttr 


314 


geometry] 


length, breadth, and thickness. A curve con¬ 
tinually changes its direction. A straight 
line lies evenly between its extreme 
points. Parallel lines keep at the same 
distance from each other if extended inde¬ 
finitely. A perpendicular is a line stand¬ 
ing upon another line, with which, or 
with its prolongation, it makes two equal 
angles, called right angles; an obtuse an¬ 
gle is greater, and an acute angle is less, 
than a fight angle. A figure of three 
sides and angles is called a triangle. An 
equilateral triangle is that whose three sides 
are equal. An isosceles triangle is that 
which has two sides equal. A scalene tri¬ 
angle is that whose three sides are all 
unequal. A figure of four sides and angles 
is called a quadrangle, or quadrilateral. A 
parallelogram is a quadrilateral which has 
both its pairs of opposite sides parallel; 
and a rectangle is a parallelogram having 
four right angles. Four-sided figures are, 
moreover, distinguished, according to their 
sides and anales, into a square, having all 
its sides equal, and its angles right angles ; 
a rhombus, having all the sides equal, but 
the angles not right angles ; and a rhomboid, 
having the opposite sides equal two and 
two, and the angles not right angles. When 
a quadrilateral has none of its sides parallel, 
it is a trapezium; and when only two of its 
sides are parallel, a trapezoid. The diagonal 
is a right line which joins two opposite an¬ 
gles of a parallelogram, and divides it into 
two equal triangles. The base of a figure is 
the side on which it is supposed to stand. 
The vertex is the extreme point opposite to 
the base; the altitzede is the perpendicular 
distance from the vertex to the base.—A 
circle is a plane figure bounded by a curve 
line, called the circumference, which is 
everywhere equidistant from a certain 
poiut within, called its centre; the radius 
of a circle is a line drawn from the centre to 
the circumference ; the diameter of a circle 
is a line drawn through the centre, and ter¬ 
minating at the circumference on both 
sides ; an arc of a circle is any part of the 
circumference; a chord is a right line 
joining the extremities of an arc; a seg¬ 
ment of a circle is any part of a circle 
bounded by an arc and its chord; a semi¬ 
circle is half the circle, or a segment cut off 
by a diameter; a sector is any part of a 
circle which is bounded by an arc and two 
radii drawn to its extremities ; and a quad¬ 
rant, or quarter of a circle, is a sector hav¬ 
ing a quarter of the circumference for its 
arc. The circumference of every circle is 
supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, 
called degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, 
and each minute into 60 seconds: hence a 
semicircle contains 180 degrees, andaquad- 
rant 90 degrees. A pyramid is a solid hav¬ 
ing any rectilineal figure for its base, and 
for its lateral surfaces triangles whose 
vertexes meet in one point. A prism is a 
solid figure contained by plaue figures, of 
which two that are opposite are equal, 
similar, and parallel to one another, and 
the others plane parallelograms. A sphere 
is a solid figure described by the revolution 
of a circle. A cone is a solid figure described 
by the revolution of a right-angled triangle 


about one of the sides containing the right 
angle. A cylinder Is a solid figure described 
by the revolution of a right-angled paral¬ 
lelogram about one of iis sides. And a 
erd/e is a solid figure contained by six equal 
squares. An axiom Is a manifest truth not 
requiring a demonstration. The following 
are examples of axioms ‘ Things equal 
to the same thing are equal to one another.’ j 
‘The whole is greater than any of its parts, j 
and equal to the sum of all Its parts.’ ‘If [ 
equal things he taken from equal tilings, j 
the remainders will be equal.’ ‘Magni- ] 
tudes which coincide with one another, or 
which exactly fill the same space, are equal 
to one another.’ A proposition is something 
proposed either to be done or to be demon¬ 
strated, and is either a problem or a theo¬ 
rem. It is a problem when it proposes 
anything to be done, as to divide a given 
line into two equal parts, or to erect a 
perpendicular. It is a theorem when it 
proposes something to be proved, as that 
triangles having the same base and aiti- { 
tude are equal to each other, or that the ' 
angles in the same segment of a circle ■ 
are equal. When something is premised, 
or demonstrated, in order to render what j 
follows more easy, it is termed a lemma, i 
A corollary is a consequent truth, gained 
immediately from some preceding truth 
or observation. A scholium is a remark 
or observation made upon something 
going before it.- Transcendental geo¬ 

metry is, strictly speaking, that which has 
for its object all curves but the circle, and 
all equations above those of the second de¬ 
gree. Some, however, understand it as 
the application of the differential and in- j 
tegral calculus to the investigation of the 

properties of curved lines and surfaces.- 

Geometrical Demonstration. The me- I 
tliod of superposition consists in showing 
that two figures being applied to each \ 
other will coincide or fill the same space; 
and, therefore, that they must l e equal. A 
reductio ad absurdum consists in assuming 
the proposition not to be true, and reason¬ 
ing from this assumption till consequences 1 
are deduced which are either contradictory 
of the hypothesis, which therefore it is I 
absurd to suppose true, or are contradlc- I 
tory of some proposition previously demon- ! 

strated.- Geometrical Investigation 1 

is carried on by two methods; that of 
analysis, and that of synthesis. Analysis, 
resolution, or inverted solution, consists in 
setting out from the thing demanded, and 
arriving by certain established truths, 
termed antecedents, at something known or 
acknowledged to be true. Synthesis, on 
the contrary, begins with that proposition 
which ended the analysis just mentioned; 
and passes from one to another of the for¬ 
mer antecedents, which now become con¬ 
sequents, taking them in an inverted order 
until the conclusion sought, or that with 
which the analysis began, is established_ 

Algebra applied to geometry. This species of 
analysis was unknown to the ancients, but 
lias produced the most Important results 
in the hands of the moderns. Subjects 
which ancient geometry could reach only 
in some limited cases, and with difficulty, 



























31 o Httcrnvj) 


are demonstrated algebraically with great 

facility. -Geometrical Proportion*. 

the equality of geometrical ratios. The 
geometrical ratio between two quantities is 
expressed by the quotient obtained by di¬ 
viding one called the antecedent by the 
other called the consequent. It is the foun¬ 
dation of the rule of proportion, commonly 
called the rale of three. — Geometrical 
Progression is a series in which the terms 
'ncrease or decrease by a common multi¬ 
plier or ratio: thus 2, 4, 8,10, 32 ; or 32,16, 
8, 4, 2. 

GEOPON'ICS (gedponikos, belonging to 
agriculture, from ge, the earth ; and ponos, 
labour: Or.), the art or science of cultivating 
the earth. 

GEORA'MA (ge, the earth ; and orao, I 
see : Gr.), a hollow sphere, representing the 
suiface of the earth, its mountains, seas, 
fivers, &c. 

GEOR'GICS (geOrgikos, belonging to til¬ 
lage, from ge, the earth : and ergon, work : 
Gr.), a poetical composition, treating of 
husbandry, after the manner of Virgil’s 
poem on rural subjects, bearing this title. 
This poem, completed about 31 b.c., is in 
four books; the lirst of which treats of 
ploughing and preparing the ground; the 
second, of sowing and planting ; the third, 
of the management of cattle, sheep, and 
goats; and the fourth is occupied with 
bees. 

GEOR'GIUM SI'DUS, the name given by 
Herschel, in honour of George 11J., to the 
planet which he discovered in 1781 : now 
known as Uranus. 

GERA'NIUM ( gcranos, ft crane : Gr., from 
the form of its fruit), a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. Geraniaeece. There are numerous 
species, but most of the cultivated plants 
known as geraniums belong to the genusPc- 
largonium. The common wild herb Robert 
is Geranium Itobertianum. 

GERMAN'DER, in Botany, the name of 
several plants, as the rock germander, of 
the genus Veronica, and the common and 
t cater germander, of the genus Teucrium. 

GEIt'MAN SIL'VER, an alloy of nickel, 
zinc, and copper. It is sometimes called 
white capper. 

GElt'ilEN (a bud : Lut.), In Botany, the 
1 ovary, that part of the pistil which coutains 
, the ovules or young seeds. 

GERMINATION (germinatio, from last), 
the act by which the embryo of a seed be¬ 
comes developed into a plant. A tempera¬ 
ture of between 60° and 80 is most favour¬ 
able for germination; but some seeds 
require a tropical temperature. No seed 
will grow without moisture. Air also is 
necessary ; hence seeds buried too deeply 
will not grow, but light is injurious. The 
root is developed first. The cotyledons, if 
not changed into leaves, rot away. 

GEltU'SALEMME LIBERA'TA, La, the 
title of Torquato Tasso’s epic poem, pub¬ 
lished at Parma in 1581, when the author 
was in prison at Fenara. The original 
manuscript, in Tasso’s handwriting, is pre¬ 
served in the Soane Museum, London. It 
is in Ottava rima, and divided into 20 
cantos. Its subject is the first crusade, 
When Godfrey of Bouillon was one of the 


5Eaca£ui’£|» [giant’s 


chief commanders, and it ends with tho i 
taking of Jerusalem in 1099. There are 
several English translations of this poem, 
and it lias also been translated into most 
other languages of Europe. Everyone who 
reads tlie‘Jerusalem Delivered ’remarks the 
melancholy feeling that pervades it, a me¬ 
lancholy that flowed naturally from the 
unhappiness of Tasso’s mind and life. Tlie 
diction lias excited great admiration, from 
Its grace and finish. In accordance with 
the taste of tlie time supernatural ma¬ 
chinery is employed. The loves of the cru¬ 
saders are freely introduced, and there are 
many descriptions of battles, as was to be 
expected from the subject. In the choice 
of tliis subject, Tasso Las been thought to 
have bad an advantage over Homer, but in 
vigour and originality tlie Italian is much 
below the Greek poet. 

GES'NERA (from Gesner, a Botanist), in 
Botany, a genus of herbaceous or shrubby 
plants with sliov'y flowers, nat. order 
Gesneracece. 

GEY'SERS (from an Icelandic word signi¬ 
fying raging or roaring), the name of some 
fountains of hot water in Iceland, which 
spring at intervals 90 feet into the air, and 
then subside into their basins, which are 
lined with sinter, a siliceous deposit of 
the water. Various theories have been put 
forward to account for tliis curious pheno¬ 
menon. 

GHAUT, or GHAT, a word which origin¬ 
ally meant a pass through a mountain ; hut 
in the East Indies, at present, it is used to 
denote any extensive chain of hills. 

GHAZEL, an amatory ode amongst the 
Arabiansand Persians, composed of not less 
than seven nor more than thirteen coup¬ 
lets. Tlie second lines of tlie couplets 
rhyme together throughout the poem, tho 
first lines have no rhymes. 

GHEE, butter made in India from the 
milk of cow's and buffalos, and clarified, 
alter which it will continue sweet for sumo 
time. It is an article of considerable com¬ 
merce, and is usually conveyed in bags of 
bide containing many gallons in each. 
Gliee is also made in Northern Africa. 

GHIB'ELINES, a faction in Italy, in the 
13th century, who were the opponents of 
another faction called the Guel/s, which 
see. They maintained tlie supremacy of 
the German emperors over the Italian states, 
which v’as disputed by tlie popes. 

GHOST, Holy. All Christians who sub¬ 
scribe to tlie doctrine of the Atlianasian 
Creed believe tlie Holy Gliost to proceed 
from tlie Father and tlie Son. Tlie Greek 
Church maintains that tlie Holy Gliost pro¬ 
ceeds from tlie Father only ; and this differ¬ 
ence is one of the main points of distinc¬ 
tion between that church and the Homan 
Catholic. 

GI 'ANT’S CAUSE'WAY, a vast assem¬ 
blage of basaltic rocks, on the northern 
coast of Ireland, extending two miles in 
length along the coast of Antrim, and pro¬ 
bably once continued to the coast of Scot? 
land to the spot known by the name of 
F'ligai’s Cave. It consists of many hundred 
thousands of columns of a black kind of 
rock, hard as marble, about twenty feet in' i 






















giaour] 


Hl \)2 ^ctcnliftc antt 


316 


height, and nearly all of a pentagonal or 
five-sided figure. So compactly are the 
whole arranged that a knife can scarcely be 
introduced between them. Basalt displays 
more or less of this prismatic structure in 
all countries where it is found. It is the 
result of cooling from a state of fusion, and 
the prisms are always at right angles to 
the cooling surfaces, so that in dikes they 
are horizontal, whilst in a stream on the 
surface of the earth they are upright. 

GIAOUR (dog: Turk.), a term commonly 
applied by the Turks to the adherents of all 
religions except the Mohammedan, whether 
Zoroastrians, Christians, or Jews. Some 
derive tlie word from Guebre, or Gliebr, a 
Persian word, meaning a worshipper of fire. 

GIB'BON, a long-armed monkey. [See 
HYI.O BATES.] 

GIB'BOUS C gibbus , convex : Lnt.), in As¬ 
tronomy, a term applied to the bright 
portion of the moon, during her course from 
full to new, when the dark part appears fal¬ 
cated or horned, and the light part convex 
or gibbous. 

GIE'SECKITE, a mineral discovered in 
Iceland, by Giesecke. It occurs in brownish 
hexagonal prisms, and is a hydrated silicate 
of alumina and potash. 

GILD'ING ( gildan, to overlay with gold : 
Sax.), the art of covering anything with 
gold, either in a foliated or liquid state. 
There are three distinct methods in general 
practice : namely, icash or water gilding, in 
which the gold is spread, whilst reduced to 
a fluid state, by solution in mercury; leaf 
gilding, either burnished or in oil, performed 
by cementing thin leaves of gold upon the 
work, either with size or by oil, and japan- 
ner's gilding, in which gold dust or powder 
is used instead of leaves. When gold is to 
be applied to anything that is of metal, the 
surface is previously covered with some 
gluey substance or size ; and when it is to 
be exposed to the effects of the weather, a 
composition of drying oil and ochre is used 
In place of the water-size. In the process 
of gilding metals, the surface is first clean¬ 
sed, and then the leaves applied, which, by 
means of burnishing, and a certain degree 
of heat, are made to adhere in the manner 
desired. Gold is applied to glass, porcelain, 
and other vitrified substances, the surfaces 
of which, being very smooth, are capableof 
perfect contact with the gold leaves. 
Within the last few years, nearly all the gilt 
articles manufactured at Birmingham have 
been gilt by an electrotype process. 

GILLS ( gula , the neck: Lot.), the organs 
of respiration in fishes, consisting of some 
cartilaginous or bony arches attached to 
the bones of the head, and furnished on the 
exterior convex side with a multitude of 
vascular fibrils of a red colour. The water 
is admitted by the mouth, and escapes by 
the gill-openings, passing over the gills, and 
thus the air contained in the water acts 
upon the blood, as it circulates in the fibrils, 

-Gill, a measure of capacity, containing 

the fourth part of a pint; but among 
miners, a measure equal to a pint. 

GILLY'FLOWER (corrupted from July 
.lower, girofleur: Fr.), the name of certain 
plants. The clove gillyflower is of the genus 


Dianthus, or carnation pink; the stock gilly¬ 
flower is a Cheiranthus ; and the queen's gilly- 
floiver a Hesperia. 

GILT'HEAD, the Chrysophris auratus, an 
acantliopterygious fish, so named from a 
golden spot between the eyes. 

GIM'BALS (gemellus, paired: Lat.), a pair 
of brass hoops or rings, one of which moves 
within the other, about two axes placed at 
right angles. They are used for suspending 
a sea compass in its box, and keeping it in 
a horizontal position, notwithstanding the 
rolling of the ship. 

GIN ( genilvre , juniper: Fr.), a spirit 
formerly obtained, from oats, barley, or 
malt, redistilled with the addition of berries 
of the genilvre or juniper tree; but now 
made principally of malt spirits, flavoured 
by oil of turpentine. Hollands gin, manu¬ 
factured chiefly at the village of Schiedam, 
is derived from wheat or rye, and flavoured 
with juniper berries. 

GIN'GER (zingiber: Lat.), the dried root 
stock or rhizome of the Zingiber officinalis, 
an East Indian plant, which is also culti¬ 
vated to a considerable extent in Jamaica 
and other West India islands. The root 
stock is of the thickness of a finger, knotty, 
irregular, and creeping. It possesses an 
aromatic, pungent flavour; makes an ex¬ 
cellent preserve, and is used medicinally as 
a carminative. 

GIN'GLYMUS (gigglumos, a hinge : Gr.), 
in Anatomy, a species of articulation re¬ 
sembling a hinge. 

GIN'SENG, a Chinese word, applied to the 
root of the Panax qninquefolia, found in 
the northern parts of Asia and America. 
It has a fleshy, tapering root, about the 
thickness of the finger, which, when dry, is 
of a yellowish-white colour, with a muci¬ 
laginous sweetness in the taste, accompa¬ 
nied with a slight bitterness. The Chinese 
value the ginseng highly, and, as well as 
the Asiatics in general, think it almost a 
universal medicine. They have recourse to 
it in all diseases. The virtues generally as¬ 
cribed to it are those of a restorative and a 
cordial. It is a monopoly of the .govern¬ 
ment, and only a few persons have the 
privilege of purchasing the roots for their 
weight in gold. Our ivy belongs to the 
same nat. ord. Araliacece. 

GIP'SIES, or GYP'SIES, a wandering 
tribe or race of vagrants, spread over the 
greater part of Europe, and some parts of 
Asia and Africa. The name is supposed to 
be corrupted from Egyptian, as they were 
formerly thought to have come from Egypt; 
but their origin is uncertain. They first 
appeared in western Europe, in the I5th cen¬ 
tury, under a leader who styled himself the 
Duke of Lower Egypt. The French call 
them Bohemians, the Italians Zingari. 
Their language is everywhere the same. 
Gipsies are remarkable for the yellow- 
brown, or rather olive colour of their skin; 
the jet-black of their hair and eyes; the 
extreme whiteness of their teeth ; and the 
symmetry of their limbs, which distin¬ 
guishes even the men, whose general ap¬ 
pearance, however, is repulsive. Though 
some occasionally follow a trade or honest 
occupation, they rarely settle permanently 





























317 iUtcvavj) Crragurg* [gladiators 

anywhere. "Wherever the climate Is mild 
enough, they are found in forests and de- 
Berts, in companies. They seldom use tents, 
but seek shelter from the cold of winter 
in grottoes and cares, or they construct 
huts, sunk some feet in the earth, and 
covered with sods laid on poles. They are 
fond of instrumental music, which they 
perform chiefly by ear, and their lively 
motions are remarkable in their own pe¬ 
culiar dances. The men obtain their living 
by gymnastic feats, tricks, &c., while the 
women invariably practise fortune-telling 
and chiromancy. They are not particular 
in their food, but eat all kinds of flesh, even 
that of animals which have died a natural 
death. Brandy is their favourite beverage, 
tobacco their greatest luxury ; both men 
and women chew and smoke it with avidity, 
and are ready to make great sacrifices for 
the sake of satisfying this inclination. 
They have no settled religious notions: 
amongst the Turks they are Mohammedans; 
in Christian countries, if they make any 
religious profession at all, they follow the 
forms of Christianity, without, however, 
taking any interest in its spirit, or caring 
for instruction in it. They marry with 
none but their own race : their marriages 
are contracted in the rudest manner, and 
when a gipsy becomes tired of his wife, he 
turns her off without ceremony. 

GIRA'FFE, the Camelopard, which see. 

GIR'ASOL ( Ital .), an opal of a white 
or bluish-white colour, but which, when 
turned towards the sun or any bright light, 
reflects a reddish tint; hence its name. 

GIRD'ER (gyrdan, to enclose: Sax.'}, in 
Architecture, is the main beam, which 
either directly supports the flooring of a 
structure, or which supports the joists or 
cross beams whereon the flooring rests. 

GIR'ONDISTS, a republican party in 
France at the period of the revolution. 
They obtained theirappellation from several 
of their most distinguished members having 
come from the department of the Gironde. 
They opposed the sanguinary proceedings 
of the Mountain, the extreme republican 
party, by whom they were proscribed, and 
many of them guillotined in June 1793. 

GIR'OUETTE (a weathercock: Fr.), a 
term applied to numerous public characters 
in France, who, during the revolutionary 
era, turned with every political breeze. To 
mark these, a Dictionnaire des Girouettes 
was published, containing their names, &c.. 
with a number of weathercocks against 
each, corresponding to the number of 
changes in his political creed. [See the 
* Biographical Treasury.’] 

GIV'EN, a term much used by mathema¬ 
ticians, to denote something supposed to 
bq known. Thus, if a magnitude is known, 
it is said to be a given magnitude ; if the 
ratio between two quantities is known, 
these quantities are said to have a given 
ratio, &c., &c. 

GLA'BROUS ( glaber, smooth : Lat.), in 
Natural History, hairless, smooth. 

GLA'CIERS (Fr.), immense masses of ice, 
which accumulate on the peaks and slopes, 
and in the upper valleys of lofty mountains. 
In the Tyrol, Switzerland, Piedmont, and 

Savoy, the glaciers are so numerous that, 
taken together, they have been calculated 
to cover 1484 square miles of surface. The 
snow which lies above the line of perpetual 
congelation, being partially thawed during 
the summer mouths, is converted into ice 
in the winter, and, by the pressure of the 
higher portion of the mass, is forced 
downwards through ravines into the val¬ 
leys, where they suffer waste from the 
higher temperature. This gives rise to a 
stream which rushes to join the nearest 
river. The snow-line of the Alps i3 at an 
elevation of 8000 feet, but the lower edge of 
some of the glaciers is not more than 3500 
above the sea, and hence they lie, in some 
Instances, in the midst of cultivation. The 
surface of every large glacier is strewed 
with stones and gravel, which have fallen 
from the surrounding precipices. This 
rubbish is partly carried to the sides of the 
glacier, and there deposited as lateral mo¬ 
raines, and partly to the lower end of the 
glacier, where it forms a terminal moraine. 
When the glacier advances into the valley, 
as it does in a cold season, the moraine is 
pushed before it; and when, in consequence 
of a warm season, it retreats, the moraine 
is left behind. Thus the lower limit of a 
glacier varies from year to year. In many 
mountainous countries there are phe¬ 
nomena which geologists explain by sup¬ 
posing that there were glaciers at a former 
period of time, where none now exist, or 
that existing glaciers were very much more 
extensive than at present. The precise 
mode by which glaciers move along their 
beds, and the cause of the zoned or ribboned 
structure of glacier ice have been the sub¬ 
jects of much inquiry, and given rise to 
some controversy. Professor James Forbes 
thought the phenomena w r ere to be ex¬ 
plained by attributing viscosity to the ice. 
Another theory is, that the downward 
journey of a glacier in its groove is not at¬ 
tended by a viscous movement of the par¬ 
ticles, but is effected by continual fracture 
and regelation. This is rendered highly 
probable by some facts brought out by ex¬ 
periments on small pieces of ice, viz. that 
they can be made to assume any shape 
whatever by compression in moulds, and 
that two pieces of ice brought into contact 
will immediately freeze together, even when 
placed in hot water. 

GLA'CIS (FV.), in Fortification, a mass of 
earth serving as a parapet to the covered 
way, having an easy slope or declivity 
towards the country. 

GLA'DIATE (gladius, a sword: Lat), in 
Botany, an epithet for anything sword- 
shaped, but shorter and broader than ensi- 
form. 

GLA'DIATORS (gladiatores, from gladius, 
a sword: Lat.), in Antiquity, combatants 
who fought at the public games in Rome 
for the entertainment of the spectators. 
They were at first prisoners, slaves, or con¬ 
demned criminals; but afterwards freemen 
fought in the arena, either for hire or from 
choice, and sometimes even persons of the 
first families, who had enjoyed the highest 
honours. The games were commenced by a 
prwlusio, in which they fought with wea- 



















STIjc £>rtcnttfic aitH 


318 


gladiolus] 


pons of wood, till, upon a signal, they as¬ 
sumed their arms, and began in earnest to 
fight in pairs. When the vanquished was 
not killed in the combat, his fate was de¬ 
cided by the people ; who, if they wished to 
save his life, signified it by pressing down 
their thumbs, but if they wished him to be 
killed, by turning them up. The first of 
these signals was called pollicem premere, 
the second pollicem vcrtere. If his life was 
given to him, he obtained a missio, or dis¬ 
charge for that day ; and hence, in an exhi¬ 
bition sine missions (without any discharge), 
the gladiators were not spared. The vic¬ 
tors were honoured with a palm branch, a 
sum of money, or other marks of the pub¬ 
lic favour; and they were not unfrequently 
released from further service, and received, 
as a badge of freedom, the rudis, or wooden 
sword. This profession was abolished by 
Constantine, revived under Constant! us and 
his two successors, but finally put an end to 
by Honorius. 

GLADI'OLUS (Lat., literally a small 
sword, from the form of the leaves'), in 
; Botany, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Indaeccp.. 

They have beautiful flowers, and gardeners 
I have produced many hybrid varieties. 

1 GLAND ( glans , literally the nut-like fruit 
of a forest tree: Lat.), in Anatomy, an organ 
of the animal body concerned in the work of 
secretion. The form and composition of the 
glands are very various, but they exhibit in 
[ the arrangement of the cells a common 
structural plan. The cells which line their 
| cavities and tubes form an epithelium, and 
at the same time act as secreting cells, and 
elaborate the matters which they discharge. 
The simple glands are without permanent 
| orifices. They serve only a temporary pur- 
| pose, and consist of nothing more than a 
vesicle or sacculus, which, after discharging 
the elaborated matter, disappears. Much 
more numerous are the permanent glands, 
which have been classed in three groups, 
viz. simple tubular glands, such as the 
sudorific glands of the skin ; aggregated 
glands, such as the salivary glands, which 
1 are composed of a number of vesicles in 
groups or lobules; and the convoluted 
tubular glands, such as those found in the 
I kidney, which consist of tubules of mem- 
; brane lined with secreting cells. There is 
much obscurity as to the process of secre¬ 
tion by the glands. It is no doubt the 
result of the vital processes of the ceils, but 
why one set of glands should elaborate and 
discharge the components of saliva, and 
another set the components of bile, from 
one common source of supply, viz. the blood, 
has never been elucidated. 

GLAN'DERS (same deriv .), a virulent and 
fatal disease in horses, which shows itself 
by a discharge of mucus from the nostrils. 
It may be communicated to man. 

GLANDIF'EROUS (glans, an acorn; and 
fero, I bear: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
applied to trees which bear fruit, likeacorns, 
chestnuts, and mast. This kind of fruit is 
called a nut or glans by botanists. 

GLASS (glas: Ger.) ; Pliny ascribes its 
origin to accident. Certain merchants, he 
tells us, were driven into the mouth of the 
Belu3, i river in Syria, by stress of weather; 


and being obliged to dress their victuals 
on the shore, they used kali for fuel, which, 
combining with the sand, produced glass: 
a phenomenon which suggested to tlju ( 
people of Sidon the manufacture of that 
substance for which they afterwards be¬ 
came so celebrated. It is not very likely, 
however, that the heat employed on such 
an occasion would have been sufficient to 
produce glass. Silica, which constitutes 
the basis of all commercial glass, is not 
fusible by itself in the strongest fire of 
our furnaces; but its vitreous fusion is 
easily effected by the addition of potash \ 
or soda, either alone or mixed with lime or 
litharge. The window-glass manufacture 
was first begun in England in 1557, in 1 
Crutched Friars, London ; and flue articles 
of flint-glass were soon afterwards made in 
the Savoy House, Strand. In 1635, the art 
received a great improvement from Sir 
Robert Mansell, by the use of coal instead j 
of wood for fuel. The first sheets of blown 
glass, for looking-glasses and coach win- : 
dows, were made in 1673, at Lambeth, by 
Venetian.artisans employed under the pa¬ 
tronage of the Duke of Buckingham. The 
casting of mirror-plates was commenced in 
France about the year 1CS8, by Thevart; 
but in excellenceand cheapness the French 
mirror-plate has been for some time rivalled 
by the English. There are several species 
of glass, which differ either in the materials, 
or mode of manufacture. * Ordinary window 
glass consists principally of .fine sand, sul¬ 
phate of soda and lime, generally introduced 
in the shape of ground chalk. Plate glass is 
composed of nearly the same materials, 
with the substitution of the carbonate for 
the sulphate of soda. Ordinary bottle glass 
is composed of inferior qualities of the 
same constituents, with the substitution of 
soapers’ waste for the alkaline element; 
white flint glass consists of the best sand, 
carbonate of potash, and red lead, or lith¬ 
arge. Besides these principal elements ' 
several others, such as nitre, arsenic, and 
manganese, are used in minute proportions 
for improving the colour, or other special 
purposes. The pots in which the glass is 
fused are made of Stourbridge clay, ! 
kneaded and built up entirely by hand. In 1 
these pots the glass is thoroughly fused at 
a high temperature for a considerable time, 
and is then allowed to cool to a suitable 
consistency for working. Sheet glass is 
blown in long cylinders, which, after the 
ends are removed, are split down their | 
length by a diamond, and afterwards flat¬ 
tened out in a kiln. Coloured glass is divi¬ 
sible into “pot metal,” i. e. glass of the 
same colour throughout its whole thickness, ! 
or “ Hashed,” the colour In this case being 
merely a thin film spread over a body of 
colourless glass. It is produced by the 
“gatherer” first dipping his pipe into a pot ! 
of coloured glass, and then into one of 
colourless glass, both being blown into 
cylinders together. Glass shades for orna- • 
ments are produced by the same process as 
the cylinders for sheet glass. Crown glass, 
an exclusively British manufacture, is first 
blown in a spheroid form, having a knob, 
the “ bull’s eye " opposite to the pipe of the 



























219 Httcravy Ctwrtttri). 


Slower. A piece of iron is attached to the 
hull’s eye, and the pipe being detached, the 
glass is again heated; and being rotated 
by means of the iron in front of the furnace, 
gradually spreads out into a perfectly flat 
circular table, having the bull’s eye in the 
centre-the process being one of the most 
beautiful in the whole range of glass manu¬ 
facture. Optical glams is the most difficult 
on a large scale of any of the branches of 
the manufacture. Flint glass for optical 
purposes is made by stirring the metal, 
■which contains a large proportion of lead 
In the crucible, and allowing it very gra¬ 
dually to cool. When cool the crucible is 
broken away, and the glass broken up into 
pieces, which are afterwards heated and 
pressed into a cake-like form. Shuped glass 
Is either blown, moulded, or pressed. As 
to blown glass, in the great majority of 
cases the glass is blown into a shape some¬ 
what approaching that which it is ulti¬ 
mately to assume, through an iron pipe, 
one end of which is dipped into a quantity 
of fluid glass. An iron “ pontil” is attached 
opposite to the pipe, which is then broken 
off, and the glass adhering to the pontil is 
shaped with a few simple tools while being 
rotated. Moulded glass, including nearly 
all the ordinary varieties of bottles, is made 
by blowing the glass into a mould, the 
blowing rendering the article hollow, and 
the mould giving its shape to the exterior. 
In pressing glass the metal i3 dropped into 
a mould of the shape required for the ex¬ 
terior, and a plunger of the shape required 
for the Interior is forced into it. In both 
moulded and pressed glas3 the article is 
generally finished off by being attached to 
a pontil, reheated and rotated. Glass cutting 
Is executed by applying the glass to be cut, 
first to a cast iron wheel with sand and 
water, then to a stone wheel, and lastly to 
a wooden wheel for the polishing with 
pumice, rotten stone, and putty powder. 
For polishing chandelier drops, &e.., a lead 
wheel, with a little flue rotten stone and 
water, is substituted. In engraving glass 
copper discs rotating in a lathe, and finely 
pulverized emery mixed with oil, are used 
to execute the outlineand the ground; and 
for the polished work leaden discs, and 
very finely pulverized emery. Coarse en¬ 
graving, however, is for the most part exe¬ 
cuted by means of the glass cutter’s 
smoothing wheel .’—Scientific Record of In¬ 
ternational Exhibition, 1802. 

GLASSES, Optical. Glasses intended 
foi- optical purposes are ground to certain 
' curved forms, and called lenses. They are 
either convex or concave, and are used for 
simple magnifiers and spectacles, or for 
telescopes and microscopes. The grinding 
of the lenses is performed in brass moulds, 
either concave or convex, formed to the 
same curvature as that desired in the lenses, 
and worked either by hand or by machinery. 
English artists, until recently, were unable 
to produce disks of glass for the formation 
of the object-glasses of large telescopes; 
but since the duty has been taken off glass, 
disks quite perfect, at least 25 inches in 
diameter, have been produced. 

GLASS'WOitT, a species of Salicornia, 


[globe 

la shore plant containing much soda, and 
| formerly collected for the purpose of 
obtaining that alkali from it. 

GLAU'BERITE, a double sulphate of 
lime and soda, sometimes associated with 
rock-salt. 

GLAU'BER'S SALT, In Chemistry, sul¬ 
phate of soda, a well-known cathartic. It 
was first made by Glauber, in obtaining 
muriatic acid from common salt. 

GLAUCO'MA (Gr., from glaukos: grey), In 
Surgery, a disease in the eye, in which the 
crystalline humour has a greenish or bluish 
grey appearance, and its transparency is 
diminished. 

GLAU'COUS (same deriv.), of a grey 
bluish colour; applied to leaves, &c., of 
plants which are covered with a fine meali¬ 
ness, such as is seen on the underside of 
cabbage leaves. 

GLA'ZING ( glasureii, to glaze: Ger.), in 
the manufacture of pottery, the Incrusta¬ 
tion of vessels with a vitreous substance, 
the basis of which is lead. After the ingre¬ 
dients are ground together, they are cal¬ 
cined with a moderate heat, and, when cold, 
reduced to a powder, which is tempered 
with water, and laid on the ware by means 
of a brush. The violent heat of a furnace 
soon transforms this coating into a perfect 
glass. ' | 

GLEBE LAND ( gleba, arable soil: Lat.), 
in Law, a portion of meadow or pasture 
land belonging to a parish church or eccle¬ 
siastical benefice. 

GLEE ( gligge , merriment: Sax.), in Mu- 
sic, a composition of three or more parts. 

GLENE (glen?, the ball of the eye: Gr.), 
in Anatomy, the cavity or socket of the eye 
and the pupil. Also any slight depression 
or cavity receiving a bone in articulation. 

GLI'ADINE (glia, glue: Gr.), in Chemis¬ 
try, a peculiar azotized substance, which 
with true vegetable fibrine constitutes glu¬ 
ten. The latter owes its adhesive property 
to gliadine, which, when dry, is a slightly 
transparent, brittle substance, of a straw 
colour. 

GLI'RES (glis, a dormouse: Lat.), the 
rodent order of mammals, including the 
families of mice, porcupines, hares, jerboas, 
and mole-rats. These animals have only 
two cutting teeth in each jaw, and there is 
a vacant space between these and the 
grinders. They have no Iwnines. The jaws 
have the power of moving laterally. The 
toes are distinct and are furnished with 
small claws. 

GLOBE (globus: Led.), In practical Mathe¬ 
matics, an artificial spherical body, on the 
convex surface of which are represented 
the countries, seas, &c., of our earth, or 
the face of the heavens, with the several 
celestial circles. The former is called the 
terrestrial, and the latter the celestial globe. 
Their principal use, besides serving respec¬ 
tively to distinguish the earth’s surface, 
and to mark the situation of the fixed 
stars, is to illustrate and explain the phe¬ 
nomena arising from the diurnal motion 
of (lie earth. They are, consequently, of 
the highest importance in acquiring a know¬ 
ledge of geography and astronomy. [See 
Earth, Astronomy, &c.] 























globe] 


%\)t £ricnttur autr 


•JOG 

ty M 


i GLOBE FISHES. [See Diodon.] 

GLOB'ULAR CHART (same deriv.), a 
name given to the representation of the 
surface or of some part of the surface of 
the terrestrial globe upon a plane, accord¬ 
ing to the principles of the globular projec¬ 
tion. Its advantage is, that equal arcs of 
great circles are represented by straight 
lines, which are nearly equal. If the plane 
of projection is the equator, the different 
meridians will be represented by straight 
lines and the parallels of latitude by con¬ 
centric circles. In general, however, the 
projection is made on the meridian, in 
which case the projections of the other 
meridians are ellipses. 

GLOB'ULE (same deriv.), a small particle 
of matter of a spherical form ; a word par¬ 
ticularly applied to the red particles of 
blood, which swim in a transparent serum. 

GLOM'ERATE ( glomero , I form into a 
ball: Lot.'), in Anatomy, an epithet for a 
gland, formed of a conglomeration of san- 
[ guineous vessels, having no cavity, but 
furnished with an excretory duct, as the 
I lachrymal and mammary glands. 

[ GLOSS ( glossa, language: Gr.), at first, 
‘meant a word from a foreign language, 

{ or an obsolete or poetical word, or whatever 
required interpretation. It was afterwards 
used for the interpretation itself, and 
then it was extended to an entire exposi¬ 
tory sentence. The first glosses were inter¬ 
linear : they were afterwards placed in the 
margin and extended finally, in some in¬ 
stances, to a sort of running commentary 
on an entire book. These were called appa¬ 
ratus.’— Hallam. 

GLOSSA'GRA (glossa, the tongue; and 
agra, a catching: Gr.), in Medicine, a rheu¬ 
matic pain in the tongue. 

GLOSS'ARY (glossarium: Lat.; from glos¬ 
sa, a tongue: Gr.), a dictionary or voca- 
| bulary, explaining obscure or antiquated 
words found in old authors. 

GLOS'SOOELE (glossa, the tongue: and 
kele, a tumour: Gr.), ill Medicine, an extru¬ 
sion of the tongue. 

GLOT'TIS (Gr., from glotta, the tongue), 
in Anatomy, the narrow opening at the up¬ 
per part of the larynx or windpipe, which, 
by its dilatation and contraction, contri¬ 
butes to the modulation of the voice. 

GLOW'-WORM, the wingless female of a 
beetle, the Lampyris noctiluca of naturalists, 
remarkable for its luminous appearance in 
the dark. The glow-worm is seen about 
the months of June, July, and August. The 
light proceeds from the under side of the 
abdomen, and the insect can vary or suspend 
| it at pleasure. The light-emitting segments 
| preserve this power for some time after 
being separated from the rest of the body; 
and they manifest it in vacuo, and in atmo¬ 
spheres containing no oxygen. The male, 
which is winged and emits no light, lias his 
head almost entirely occupied by his largely 
developed eyes. 

GLUCI'NA (glukus, sweet: Gr.), a rare 
earth, discovered in 1797 by Yauquelin, 
and found, as yet, only in the emerald, 
beryl, and euclase. It derives its name 
from the sweetness of some of its salts. 
GLUCI'NUM (same deriv.), or Beryllium, 


the metallic base of the earth glucina. It 
is of a dark grey colour, and is obtained by 
acting on the chloride of glucina with 
potassium. 

GLUE (gluten: Lat.), a tenacious viscid 
matter, which serves as a cement. It is 
made from the parings of hides and other 
offals by boiling them in water, then strain¬ 
ing off the impurities and boiling them 
again. The best glue is that which is oldest. 
Glue is impure gelatine. 

GLUMES (gluma, chaff: Lat.), in Botany, 
the outer scales of the flowers of grasses. 
Each flower of the sedges has a solitai - y 
glume. These two families have been 
formed into a sub-class called Glumacecc. 

GLU'TEAL (gloutos, the buttocks; Gr.), 
in Anatomy,an epithet for what belongs to 
the buttock. Thus, the gluteal muscles, ar¬ 
teries, &c. 

GLUTEN (glue: Lat.), the viscid elastic 
substance which remains, when flour, 
wrapped in coarse cloth, is washed under a 
stream of water until all the soluble mat¬ 
ters and starch are carried away. It exists 
in many kinds of grain and in some parts of ! 
other vegetables. The peculiar toughness 
and viscidity of wheat flour are due to it. 
There is more gluten in the wheat of warm 
than of cold climates. It contains nitrogen, 
and therefore, in some measure, approxi¬ 
mates to animal matter: this causes it to 
give out a very disagreeable odour w r lien 
putrefying. Dried in the air or in a stove, 
gluten diminishes considerably in size, 
becomes hard, brittle, glistening, and of 
a deep yellow colour. It is insoluble in 
ether, in fat, and essential oils, and nearly 
so in water. 

GLU'TEUS (gloutos, the buttocks : Gr.), in 
Anatomy, the large and thick muscle upon 
which we sit. It serves to extend the thigh 
by pulling it directly backwards, and assists 
it in its rotary motion. 

GLUTTON ( glouton: Fr; from glutio, 

I gulp down : Lat.), the Gulo luscus, of Zoo¬ 
logists, a carnivorous animal of the weasel 
tribe, found in the north of Europe, Asia, 
and America. It is sometimes called the 
wolverine. It grows to the length of three 
feet, but lias short legs, and moves slowly. 

It is very cunning and voracious. In order 
to catch its prey it climbs a tree, and from 
that darts down upon its victim. 

GLY'CERINE (glukus, sweet: Gr.), in 
Chemistry, a sweet liquid, one of the four 
proximate principles of oils and fats. It is 
set free In the process of saponification, and 
left behind, but in a very impure state, 
when the fat acid unites with the alkali in 
the formation of soap. It consists of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen ; and, when thrown 
on burning coals, takes fire like oil. Its 
spec. grav. when pure is L27. [See Stearic 
Acid.] Water combines with it in almost 
all proportions ; alcohol dissolves it easily; 
nitric acid changes it into oxalic acid. 

GLYCO'NIAN, a verse in Greek and Latin 
poetry, consisting of three feet, a spondee, 
a choriamb, and a pyrrliic. 

GLYPH ( glupho, I hollow out: Gr.), In 
Architecture, any channel or cavity in¬ 
tended as an ornament. 

GLYPHO'GRAPHY (gluplie, sculpture 




































321 


^Literary Cmttfury. 


[GOAT-SUCKEli 


and graplie, a writing: Gr.), an art by which 
the operations of drawing and engraving, 
which were formerly distinct, are combined 
in one. It consists in depositing upon a 
plate of metal a thin stratum of wax, or 
any other soft substance, on which a sub¬ 
ject or design is engraved, the depth of the 
incisions being determined by the thick¬ 
ness of the soft coating. The engraving 
thus made is subjected to the electrotype 
process, by which aslieet of copper or other, 
suitable metal is deposited upon it. When 
this is detached it will exhibit in relief 
the engraving, and printed impressions 
may be produced from it in the same manner 
as from a woodcut to which it is analogous. 
-Also, a description of the art of en¬ 
graving on precious stones. 

GLYP'TOTIIEK ( gluptos , carved ; theke, a 
repository : Gr.), a name sometimes given 
to a gallery of sculpture, e. g. the Glypto- 
tliek at Munich designed by Von Klenze. 

GNAT ( gncet , from gnagan, to gnaw : Sax.), 
a name given to a number of dipterous in¬ 
sects the females of which are troublesome 
to man. The common gnat is the Culex 
ciliaris of entomologists. The gnat of this 
country is comparatively harmless; but 
those of warmer climates, known as mos¬ 
quitoes, are peculiarly annoying, especially 
in marshy situations. 

GNEISS (Ger.), in Geology, a rock com¬ 
posed of the same constituents as granite, 
viz. quartz, felspar, and mica, but arranged 
in layers and laminse. Hence, it is often 
styled a foliated granite. As to its origin, 
some geologists maintain that gneiss was 
at first a sedimentary rock—that is, was 
deposited by water—and that it was after¬ 
wards acted on by heat, which caused it to 
assume a crystalline structure. This is the 
metamorpliic theory. Others think that it 
was derived from the disintegration of 
granitic rocks, and that the crystalline 
materials were then arranged in layers 
under water. Associated with gneiss are 
various other rocks of the same general 
nature, in which some of the mineral con¬ 
stituents are replaced by others; such as 
syenitic, gneiss, hornblende, schist, and 
mica schist. Gneissic rocks occur abun¬ 
dantly in Scotland, Norway, and Sweden, 
| the Alps, the Andes, and the Himalayas. 
These rocks are utterly destitute of organic 
remains, but are often rich in metallic ores 
deposited in veins. 

GNOMES (Fr.), spirits which were sup¬ 
posed to dwell in the interior parts of the 
I earth, and to whose care mines, quarries, 
L &c., are assigned. 

GNO'MON ( gnomon: Gr. The word lite¬ 
rally signifies something that makes a thing 
known), in Astronomy, a style erected per¬ 
pendicular to the horizon, in order to find 
the altitude of the sun.—-In Dialling, the 
i style or pin of a dial, which, by its shadow, 
show's the hour of the day. It represents 
the axis of the earth.- Gxoiion, in Geo¬ 

metry, a figure formed by the two com¬ 
plements with either of the parallelograms 
i about the diameter. 

GNOMON'IC PROJEC'TION of a portion 
of a sphere, is that projection which sup- 
! poses the eye to be in the centre of the 


sphere. Every great circle is thereby pro¬ 
jected into a straight line, and this is 
peculiar to the gnomonic projection. 

GNOMON'ICS ( gnomonikos , relating to 
sun-dials; from last: Gr.), the art or science j 
of dialling, or of constructing dials. 

GNOS'TICS (Gnostikoi, from gnosis, know¬ 
ledge : Gr.), a sect of philosophers that 
arose in the first ages of Christianity, w T ho 
pretended they alone had a true knowledge 
of the Christian religion. They formed for 
| themselves a system of theology, agreeable 
to the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato, 
and fancied they discovered deeper myste¬ 
ries in the Scriptures than were perceived 
by those whom they considered as simple 
and ignorant. They held that all natures, 
j intellectual and material, are derived by 
successive emanations from the Deity. 

In process of time, the name designated 
sectarians of various descriptions, but who 
! all agreed in certain opinions; and the 
tenet which seemed most particularly to 
distinguish them w 7 as the existence of two 
first principles, or deities, the one the author 
of good, and the other of evil. 

GNU, a species of antelope, the Conno- 
chetes gnu of zoologists, having horns bent 
forward at the base and backward in the 
middle. It is a native of Southern Africa, 
and its form partakes of that of the horse, 
the ox, and the deer. The gnu is a lively 
capricious animal; and w'hen irritated, it 
expresses its resentment by plunging, cur¬ 
vetting, tearing the ground with its hoofs, 
and butting with its head. These animals 
feed in large herds, and it is only when 
stragglers have been accidentally separated 
from the herd that any of them are found 
in a solitary state. 

GOAT (gat: Sax.), the name given to the 
members of a family of ruminant animals. 
The common goat is the Hircus cegagrus of 
naturalists. The horns are hollow, erect, 
and scabrous. They delight in rocks and 
mountains, and subsist on scanty coaise 
food. The milk of goats is sweet and 
nourishing, and their flesh furnishes provi¬ 
sions to the inhabitants of countries where 
they abound. But the skin is the most 
valuable part of the animal. It is prepared 
for a variety of purposes, takes a dye 
better than any other, and is well known 
under the name of morocco. The Cashmere 
goat, from the hair of which are manu¬ 
factured Cashmere shawls, is smaller than 
the common domestic goat. The Angora 
goat has a long, silky, fine hair, which is 
not curled : and it is also furnished with a 
soft, silky hair, of a silver-white colour, 
hanging down in long curling locks. The 
finest camlets are made from the wool of 
this goat. 

GOAT’S-BEARD, a plant of the genus 
Tragopogon, nat. ord. Composite. 

GOAT’S-THORN, the Astragalus Traga - 
cantha of botanists, a plant of the nat. 
ord. Leguminosce, growing in the south of 
Europe. 

GOAT'-SUCKER, a passerine bird, the 
Caprimulgus Europceus of ornithologists. 

It is so called because it was supposed by 
the ancients to suck the teats of the goat; 
but there is no foundation for this belief, 

































gobelins] 


El .)£ ^ctcuttftc anti 


322 


It is also popularly known as the niglit-jar 
and fern owl. Like the owl, it is seldom 
seen in the daytime, unless disturbed, or 
unless the weather is dark and gloomy, 
i when its eyes are not dazzled by the bright 
rays of the sun. Its mouth, which is of 
great size, fits it well for catching the night 
insects which are its prey. 

GOBELINS, or II6tel-Royal de Goije- 
lins, a celebrated academy for tapestry- 
drawing, and manufactory of tapestry, 
erected in the suburb of St. Marcel, at 
Paris, by Louis XIV. in the year 1667. 

( The place was previously famous on ac¬ 
count of the dyeing manufactory estab¬ 
lished there by Giles and John Gobelins in 
the reign of Francis I. They discovered a 
method of producing a beautiful scarlet, 
which has ever since been known by their 
name; and so extensive has been their 
fame, that not only the colour, but the 
house in which their business was carried 
on, and the river they made use of, are 
called Gobelins. 

GO'BY (gobius: Lat.; from kubios: Gr .), 
the common name of some marine iishes 
belonging to the acanthopterygian genus 
Gobius, remarkable for having their ventral 
fins united. 

GODS and GOD'DESSES of the ancient 
Romans. They were divided into dii ma- 
jorum gentium, and dii minormn gentium 
(that is, into the superior and inferior 
gods); also, according to their place of resi- 
dence.into celestial, terrestrial, infernal ma¬ 
rine, and sylvan gods ; and into animal and 
natural gods: the aiiimal gods were mortals, 
who had been raised to divinity by igno¬ 
rance and superstition; and the natural 
gods, parts of nature, such as the stars, the 
elements, mountains, rivers, &c. There 
were, besides, deities who were supposed 
to preside :>ver particular persons: some 
had the care of women in childbirth ; others, 
that of children and young persons; and 
others were the deities of marriage. Each 
action, virtue, and profession had also its 
particular god: the shepherds had their Pan; 
the gardeners their Flora: the learned 
their Mercury and Minerva; and the poets 
I their Apollo and the Muses. 

GOD'WIT ( god , good; and wita or fita, an 
animal: Sax.), the popular name of some 
grallatorial birds, allied to the snipes, and 
belonging to the genus Limosa of ornitho¬ 
logists. Two species are known in Britain, 
the black-tailed and the bar-tailed godwit; 
but both are migratory. They have long 
t 11s and legs; frequent marshes near the 
seashore, and are esteemed great delicacies 
by epicures. 

GOI'TRE (Fr.), in Medicine, a large tu¬ 
mour that forms gradually on the throat, 
between the trachea and the skin. It is an 
enlargement of the thyroid gland, and is 
known to medical men under the name of 
bronchocele. It is prevalent in several 
valleys of Switzerland, and in the moun¬ 
tainous parts of Brazil. Iodine is the most 
efficacious remedy. As to the cause of this 
complaint medical men are not egrecd. 

GOLD is the most ductile and malleable 
of all the metals. It is the heaviest metal 
except platina, its specific gravity being 


10 3; and not being liable to be oxidized by 
air, it is well fitted to be used as coin. It is 
not sonorous when struck. The common 
acids do not act upon it; but it is dissolved 
by a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric 
acids, the aqua regia of the old chemists. 
Its equivalent is 197. Its lustre does not 
equal that of steel, platina, or silver, but it 
surpasses the other metals in this respect. 
It requires a strong fire to fuseit, remaining 
unaltered in the degree of heat that melts 
tin or lead, but a less powerful heat than is 
necessary to the fusing of iron or copper. 
It becomes ignited and white before it 
runs, and when in fusion, appears of a pale 
bluish-green colour on the surface. It 
amalgamates the most readily of all the 
metals with quicksilver. When in a state 
of fusion, it very easily and very intimately 
combines with silver, and, when mixed 
with that metal, will also run into a mass 
with iron. The malleability of gold is such 
that it may be reduced to a film having 
only the thickness of the 200,000th part of 
an inch, and one grain of it may be made 
to cover upwards of fifty square inches. As 
to ductility an ounce is capable of being 
extended in the form of wire to the length 
of many hundred miles. No metal destroys 
the malleability of gold so completely as 
lead: one two-thousandtli part renders it 
too brittlefor rolling, and its very fumes 
produce a serious effect upon it. Gold is 
found in beds of quartz, sandstone, &c., 
and also in many rivers, particularly in 
Peru, in minute and irregular grains, which 
are known by the name of gold-dust. The 
principal use of gold, as i3 well known, is in 
coinage. It has been with mankind, from 
time immemorial, the representative of 
every species of property. Even before the 
art of coining was invented, it passed for 
money in the condition in which it was 
found in the earth ; and in this form it is 
still current in many parts of Africa. It is 
rarely used in a state of perfect purity, but 
is almost universally alloyed with copper, 
or with silver, in order to increase its hard¬ 
ness. In expressing the fineness of an 
alloy of gold, the mass is supposed to be 
divided into twenty-four equal parts; and 
the number of these consist ing of pure gold 
is expressed. Thus, our gold coin is twenty- 
i two carats fine: that is twenty-two parts of 
it are gold, and two parts another metal — 
i copper. Gold would be too soft if unal¬ 
loyed. When silver is used, instead of cop¬ 
per, as an alloy, the coin is whiter. In 
j Australia, the rocks containing gold arc of 
Silurian age. The precious metal is found 
disseminated in veins of hard quartz [see 
Reef], or in the rocks adjacent to these 
veins. Upon these rocks lie deposits of 
tertiary age, consisting of clays, sands, and 
gravel. These deposits are frequently some 
hundreds of feet thick, and are evidently 
the remains of older st rata, which have been 
denuded and re-deposited by the action of 
water. The miners term this series of beds 
drift or alluvial, and they excavate them to 
a great depth in their search for the dis¬ 
seminated gold, which is usually found 
most abundantly in the lowest bed, lying 
on the Silurian rocks. On their way to this 





























323 


Httmvn tErratfurg 


[goosb 


bottom ’ bed, sheets of basalt are frequently 
passed through, sometimes fifty feet thick. 
In some places four or five sheets of basalt 
are met with in a depth of 300 or 400 feet, 
adding of course very greatly to the labours 
of the miners. Nuggets are only found in 
the alluvia] beds. The reader will now 
understand the miner’s distinction between 
‘Quartz mining’ and ‘ Alluvial mining.’ 

GOLD'BEATERS’ SKIN, the membrane 
of the intestine or blind gut of the ox, care¬ 
fully prepared for the use of the gold-beater, 
who places the gold leaf between pieces of 
it when he is beating out the metal. 

GOL'DEN FLEECE, in the mythological 
fables of the ancients, the fleece of the ram 
upon which Phryxus and Helle are supposed 
to have been carried over the sea to Colchis. 
When this ram was sacrificed to Jupiter, its 
ileeco was hung upon a tree in the grove of 
Mars, guarded by two brazen-hoofed bulls, 
and a monstrous dragon that never slept; 
but was at last carried off by Jason and the 
Argonauts. [See Ahgonauts.] 

GOL'DEN NUM'BER, in Chronology, 
that number which indicates the year of 
the lunar cycle for any given time. It was 
called the Golden Number because in the 
.ancient calendar it was written in letters 
of gold, on account of its great utility in 
ecclesiastical computations, especially in 
fixing the time of Easter. It was likewise 
called the Prime, because it pointed out the 
first day of the new moon, primum lunoe. 
To find the Golden Number, add 1 to the 
year of our Lord, divide the sum by 19, and 
the remainder, if any (or 19, if there is 
none), is the Golden Number; the quotient 
at the same time expressing the number 
of cycles which have revolved from the 
beginning of the year preceding the birth 
of Christ. 

GOL'DEN-ROD, the Solidago Virgaurea of 
botanists, a plant belonging to the natural 
order Composites. 

GOLD'FINCH, the Fringilla Carduelis 
of Ornithologists, a bird remarkable for 
its docility and pleasing song. The common 
goldfinch is very elegantly coloured, and is 
somewhat smaller than the sparrow. There 
are several other species of the genus, all 
remarkable for their plumage, sagacity, and 
melody. 

GOLD-FISH', the Cgprinus auratus, a fish 
of a gold colour, and of the size of a pilchard. 
It was originally brought from China, and 
is now kept in small ponds, glass globes, or 
other vessels, by way of ornament. It is 
very prolific, and is easily bred, requiring 
scarcely any further attention than that of 
frequently changing the water. 

GOLD-LEAF' or LEAF-GOLD', gold that 
is formed into a leaf, the thickness of which 
varies, according to the purpose for which 
it is designed. The gold is first reduced 
from the ingot to such a thickness that a 
square inch will weigh grains ; it is then 
cut into pieces about an inch square, which 
are placed between piecesof Gold-beaters’ 
Bkin [which see], and these again are 
placed between pieces of vellum and parch¬ 
ment. The hammers employed weigh from 
81b. to 161b., and the beating takes place on 
a smooth block of marble. As the beating 


proceeds the leaf is divided into squares, 
and again beaten, until it has acquired the 
necessary degree of thinness. The finished 
leaves of gold are put up in small books 1 
made of soft paper, rubbed over with red 
chalk to prevent adhesion of the gold. An 
ounce of the metal may in this manner be 
made so thin as to cover 160 square feet; 
but it Is more profitable to make it into 
only 100 square feet: there is less waste by 
broken leaves, and it is more useful to the 
gilder. The light transmitted through gold , 
leaf is of a green colour. 

GOLD-WI'RE, a cylindrical ingot of sil- ! 
ver, superficially gilt, and afterwards drawn 1 
through a vast number of holes of different 
diameters to bring it to the requisite fine¬ 
ness, which is sometimes equal to that of a 
hair. Before each time of drawing, it i3 
covered with wax, to preserve it from be¬ 
ing worn away.- Gold-Wire Flatted, 

the wire already described, flatted between 
rollers of polished steel, and used in 
spinning, weaving, lace-making, and em. 

broidery. -Gold Thread, or spun gold , 

flatted silver-gilt wire, wrapped or laid over 
a thread of yellow silk, by twisting with a 
wheel and iron bobbins. 

GO'LDYLOCKS, a name given to certain 
plants of the genus Chrysocoma. They be¬ 
long to the natural order Compositce, and are 
so called from their colour and appearance. 

GOLF, a game with bat and ball, much 
practised In the north of England. 

GOMPHO'SIS (Gr., from gomphos, a 
wooden bolt for shipbuilding: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, a species of articulation, in which 
one bone is set in the other like a peg in a 
board : as the teeth within the jaws. 

GOMU'TI, the Borassus Gomutus, a species 
of palm growing in the Indian islands. 

GON'DOLA ( Ital .), a boat used very much 
on the canals of Venice, being the convey¬ 
ance employed in passing from one part of 
the city to another. It is about thirty feet 1 
long, and in the centre, where there is a 
small cabin for passengers, five wide. Gon¬ 
dolas are sharp-pointed at both prow and 
stern, and are rowed with great velocity 
and skill by two men termed gondoliers. An 
ancient sumptuary law requires them to be 
furnished with black curtains, which give 
them a gloomy appearance. 

GONG, or Tamtam, a kind of cymbal used 
by the Chinese. It is made of a very brittle 
compound of copper and tin; which, how¬ 
ever, the Chinese render malleable during 
manufacture, as the instrument always ex¬ 
hibits marks of the hammer. 

GONIOM'ETER ( gonia, an angle; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring solid angles, or the inclination 
of planes, but particularly those of crystals. ; 
Such an instrument is necessary to the 
mineralogist. Various forms have been 
contrived, but that best known in this 
country was invented by Dr. Wollaston. 

GOOSE, an aquatic web-footed bird, be¬ 
longing to the genus Anser of ornitholo¬ 
gists. The Anser ferus, or grey goose, our 
common wild goose, is easily tamed; and 
from it has sprung the domestic breed of 
goose. There are several other species of 
wild goose that frequent the British islands. 





































&f)e jjicteuttfic anti 


324 


gooseberry] 


GOOSE'BERRY, the fruit of the Ribes 
grossularia, of which many varieties have 
been produced by the gardener’s art. Cur¬ 
rant hushes belong to the same genus. 

GOOSE'-FOOT, a wild plant, of the genus 
Chenopodium. [See Cir en oroDiACEin.] 

GOOSE'-NECK, in a ship, a piece of iron 
fixed on the end of the tiller, to which is 
fastened the lanyard of the whip-staff, or the 
wheel-rope for steering the ship. 

GOOSE'WING, in seamen’s language, a 
sail set on a boom on the lee side of a ship ; 
also the clews or lower corners of a ship’s 
mainsail or foresail when the middle part is 
furled. 

GOR'DIAN KNOT, in Antiquity, a knot 
made by Gordius, king of Phrygia, so very 
intricate that there was no finding where 
it began or ended. An oracle had declared 
that he who should untie this knot would be 
master of Asia. Alexander having under¬ 
taken it, and fearing that his inability to 
untie it might prove an ill omen, cut it 
asunder with his sword, and thus either ac¬ 
complished or eluded the oracle. Hence, in 
modern language, to cut the Gordian knot 
is to remove a difficulty by bold or unusual 
means. 

GOR'DIUS AQUATICUS, the common 
Hair Worm, which derives its generic name 
from a habit of coiling itself into a knot. It 
is of the thickness of a hog’s bristle, from 
six to ten inches long, and lives in stagnant 
water. 

GORGE (Fr.), in Architecture, the same 

as cavetto [which see].-In Fortification, 

the entrance of a bastion, ravelin, or other 
outwork. 

GOR'GED (gorge, a throat: Fr.), in Heral¬ 
dry, bearing a crown, coronet, or the like, 
about tbe neck. 

GOR'GET (same deriv.), armour attached 
to the helmet and covering the neck. 

GOR'GONIA, a genus of flexible corals, 
usually much ramified, and more or less re¬ 
sembling a tree branch, or small bush. The 
horny axis of the stems and branches is 
coated with carbonate of lime, differently 
coloured in the different species, and this 
coating or bark is composed of Spicula, 
cemented together by animal matter, and 
forming, when separated, pretty objects for 
the microscope. The whole is the work of 
zoophytes which reside in cells, the orifices 
of which are scattered over the bark. 

GOR'GONS (Gorgon, from gorgos, terrible : 
Gr.), in Mythology, three sister deities 
named Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa, who 
had hair entwined with serpents, hands of 
brass, winged bodies covered with scales, 
tusk-like teeth, and eyes so terrible that 
they turned everyone on whom they looked 
to stone. Perseus is said to have killed 
them with the aid of weapons lent him by 
Pluto and other deities. [See Medusa.] 

GOS'HAWK (gos, goose; and hafoc, a 
hawk: <Saa;.), the Falco (or Astur) palum- 
barius of ornithologists, a voracious bird, 
very destructive to game. It is now very 
rare in the British islands, being almost 
confined to the highlands of Scotland. It 
was formerly employed in falconry. 

GOS'PEL (god, good; and spel, a mes¬ 
sage : Sax.), a translation of the Greek 


Euangelion. The four books of the New 
Testament attributed to Matthew, Mark, 
Luke, and John, are called Gospels. In the 
first three centuries after Christ, many 
other gospels were in circulation : but, 
although the fathers of the church quoted 
passages from them, they did not assign a 
divine authority to them. Some of these 
apocryphal gospels are still extant. Several 
eminent critics have maintained that the 
three first gospels were derived from one 
original gospel afterwards lost. 

GOS'SAMER, fine filmy threads that float 
in the air in calm clear weather, especially 
in autumn. They are most usually seen in 
stubble fields and on furze or low bushes. 
They are formed by spiders. 

GOSSYP'IUM (Lat.), a genus of plants be¬ 
longing to the nat. ord. Malvacece, including 
the species of cotton plants, most of which 
are Asiatic, but some are of American 
growth and culture. [See Cotton.] 

GOTH'IC STYLE, in Architecture, cha¬ 
racterized by the use of the pointed arch, 
and termed by the French the Style ogival 
ogive, a pointed arch : Fr.). It was derived, 
through the Romanesque, from the corrupt 
Italian used in the latter period of the 
Roman empire. The Romanesque, which 
included some of the characteristics of the 
Gothic, and was a debased style that sprang 
from unskilful attempts to imitate the 
Roman, may be said to have been in use 
from about the year 800 until the latter end 
of the 12th century. Its leading features 
were, horizontal lines, massive walls pierced 
by comparatively small openings, semicir¬ 
cular arches over doors, &c., and semicir¬ 
cular vaultings, rows of small pillars placed 
as ornaments in the upper part of the walls, 
&c. The churches consisted of a nave and 
side aisles, which, with transepts, formed a 
cross; and the head of the cross was gene¬ 
rally terminated by a semicircular and ad¬ 
ditional building called the apsis, which 
formed that part of the choir specially de¬ 
voted to ecclesiastical ceremonies. Some 
have divided the Romanesque into the 
Saxon, Norman, Lombard, Byzantine, and 
other styles. Towards the end of the 12th 
century, however, great changes were in¬ 
troduced. The pointed arch, which distin¬ 
guishes the true Gothic style, was then 
adopted, though at first there was an anoma¬ 
lous mixture of circular and pointed arches; 
a tendency to perpendicular lines became 
predominant: the towers were made light 
and lofty. The powers of mechanical con¬ 
struction were at length exhibited in the 
utmost perfection, the proportion between 
strength and burden being calculated with 
extraordinary precision, and the thrusts of 
the vaultings counteracted in the most in¬ 
genious and efficient manner — lightness 
and boldness being attained in the highest 
degree. Many believe the pointed arch to 
have been suggested by the interlacing of 
arches in the ornamentation of walls during 
the period of the Romanesque; and others, 
that it was derived from the East: but 
something closely resembling it is found 
in the ruins and monuments of Egypt and 
Assyria. [See Architecture.] 

GOUGE (Fr.), an instrument or tool, used 















326 Httentrp 

by various artiflcers, being a sort of round 
chisel for cutting or hollowing out wood, 
&c. 

GOURD ( goiirde: Fr.), the fruit of climb¬ 
ing herbaceous plants belonging to the nat. 
ord. Cucwrbitacece, natives of hot countries. 
These fruits assume various strange shapes, 
and many are edible. The skin of the 
bottle gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris), and some 
other species, is so strong that it is em¬ 
ployed to hold liquids. 

GOUT (gt/utte: Fr.), or Arthritis (Gr., 
from arthron, a joint), in Medicine, a very 
painful disease, the principal seat of which 
is in the joints and ligaments of the feet. 
It is often periodical or intermitting. It 
is a disease which seldom attacks young 
people, and is attended with the secretion 
of the superfluous earthy matter, which is 
no longer necessary for the formation of 
the bones, but which, instead of being car¬ 
ried off by the proper channels, is depo¬ 
sited beneath the skin, or accumulates 
internally, thus producing chalk-stones and 
various internal concretions. It is very 
common among those who indulge in the 
pleasures of the table, and is sometimes 
hereditary; but females seldom have this 
disease. 

GOVERNMENT ( gouvemement : Fr.). If 
the governing power is vested in the hands 
of one, it is a monarchy; if in the hands of 
the nobility, an aristocracy ; and if in the 
hands of the people, or those chosen by 
them a democracy. The executive government 
is the function of administering pub¬ 
lic affairs ; the legislative government, that 
of making the laws. In England, the exe¬ 
cutive government is in the sovereign and 
his ministers; but the legislative govern¬ 
ment is in the parliament, that is, the king, 
lords, and commons, whence the constitu¬ 
tion of England is denominated a mixed 

government. - Government, in Grammar, 

the influence of a word with regard to con¬ 
struction : as when established usage 
requires that one word should cause an¬ 
other to be in a particular case or mood. 

GOV'ERNOR (gouverneur: Fr.), a con¬ 
trivance used for regulating the action of 
the steam-engine. It usually consists of 
two heavy balls, fixed respectively on the 
lower extremities of two rods, having at 
their upper extremities hinges of some form 
that attach them to a vertical spindle, 
which is made to revolve by the steam-en¬ 
gine, water-wheel, &c., which is to be regu¬ 
lated. When the machinery is moving with 
the proper velocity, the rods and balls are 
carried round by the spindle at a regulated 
distance from it; but when the velocity 
becomes too high, the balls and rods are 
thrown out by centrifugal force ; and this, 
to a greater or less extent diminishes the 
supply of steam to the steam cylinder by 
means of the tlirottle-valve, or of water to 
the water-wheel by lowering the sluice¬ 
gate, until the right speed is attained. If 
the motion becomes too slow, the balls des¬ 
cend below the proper position, which 
opens the throttle-valve of the steam- 
engine, or increases the supply of water to 
the water-wheel. 

GRACE (gratia, favour: Lat.), Days op. 


Crcas'ury. [graina 


in Commercial Law, three days allowed 
for payment after a bill has become due. 

GRACES, The, in Heathen Mythology, 
were three beautiful goddesses, Aglaia, 
Thalia, and Euphrosyne, who were the con¬ 
stant attendants of Venus, whose daughters 

they were by Jupiter or Bacchus.- 

Graces, in Music, turns, trills, and shakes, 
introduced for the purpose of embellish¬ 
ment. 

GRADA'TION ( gradatio, a going step by 
step: Lat.), in Logic, an argumentation, 
consisting of propositions so disposed that 
the attribute of the first is the subject 
of the second ; the attribute of the second 
the subject of the third; and so on, till the 
last attribute comes to be predicated of the 
subject of the first proposition.— In Mu¬ 
sic, a diatonic ascending or descending 

succession of cords.-In Painting, the 

blending one tint into another. 

GRA'DIENT (gradiens, going step by 
step: Lat.), a technical term connected 
with railways, and indicating an inclined 
plane. 

GRAD'UATE (gradus, a step: Lat.), one 
who has obtained a degree at a college or 
university. 

GRADUATION (same deriv.), in practical 
Astronomy, the division of circular arcs 
into degrees, minutes, &c. It requires the 
greatest accuracy, and its proper execution 
supposes great mechanical skill. 

GRAFT'ING, in Horticulture, the process 
of inserting a branch of one tree into the 
stock of another, so that it may receivenou- 
rishment from it, while at the same time it 
produces a new tree like the old one whence 
the graft was taken. The use of grafting 
is to propagate any rare kinds of fruits. 
All good fruits have been obtained acciden¬ 
tally from seeds. It is quite uncertain 
whether or not the seeds of these will pro¬ 
duce fruit worthy of cultivation ; but when 
shoots are taken from such trees as bear 
good fruit, no degeneration is to be appre¬ 
hended. Generally speaking, all the species 
of one genus may be grafted on one another; 
but there are exceptions; thus, the apple 
cannot be usefully grafted on the pear. Spe¬ 
cies belonging to different natural orders 
can scarcely ever be grafted on each other. 
Hence, the nearer in affinity the scion and 
the stock, the better. 

GRAIN (Fr.; from granum: Lat.), the 
generic name of the seeds of wheat, barley, 
oats, rice, &c. All kinds of grain contain 
nutritious particles of a similar character, 
although they vary, both in their quantity 
and in their mixture, in various grains: but 
their most valuable elements are—gluten, 
which affords the strongest nourishment 
for the animal body : fecula or starch, which, 
though not so nutritious as gluten, seems 
to render it more digestible; and a siveet 
mucilage, which is more nutritious than 
starch, but is small in quantity, and renders 
the grain liable to the vinous and acetous j 

fermentation.- Grain, the integer of our 

system of weights. The troy pound con- 1 
tains 5760 grs., the avoirdupois 7000; the 
troy ounce 480 grs., and the avoirdupois ! 
ounce 437J. 

GRAINS OF PAR'ADISE, the acrid seeds 




















gballjeJ 


dj? irctenttftc autf 


326 


of various species of Amomum, plants allied 
to ginger. Their properties are intoxi¬ 
cating, but of a very deleterious character, 
and they are said to be frequently employed 


called porphyritic granite. There Is a va¬ 
riety composed only of felspar and quartz, 
which on certain sections presents broken 
lines resembling Eastern characters, and 
hence it is called Graphic Granite. When 
hornblende takes the place of mica the 


to give a false strength to spirits and 
beer. 

GRAL'LTE (stilts : Lat, from their long 
legs), in Ornithology, an order of birds, 
divided into seven families, viz.: Olitidce, 
bustards; Cliaradriidce, plovers; Gruidce, 
cranes; Ardeidce, herons; Scolopacidce, 
; snipes; Palamadeidce, screamers; and dial- 
UlIcb rails 

GRAM'INA (Lat.), or GRASSES, the most 
numerous family of plants, common to all 
countries. They have neither calyx nor 
corolla, but in place of them imbricated 
scales called palew and glumes. An English 
meadow of natural grass often exhibits a 
hundred different species. But the most 
productive kinds have been specially cul¬ 
tivated, and fields are now sown, not only 
with true grasses, but with clover, trefoil, 
sainfoin, and lucerne, which the farmer 
calls grasses, but which belong to a very 
different order, that of Leguminosce. The 
true grasses include wheat, rye, barley, 
oats, rice, Indian corn, and the sugar-cane ; 
their chief characteristic being that their 
stems or culms are cylindrical and provided 
at intervals with knots, from each of which 
arises a long linear or lanceolate leaf, 
sheathing the stem for some distance. 

| GRAM'MAR ( gramma , a writing: Gr.), 

I the art which analyzes and classes the 
words in a language, which details its 
peculiarities, and furnishes rules, recog¬ 
nized by the best authorities, for its con¬ 
struction. General grammar teaches the 
principles which are common to all lan¬ 
guages ; and the grammar of any particular 
language teaches the principles peculiar to 
that language. Grammar treats of sen¬ 
tences, and of the several parts of which 
they are composed. Sentences consist of 
words, words of one or more syllables, and 
syllables of one or more letters; so that, in 
fact, letters, syllables, words, and sentences 
make up the whole subject of grammar. 
By means of inarticulate sounds beasts can 
give expression to certain feelin gs; but man 
is distinguished from the brute creation 
by the power of producing a much greater 
variety of souuds, and of attaching to 

each modification a particular meaning.- 

Grammar also signifies a book containing 
the rules of this art, methodically digested. 

GRAMME ( gramma, a weight equal to 
two oboli: Gr.), the French integer of 
weight, equal to 15‘438 English troy grains. 

GRANDEE', a designation given to the 
highest nobility of Spain or Portugal. 

I GRAND JU'RY, a jury convened by the 
sheriff to examine the grounds of ac¬ 
cusation against offenders, and the validity 
of indictments. Those against whom true 
; bills are found by the grand jury are after- 
| wards tried before a petty jury. 

GRAN'ITE ( granit: Ger.; from granum, a 
grain : Lat.), a rock of igneous origin com¬ 
posed of crystals of quartz, felspar, and 
I mica, confusedly mixed together. The 
I felspar is sometimes white, sometimes red. 
When it occurs in large crystals it is 


rock is called Syenite. Granite is believed 
to have once been in a state of fusion in 
tlie interior of the earth and to have cooled 
slowly, under great pressure. Although 
granite is often found at the surface of the 
earth, some vast mountain ranges chiefly 
consisting of it, it is never found lying 
upon sedimentary rocks. It has evidently 
been found at widely distant epochs ; for 
whilst it lies beneath the oldest fossilifer- 
ous rocks, it is found penetrating in the 
form of veins into rocks of the tertiary 
period. Granite is much used for building 
purposes. Some kinds however readily 
decay. From its disintegration in situ has 
been found the clay called Kaolin which 
is employed in the manufacture of porce¬ 
lain. [See Gneiss.] 

GRAN'ITEL (same deriv.),in Mineralogy, 
a granitic compound containing two con¬ 
stituents only; as quartz and felspar, or 
quartz and hornblende. 

GRAN'ITIN (fro m granite) , i n Mineralogy, 
a granitic aggregate of three species of 
minerals, some of which differ from those 
species which compose granite ; as quartz, 
felspar, and jade or sliorl. 

GRANT, in Law, a mode of conveyance 
by mere deed, and without livery of seisin, 
appropriate to estates in lands and tene¬ 
ments not in possession, and also to incor¬ 
poreal hereditaments. 

GRANULATION ( granum, a grain: Lat.), 
the act of forming metal into grains. This 
is generally effected by pouring the metal 
in a fluid state into water. Should it re¬ 
quire to be finely divided, it must be made 
to pass through a perforated ladle or sieve. 

If the particles are to be spherical, it must 
be poured from such a height that they will 
be cold before reaching the water; hence 
the great height of shot towers. - Granu¬ 

lations, in Medicine, the minute grain¬ 
like, fleshy bodies, which form on the sur¬ 
faces of ulcers and suppurating wounds, 
and serve both for filling up the cavities 
and bringing nearer together and uniting 
their sides. The colour of healthy granu¬ 
lations is a deep florid red, and they always | 
have a tendency to unite. When livid, they 
are unhealthy, and have only a languid 
circulation. 

GRAPE ( grappe, a bunch : Fr.), the fruit 
of the vine, growing in clusters, from wh ich 
wine is expressed. The climate of England 
is not very favourable to their proper ripen¬ 
ing, but the grapes we produce in hot-liouses 
are generally superior to those which we 
import green from Malaga and other ports 
of Spain. When grapes are dried and pre¬ 
served, they are called raisins; or, if they 
are the very small kind cultivated inZante, 1 
Cephalonia, and Ithaca, and in the Morea 
near Patras, currants. 

GRA'PE-SHOT, in Artillery, a combina¬ 
tion of small shot put into a thick canvas 
bag, and corded so as to form a kind of cylin¬ 
der. It is now superseded by canister shot-. 
























327 Httcrarn ©vfatftitj)* [gravity 

GRArH'ITE ( grapho , I write: (7r.), in 
Mineralogy, Plumbago, or Black Leal, 
which see. 

GRAPHOM'ETER (grapho, I write; and 
metron, a measure : Or.), a mathematical in¬ 
strument, called also a semicircle, the use 
of which is to find the number of degrees 
in any angle, the vertex of which is at the 
centre of the instrument. 

GltAP'NEL ( grapin: Fr.), a small anchor 
fitted with four or five flukes or claws : it is 
used in boats or small vessels. 

GRASS'HOPPER, a genus of orthop¬ 
terous insects, distinguished from the 
crickets by the roof-like position of the 
wing-covers, and from the locusts by less 
robustness of body and greater length and 
slenderness of the legs, and antennae. The 
grasshopper of our fields is harmless. The 
stridulating sounds of the male insects is 
produced by rubbing the ridges of the inner 
surface of the thigh against the veins of 
the wing-cases. 

GRAU'WACKE (grey rock: Ger.), an 
obsolete geological term, originating in 
Germany, for argillo-arenaceous palaeozoic 
strata. 

GRAV'EL (gravier: Fr.), small stones or 

I pebbles intermixed with sand. It is sup¬ 
posed to be derived from fragments of rocks 
and Hints, worn by the action of water and 
by their mutual attrition, into rounded 

and other forms.- Gravel, in Medicine, 

a painful disorder, arising from a gritty 
matter concreting into small stones in the 
kidneys and bladder. 

GRA'VER (graveurFr.), the same as 
burin, which see. 

GRAVIM'ETEIt (gravitas, weight; and 
metior, I measure: Lat.), an instrument 
for determining the specific gravities of 
i bodies. 

GRAVITA'TION (gravitas, weight: Lat.). 
The tendency of all the molecules of our 
system to move towards each other in pro¬ 
portion to their masses, and inversely to 
the square of their distances, is styled gra¬ 
vitation. It is this tendency which forms 
the bond by which the countless particles 
composing the universe are held together 
in their present arrangement and shape; 
and it equally regulates the descent of the 
minutest grain of dust to the ground, and 
the motion of the planets in their orbits. 
Indeed, it reaches far beyond the bounds of 
our system, for there is reason to suppose 
that the binary stars are subjected to its laws. 
The force of gravitation varies directly as 
the masses of the gravitating bodies ; for 
example, if one of two such bodies has a 
mass twice that of the other, then the at¬ 
tracting force of the former is twice that of 
the latter. It varies also inversely as the 
square of their distances; for example, if a 
given distance be made twice greater, the 
attracting force will be four times less. 
That manifestation of the force which takes 
place on or near the earth is styled terres¬ 
trial gravitation ; and since it is the com¬ 
bined operation of every part of the globe 
that produces it, we may consider the at¬ 
tracting force to act only from the centre. 
Gravitation has the same intensity at all 
Tarts of the earth’s surface, which are at 

equal distances from the centre. The far¬ 
ther away a body is from that point the less 
is the gravitating force. Consequently that 
force is less intense on the top of a mountain 
than at the surface of the ocean, less at the 
poles than at the equator. That which we 
call weight is the effect of the gravitating 
force. It is the pressure which the attrac¬ 
tion of the earth causes a body to exert upon 
some other body interposed between it and 
the earth’s centre. Weight is proportional 
to mass. Absolute weight is the relation 
which the pressure of a body bears to that 
of some other body, whose pressure is taken 
as unity. The absolute weight of bodies of 
similar constitution is proportional to their 
volumes. Bodies which, witli equal volumes, 
have different weights, have also different 
densities : that body which has the greater 
weight being more dense than another of 
the same volume but less weight. The at¬ 
tracting force of the earth is strongly 
showm in the fall towards it of bodies left 
without support. The direction of motion 
is towards the earth’s centre. Gravitation 
acts with equal intensity on all bodies, each 
particle of matter being equally attracted 
by the earth. The cause of some bodies 
falling more rapidly than others is the 
resistance of the air, for a piece of gold and 
a feather are seen to fall with the same 
speed under an exhausted receiver. The 
motion of a falling body is uniformly ac¬ 
celerated, for the force which gave the 
motion a beginning is constantly acting 
upon it, and always with the same intensity ; 
consequently at every instant it adds a new 
degree of speed to that which it has already 
communicated, and the velocity at the ter¬ 
mination of its fall is composed of all the 
small increments of velocity added together, 
lienee the greater the height of the fall, 
the greater the velocity at its termination. 

It has been found that the final velocities 
increase as the times, that is, they follow 
the order of the numbers 1, 2, 3,4, &c. A 
body in the latitude of London falls during 
the first second of its descent through 
16095 feet; during the second second 
through 48 - 285 feet; during the third second 
through 80 - 475 feet; during the fourth 
second through U2‘665 feet, and so on. The 
total space fallen through at the end of the 
second second is therefore 6T3S0 feet, at the 
end of the third second 144 - 855 feet, and at 
the end of the fourth second 257'520. Whence 
it appears that the spaces passed through 
in equal successive portions of time in¬ 
crease as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.; 
whilst the total spaces fallen through in¬ 
crease as the square of the times l 2 , 2 2 , 3 2 , 

4 2 , &c. = 1,4, 9,16, &c. 

GRAV'ITY ( gravitas, weight: Lat.), Cen¬ 
tre ok. [See Centre of gravity.] 

GRAV'ITY, Specific, is the weight of 
any kind of matter, considered with re¬ 
ference to that of an equal bulk of some 
other, which is assumed as a standard of 
comparison; and this standard, by uni¬ 
versal consent, is distilled water at a 
certain temperature—in England, generally 
at 62° Fahr. Comparison may be made 
with distilled water at any temperature, if 
the allowance required by its altered den- 



























grayling] dTTje fi?uniftitc antf 328 


Bity is taken into account. It happens that 
a cubic foot of distilled water weighs 1000 
ounces avoirdupois. Consequently, assum¬ 
ing this as the specific gravity of rain¬ 
water, and comparing all other bodies with 
it, the numbers that express the specific, 
gravity of bodies will at the same time 
denote the weight of a cubic foot of each 
in avoirdupois ounces; which is a great 
convenience in numerical computations. 
From the preceding definition we readily 
deduce the following laws 1. In bodies of 
equal magnitude, the specific gravities are 
directly as theweights, or as their densities. 

2. In bodies of the same specific gravity, 
the weights will be as the magnitudes. 

3. In bodies of equal weights, the specific 
gravities are inversely as the magnitudes. 

4. The weights of different bodies are to 
each other in the compound ratio of their 
magnitudes and specific gravities. Hence 
it is obvious that, of the magnitude, weight, 
and specific gravity of a body, any two being 
given, the third may be found ; and we may 
thus ascertain the magnitude of bodies 
which are too irregular to admit of the 

! application of the common rules of mensu¬ 
ration ; or we may, by knowing the specific 
gravity and magnitude, find the weight of 
bodies which are too ponderous to be sub¬ 
mitted to the action of the balance or steel¬ 
yard; or lastly, the magnitude and weight 
being given, we may ascertain the specific 
gravities. The specific gravity of a solid is 
found by weighing it first in air, and then 
while immersed in distilled water, or some 
fluid of known density which will not dis¬ 
solve it. The weight lost by immersion is 
the weight of a quantity of fluid equal in 
bulk to the body. The weight of the body 
in air, divided by the weight lost, will be its 
specific gravity with reference to the fluid 
employed. If the body will not sink in the 
fluid, some substance that will make it sink 
must be attached to it. The effective part 
of the weight, added to the weight of the 
body, will be the weight of an equal hulk 
of the fluid; and dividing the weight of the 
body in air by this, will give its specific 
gravity with respect to the fluid. The most 
accurate and concise mode of ascertaining 
the density of liquids is to employ a small 
glass measure with a very short narrow 
neck, called a specific gravity bottle, and 
adjusted to hold exactly 1000 grains of dis¬ 
tilled water. The vessel being counter¬ 
poised, and then filled with any other liquid, 
its weight is observed, and the density of 
its contents, compared with that of water, 
may be found by merely cutting off three 
decimal places. After each operation, the 
glass must be carefully rinsed with pure 
i water, and again dried, by heating it, and 
then sucking out the humid air by means of 
a slender tube. The specific gravity bottle 
enables us to take the specific gravity of a 
body which is in powder—of a soil for in¬ 
stance. For this purpose, half the quantity 
, of water the bottle would hold is to be placed 
. in it; then just enough of the clay, &c., to 
cause it to be filled with the mixture; and 
it is then to be weighed. The weight of 
the water being deducted, the remainder 
Will be the weight of the clay, &c.; and 


this, divided by half the weight of the 
water, which the bottle would hold, will be 
the specific gravity of the clay, &c. The 
specific gravity of fluids may also be ascer¬ 
tained by the hydrometer, which see. 

GRAY'LING, a fresh-water fish belonging 
to the Salmonidce, the Thymallus vulgaris of 
Ichthyologists. It is of a brownish colour, 
with several dusky stripes along the sides. 
When fresh from the water it is slightly 
varied with blue, green, and gold, and a few 
dark spots. It is found in some parts of 
England ; but abundantly in clear rapid 
streams in the north of Europe; and it is 
much esteemed as food. 

GRAY'WACKE. [See Grauwackr] 

GREAVE (grive: Fr ; in liurgund. Fr., a 
shin), a piece of armour, fitted to the front 
of the leg. It was used both by the Greeks 
and Romans, but on one leg only, as the 
other was protected by the shield. 

GREBE, the common name of some birds 
belonging to the genus Podiceps, of orni¬ 
thologists. They are divers, and placed in 
the family Colymbidce. The toes are not 
completely webbed, but have a scalloped 
membrane at each side like the coots. The 
little grebe or dabchick is the commonest 
in these islands. 

GREEK CHURCH, that section of Chris¬ 
tians who conform, in their creed, usages, 
and church government, to the form of 
Christianity introduced into the Greek em¬ 
pire about the fifth century, and brought 
to its present state under the patriarchs of 
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and 
Jerusalem. The bishops of Constantinople 
and Rome were long rivals, each attempting 
to obtain universal supremacy : the former 
being impeded in their efforts by their 
proximity to the emperors, the latter 
ultimately attained their object. The first 
dispute on matters of doctrine between 
the rival churches occurred in the 9th cen¬ 
tury. The Greeks denied the procession 
of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the 
Son; the Latins asserted and defined it as 
an article of faith. The latter, however, 
continued powerful in the East until a.t>. 
1054, when a final separation took place. 
Like the Roman Catholic, this church recog¬ 
nizes two sources of doctrine, the Bible and 
tradition, under which last it comprehends 
not only those dogmas which were orally 
delivered by the apostles, but also those 
which have been approved by the fathers 
of the Greek church. It is the only church 
which holds that the Holy Ghost pro¬ 
ceeds from the Father only, thus differing 
from the Roman Catholic and Protestant 
churches, which agree in believing the Holy 
Ghost to proceed from the Father and the 
Son. Like the Catholic church, it has seven 
sacraments: baptism, confirmation, the 
eucharist — preceded by confession — pe¬ 
nance, ordination, marriage, and extreme 
unction ; but it is peculiar in holding that 
full purification from original sin in bap¬ 
tism requires an immersion three times of 
the whole body in water, whether infants 
or adults are to be baptised, and in joining 
confirmation with baptism as its completion. 
It scarcely can be said to admit the doctrine 
of purgatory, has nothing to do with ]>re- 































S29 


mterarj? Cmdurg. 


[green-cloth 


destination, works of supererogation, in¬ 
dulgences, and dispensations; it allows 
pictures, but forbids images; permits the 
marriage of its secular priests; adopts auri¬ 
cular confession, and holds that doctrine of 
Christ’s presence in the eucharist called con- 
substantiation, which see; and it recog¬ 
nizes neither the pope nor anyone else as 
the visible vicar of Christ on earth, giving to 
the patriarchs of Constantinople, however, 
a spiritual supremacy. In the invocation 
of the saints, in their fasts, relics, &c., the 
Greeks are as zealous as the Roman Catho¬ 
lics ; it may be said, indeed, that the services 
of the Greek church consist almost entirely 
of outward forms. This form of Christi¬ 
anity is the religion of Russia, Greece, 
Moldavia, and Wallachia, and of congrega¬ 
tions scattered throughout the provinces 
of the Turkish and Austrian empires. 

GREEK FIRE, a combustible composi¬ 
tion, invented by the Greeks in the middle 
ages, during their wars with the Arabs and 
Turks. It is supposed to have consisted of 
bitumen, or asphaltum, nitre, and sulphur. 
Many extraordinary accounts are given of 
its destructive effects. Bomb-shells are 
now-a-days sometimes filled with a com¬ 
bustible matter termed Greek fire, composed 
of naphtha and phosphorus, or with the 
bisulphide of carbon and phosphorus. This 
forms a very destructive missile: for when 
the shell explodes, the composition ignites 
spontaneously and cannot be extinguished 
with water. 

GREEK LAN'GTTAGE. The language of 
the primitive inhabitants of Greece, the 
Pelasgic, was already extinct in the time of 
Herodotus, if we may believe his assertion 
that it was different from the Hellenic. 
From the great number of Hellenic tribes 
of the same race, it was to be expected that 
there would be different dialects; and it is 
customary to distinguish three principal 
ones, according to the three leading branch¬ 
es of the Greeks, the iEolic, the Doric, and 
the Ionic, to which is added the Attic. At 
what time this language first began to be 
expressed in writing has long been a sub¬ 
ject of doubt. According to the general 
opinion, Cadmus, the Phoenician, intro¬ 
duced the alphabet into Greece. His al¬ 
phabet consisted of but sixteen letters; 
four more are said to have been invented 
by Palamedes in the Trojan war, and 
four by Simonides, of Ceos. As the Io- 
nians first adopted these letters, the alpha¬ 
bet with twenty-four is called the Ionic. 
In Homer’s time all knowledge, religion, 
and laws, were preserved by memory alone, 
and for that reason were clothed in 
verse, till prose was introduced with the 
art of writing. In Poetry the chief writers 
were Homer (long the reputed author of the 
Iliad and the Odyssey, but his individuality 
has been doubted); Hesiod, who wrote the 
• Works and Days,’ more than 800 years B.c.; 
Sappho, Alcaeus, and Anacreon, writers of 
lyrics in the sixth century b.c. ; Simonides, 
another writer of lyrical pieces; Pindar,who 
composed odes; ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and 
Euripides, who wrote tragedies ; and Aris¬ 
tophanes, a writer of comedies; these 
flourished in the fifth century b.c. ; Bion, 


Moschus, and Theocritus, who wrote idyls; 
Callimachus, hymns and epigrams, in 
the third century b.c. In other depart¬ 
ments of literature, the following were the 
leading men whose writings have survived: 
Herodotus and Thucydides, both historians 
in the fifth century b.c. ; Xenophon, the 
historian ; Isocrates, Demosthenes, and 
ASchines, orators; Plato and Aristotle, 
philosophers, in the fourth century b.c.; 
Euclid and Apollonius, mathematicians, in 
the third century b.c. ; Polybius, the his¬ 
torian, in the second century b.c ; Diodorus 
Siculus, the historian, in the first century 
b.c. ; Strabo and Pausanius, geographers; 
Plutarch, the biographer; and Epictetus, 
the philosopher, in the first century after 
Christ; Lucian, a writer of dialogues ; 
Ptolemy, the geographer ; Arrian, the his¬ 
torian ; Galen, the physician; and M. Aure¬ 
lius Antoninus, the philosopher, in the 
second century after Christ. In this and 
the following centuries flourished the 
Fathers of the Church (see Fathers), and 
a number of minor writers on Greek, whom 
want of space obliges us to pass by, except 
Heliodorus, who, in the fourth century of 
our era, wrote ‘ Theagenes and Chariclcea,’ 

the first of extant novels.- Modern 

Greek or Romaic. The Greek language 
seems to have preserved its purity longer 
than any other known to us. But this ma¬ 
jestic dialect ceased to exist as a living 
language when Constantinople was taken 
by the Turks in a.d. 1453, and in the lower 
classes only did the common Greek survive 
the dialect of the polished classes. But 
the liberation of Greece has done much to 
revive the knowledge of its noble tongue 
in the regions in which it was originally 
spoken. The downfall of the Eastern em¬ 
pire, by scattering learned exiles through 
all parts of Europe, spread the knowledge 
of it in every land. The Romaic or modern 
Greek, like the Italian or modern Latin, 
differs from the ancient chiefly in having 
exchanged the terminations of the dif¬ 
ferent cases, &c., for prepositions. In it, 
also, accents are confounded, and, though 
marked, are not noticed in pronunciation; 
diphthongs, anciently distinct, have the 
same pronunciation, ei, oi, e, and u, being 
pronounced e ; the form and signification of 
ancient words are changed in various ways, 
the dual number and oblique cases are lost; 
auxiliaries have and will are employed to in¬ 
dicate the past and future; personal pro¬ 
nouns are used with verbs; and orthography 
is without fixed rules. But it differs less 
from the original Greek than the Italian 
from the Latin. The use of the ancient 
Greek liturgy tended to preserve the lan¬ 
guage, and kept it from becoming different 
in different districts. The dialect of the 
common people is the least corrupt; that of 
Attica is the worst. The ancient letters 
are still used. 

GREEN-CLOTH, BOARD OF, a court of 
justice belonging to the royal household, 
and held in the queen’s palace, under the 
lord-steward. To this court are committed 
the accounts of expenses and payments 
to the queen’s servants; and its juris¬ 
diction extends to all offences committed 























greenfinch] 


££1)2 Scientific anti 


230 


I in tlie royal palaces, and within the verge 
of the court, which reaches 200 yards from 
the palace gate every way. None of the 
royal household can be arrested for debt 
without a warrant from this board. 

GREENFINCH, a British bird belonging 
to the finch family, the Coccotliraustes chloris 
of ornithologists. The feathers are of a 
greenish hue, and the wings and tail varie¬ 
gated with yellow. 

GREENHOUSE, in Horticulture, a glazed 
building, erected for sheltering and pre¬ 
serving the tender exotic plants, which will 
not bear to be exposed to the open air during 
the winter season. [See Conservatory.] 

GREENSAND, in Geology, fossiliferous 
beds belonging to the cretaceous formation. 
The Upper Greensand lies upon the gault, 
and belongs to the upper division of the 
cretaceous series. The Lower Greensand 
is under the gault, and belongs to the 
Neocomian or lower division of that series. 
The Upper Greensand chiefly consists of 
the fragments of some chloritic mineral. 
In some places there are bands of siliceous 
limestone and calcareous sandstone. The 
whole is about 100 feet in thickness in the 
Isle of Wight. The Lower Greensand 
varies greatly in its mineral composition, 
but it appears to have been principally 
derived from the wearing down of Plutonic 
rocks. In the Isle of Wight it attains a 
thickness of 843 feet. 

GREEN'STONE.in Geology a volcanicrock 
composed of a granular mixture of horn¬ 
blende and felspar, or of augite and felspar. 
It is intermediate in composition between 
basalt and trachyte. 

GREGO'RIAN CAL'ENDAR, in Chrono¬ 
logy, a correction of the Julian. In the 
latter, every secular or hundredth year is 
bissextile: in the former, every one in four. 
This reformation of the calendar, which 
was made by pope Gregory XIII. a.d. 1582, 
is also called the New Style. [See Style.] 

GRENA'DE (Fr.), a hollow shell or globe 
of iron, filled with combustibles, discharged 
from a howitzer. There is also a smaller 
kind, thrown by hand, which are called 
lumd-grenades. These were originally used 
by soldiers who, from long service and 
distinguished bravery, were selected for 
the service; and hence the name of the 
grenadiers, who nowform the first company 
of a battalion. 

GREN'ATITE, a mineral of a dark red¬ 
dish brown colour, sometimes called pris¬ 
matic garnet, and staurotide. It is composed 
of silica, alumina, and oxide of iron. It oc¬ 
curs imbedded in mica slate, and in talc, 
and is not fusible by the blowpipe. It 
sometimes occurs crystallised in the form 
of a cross, and it is then made a religious 
amulet. 

GRIF'FIN ( griffon: Fr.), an imaginary 
animal, with four leg3, wings, and a beak ; 
being in the upper part an eagle, and in the 
lower a lion. The ancients intended by this 
combination to give an idea of strength 
and swiftness, united with an extraordinary 
vigilance in guarding whatever was in¬ 
trusted to its care. It was supposed to 
watch over mines of gold and hidden trea¬ 
sures, and was consecrated to the sun. 


GRIS'AILLE (Fr.). A picture is said to he 
en grisaille when it is executed only in white 
and grey. 

GRISET'TE (Fr.), originally a dress of 
coarse grey cloth, worn by females of the 
lower classes in Paris; hence it is used for 
the females themselves. 

GROAT, an ancient silver coin, worth 
about fourpence of our money. At the 
time of the Conquest, the French solidus 
began to be called a shilling, and the Saxon 
shilling a groat. 

GROS'BEAK, a name given to several 
British birds in the family of finches, on ac¬ 
count of their short thick bills. They are 
nearly related to the common bullfinch. 

GROSS (gros: Fr.), in Commerce, twelvo 

dozen.- Gross Weight, the weight of 

merchandise or goods, with the dross, the 
bag, cask, &c., in which they are contained, 
for which an allowance is to be made of 
tare and tret. These being deducted, the 
remainder is denominated ?ient or net weight. 

-Advowson in Gross, in Law, an ad- 

vowson separated from the property of a 
manor, and annexed to the person of its 
owner. 

GROS'SULAR ( grosstdits, a small unripe 
fig: Lat.), in Mineralogy, a rare kind of 
garnet, so named from its green colour. It 
is found in Siberia. 

GROTES'QUE (Fr.), in the Fine Arts, a 
term applied to a combination of capricious 
ornaments, consisting of figures, animals, 
leaves, &c., which, as a whole, have no ex¬ 
istence in nature. ‘ The true grotesque 
(says Mr. Ruskin), being the expression of 
the repose or play of a serious mind, there is 
a false grotesque opposed to it, which is the 
full exertion of a frivolous one.’-In Archi¬ 

tecture, artificial grotto work, decorated 
with shells, rock, &c.. 

GROUND (grand: Sax.), in Etching, a 
composition spread over the surface of tlto 
metal to be etched, to prevent the nitric 
acid from eating except where the drawing 

has been made_In Music, the name 

given to a composition in which the bass, 
consisting of a few bar3 of independent 
notes, is continually repeated to an ever- 
varying melody.-In Painting, the sur¬ 

face on which figures or other objects are 
represented.—G round-ice, ice formed 
under peculiar circumstances, at the bot¬ 
tom of running water, in consequence of 
the ground being cooled by radiation, below 

the freezing point of water.- Ground- 

ivy, the Glechoma liederacea, a British la¬ 
biate plant. -Ground-plates, in Archi¬ 

tecture, the lower portions of a timber, 
which receives the principal and other 

posts.- Ground-plot, the ground on 

which a building is placed. — Ground- 
rent, rent paid for the privilege of building 
on another man’s ground, and generally on a 
long lease.— Ground-swell, an undula¬ 
tion of the ocean, caused by a distant gale 

of wind.- Ground-tackle, in ships, the 

ropes, &c., belonging to anchors. 

GROUND'SEL, a name given to several 
wild plants belonging to the genus Senecio, 
nat. ord. Oompositce. 

GROUP (groupe: Fr.), in Painting and 
Sculpture, an assemblage of figures or other 

























331 


3Lttrnm> CDreafttrg}. 


[guelder 


objects.- Grouping is the art of so com¬ 

bining and balancing the parts as to pro¬ 
duce an harmonious effect. 

GROUSE, the name of several species of 
game birds, belonging to the family of 
Tetraonid®. In Britain there are the 
wood-grouse, or capercaillie, the black- 
grouse, the red or common grouse, and the 
white-grouse, or ptarmigan. They are shy, 
and wild birds living in forests or on moors. 

GRUB ( graban , to dig: Sax.), the worm 
or maggot produced from a beetle, which 
afterwards becomes a winged insect. 

GRYL'LUS (Lat.; from grullos, literally 
a small pig ; grulizo, I grunt: Gr.), in Ento¬ 
mology, a genus of saltatorial orthoptera, 
including our great green grasshopper 
Gryllus vindissimus. 

GUAI'ACUM (guayacan: Span.; from 
hoaxacan : Ind.), in Botany, a genu s of 
West Indian trees, nat. ord. Zygophyllacece, 
which yield a resinous matter used in medi¬ 
cine, called Guaiacine. 

GUAN'ACO ( Peruv.), the local name of 
the wild llama, the Llama guanacus of natu¬ 
ralists. It is the characteristic quadruped 
of the plains of Patagonia. [See Llama.] 

GUA'NO (the corrupted Spanish form of 
a native Peruvian word), a substance which 
is found in large quantities on islands near 
the east coast of South America, and other 
parts of the world. It is the accumulated 
excrement of sea birds with the decayed 
bodies of seals, fish, birds &c.; and is such 
an excellent manure, that it forms an ex¬ 
tensive and profitable branch of commerce. 
The value of different guanos depends upon 
the quantities of ammonia and phosphoric 
acid they respectively contain. Upwards of 
240,000 tons are annually imported and used 
in this country. 

GUARANTEE' (garantie: Fr.), an un¬ 
dertaking or engagement by a third party, 
that the stipulations of a treaty, or the en¬ 
gagement or promise of another, shall be 
performed. A person is not liable on a spe¬ 
cial promise in the nature of a guarantee, 
unless a written agreement or memoran- 
- duin of such promise shall be signed by the 
party making the promise, or some person 
authorized by him. It is not necessary that 
the consideration for such promise should 
appear in writing, or be capable of inference 
from a written document. 

GUARD, NATIONAL, of France, an 
institution devised in 1789, and fully or¬ 
ganized in 1791. It was raised by voluntary 
enlistment, and consisted of one man out 
of every twenty citizens. Its staff was 
dissolved in 1795, and it was placed under 
the control of the military authorities. 
Under the restoration, it was deprived of 
the privilege of choosing its own officers, 
and in consequence of its demanding the 
dismissal of the ministry, it was dissolved 
in 1827.- Imperial Guard. When Napo¬ 

leon became emperor, in 1805, he augmented 
the consular guard, which then consisted 
of 3300 infantry and 2100 cavalry, besides 
artillery and marines. It was an institu¬ 
tion of great efficiency, consisting ex¬ 
clusively of soldiers who had served four 
years in the line, or of those who had be¬ 
longed to what was called the Young Guard. 


In 1812, both guards consisted of 56,000 
men. At the restoration, the soldiers of 
the young guard were transferred to the 
line, and the old guard was formed into 
regiments. 

GUARD'ANT ( gardant , guarding: Fr.), in 
Heraldry, having the face turned towards 
the spectator, as it were in a posture of de¬ 
fence. 

GUARD'IAN (gardim: Fr.), in Law, a 
person charged by will or by the Court of 
Chancery with the custody of such persons 
as are incapable of self-guidance, and espe- j 

cially of minors.- Guardian ad litem, a 

person appointed by the court to prosecute ( 
or defend a suit on behalf of infants. 

GUAltD'SHIP, a vessel of war, intended 
to superintend the marine affairs of a liar- : 
hour or river ; to take care that the ships ! 
not in commission have their proper watch¬ 
word duly kept, by sending her guard-boats 
round them every night; and to receive 
seamen who are impressed in time of war. j 

GUARDS ( gardes: Fr.), in a particular 
sense, the troops that are designed to guard 
tlie royal person and palace, and which con¬ 
sist both of horse and foot. In Britain the 
household troops or guards consist of two 
regiments of life-guards, the royal regiment 
of horse-guards, and three regiments of 
foot-guards, viz. the Grenadier, Coldstream 
and Scots Fusilier Guards. The actual body¬ 
guard of the sovereign on ordinai’y occasions 
consists of the Yeomen of the Guard, a corps 
originally established by Henry VII. in 1485. 
There are at present 140 yeomen, officered 
by a captain, a lieutenant, an ensign, and 
four exons. The captain is a nobleman, who 
is appointed by the ministry, and retires 

from office along with them.-From the 

earliest times, sovereigns have had a body 
of soldiers, designed especially to defend 
their .persons. Alexander the Great had a 
corps of Argyraspides or silver shields ; the 
Roman emperors had their Praetorian 
j guards ; the kings of France had their Scotch 
j and afterwards their Swiss guards. The pope 
had, and continues to have, Swiss guards. 

| GUA'VA, American trees of the genus 
Psidium, nat. ord. Myrtacece. The fruit is 
round like an apple, with a pulpy interior 
containing many seeds. The flavour is 
agreeable, and from it is prepared a much 
esteemed jelly. 

GUDG'EON (goujon: Fr.), a well-known 
fresh-water fish, the Gobio fluviatilis of 
naturalists. It belongs to the Cyprinidce, 
and is distinguished from the barbel by 
having only two filaments or barbules at 
the mouth, and by having no strong bony 
ray at the commencement of the dorsal fin. 

GUE'BRES (infidels : Pers.), a Persian 
sect, who still worship fire as an emanation 
or emblem of the Defty. A colony of them 
lias been long established at Bombay and 
other parts of India, and has attained to 
riches and distinction: these are termed 
Parsees, on account of having sprung from 
the Persians. The sacred books of the 
Guebres are termed the Zend Avesta. 

GUELDER ROSE, a wild British shrub 
with white flowers and deciduous leaves, 
the Viburnum opidus of botanists, nat. ord. 
Caprifoliacece. I 


































$L\)Z ^cfenttfic autf 


332 


! GUELFS] 


GUELFS or GUELPHS, the name of a 
family, composing a faction formerly in 
Italy, whose contests with a rival faction, 
called the Ghibelines, were the cause of much 
misery and bloodshed. The wars of the 
Guelfs and Ghibelines became a struggle 
between the spiritual and secular power. 
The popes, who endeavoured to compel the 
German emperors to acknowledge their su¬ 
premacy, and the cities of Italy, struggling 
for independence and deliverance from the 
oppressive yoke of these same emperors, 
formed the party of the Guelfs. Those who 
favoured the emperors were called Ghibe¬ 
lines. The contests of the Guelfs and Ghi¬ 
belines originated in a German feud in the 
12th century. The dukes of Bavaria, of 
the great house of Guelph, carried on a war 
against the house of Hohenstauffen, one of 
whose castles, Weiblingen , gave the name 
of Ghibelines to their party. When the 
Emperor Frederic I., the head of the latter, 
invaded Italy, to reassert the rights of the 
empire, these names were transplanted into 
that country. In the I4th century, the 
papal see was removed to Avignon, and, 
from that time, the original principles of 
these factions were lost; but they disturbed 
Italy until near the end of the 15th cen 
tury. 

GUILD ( gildan , to pay: Sax.), a company, 
fraternity, or corporation, associated for 
some commercial purpose; of which every 
member was to pay something towards the 
common expenses. The guilds of the Anglo- 
Saxons, unlike those of more modern times, 
were not confined to mercantile purposes. 
They became ultimately so powerful, in 
London and other places, that admission 
into them was necessary as a qualification 
for the exercise of municipal rights. 

GUILD'HALL (gilde, a corporation : Ger.), 
the chief hall of the city of London, for 
holding courts, and for the meeting of the 
lord-mayor and commonalty, in order to 
make laws and ordinances for the welfare 
and regulation of the ci ty.— Guild-rents, 
rents paid to the crown by any guild or 
fraternity; or those that formerly belonged 
to religious houses, and came to the crown 
at the general dissolution of monasteries. 

GUIL'LOTINE, an instrument of public 
execution, for beheading persons at one 
stroke; adopted in France during the pe¬ 
riod of the revolution, and still employed 
in France when capital punishment is in¬ 
dicted. It consists of a heavy knife, guided 
in its descent by grooves. The invention 
of this decapitating machine has been erro¬ 
neously ascribed toGuillotin,a French phy¬ 
sician. It was used long before in other 
places; thus, in Italy, for beheading per¬ 
sons of noble birth, under the name of 
Mamiaja; and even in Scotland, under the 
name of Maiden. It was merely proposed 
by Guillotin, and adopted by the Conven¬ 
tion, as being less cruel to the sufferer, and 
less ignominious for the family of the per- 
I son executed : and the first criminal suf¬ 
fered by it at the Place de Grive, May 27th, 
1792. It is also a vulgar error, that Guil- 
Jotin was the first who perished by it: he 
survived until 1814. 

I GUIN'EA, an English denomination of 


money, and formerly a gold coin weighing 
118'7 grains, first coined in the reign of 
Charles II. Its value is 21s. It was so called 
because it was made from gold that was 
brought from Guinea, on the coast of 
Africa. 

GUIN'EA-FOWL, the Numida Meleagris 
of ornithologists, an African bird, now 
common in Europe, belonging to the order 
of GraUince. It is similar in its habits 
to our domestic poultry. Its colour is a 
dark grey, beautifully variegated with small 
white spots. Its head is bare of feathers, 
and covered with a naked bluish skin; on the 
top is a callous conical protuberance, and 
on each side of the upper mandible, at the 
base, hangs a loose wattle, which, in the 
female, is red, and in the male bluish. It 
makes a harsh unpleasant cry. 

GUIN'EA-PIG, the Cavia Cobaya of Zoo¬ 
logists, a beautiful little rodent quadruped, 
a native of South America, but now domes¬ 
ticated in Europe. It is seven or eight 
inches long, and of a white colour, varie¬ 
gated with black and orange spots. 

GUIN'EA- WORM. [See Filaria.] 

GUITAR' (guitare: Fr.; from cithara, a 
lute: Lat.), a musical stringed instrument, 
rather larger than a violin, and played with 
the fingers. It is much used in Spain and 
Italy, particularly in the former country, 
where there are few, even of the labouring 
class, who do not amuse themselves with it. 

GULES (gueule, the mouth : Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, the red colour equivalent to ruby, 
among the precious stones, and Mars among 
planets. It is represented by vertical lines 
in engraving. 

GULF ( golfe: Fr.), in Geography, a broad 
capacious bay, which, when very extensive, 
takes the name of a sea; as, the gulf of 
Venice,which isalso called the Adriatic sea. 

A gulf and a bay differ only in extent; we ap¬ 
ply bay to a large or small recess of the sea, 
but gulf is applied only to a large extent of 

water.-It also means a deep cavity in the 

earth, and a whirlpool. 

GULF-STREAM, a current of warm water, 
which issues from the basin of the Mexican 
gulf and Caribbean sea, doubles the south¬ 
ern cape of Florida, and takes a north-east¬ 
ern direction, in a line nearly parallel with 
the American coast. It touches the southern 
borders of the great banks of Newfound¬ 
land, and gradually diffuses itself until it is 
lost in the North Atlantic. At first the 
waters are intensely blue, with a tempera¬ 
ture of 85° F., and have a velocity of four 
miles an hour. The dampness of our climate, 
and its winter mildness compared with 
North America in a corresponding latitude, 
are owing to the Gulf-stream. Much has 
been written as to the theory of this flow of 
water, but no suggestion of a cause has yet 
commanded universal assent. 

GUN'-COTTON, the pyroxilin or trinitro¬ 
cellulose of chemists, is a highly inflamma¬ 
ble and explosive substance, discovered by 
Schonbein. It is a compound of carbon, I 
hydrogen, and oxygen. It is obtained by 
steeping clean cotton wool in a mixture of 
the strongest sulphuric and nitric acids in 
equal proportions; and then thoroughly 
washing and cautiously drying it at a tern- I 




















333 


Ettcraii) ErcHtfuri?. 


[gch 


perature of 212°. The original appearance 
of the cotton is little changed, saving that 
it has increased about 70 per cent, in weight. 
But it has now become explosively inflam¬ 
mable; and, when ignited by a spark, it 
flashes off with greater rapidity and energy 
than gunpowder. When properly prepared 
it does not become ignited until raised to a 
temperature of 277° F. Its value in gun¬ 
nery as a substitute for gunpowder has 
been much debated, but a recent report, 
embodying the result of experiments, is 
highly favourable. The following is the 
substance of the reportOne pound of gun¬ 
cotton produces an effect exceeding three 
pounds of gunpowder in artillery. It may 
be placed in store, and preserved with 
great safety. The danger from explosion 
does not arise until it is confined. It may 
become damp, and even perfectly wet, with¬ 
out injury, and may be dried by mere ex¬ 
posure to the air. This is of great value in 
ships of war; and in case of fire the maga¬ 
zine may be submerged without injury. 
Gun-cotton keeps the gun clean, and re¬ 
quires less windage, and, therefore, per¬ 
forms much better in continuous firing. 
In gunpowder there is 68 per cent, of refuse, 

[ while in gun-cotton there is no residuum, 

I and, therefore, no fouling. From the low 
temperature produced by gun-cotton the 
gun does not heat. The absence of fouling 
allows all the mechanism of a gun to have 
much more exactness than where allowance 
is made for fouling. The absence of smoke 
promotes rapid firingand exact aim. There 
are no poisonous gases, and the men suffer 
less inconvenience from firing. The fact of 
smaller recoil from a gun charged with gun¬ 
cotton is established by direct experiment. 
Its value is two-thirds of the recoil from 
gunpowder, the projectile effect beiug 
equal. The comparative advantage of gun¬ 
cotton and gunpowder for producing high 
velocities is shown in the following ex¬ 
periment with a Krupp’s cast-steel gun, 
6-pounder:—Ordinary charge, 30 ounces 
powder, produced 1333 feet per second: 
charge of 13J oz. gun-cotton produced 1563 
feet. The fact of the recoil being less in 
the ratio of two or three enables a less 
weight of gun to be employed, as well as a 
shorter gun. Bronze and cast-iron guns 
have been fired 1000 rounds without in the 
least affecting the endurance of the gun. 
From a difference in the law of expansion 
there is an extraordinary difference of result 
in the explosion of shells—namely, that the 
same shell is exploded by the same volume 
of gas into more than double the number 
of pieces. This is to be accounted for by 
the greater velocity of explosion when the 
gun-cotton is confined very closely in small 
spaces. It is also a peculiarity that the 
stronger and thicker the shell the smaller 
and more numerous the fragments into 
which it is broken. The fact that the action 
of gun-cotton is violent and rapid in exact 
proportion to the resistance it encounters, 
tells us the secret of the far higher efficiency 
of gun-cotton in mining than gunpowder. 
The stronger the rock the less gun-cotton 
comparatively with gunpowder is found 
necessary for the effect—so much so, that 


while gun-cotton is stronger than gun¬ 
powder, weight for weight, as three to one 
in artillery, it is stronger in the proportion 
of 6'274 to one in strong and solid rock, 
weight for weight. Its power in splitting 
up the material can be exactly regulated. 
It is a well-known fact that a bag of gun¬ 
powder nailed on the gates of a city will 
blow them open. A hag of gun-cotton ex¬ 
ploded in the same way produces no effect. 
To blow up the gates of a city with gun¬ 
cotton it must be confined before explosion ; 
20 lbs. of gun-cotton, carried in the hand of 
a single man, would be sufficient, only he 
must know its nature. In a bag it is harm¬ 
less ; exploded in a box it will shatter the 
gates to atoms. A strong bridge of oak, of 
24 feet span, was shattered to atoms by a 
small box containing 25 lbs. of gun-cotton 
laid on its centre. The bridge was uot 
broken—it was shivered. 

GULL, the name of some web-footed sea 
birds belonging to the genus Larus. They 
are found in every part of the world, and 
often met with many leagues from land. 
Gulls are voracious, and devour almost 
everything that comes in their way, whe¬ 
ther fresh or putrid; yet they can endure 
hunger for a long time. There are thirteen 
species frequenting our shores. 

GUM ( gumme: Fr.), a vegetable product, 
which forms a viscid solution with water, 
but is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and oils. 
Strong sulphuricacid changes it into oxalic 
and mucic acids. It is exemplified by gum- 
arabic. 

GUM-AR'ABIC, a gum which flows from 
the Acacia Arabica, and Acacia vera, which 
grow on the hanks of the Nile, and in 
Arabia. It is transparent, without smell, 
and white, or with a yellow or brownish , 
tint. It is used in medicine and the arts. 

GUM'-LAO, a resinous substance, pro¬ 
duced by the puncture of a female insect, 
a Coccus, upon the branches of several 
plants, among others the Croton lacci- 
ferum, or Bihar tree, growing in Siam, 
Assam, &c. The twig becomes incrusted 
with a reddish mammillated resin, which 
has a fracture of a crystalline appearance, ! 
and constitutes the stick-lac of commerce. | 
The incrustation is often a quarter of an j 
inch thick. The resinous concretion taken 
off the twigs, coarsely pounded, and tritu- [ 
rated with water in a mortar, to remove 
most of the colouring matter, and dried in 
the sun, is seed-lac. The seed-lac is put 
into oblong bags of cotton cloth, which are 
held over a charcoal fire, and twisted so as 
to strain the liquefied resin through, and 
make it drop and form thin plates, which 
constitute shell-lac. 

GUM'-ItESIN, an exudation from many 
trees, such as olibanum or frankincense, 
galbanum, scammony, gamboge, euphor- 
bium, asafoetida, aloes, myrrh, and gum- 
ammoniac. Almost all the gum-resins are 
medicinal substances, and little employed 
in the arts and manufactures. 

GUM-TRAG'ACANTH, the gum of the 
Astragalus Tragacantha, a thorny shrub 
found in Crete, Asia, and Greece. It has 
the appearance of twisted ribands, is 
white or reddish, nearly opaque, and s 





















, gun] Efje Jkci'cuttfic atiif 334 

little ductile; it swells considerably in 
water, partially dissolving, and forming a 
very thick mucilage. 

GUN, a fire-arm, or weapon of offence, 
Invented in the 14th century. The term in¬ 
cludes everything that forcibly discharges 
a ball, shot, &c., through a cylindrical 
barrel, by means of gunpowder, except the 
pistol and mortar. The larger species of 
guns are called cannon, and the smaller mus¬ 
kets, carbines, fowling-pieces, &c. Cannon 
were used at the battle of Cre3sy in 1346, 
and perhaps three years earlier at the 
battle of Algesiras. But there is a piece of 
ordnance at Am berg in Germany, inscribed 
with the year 1303. Guns were originally 
made of iron bars united together, and 
strengthened with iron hoops ; an example 
of which is still preserved in the Tower of 
London. They were at first fired with 
a match, or sparks produced by the 
revolution of a steel wheel, and were so 
heavy that the soldiers were provided with 
rests to support them. Muskets with rests 
were used so lately as the civil wars in the 
time of Charles I. About the middle of the 
last century the troops throughout Europe 
were armed with firelocks, which until 
lately were furnished with flints. Every 
gun is required by act of parliament to be 
tested before being sold. Cannon were 
originally very long in the bore, and large 
charges were used with them; but the 
experiments of llobins and others showed 
that neither is necessary. The best length 
has been found to be 17 calibres, but in the 
English service the regulation length is 
14. In battery guns, whatever the total 
length of the gun, a certain length is neces¬ 
sary in front of the trunnions; for the 
embrasures of earth from which they are 
generally fired would be shattered if the 
muzzles did not project beyond them. For 
a similar reason navy guns must project 
to a certain distance beyond the side of the 
vessel. The art of constructing guns is in 
a state of transition, new forms of artillery 
being likely to supplant the old. Of these 
new forms the Armstrong gun is at present 
in the highest favour. This gun is 
strengthened by, or built up of, superim¬ 
posed rings or hollow cylinders, each 
grasping those within. In America the 
Dahlgren gun (named from its inventor), 
has been much employed. It is constructed 
like an ordinary cannon except that it is 
made very thick at the breech, whence it 
tapers down sharply to less than the usual 
size. 

GUN-METAL, a hard alloy composed of 
90 per cent, of copper, nearly 10 per cent, of 
zinc, and a minute quantity of tin, em¬ 
ployed for parts of apparatus where there is 
much friction. 

GUN'NERY, the science of using artil¬ 
lery judiciously, and with the greatest 
effect. Besides an accurate acquaintance 
with the management of ordnance of all 
kinds, the charge and angle of elevation 
necessary for different distances, &c., the 
artillerist must be practically skilled in 
throwing up batteries and other field¬ 
works ; he must understand mathematics 
^particularly the doctrine of curves, to cal- 

culate the path of the balls) and mechanics. 
[See Projectiles.] 

GUN'NY BAGS, employed for bringing 
rice to this country from the east, are made 
from the inner bark of a tree called by 
botanists Corchorus capsularis, nat. ord. 

TiliacecB. 

GUN'POWDER, a compound of about 78 
parts saltpetre, 12 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. 
The ingredients must be quite pure, sepa¬ 
rately reduced to powder, thoroughly mixed, 
moistened, and formed into a cake, which 
is afterwards broken up, granulated or 
corned, dried, and polished by attrition. 
The violence of the explosion of gunpowder 
is due to the sudden and abundant produc¬ 
tion of gases which are expanded by the 
intense heat. It is supposed that at the 
moment of explosion the heated gases 
occupy at least 2000 times the space of the 
powder. The gases produced are carbonic 
acid and nitrogen, along with sulphuret of 
potassium, which gives rise to the white 
smoke that follows the explosion. 28 grs. 
of gunpowder, confined in a cylindrical 
space which it just filled, was found to exert 
a force of more than 400,000 lbs. Gunpowder 
was known in Europe in the 13th century, 
and to the Chinese long before. 

GUN'TER’S CHAIN, in Mensuration, the 
chain commonly used in measuring or sur¬ 
veying land, so called from the inventor. 

It is 66 feet in length, and is divided into 

100 links of 7'92 inches each ; consequently 
an acre of land is equal to 10 square chains. 
And as there are 100,000 square links in an 
acre, the contents of a field made up in 
square links is changed into acres merely 
by moving the decimal point five places to 
the left.— Gunter’s Line, a logarithmic 
line, usually graduated upon scales, sectors, 

&c. The numbers are generally drawn on 
two separate rulers, sliding against each 
other ; and it enables us to perform multi¬ 
plication and division instrumentally, as a 
table of logarithms does arithmetically. 

It is very useful in rough calculations.- 

Gunter’s Quadrant, the simplest form of 
a quadrant. It is provided with two sight- 
holes, and a string with a bob of lead; and is 
used for roughly measuring vertical angles: 
also, for finding the hour of the day, the 
sun’s azimuth, and solving other common 
problems of the sphere. The face of this 
quadrant is also provided with useful scales 
and tables. 

GUN'TER’S SCALE, generally called by 
seamen Gunter, is a large plain scale having 
various lines of numbers engraved on it, 
by means of which questions in navigation 
are solved with a pair of compasses. Tho 
natural lines are on one side of the scale, 
and the corresponding logarithms on the 
other. 

GUN'WALE, the uppermost wale of a 
ship, or that piece of timber which reaches 
on either side from the quarter deck to 
the forecastle, being the uppermost bend, 
which finishes the upper works of the hull. 

The bulwark is above this. 

GUR'NARD (goumal: Fr.), the rime of 
several acanthopterygious fishes, belong¬ 
ing to the genus Trigla, The head has a 
peculiar aspect,being four-sided and encased 





























335 


Httcraiy Emgury. 


[GYNiECONOMl 


in bone. Several species have been taken 
on our coasts. 

GUS'TO (taste : Ital.), This word is used 
figuratively for intellectual taste. 

GUT ( kuttelen: Germ.'), tlio intestinal 
canal of an animal. It extends with many 
circumvolutions from the pylorus to tlie 
vent, is composed of three coats, and is 
attached to the body by a membrane called 
the mesentery. The thin and small portions 
are called by anatomists the duodenum, the 
ilium, and the jejunum: the large and thick, 
the caecum, the colon, and the rectum. By 
means of this canal, the undigested aud 
unabsorbed parts of food are conveyed from 
the stomach and discharged. Silkworm 
Gut, used by anglers, is obtained by placing 
the silkworm in vinegar after it has left off 
feeding and is preparing to spin its cocoon. 
After macerating about three weeks, the 
worm is broken across over the silk bag, 
which is then gently extended until it is of 
the proper thickness. When this is dried it 
forms the gut. 

GUT'TA PER'CHA, a substance contained 
in the sap of a tree 60 or 70 feet high, be¬ 
longing to the natural order Sapotacece 
(Isouandra Gutta), abounding in the island 
of Singapore and in the Malayan peninsula, 
especially in Borneo. It appears to separate 
from the juice or sap of the tree in the same 
way as india-rubber; and its general pro¬ 
perties with regard to solvents and to the 
products of destructive distillation re¬ 
semble those of caoutchouc. The first 
sample of gutta percha was brought to 
England in 1843. Since that period the 
gum of this obscure plant has been manu¬ 
factured by European ingenuity into an in¬ 
credible variety of useful articles. In fact, 
it takes upon itself all shapes, in obedience 
to the skill of man ; and its adaptability to 
all climates, its impenetrable and enduring 
qualities, will cause it to be employed in 
almost every department of arts and manu¬ 
factures. When immersed for a few mi¬ 
nutes in water above 150 Fahr., it becomes 
soft and plastic, so as to be capable of being 
moulded to any shape, which it retains on 
cooling. It resists water, damp, and all the 
causes which produce fermentation. It is 
not acted upon by caustic and concentrated 
alkaline solutions, nor those of the vege¬ 
table and mineral acids. Weak alco¬ 
holic liquors do not affect it: even bran¬ 
dy dissolves but a trace of it. Olive-oil 
dissolves none of it while cold, aud very 
little when hot. Sulphuric, muriatic, and 
nitric acids attack it when they are con¬ 
centrated, particularly the last. About 
20,000 cwts. of gutta percha are annually 
imported. 

GUT'TA SERE'NA (the drop serene of 
Milton : Lat.), or Amaurosis, which see, a 
disease in the retina of the eye, which de¬ 
prives the patient of his sight. The sensi¬ 
bility of the retina, or optic nerve, is either 
wholly or partially lost. Sometimes it 
effects only one half the eye ; sometimes it 
is intermittent. 

GUY (from guide), in Marine language, 
a large slack rope, extending from the head 
of the mainmast to that of the foremast, to 
sustain a tackle for loading or unloading. 


Also, a rope used to keep a heavy body 
steady while hoisting or lowering. 

GYM NA'SIUM ( gumnasion, from gumnos, 
naked : Or.), in Grecian Antiquity, the name 
given by the Spartans to the public building 
where the young men, naked, exercised 
themselves in leaping, running, throwing 
the discus and spear, wrestling, &c. Gym¬ 
nasia were afterwards very common in all 
parts of Greece; and were imitated, aug¬ 
mented and improved, at Rome. They 
were not single edifices, but a collection 
of buildings united ; being so capacious 
as to hold many thousands of people at once, 
and having room enough for philosophers, 
rhetoricians, and the professors of all other 
sciences, to read their lectures, and for 
wrestlers, dancers, &c., to exercise at the 
same time without the least mutual dis¬ 
turbance or interruption. Two of those at 
Athens, the Lyceum and Academy, were 
respectively rendered famous by the lec 
cures of Aristotle and Plato. 

GYMNAS'TICS ( gumnastikos, relating to 
bodily exercises: Gr.), the art of practis¬ 
ing the several bodily exercises, as wrest¬ 
ling, running, fencing, dancing, &c. These 
were considered of the highest importance 
in Greece, but at Rome they were exercised 
only by mercenary athletes. Modern gym¬ 
nastics are intended chiefly for the preser¬ 
vation and promotion of health. 

GYMNOS'OPIIISTS (guinnosophistai: ir. 
gumnos, naked ; and sophistis, a philoso¬ 
pher : Gr.), a sect of Indian philosophers 
who went barefooted, and almost in a state 
of nudity, living in the woods and on 
mountains, and subsisting on the produc¬ 
tions of the earth. They never drank 
wine; maintained a life of celibacy; and 
believed in the transmigration of the soul. 
There was a sect, of the same name, in 
Africa, who differed from the others in 
living as anchorites. 

GYMNOSPER'MOUS (gumnos, naked; 
and sperma, seed: Gr.), in Botany, having 
naked seeds, or seeds not enclosed in a cap¬ 
sule or other vessel. Amongst the Coni- 
fercje and Gycadacece, the seeds are ferti¬ 
lized by the direct application of the pollen 
to them, and hence these orders have been 
placed in an alliance called Gymospermce or 
Gymnogcns. 

GYMNO'TUS (gumnotus, bare-backed: 
from gumnos, naked: and votos, the back : 
Gr.). [See Electiucai, Eel.] 

’ GYN.ECE'UM (gunaikeion, belonging to 
women : Gr., or Gynceconites), amongst the 
ancient Greeks the apartment of the women, 
a separate portion of the house, where 
they employed themselves in spinning, 
weaving, and needlework. The men’s part 
of the house was termed Adronitis ( andros, 
of a man : Gr.). 

GYNrECOC'RACY ( gunaikos, of a woman ; 
and kratos, power: Gr.), a state in which 
women are allowed to govern. The term is 
used in contradistinction from the Salic 
law, by which females are excluded from 
the throne in some European states. 

GYNASCON'OMI (gunaikonomoi: from 
gune, a woman ; and oikonomos, a manager: 
Gr.), certain magistrates amongst the A the 
nians, who had charge of the interests of 






















gynandria] )t Scientific anti 336 

tlic women, and punished such as forsook 
the line of propriety and modesty. A list 
of such as had been fined was put up by 
them upon a palm-tree in the Ceramicus. 
The gynceconomi were ten in number, and 
differed from the gynaecocosmi; for the for¬ 
mer were inspectors of manners, the latter 
of dress. 

1 GYNAN'DRIA ( gune, a female ; and aner, 

1 a male : Gr.), the 20th class of the Li unman 
system of plants. Its characteristic is, 
having the stamens, style, and stigma, con¬ 
solidated into a body called a column. It 
i consists chiefly of plants termed orchi- 
1 daceous. 

GYP'SUM C gupsos: Gr.), a mineral known 
* as sulphate of lime, alabaster, selenite, satin 
spar, gyps, and plaster of Paris. When it 
is carefully burned, it loses its water of 
composition, and forms the well-known 
plaster of Paris. The transparent varieties 
of gypsum are termed selenite; the mas¬ 
sive alabaster; and the fibrous, satin 
spar. A species found in small pearly 
scales is termed schaumkalk. In the manu¬ 
facture of stucco ornaments, plaster of 
Paris, mixed with water to the consistence 
of cream, is used, and during consolidation 
expands into the finest lines of the mould, 
so as to give a sharp and faithful impression. 

GY'RFALCON (gyr, a vulture : Ger.; and 
falcon), the common name of the Falco 
Islandicus, the largest of the falcons 
breeding in these islands. It was formerly 
much prized by persons devoted to falconry, 
and large sums were paid for specimens 
procured in Iceland, which were thought 
superior to others. 

GYRI'NUS ( gurinos , from guros, round : 
Gr.), a genus of aquatic beetles, the type of 
which is the whirligig or water-beetle. 
They usually employ themselves in run¬ 
ning round and round in company, on the 
surface of a piece of water. When dis¬ 
turbed they dart underwater, carrying with 
them a small bubble of air. 

GY'ROSCOPE {guros, round; and scopeo, I 
see: Gr.), an instrument invented by SI. Fou- , 
cault for proving the rotation of the earth 
about its axis. Its principle depends upon 
the powerful resistance which a rapidly 
revolving heavy body opposes to a change 
of position in its axis of rotation. A disc 
of metal, with a heavy circumference sus¬ 
pended in a particular way, is set in rapid 
rotation in a given plane. If the instrument 
be carefully constructed the motion may be 
kept up long enough to show pheno¬ 
mena which can only be explained by 
assuming the rotation of the earth. 

I 

II, the eighth letter and sixth consonant 
of the English alphabet. Until about the 
5th century before Christ the letter H was 
used by the Greeks to signify the aspirate ; 
it was afterwards their capital e long, the 
aspirate being indicated by (‘): but it was 
retained by the Latins, who, however, wrote 
several words with and without it indiffe¬ 
rently: thus, aruspex and haruspex, onustus 
and lionustus, &c.; and, in borrowing words 
from the Greek, they often changed the h 
into s: thus, sex, from hex, six ; serpo, from 
herpo, I creep, &c. In English words, h is 

1 sometimes mute, as in honour, honest; also 
when united with g, as in right, fight, 
brought. In which, what, and some other 
words where it follows w, it is sounded 
before it, hwich, hwat, &c. H, among the 
Greeks, as a numeral, signified eight. As an 
abbreviation, among the Romans, it signi¬ 
fied homo, hceres, horn, &c.; and for L.L. in 
H.S., a sestertius. This being libra libra 
semis (two pounds and a half, or, as they 
were termed two asses and a half), would 
be represented in full by L.L.S.; but it was 
shortened into H.S. This use of the letter 
h is universal among ancient Latin writers, 
when speaking of Roman money [see Ses¬ 
tertius]. As a numeral, they used it for 200, 
and with a dash over it, for 200,000. With 
us it is an abbreviation for Hanover: — 
G.C.H. Grand Cross of Hanover. For He¬ 
gira: A.H. Anno Hegiree (the year of the 

iiegira.) For his or her H.M S. His or 

I 

ner Majesty's Ship. For holy: —H.R.E. 

Holy Roman Empire, &c.-In Music, H i3 

the seventh degree in the diatonic, scale, 
and the twelfth in the chromatic. 

HA'BEAS COR'PUS (you are to have the 
body : Lat.), in Law, the title of a writ, of 
which there are several kinds Habeas cor¬ 
pus ad respondendum, you are to bring up 
the person to answer: Lat,), to remove a 
prisoner confined by the process of an 
inferior court, in order to charge him with 
a new action in a higher, nabeas corpus 
ad faciendum, subjiciendum, et recipiendum 
(you are to produce the body, to do, submit, 1 
and receive whatever the court shall direct), 
a writ directed to a person detaining an¬ 
other, and a great safeguard against unjust 
imprisonment or delay of trial. Blackstone 
considers it the grand Palladium of the 
liberty of the subject. The writ of habeas 
corpus is the glory of the British constitu¬ 
tion : it not only protects the citizen from 
unlawful imprisonment at the suggestion 
of the civil officers of the government, but 
also against groundless arrests at the suit 
or instigation of individuals. The right, 
however, has been suspended by the legis¬ 
lature in times when it seemed desirable to 
clothe the executive with an extraordinary 
power, as the Romans were in the habit of 
choosing a dictator in emergencies in which 
the commonwealth was in danger. 

HABEN'DUM (to have : Lat.), in Law, that 
clause in a deed of conveyance which seta 

L — 



























337 Ettcrarn 


kj forth the estate intended to he granted in 
the lands, &c, conveyed. It begins ‘ to have 
and to hold.’ 

HAB'ERGEON (TV.). [See Hauberk.] 

HAB'IT ( habitus: Lat.), in Philosophy, 
an aptitude or disposition either of mind 
or body, acquired by a frequent repetition 
of the same act: thus, virtue is called a 
habit of the mind ; strength, a habit of the 

body.- Habit, in Medicine, denotes the 

settled constitution of the body; also a par¬ 
ticular state formed by nature, or induced 

by extraneous circumstances.- Habit, in 

Natural History, signifies the general form 
and appearance of an animal or plant. 

HAB'ITAT (it inhabits : Lat.), in Botany, 
the nature of the places where a plant is 
found, on a mountain, in a marsh, by the 
sea-shore, and so on. 

HAO'KLE (7 leclicl: Ger.), a tool with 
which flax and hemp are dressed. It con- 
[ sists of long iron teeth, regularly set in a 
piece of board ; being, in fact, a large kind 
of card. 

HAD'DOCK ( hadot: Fr.), a malacoptery- 
gious fish, nearly allied to the cod ; the 
Gadus ceglefinus of ichthyologists. It has 
a long body, the upper part of a dusky 
brown colour, and the belly of a silvery 
hue. It is found in vast shoals in the 
northern seas, on the coasts of Britain and 
Ireland, &c.; and is a most valuable article 
of food. 

HA'DES ( a , not; and eido, I see: Gr.), in 
Mythology, the abode of the dead. 

HA'DING, in Mining, The direction of a 
slip or fault. The deviation of a mineral 
vein from the vertical is called its hade. 

HADJEE, amongst the Mahometans a 
pilgrim who has visited the prophet’s tomb 
at Mecca. 

j HAD'LEY’S QUAD'RANT, an instru¬ 
ment founded on the laws of reflection, 
i and which enables the mariner, however 
i unsteady the ship may be, to take the alti- 
f tude of the sun, &c. Though termed a 
I quadrant because it can measure arcs of 
I 80°, its arch is only the eighth part of a 
I circle. 

HAEMATITE ( aima , blood: Gr.), in an 
I extremely rich and fine iron ore, the native 
oxide. It is very ponderous, and is either 
of a pale red, a deeper red, or a bluish 
! colour ; is usually of a very glossy surface, 
and, when broken, of a fine and regularly 
striated texture, the stri® converging to¬ 
wards the centre of the body, and the masses 
naturally breaking into fragments of a broad 
i base and pointed end, appearing somewhat 
‘j pyramidal. 

H.EMAT'OCELE {aima, blood; and kele, 

' a hernia: Gr.), in Medicine, a hernia from 
extravasation of blood. 

| H-EM'ORRHAGE (aimorrhagia: from 
! aima, blood ; and rhegnumi, I break : Gr.), a 
flux of blood from any part of the body. It 
may arise from a full state of the vessels, 
or plethora, in which case it is termed active 
I haemorrhage; or from a debilitated state of 
the vessels or system generally, when it is 
termed passive hcemorrhage. 

H/EM'ORRHOIDS ( aimorrhois: from 
aima, blood; and rheo, I flow: Gr.), in 
Medicine, tumours of the h®morrhoidal 


Crea^urih [hair 


veins, or veins of the rectum, constituting 
the disease called piles, and very often ac¬ 
companied with a flow of blood. 

HAGIOG'RAPHY (hagios, holy; and 
- graplie , a description : Gr.), the Holy Scrip¬ 
ture. The term has been applied also to the 
histories or legends termed the lives of the 
saints. The Jews divide the books of the 
Scriptures into three parts : —the Law, 
which is contained in the first five books of 
the Old Testament; the Prophets, or Nevim; 
and the Cetuvim, or writings, by way of 
eminence. The latter class, called by the 
Greeks Ilagiographai, comprehends the 
books of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel, 
Ezra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Esther, Chronicles, 
Canticles, Lamentations, and Ecclesiastes. 

HAIL (liagel: Ger.), a meteor which oc¬ 
curs chiefly in spring and summer, is often 
accompanied by thunder and lightning, and 
always by electrical phenomena. Hailstones 
generally consist of a porous mass like 
frozen snow, surrounded by layers of ice. 
Their form is exceedingly varied, but is 
generally roundish: they are usually about 
a quarter of an inch in diameter; but they 
occasionally weigh nine or ten ounces. 
They sometimes fall with great velocity, 
and not unfrequently do considerable mis¬ 
chief to the glass of windows, and even to 
the growing crops. Many explanations 
have been given of the formation of hail; 
it is most probably an aggregation of small 
particles of moisture frozen in the upper 
regions of the air, and increased during 
descent by freezing rain. Hail occasionally 
falls with such violence as to kill large 
numbers of animals. Deer, cattle, and 
ostriches have been killed in numbers by 
hail storms in South America. 

HAIR {liaar; Ger.), the characteristic 
covering of the mammiferous class of ani-. 
mals. Hairs originate in a follicle, formed 
in the substance of the true skin. They 
are allied in structure to the epidermis. At 
the base of each there is a bulbous enlarge¬ 
ment ; the interior of which consists of a 
soft substance, called pulp. The hair is 
increased by the continual supply of pulp in 
the follicle, and its conversion into the sub¬ 
stance of hair as it issues through the neck 
of the follicle. Hairs consist of a cortical 
material of a horny texture and a pith-like , 
interior. In the human hair the cortical 
part is transversely striated. The hairs of 
the bat tribe bear rings of small spines, and 
hence are frequently mounted as micro- | 
scopic objects. Bristles, fur, and w r ool, are 
all modifications of hair. Some kinds of 
hair, as the human, &c., are perennial and 
grow continuously ; others are shed at par¬ 
ticular seasons. Many kinds of animals 
have two species of hair, a fine and a coarse: 
it is one of the processes of the arts to re¬ 
move the latter, and leave the former, as in 
sealskin. Hair consists chiefly of indurated 
albumen, and yields some gelatine when 
boiled with water. — Hair, in Botany, the 
down or hair-like threads on the surface of 
plants. 

HAIR'-PENCILS, in Painting, are com- ! 
posed of very fine hairs, obtained from the j 
minever, the marten, the badger, the pole¬ 
cat, &c., which are mounted in a quill when 




























iiair’s-breadth] i£ijC &a*nttnc anU 338 


they are small or of moderate size, Imt 
when larger than a quill in tin tubes. The 
most essential quality of a good pencil is to 
form a flue point, so that all the hairs may 
be united when they are moistened by 
drawing them through the lips. 

HAIR’S-BREADTH, a measure of length, 
equal to the forty-eighth part of an inch. 

HAL'BERD ( halebarcie: Fr.), an offensive 
weapon somewhat like a spear, formerly 
carried by a body of men called halberdiers, 
and more recently by the sergeants of foot 
and artillery. 

HA L/C YON (Lat.; from hallcuun: hals, the 
sea; and kuo, I conceive : GY.), or Kingfisher, 
the alcedo ispida of ornithologists, a British 
bird with beautiful plumage. It frequents 
the neighbourhood of streams, and subsists 
on small fish, water-beetles, and leeches. 
The name halcyon was given to this bird 
by the ancients, as the female was supposed 
to lay her eggs in nests, on rocks near 
the sea, during the calm weather, about 
the winter solstice. It was formerly a com¬ 
mon notion (and this is often alluded toby 
our old poets) that a dead bird, suspended 
by a thread, would point its bill to the 

quarter whence the wind blew.- Halcyon 

Hays, in Antiquity, seven days before, and 
as many after, the winter solstice; so called 
from the halcyon being supposed to select 
that period for incubation. The weather 
j was then generally remarkable for calmness, 
and hence halcyon days was a term used to 
express days of ‘ peace and tranquillity.’ 

HALF'-BLOOD, in Law, relationship by 
the father’s or mother’s side only. 

HALF'-MOON, in Fortification, an out¬ 
work composed of two faces, forming a 
salient angle, whose gorge is in the form of 
a crescent or half-moon, 
j HAL'IBUT ( heilbutte: Ger.), the ITippo- 
glossus vulgaris of ichthyologists, a flat fish 
allied to the turbot. Both eyes are on the 
right side of the head. It grows to a great 
si/.e, being the largest of the Pleuronectidce 
or flat-fish family. It is sometimes seven 
feet in length, and occasionally weighs 
400 lbs. It forms an article of food, but is 
j coarse and dry. 

HALIO'TIS ( halios, marine; ous, the ear: 
GY.), a genus of gasteropodous molluscs, 

• with ear-shaped shells, perforated with a 
series of holes. One species of ear shell is 
I the Ormer of the Channel Islands. Other 
S species from warm seas have shells that 
are remarkable for the pearly iridescence 
of their inner surface. 

HALLELU'IAH (praise ye the Lord: 
Heb,), a doxology derived from the Old Tes¬ 
tament, and, from its harmonious softness, 
retained by us without translation. 

HAL'LIARD ( haulyard ), a rope or tackle 
for hoisting or lowering a sail, signal, &c. 

HALLUCIN'ATION ( hallucinatio, a wan¬ 
dering of the mind: Lat.), in Medicine, 
dyscesthesia, erroneous imagination. Hal¬ 
lucinations of the senses arise from some 
defect in the organs of sense, or from some 
unusual circumstances attending the ob¬ 
ject ; and they are sometimes symptomatic 
of general disease, as in fevers. Maniacal 
hallucinations arise from some imaginary 
or mistaken idea. 


IIA'LO (Lat.), in Natural Philosophy, a 
luminous ring or circle, sometimes white 
and sometimes coloured, appearing round 
the body of the sun, moon, or stars, when 
seen through a thin cloud or a misty atmo¬ 
sphere. It is of two kinds. The first is of 
small dimensions, and generally consists oi 
three or more concentric rings, differently 
coloured, and presenting appearances si¬ 
milar to the phenomena produced with 
very thin plates of transparent substances. 
These are usually termed coronce (crowns). 
The second kind, or halos properly so called, 
are very much larger. The lunar halo is a 
white luminous circle, sometimes having 
its inner edge tinged with red. But the 
solar halo exhibits colours like those of 
the rainbow, though not so vivid; their 
interior is red, their exterior a violet, 
which gradually blends with the sky ; some- I j 
times there is also another much larger 
and concentric halo, the colours of which I 
are fainter. Coronce are supposed to be j 
formed by the deflection oi light in passing 
small watery globules suspended in the | 
atmosphere; and halos by the refraction of 1 
light in passing through small transparent 
and prismatic crystals of ice floating in the ! 
upper regions of the atmosphere. 

H AL'OGENE (hals, the sea; and gennao, I 
produce: GY.), in Chemistry, those sub- j 
stances which form compounds of a saline I 
nature, by their union with metals; as 
chlorine, iodine, &c. 

HAM'ADItYAD thamadnias: from l.iama, 
together with ; and clras, an oak : GY.), in 
the Heathen Mythology, a wood nymph, 
supposed to live and die with the tree to j 
which it was attached. 

HAM'MOCK C hamac: Fr.), abed used at 
sea. It contains the mattress, pillow, &c., j 
and consists of a piece of hempen cloth, 
six feet long and three feet wide, at each 
end of which are fastened several small 
lines meeting in an iron ring, and forming 
clcivs. It is hoisted to its place by small 
ropes termed lanyards, between two bat- j 
tens or screws in the beams of the deck. 

HAM'STER, the common name of rodent ] 
animals belonging to the genus Cricetus, 
and the family of rats. The C. vulgaris 
abounds in the sandy regions extending 
from the north of Germany to Siberia, bur¬ 
rows out apartments of great extent, and 
stores in them great quantities of grain. I 
To effect this, nature has provided it with 
cheek pouches, which it fills in the culti- j 
vated grounds, and empties in its hole by t 
pressing its two fore paws against them. ! 
They are torpid during the severity of 
winter. The pole-cat is their great enemy. 

IIAN'APER (hanaperium, a hamper: Mod. 
Lat.), a common-law office in the court of 
chancery, which has been abolished and its 
duties transferred elsewhere. Writs re¬ 
lating to the subject were anciently de- | 
posited there in hampers or wicker baskets: ! 
hence the name. Those relating to the 
crown were kept in the petty or little bag, 
whence the name of another office. 

HAND (Ger.), in Anatomy, a member of ! 
the human body, which is composed of 27 
bones, viz. the eight bones of the Cabpxjs 
or wrist, the fly e bones of the Metacarpus 

































339 ?tttcran> Creatfttry. [harem 


forming the palm, and the fourteen hones 
or Phalanges of the fingers. The charac- i 
terlstic feature of the hand as distinguished 
from the paw of a quadruped is, that the 
thumb is opposable to the other fingers. 
The hand of the quadrumana has also this 

characteristic_ Hand, in the manege, a 

measure of four inches, by which the height 
of a horse is computed. Also the parts of 
a lmrse, as the/ore hand, for the head, neck, 
and fore quarters; the hind hand, which 
includes the rest. It also denotes the 
horseman’s hand ; as the spur-hand, which 
is his right hand; and the bridle-hand, 
which is his left hand.- Hand, in Heral¬ 

dry, is termed either dexter (right) or sin¬ 
ister (left); and when borne in the escut¬ 
cheon, is supposed to symbolize power, 
equity, fidelity, and friendship. 

HAND'ICAP, in the language of the turf, 
a race in which the horses carry weights 
in proportion to their ages and previous 
performances. 

IIAND'LING, a technical expression 
amongst painters referring to the me¬ 
chanical execution of a picture. The hand¬ 
ling may be broad and free, as in Rem¬ 
brandt’s paintings, or delicate and laboured, 
as in Leonardo da Vinci’s, or finical, as 
Carlo Dolce’s, and so on. 

IIAND'PLANT, a Mexican shrub, the 
Cheirostemon platanoides of botanists, nat. 
ord. Sterculiacece. It has no corolla: the 
calyx resembles a bathing cap, and in the 
middle there is a column bearing five 
curved anthers surrounding a curved style. 
These cause the flower to have some resem¬ 
blance to a hand with long claws. The 
Mexicans have some superstitious notions 
connected with the plant. 

IIAND'SPIKE, a strong wooden bar, 
used as a lever to move the windlass and 
capstan in heaving up the anchor, or rais¬ 
ing any weight on board a ship. 

H ANSEAT'IC (hanse, an association: 
Taut.), pertaining to the Hanse towns or 
to their confederacy. The Hanse towns in 
Germany were certain commercial cities 
which associated for the protection of com¬ 
merce as early as the 12th century. To this 
confederacy acceded certain commercial 
cities in Holland, England, France, Spain, 
and Italy, until they amounted, at one time, 
to eighty-five, and for centuries it com¬ 
manded the respect and defied the power of 
kings. Its power, though still very formid¬ 
able, began to decline from the middle of 
the 15tli century. This, however, was not 
.owing to any misconduct on the part of its 
leaders, but to the progress of that improve¬ 
ment which it had done so much to promote. 
The civilization which had been at first 
confined to the cities, gradually extended 
over the contiguous country, and feudal 
anarchy was everywhere superseded lay a 
system of subordination and the progress 
of the arts. At present it only consists of 
the cities of Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bre¬ 
men 

IIA R'BOUR ( herberg: Did.), a port, haven, 
or inlet of the sea, in which ships can 
moor, and be sheltered from the fury of 
winds and a heavy sea. 

ILARD-A-LEE, in seamen’s language, 


an order to put the helm close to the lee 
side of the ship, to tack or keep her head 

to the wind _H a it d-a- w eat her, an order 

to put the helm close to the weather or wind¬ 
ward side of the ship.- IIard-a-port, an j 

order to put the helm close to the larboard 

side.- IIard-a-starroard, an order to , 

put. the helm close to the starboard side. 

HARB'NESS (heard, firm: Sax.), one of ’ 
the characters by which minerals are des¬ 
cribed and identified. The term, however, 
does not refer to the tenacity by which the 
parts are held together when struck by a 
hard substance, but to the power of scratch¬ 
ing others, or the liability to be scratched. 
Thus, the diamond scratches all other min¬ 
erals, but is scratched by none. It there¬ 
fore is placed at the head of the scale of 
hardness, whilst talc, being so soft that it . 
is scratched by almost every other mineral 
that has any tenacity at all, is placed at 
the bottom of the scale. 

HARD'WARE, small instruments and 
utensils manufactured from metals : com¬ 
prising iron, brass, steel, and copper 
articles of all descriptions. Birmingham 
and Sheffield are the principal seats of the 
British hardware manufacture; and from 
these places knives, razors, scissors, fire¬ 
arms, gilt and plated goods, &c., are supplied 
to an extent almost incredible. The aggre¬ 
gate value of the hardware manufacture of 
England and Scotland is estimated at I 
17,500,000k a year; and it gives employment 
to 300,000 persons. 

IIARE (hara: Sax.), a well-known genus 
of rodent mammalia, containing the Lepus j 
timidus, or common hare. It is a beast of 
chase, and is sometimes pursued by grey¬ 
hounds in open ground, which is called 
coursing; and sometimes by harriers or 
hare-hounds, which is called hare hunting. 

11 subsists on a great variety of vegetables, 
especially those which possess milky qua¬ 
lities; the bark of young trees and their 
tender shoots are likewise often taken by 
them for food. The hare produces gene¬ 
rally three young ones at a time, and 
breeds at least three times in a year. Its 
fleetness is such as to give it the advantage 
over many of its numerous adversaries. Its 
quickness of hearing and extent of vision, 
by which last it receives the impression of 
objects on almost every side, are also im¬ 
portant means of its protection. 

HA'ltEBELL, or HAIR-BELL, a small 
herbaceous plant, with monopetalous blue 
flowers, the Campanula rotiindifolia of bo¬ 
tanists. 

HA'RELIP, a fissure of the upper lip, by 
which it is divided into two parts, and thus 
resembles the lip of the hare. Sometimes 
there are two fissures. It is a great defor¬ 
mity, but, fortunately, is generally curable 
by certain surgical operations. 

IIA'REM (Turk.), the apartments in Turk¬ 
ish houses appropriated to the women. 
In that of the sultan, the women are 
waited on by female slaves and guarded by 
black .eunuchs : the head of the latter is 
called Kizlar-aga. There are two kizlar-agas, 
one of the old, the other of the new palace, 
each of which has its harem. The one 
harem is occupied by the women of formei 






























&\)C S'ctciitific antf 


340 


(iaue’s-ear] 


sultans, and those who have incurred the 
displeasure of the reigning prince: the 
other by such as still enjoy his favour. The 
lady who first presents him with a male 
heir is styled the sultana, by way of emi¬ 
nence. She must then retire into the old 
palace; but if her son ascends the throne, 
she returns to the new palace, and has the 
title of sultana valide. She is the only 
woman who is allowed to appear without a 
veil: none of the others, even when sick, 
are permitted to lay aside the veil in the 
presence of any one except the sultan. 
The women of other Turks enjoy the so¬ 
ciety of their friends at the baths, or at 
each other’s houses, appear in public ac¬ 
companied by slaves and eunuchs, and are 
allowed a degree of liberty which increases 
as they descend in rank. But those of the 
sultan have none of these privileges. It is, 
of course, only the richer Moslems who can 
maintain harems; the poorer classes have 
generally but one wife. 

IIA'RE’S-EAR, a name given to some 
plants of the umbelliferous genus Bapleu- 
rum, and to the Erysimum austriacum, a 
cruciferous plant. 

HAR'LEQUIN ( arlequin: Fr.), the prin¬ 
cipal male character in a pantomime. He is 
clad in a parti-coloured dress, with a half 
mask, and is perpetually dancing, leaping, or 
performing tricks with his wonder-working 
wand. This character was first introduced 
into Italian comedy, where he united ex¬ 
travagant buffoonery with great corporeal 
agility. 

HARMAT'TAN, the name given to a 
prevailing wind on the coast of Africa, 
which is of a peculiarly dry and parching 
character. 

HARMON'ICA or ARMON'ICA Qiarmoni- 
kos, harmonical: Gr.), a musical instrument, 
in which the sound is produced from glass 
goblets, resembling finger-glasses, tuned 
by filling them more or less with water. 
It is played with the end of aflnger damped, 
and the effect is produced in the same way 
as in the common experiment with a drink- 
| ing glass and water. The less thequantity of 
j water in one of these glasses, the lower the 
tone. It is difficult to bring out the tones 
J instantaneously, but a touch of the finger 
will stop the vibration and prevent a confu¬ 
sion of sound. The tones are very sweet, 
but suited only to soft and plaintive airs. 

HARMON'ICAL PROPORTION, in Aritli- 
I metic, is that in which the first term is to 
! the third as the difference of the first and 
second is to the difference of the second 
and third: thus, 2, 3, 6, are in harmonical 
proportion, because 2 : 6 :: 1 : 3. In four 
terms, the first is to the fourth as the dif¬ 
ference of the first and second is to the 
difference of the third and fourth : that is, 
9,12,16, 24, are in harmonical proportion, 
because 9 : 24 :: 3 : 8. To find an harmoni¬ 
cal mean between two terms, divide double 
their product by their sum. 

IIARMON'ICS (next), that branch of 
music which considers the differences and 
proportions of sound, with respect to acute 
and grave. 

HAIt'MONT (harmania: Gr.'), in Music, 
the agreeable combination of several mu¬ 


sical sounds heard at the same time. Na¬ 
tural harmony consists of the harmonic 
triad or common chord. Artificial harmony 
is a mixture of concords and discords. 
Figured harmony is that in which, for the 
purpose of melody, one or more of the parts 
of a composition move, during the con¬ 
tinuance of a chord, through certain notes 
which do not form any of the constituent 
parts of that chord — Harmony op tiie 
Spheres, a favourite hypothesis of Pytha¬ 
goras, and many other ancient philosophers, 
according to which celestial music, imper¬ 
ceptible to the ears of mortals, was sup¬ 
posed to be produced by the sweetly-tuned 
motions of the stars and planets. 

HAR'MOTOME ( harmos , a joint; and 
tome, a cutting: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a curi¬ 
ous substance, called also Gross-stone, on ac¬ 
count of the cruciform figure of its crystals. 
It chiefly occurs in metalliferous veins: its 
prevailing colour is white ; it is translucent 
or semi-transparent, and hard enough to 
scratch glass. 

HARP 0larfe: Ger.), a musical stringed 
instrument, of a triangular figure. It stands 
erect, and, when used, is placed at the feet of 
the performer, who produces its tones by 
the action of the thumb and fingers of botli 
hands on the strings. Its origin is very 
variously described; but whatever it may 
have been, its invention is manifestly very 
ancient, for it appears to have been in use 
(under various forms) with the Egyptians, 
Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. The Anglo- 
Saxons excelled in playing on the hary. 
The Irish, Scotch, and Welsh also made 
much use of this instrument; and with the 
Anglo-Normans it was equally popular. By 
the Welsh laws, a knowledge of the harp 
was one of the things required to charac¬ 
terize a freeman or gentleman: and none 
could pretend to this rank unless he had a 
harp and was able to play upon it. This 
instrument lias been latterly much im¬ 
proved by pedals, &c. But the pianoforte, 
which is as it were a harp laid on its side, 
and played by intermediate mechanism 
instead of directly by the fingers, is a far 
more perfect and convenient instrument. 

HARTIES ( harpuiai, from harpazo, I 
snatch away : Gr.), in Mythology, three ra¬ 
pacious winged monsters, supposed to be 
the goddesses of storms. They were sisters, 
the daughters of Pontus (the sea), and 
Terra (the earth), and were called Aello, 
Ocypete, and Celmno. They had the faces 
of women, the bodies of vultures, and 
claws on their fingers and toes. 

HARPOO'N ( harp on: Fr.), an iron instru¬ 
ment, formed at one end like the head of 
an arrow, and having a rope at the other, 
for the purpose of spearing the whale. As 
soon as the boat has been rowed sufficiently 
near to the whale, the liarpooner launches 
his instrument; and the fish, being wound¬ 
ed, immediately descends with amazing 
rapidity, carrying the harpoon along with 
it, and a considerable length of the line, 
which is purposely let out, to give it room 
to dive. Being soon exhausted with fatigue 
and loss of blood, it re-ascends, in order to 
breathe, but soon expires, and floats upon 
the surface of the water_ Harpoon I 



























341 JLitcrari) 


GUN, an instrument for discharging har¬ 
poons at whales more effectively than by 
hand. 

HARP'SICHORD (Fr.), a musical instru¬ 
ment with strings of wire, played by means 
of keys. It may be considered as an early, 
but very imperfect form of the pianoforte. 
The sounds were produced by small pieces 
of quill, which, when forced past the 
strings, caused them to vibrate. Its jing¬ 
ling sound was far inferior to that of the 
pianoforte. 

HAlt'I’Y, or Imperial Eagle, the Harpyia 
destructor of ornithologists, a powerful 
bird of prey, which frequents the forests 
of Central America. It is three feet and a 
half long, and has a crest of feathers on its 
head. It belongs to the short-winged sec¬ 
tion of the eagle family. 

HAR'RIER, a small hound, with an acute 
sense of smell, kept for hunting hares. 
Also, a name given to some birds of prey 
belonging to the Falcon family, and to the 
genus Circus of ornithologists. 

HAR'ROW, in Agriculture, a rectangular 
frame with a number of spikes inserted in 
one side. This very useful instrument is 
employed to prepare ploughed land for the 
seed, and to mix the seed with the soil 
after it has been sown. 

HARTS'IIORN, .SriRiTS OF, an impure 
solution of carbonate of ammonia, obtained 
by the destructive distillation of hart’s- 
liorn, bonc, &c. An impure solid carbonate 
of ammonia, called salt of hartshorn, is 
formed at the same time. Water, holding 
ammonia in solution, was called by the 
older chemists, and is still called by the 
vulgar, spirits of hartshorn. 

HARUS'PIOE ( haruspex: from hara, an 
intestine; and specio, 1 look at: Lak), in 
Roman History, a person who pretended 
to foretell events by inspecting the en¬ 
trails of beasts sacriticed, or watching the 
circumstances attending their slaughter, 
or their manner of burning, and the ascent 
of the smoke. 

H Alt'VEST-MOON, a term applied to the 
! moon when, in the autumnal months, it 
rises, on successive nights, soon after sun- 
| set. In harvest, the moon is in Pisces and 
Aries; these signs then being opposite to 
the sun. And when her orbit is in the 
I plane of the ecliptic, that is, when these 
I signs correspond to her nodes, her time of 
I rising will not differ more than an hour 
and forty minutes in seven days ; while at 
other times, though she is in these signs, 
j it may differ three hours and a half. As 
the nodes go backwards through the whole 
ecliptic in nearly nineteen years, the har¬ 
vest-moons will, in that period, go through 
a whole course of most and least beneficial 
states, with respect to the farmers. 

II A'SHISH (Arab.), a narcotic preparation 
of hemp, used by the Turks and other 
Eastern peoples to produce a species of in¬ 
toxication. 

HASTA'TI (Lat., from hasta, a spear), 
among the Romans, soldiers armed with 
1 spears, who were always drawn up in the 
first line of battle. These were picked out 
in the flower of life. There were two other 
divisions called Frincipes and Triarii, to 


Crrasurn. [hawk 


which were added, at the siege of Capua, 
b.c. 2li, the Velites or light troops, then first 
formed into a corps. 

HATCH'ETINE, in Mineralogy, a wax 1 ika 
substance, found sometimes in nodules of 
ironstone, and named after Hatchett. It 
is usually considered a bitumen. 

HATCH'ING (heclcen, to hatch: Ger.). 
[See Incubation.] 

HATCH'MENT, in Heraldry, an armorial 
escutcheon, which is usually placed over 
the door of a person of distinction, de¬ 
ceased, and points out the sex, conjugal 
connection, and dignity. These circum¬ 
stances are denoted by the form and ac¬ 
companiments of the field, and the colour 
of the ground of the hatchment. 

HATCH'WAY, in ships, a large square or 
oblong opening in the deck, affording a 
passage iuto the hold, &c. There are the 
fore, main, and after hatchways, 

IIA'TTI-SHERIFF, in Turkish polity, an 
order which comes immediately from the 
Grand Signior, who subscribes it usually 
with these words: ‘Let my order be exe¬ 
cuted according to its form and import.’ 
These words are generally edged with gold, 
or otherwise ornamented; and an order 
given in this way is irrevocable. 

IIAU'BERK (usbergo : Ital.) or IIAB'ER- 
GEON, armour very common in the 12th 
, century. It consisted of a jacket or tunic 
with wide sleeves, reaching a little below 
the elbow, and a hood, all in one piece, 
covered with chain or ringed mail. In 
France, it was the armour of a knight: and 
only persons of a certain property were 
allowed to wear it. Esquires might use a 
simple coat of mail, without hood and hose. 

HAUTBOY or O'BOE (haut, high : and 
hois, wood: Fr.), a musical wind instrument, 
shaped somewhat like the flute, but spread¬ 
ing and widening at the bottom, and pro¬ 
ducing sound by a reed. Its ancient name 
was wayglit, whence originated the word 
wait, by which the hautboy was known 
until the beginning of the present century. 

HAUYNE, a mineral, so named in honour 
of the celebrated Abbe Hauy. It is blue, 
occurs in small granular or spherical masses, 
•and is generally found in basalt or lava. It 
is composed of silica, alumina, and potash. 

HAV'ERSACK (havresac : Fr.), a kind of 
bag of strong coarse linen, used to carry 
bread and provisions on a march. 

HAVER'SIAN CANALS ; these arc lon¬ 
gitudinal canals, which have been disco¬ 
vered by the microscope in bone, through 
which they transmit blood-vessels. The 
bone is arranged concentrically around 
these canals. 

HAW'FINCH, the Coccothraustes vulgaris 
of ornithologists, a species of grosbeak, 
which feeds on haws and cherries. It breeds 
in this country, but is a very shy bird. 

HAWK (hafoc: Sax.), the name of some 
birds of prey belonging to the falcon family. 
There are two species in this country, the 
sparrowliawk and the goshawk, both used 
formerly in falconry. They are very rapa¬ 
cious, feeding on birds and small animals; 
but the sparrowliawk is the boldest and 
most pertinacious of all in pursuit of its 
prey 
















iiawkers] CTIjc Irciciittftc nutf 3421 

HAWK'ERS, persons travelling from 
town to town with goods for sale: they are 
required to take out licenses. 

HAWK'ING. [See Falconry.] 

HAWK'WEED, the name of the species 
of Hieracium, a genus of Composites. 

HAWSE, the part of the hows of a ship 
close to the cable. When the ship has two 
anchors down, and the cables diverge, the 
hawse is said to be clear; when they are 
crossed by the ship’s turning half round, 
there is a cross in the hawse; another cross 
makes an elbow; and another, a round turn ; 
and, in the latter two cases, the hawse is 
foul. Disengaging the cables is clearing the 

hawse. -Hawse-role, a cylindrical hole 

in the bow of a ship, through which a cable 

passes.- Hawser, a rope, in size between 

a cable and a tow-line. 

HAWTHORN or WHITE THORN, the 
Cratcegus oxyacantlia of botanists, nat. ord. 
Bosacece, the common shrub, which bears 
the red fruit called the haw. 

HAY'WARD (haie, a hedge ; and garder, 
to preserve : Fr.), an officer anciently 
charged with the care of the cattle in a 
manor, so that they should not injure the 
hedges. 

1 HA'ZEL {licesel: A. Sax.), the Corylus avel- 

' lana of botanists, a well-known shrub 
which has the male flowers in catkins, 
growing separately from the female flowers. 

HEAD, .that part of the body of verte¬ 
brate animals which contains the brain and 
the organs of seeing,hearing, smelling, and 
tasting. [See Cranium.] 

HEAD'LAND, a point of land lying fur¬ 
ther out to sea than the rest.- Head¬ 

land, in Husbandry, the upper part of 

land left for the turning of the plough.- 

Head-lines, in a ship, those ropes of all 
sails which are next to the yards, and by 
which the sails are made fast to the yards. 

i -Head-sails, those which belong to the 

foremast and bowsprit.- Head-sea, a 

great wave or billow of the sea coining 
right ahead of the ship as she is in 

her course.- Head-stall, that part of a 

bridle that goes about the head; also, a 

kind of halter.- Head-Quarters, the 

quarters or place of residence of the com- 
mander-in-cliief of an army. 

HEAR'ING ( horen , to hear : Gcr.), one of 
the five senses, of which the ear is the 

organ. See Ear.-Hearing Trumpet, 

an instrument for concent rating sound and 
conveying it to the ear. It should be so 
constructed that the whole of the vibra¬ 
tions will be concentrated, by reflection, 
into a focus at the smaller end; but the 
precise form is not very important, as the 
chief advantage is derived from confining 
the sound by continual reflection, and pre¬ 
venting it from spreading laterally. 

HEART (herz: Ger.), in Anatomy, a 
hollow muscular organ, the function of 
which is to maintain the circulation of 
the blood. The human heart is formed of a 
firm thick muscular tissue, composed of 
fibres interlacing with each other, and is 
supplied witli nerves and vessels, which 
are termed coronary. Its coronary arteries 
branch off from the aorta, and the coronary 
Veins return the blood in the right auricle. 

Its nerves are branches of the eighth and 
great intercostal pairs. It is divided in 
the middle by a strong partition, and on 
each side by two cavities, called ventricles, 
one the right or pulmonic, and the other 
the left or systemic. Attached to the base 
of the heart are two auricles, so called from 
their resemblance to an ear. In the right 
auricle there are four apertures: two of the 
vence cavce, one of the coronary vein, and 
one an opening into the right ventricle. 
There arc five apertures in the left auricle: 
one into the left ventricle, and those of the 
four pulmonary veins. Each ventricle has 
two orifices : one from the auricle, and an¬ 
other into the artery. The ventricles are 
supplied with valves : those at the arterial 
opening being, from their form, called semi¬ 
lunar; those at the orifice of the right auri¬ 
cle, tricuspid; and those at the orifice of the 
left auricle, mitral. The valve at the termi¬ 
nation of the vena cava inferior, just within 
the auricle, is called the valve of Eustachius. 
The blood is returned from the various 
parts of the body by the vence cavce into 
the right auricle, whence it is forced into 
the right ventricle ; from this it passes, by 
the pulmonary artery, into the lungs; it 
returns from the lungs, by the pulmonary 
veins, into the left auricle ; it passes from 
the left auricle into the left ventricle ; and 
thence, by the aorta, through the general 
circulation. The dilatation of the heart is 
called diastole; its contraction, systole. The 
alternate contraction and dilatation of the 
heart are entirely involuntary, and depen¬ 
dent on the nervous system. It has been 
calculated that the daily work of an ordinary 
human heart, in propelling the blood, is 
equal to the lifting 124 tons a foot high. 

HEAT was formerly supposed to be a 
subtle form of matter. It is now believed to 
be a peculiar motion of the particles of mat¬ 
ter ; and the laws of its communication are 
considered to be the same as those of the 
communication of motion. It has a definite 
mechanical value, and it may be converted 
into mechanical effect, whilst mechanical 
effect may be converted into heat. This is 
termed the dynamical theory of heat, which 
has only been experimentally established of 
late years. The result of Dr. Joule’s ex¬ 
periments is, that each Fahrenheit degree 
of temperature is equivalent to the lifting 
of 772 lbs. one foot high, and these amounts 
of heat and power are capable of being re¬ 
ciprocally converted into one another. The 
unit of measurement is styled afoot-pound. 
The immediate consequence of heating a 
body is to increase its bulk, as if each mole¬ 
cule was endowed with a repulsive force, so 
that solids become fluids, and fluids, by a 
further increase of temperature, become 
gases. The only exception to this law ap¬ 
pears to be on the conversion of ice into 
water, the liquid in this case occupying 
less bulk than the solid. The principle of 
thermometers and pyrometeis depends on 
the dilatation of bodies by heat. Bodies 
conduct heat on very different degrees; 
gold and silver for example beinggood con 
ductors, and atmospheric air a bad conduc 
tor. It has also been found that in the same 
body its conductivity diminishes as its tern 



























343 


Ettcrary Ercasun). 


[heirloom 


perature increases. The diffusion of heat 
amongst the particles of fluids and gases 
lias been termed convection. As it was 
found that different bodies required very 
different quantities of heat to raise them 
to the same temperature (water for example 
requiring twice as much heat to raise it to 
a given temperature as an equal weight of 
mercury), it was said that they had different 
capacities for heat, and the ratio of the ca¬ 
pacity of any body to that of another, 
assumed as a standard, was termed the spe¬ 
cific heat of that body. The term latent heat 
was applied to that heat which was lost to 
the thermometer when a solid body was 
liquefied, or a liquid body converted into a 
gas. Tt was thought that this heat remained 
combined in some mysterious way with the 
molecules. But it is now considered that 
the heat which disappears under the cir¬ 
cumstances referred to is exhausted in the 
work of tearing the molecules apart. Heat 
is also radiated, that is, it moves through 
space like light, in all directions. Bodies 
possess this power of radiation in different 
degrees; and it appears that the more 
highly polished the surface the less is the 
radiation. The sun is the great source of 
heat on our globe ; but it is well known that 
friction and percussion also generate heat. 
It has been found by experiment that the 
quantity of heat produced by friction is 
always proportional to the quantity of work 
expended, and this applies both to solids 
and liquids. Chemical action, electrical 
action, and vital action, also produce heat. 
In these cases it probably arises from the 
clashing together of the particles of matter 
under the influence of chemical affinity. 

IIEATn, the common name of plants be¬ 
longing to the genus Erica, nut. ord. Eri- 
caccce, of which more than 250 species are 
known. Some of them are natives of Europe, 
but the greater part are found in South 
Africa, and are greatly admired on account 
of their lasting verdure, their light foliage, 
and the elegance of their flowers. 

HEAV'Y SPAR, native sulphate of ba¬ 
ryta, a mineral common in mining dis¬ 
tricts. 

HEBDOM'ADARY ( hebdomas, a week : 
Or.), a member of a chapter or convent, 
whose duty it is to officiate in the choir, 
rehearse the anthems and prayers, and per¬ 
form other services during the week, which, 
on extraordinary occasions, are performed 
■ by the superiors. 

HEB'RAISM, an idiom or manner of 
speaking peculiar to the Hebrew language. 

HE'BREW, the language spoken by the 
ancient Jews, The hooks of the Old Testa¬ 
ment are the only remains of the ancient 
Hebrew, with an admixture, however, of 
Chaldaic, &c.- Epistle to the He¬ 

brews, a canonical book of the New Tes¬ 
tament, attributed to St. Paul. It was 
addressed to the Christian Jews of Pa¬ 
lestine. , , . 

HEC'ATOMB ( hekatombe: from hekaton, 
a hundred ; aud bow, an ox : Gt.), amongst 
the Greeks, a sacrifice consisting of a hun¬ 
dred oxen offered upon some very extraor¬ 
dinary occasion. 

HEC'TARE, a French superficial measure, 


containing 100 ares, and equal to 2 - 47 Eng¬ 
lish statute acres. 

HEC'TIC FE'YER (hexis, habit: Gr.), in 
Medicine, a continued fever, accompanied 
by debility, a small quick pulse, paleness, 
loss of appetite, excessive perspiration and 
emaciation. It is, in some degree, inter¬ 
mittent, but the sweating is not followed 
by the relief it brings in other febrile 
attacks. It very often accompanies con¬ 
sumption. 

HECTOGRAMME ( hekaton , a hundred : 
Gr.; and gramme ), a French weight, con¬ 
taining loo grammes or 1543'4 grains troy. 

HECTOLITRE {hekaton, a hundred: Gr. 
and litre), a French measure of capacity for 
liquids, containing 100 litres or 61028 cubic 
Inches, that is, rattier less than our quart. | 

HECTOMETRE ( hekaton , a hundred: Gr .; 
and mitre), a French measure, equal to 100 
metres or 3937 - 0091 English inches. 

HEDENBERG'ITE, in Mineralogy, a sili¬ 
cate of lime and iron, occurring in masses, 
composed of shining plates, which break 
into rhombic fragments. It was first ana- . 
lyzed by Hedenberg, in Sweden. 

HED'ERA (ivy : Lat.), in Botany, a genu3 
of shrubby climbing plants, nat. ord. Ara- 
liacece, comprising the different kinds of 
ivy. 

HED'GEHOG, the Erinaceus E nr op crus, 
a small harmless nocturnal animal which 
feeds on worms, insects, &c. It belongs 
to the family of moles, and is remarkable 
for the power of rolling itself into a globe, 
protected externally by its own prickles, 
when in danger. It is often kept in houses 
for the purpose of destroying cockroaches. 
Its popular name ‘urchin’ is probably a 
corruption of the Latin word ‘ erinaceus.’ 

HEGI'RA (the flight: Arab.), the epoch 
of the flight of Mahomet from Mecca, 
July 16, a.d. 622, whence eastern nations 
date their year of 354 days. 

HEIGHTS, MEASUREMENT OF. [See 
Hypsometry.] 

HEIR-AT-LAW (liceres : Lat.), the per¬ 
son to whom the real estate of an intestate 
descends. According to the law of Eng¬ 
land, if there are several children, the 
eldest son will take the real estate on the 
death of his father intestate. If there are 
no sons, but several daughters, the pro¬ 
perty will be divided amongst them equally. 

[See Descent.]-Heir-apparent and 

Heir-presumptive, terms applied to the 
possible successor to a crown or a dignity. 
The heir-apparent can only be deprived of 
the succession by his own death ; the heir- 
presumptive may lose his right to succeed 
by a nearer heir coming into existence. 
Thus, the eldest son of a king of Great 
Britain is the heir-apparent to the crown ; 
the next brother of an unmarried king is 
the heir-presumptive, whose right would 
be displaced if the king married and had a 
child. 

HEIR'LOOM, any personal chattel, such 
as a picture or a piece of plate, which, 
under a will or settlement, is directed to 
pass along with an estate. Heirlooms are 
only protected in the hands of tenants for 
life. They belong absolutely to the first 
person who lias a vested estate of inherit 





















Clje Jrrtcntific mitt 


344 


heliacal] 


nnce, on whose death intestate they go to 
his executor. 

HELI'ACAL ( heliakos, relating to the 
sun ; from helios, the sun: Gr.), in Ancient 
Astronomy, an epithet applied to the rising 
or setting of the stars, or, more strictly 
speaking, to their emersion out of and im¬ 
mersion into the rays and superior splen¬ 
dour of the sun. A star rises heliacally 
when, after it has been in conjunction with 
the sun, and on that account invisible, it 
gets at such a distance from that luminary 
as to be seen in the morning before its 
rising. [See Cosmical.] 

HELIAN'THUS ( helios, the sun ; and an- 
thos, a flower : Gr.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Composites; containing the 
Jerusalem artichoke and the garden sun¬ 
flowers. 

HELIOCEN'TRIC ( helios , the sun; and 
Icentron, a centre : Gr.). In Astronomy, the 
heliocentric longitude of a planet is the an¬ 
gle at the sun’s centre, formed by the pro¬ 
jection of its radius vector on the ecliptic, 
and a straight line drawn from the centre 
of the sun to the first point of Aries. The 
heliocentric latitude of a planet is the incli¬ 
nation of a line drawn between the centre 
of the sun and the centre of a pla.net to the 

plane of the ecliptic.- Heliocentric place 

of a planet, the place of the ecliptic in 
which the planet would appear to a spec¬ 
tator placed at the centre of the sun. [See 
Geocentric.] 

HELIOG'ItAPHY ( helios , the sun; and 
graphe, a picture : Gr.), a method of giving 
permanency to images produced by the 
chemical effects of light. [See Photo¬ 
graphy.] 

HELIOM'ETER ( helios , the sun; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring the diameter of the heavenly 
bodies. 

HE'LIOSCOPE ( helios, the sun ; and slco- 
peo, I examine: Gr.), in Optics, a sort of 
telescope, peculiarly fitted for viewing the 
sun without pain or injury to the eyes. 

HE'LIOSTAT ( helios, the sun ; and statos, 
standing : Gr.), an instrument employed in 
surveying for reflecting a sunbeam from 
one spot to another. 

HE'LIOTROPE ( helios, the sun; and 
tropl, a turning round: Gr.), in Mineralogy, 
a sub-species of rliomboidal quartz, of a 
deep green colour. It is usually variegated 
with blood-red or yellowish dots, and is 

more or less translucent.-Also, the name 

of some sweet-scented shrubs, belonging to 
the genus Heliotropium, nat. ord. Boragi- 
nacece. 

HELISPHER'ICAL (helix, a spiral; and 
sphaira, a sphere: Gr.), spiral. The heli- 
splierical line is the rhomb line in naviga¬ 
tion ; so called because on the globe it 
winds round the pole spirally, coming 
nearer and nearer to it, but never termi¬ 
nating in it. 

HE'LIX (a spiral: Gr.), in Anatomy, the 
whole circuit of the auricle, or external 

bolder of the ear.-In Architecture, a 

spiral line, or something that winds; as, 
a winding staircase, or a small volute 
under the flowers of the Corinthian capi¬ 
tal.-In Zoology, a very large genus of 


gasteropod molluscs, bearing shells. [See 
Snail.] 

HEL'LEBORE ( helleboros: Gr.), the Uelle- 
boras niger, or Christmas rose, an exotic 
plant, belonging to the r.at. ord. Melan- 
thacece, the medical properties of which de¬ 
pend on a peculiar alkaloid called veratriu. 
A minute quantity applied to the nose ex¬ 
cites violent sneezing. The an dents esteem¬ 
ed it as a powerful remedy in maniacal 
cases ; at present it is exhibited principally 
as an alterative ; and it is recommended in 
dropsies and some cutaneous diseases. 
There is also the white hellebore, a poi¬ 
sonous plant, of the genus Veratrum. 

HEL'LENIC, a division of the Indo-Eu¬ 
ropean family of languages, embracing an¬ 
cient and modern Greek. 

IIEL'LENISM (.Hellenes, the Greeks: Gr.), 
a phrase peculiar to the Greek tongue. 

HELLENIS'TiC (same deriv.), a name 
given to that dialect of the Greeks used by 
Jewish writers. Its peculiarity consisted 
in the introduction of foreign words, but 
little disguised, and of exotic metaphors and 
idioms; but they used the ordinary Greek 
inflections in great number. 

HELM (Ger.), an instrument suspended 
along the hind part of a ship’s stern-post, 
where it turns upon hinges to the right or 
left, serving to direct the course of a vessel, 
as the tail of a flsh guides its body. The 
helm is usually composed of three parts, the 
rudder, the tiller, and the wheel; except in 
small vessels, in which the wheel is un¬ 
necessary. There are several phrases in 
nautical language relating to the helm : as, 
up the helm, put the tiller to the weather 
side; down the helm, put it to the lee side ; 
helm amidships, or right the helm, put it 
even with the middle of the ship; port the 
helm, put it to the left side; starboard the 
helm, put it to the right side. 

HEL'MET or HELM (helmt or helm: Ger.), 
defensive armour for the head, which was 
also called a headpiece and a casque. An 
open helmet left the face unguarded, but 
sometimes had bars from the forehead to 
the chin. A closed helmet covered the 
head, face, and neck, having slits for seeing 
objects, and perforations to admit air ; its 
visor (viser, to take aim : Fr.), lifted up by 
means of pivots over the ears. A beaver 
(buveur, a drinker: Fr.), covered the mouth 
and chin, and either lifted up by revolving 
on the same pivots as the > isor, or let down 
by other pivots near the jaws; it enabled 
the wearer to eat and drink with his 
helmet on. The helmets of the Greeks and 
Romans were open. The modern cavalry 

generally wear helmets.-The helmet is 

used in Heraldry, by way of crest over the 
shield or coat of arms, and expresses the 
different degrees of nobility by the different 
manner in which it is borne. 

HELMINTHOI/OGY (helmins, a worm; 
and logos, a discourse: Gr.), the natural 
history of worms. [See Entozoa.] 

HK'LOTS 1 Ueilotes: Gr.), certain slaves in 
Sparta, who, it is said, were originally in¬ 
habitants of the town of Helos, but were 
carried off and reduced to slavery by the 
Heraclidae, about 1000 b.o. They differed 
from other Greek slaves in not belonging 




























345 


Httcravy CTrca^urw* [hendecasyllablh 


individually to separate masters; But 
being the property of the state, which 
alone had the disposal of their lives and 
freedom. Other accounts of their origin 
have been given. 

HELVET'IC, an epithet designating what 
pertains to the Helvetii, the ancient inhabi¬ 
tants of Switzerland, or to the modern 
states and inhabitants of the Alpine re¬ 
gions ; as, the Helvetic confederacy, &c. 

IIEM'ACHATE or H-ZEM'ACHATE ( liaima , 
blood ; and achates, agate : Gr.), in Minera¬ 
logy, a species of agate, of a blood colour. 

HEM'ATINE or H/EM'ATINE ( liaima, 
blood: Gr.), in Chemistry, the colouring 
principle of logwood: it is of a pale red, 
and a bitterish taste. 

HEM'ATITE. [See Hematite.] 

HEMERALO'PIA ( hemera, the day ; and 
opsis, vision : Gr.), in Medicine, nocturnal 
blindness; a disease which consists in in¬ 
ability to see in the evening, though the 
sight is perfect enough in the day-time. At 
sunset, objects appear to persons afflicted 
with this complaint as if covered with an 
ash-coloured veil, that gradually changes 
into a dense cloud, which appears to inter¬ 
vene between the eyes and surrounding 
objects. When brought into a room faintly 
lighted by a candle, where others can see 
tolerably well, they can scarcely discern 
any object; and by moonlight their sight is 
still worse. 

HEME ROC AL'LIS ( hemera, a day; and 
/ 'callus, beautiful: Gr.), in Botany, a genus 
of bulbous-rooted plants, nat.ord. Liliacem, 
including the day lily of our gardens. 

IIEM'I, a Greek word used in the compo¬ 
sition of several terms borrowed from that 
language. It signifies/mi/, being the same 
as semi and demi: thus, hemiplegia is a pa¬ 
ralysis of one half of the body; hemistich, 
half a verse ; hemicycle, a semi-circle. 

HEMICRA'NIA (hemilcrania: from hemi, 
half; and kranion, the skull: Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, a species of headache, which affects 
only one half or side of the head. 

HEMIOP'SIA (hemi, half; and Ops, the 
eye: Gr.), in Medicine, a defect of vision, 
in which the person sees half, but not the 
whole,of an object. 

HEMII’LE'GIA (hemiplexia: from hemi, 
half; and plecje, a stroke : Gr.), in Medicine, 
a paralytic affection of one side of the 
body. 

HEMIP'TERA ( hemi, half; and pteron, a 
wing: Gr.), in Entomology, an order of 
sucking insects; characterized by having 
a horny beak and four wings, of which the 
uppermost are thick at the base, Avith 
thinner extremities that lie flat and cross 
each other on the top of the back, or are of 
uniform thickness throughout, and slope 
at the sides like a roof. The young undergo 
an incomplete metamorphosis, the larvaa 
having the same form as the adult except 
as to the wings. The bed-bug and water- 
boatman ( Notonecla) are examples of this 
order. The species are numerous, and often 
beautifully coloured ; but the odour is, in 
many, very disagreeable. 

IIEM'ISPHERE (hemispliairion: from 
hemi, half ; and sphaira, a sphere: Gr.), in 
Astronomy, one half of the sphere. The 


equator divides the sphere into two parts, 
called the northern and the southern hemi¬ 
spheres. The horizon also divides the 
sphere into two parts, called the upper and 
lower hemispheres. The term hemisphere is 
also used for a map or pi-ojection of half 
the terrestrial globe, or half the celestial 
sphere, on a plane ; and is then often called 
planisphere. 

HEMISPHEROI'DAL (same deriv.), in 
Geometry, an appellation given to whatever 
approaches to the figure of a hemisphere, 
but is not exactly one. 

llEM'ISTICII (Jiemistichion: from hemi, 
half ; and stichos, a verse: Gr.), in Poetry, 
half a verse, or a verse not completed. 
In reading common English verse, a short 
pause is required at the end of each hemi¬ 
stich. — 

HEM'LOCK, the name of plants belong¬ 
ing to the umbelliferous genus Conium. C. 
maculatum, the greater hemlock, is poi¬ 
sonous ; the alkaloid Conia employed in 
medicine is extracted from it. In Canada, 
the Abies canadensis, a coniferous tree, 
which attains the height of eighty feet 
with a diameter of three feet, is called 
Hemlock. It is an elegant tree with droop¬ 
ing branches. The bark is much used in 
tanning. 

IIEMP ( lianf: Ger.), the fibres of the in¬ 
ner bark of the Cannabis saliva. It is pre¬ 
pared for spinning in the same way as flax, 
and is made into strands or yarn for ropes. 
The plant is supposed to be a native of 
India, but has long been naturalized in 
Europe, in many parts of which it is grown 
extensively. Only the coarser kinds of 
hemp are employedin makingcordage ;tlie 
finer being used for cloth, which, though 
incapable of receiving the delicacy of 
linen, is incomparably stronger, equally 
susceptible of bleaching, and possessed of 
the property of improving in colour by 
wear. The English hemp is much superior 
in strength to that which grows in any 
other country. Nexttothis is the Russian, 
from which sacking is usually made. A 
large quantity of Russian sheeting, coarser 
at the price than any other foreign cloth, 
is imported into England on account of its 
strength. 

IiEN'BANE, the name of plants belong¬ 
ing to the genus Hyoscyanms, nat. ord. 
Solanacece. The H. niger is a wild British 
plant. The roots, leaves, and seeds arc 
poisonous ; but, from its narcotic qualities, 
it is occasionally serviceable in medicine. 
Its active principle, hyoscyamine, like bel¬ 
ladonna, has the property of remarkably 
dilating the pupil, which causes so many 
rays to enter that vision becomes painful 
and imperfect. 

HENDEC'AGON (hendeka, eleven; and 
gunia, an angle: Gr.), in Fortification, a 

place defended by eleven bastions_In 

Geometry, a figure of eleven sides and 
angles. 

HENDECASYL'L ABLE ( hendeka, eleven; 
and sullabe, a syllable: Gr.), in poetical 
composition, a verse of eleven syllables. 
Among the ancients it was particularly 
used by Catullus, and was well adapted fo 
elegant trifles. 























henna.] tS'fjc JMnUtftc antr 346 


IIEN'NA, a dye obtained in Egypt from 
a plant, the Lawsonia inermis, nat. ord. Ly- 
thracece. The women stain their fingers 
and feet an orange colour with it. It is 
also used for dyeing skins and textile fa¬ 
brics. 

HEPAT'IC (Irtpatikos, belonging to the 
liver: Gr.), in Medicine, an epithet for 

whatever belongs to the liver.- Hepatic 

Artery, the artery which nourishes the 

substance of the liver.- Hepatic Duct, 

the trunk of the biliary pores. It runs 
from the sinus of the liver towards the 
duodenum, and is joined by the cystic duct. 

HE”AT'IO AIR (same deriv.), the sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogen or sulphide of hydro¬ 
gen of modern chemistry. 

HEP'ATITE ( hepatites , belonging to the 
liver : £??•.), a name given to the foetid sul¬ 
phide of barium. It sometimes occurs in 
globular masses, and is either compact or 
of a foliated structure. By friction or the 
application of heat, it exhales a foetid odour 
like that of sulphide of hydrogen. 

HEPATI'TIS (same cleriv.), in Medicine, 
inflammation of the liver, of which there 
are two kinds, the acute and chronic. Both 
require attentive medical treatment. In 
warm climates, the liver is more likely to 
be affected with inflammation than perhaps 
any other part of the body, from the addi¬ 
tional work thrown upon it. Hepatic res¬ 
piration is intended as an auxiliary to 
! pulmonic; but when any portion of the 
body is subjected to unusual exertion, its 
size is increased: hence the arm of the 
blacksmith is larger than if his employ¬ 
ment were of a less energetic character. 

, From its position, the liver cannit be aug¬ 
mented in size without inconvenience. 

IIEP'TACHORD ( hepta , seven; and 
cliorde, a string: Gr.), in ancient Poetry, 
verses accompanied by music played on 
seven chords producing different notes. 
The word was applied to the lyre when it 
had seven strings. 

IIEP'TAGON (hepta, seven ; and gonia, an 
angle: Gr.), in Geometry, a figure of seven 
sides and angles. The area of a regular 
heptagon is equal to the square of one 

of its sides multiplied by 3 - 6339124.-In 

Fortification, a place that has seven bas¬ 
tions for its defence. 

HEPTAG'ONAL NUM'BERS (same 
deriv.), in Arithmetic, a kind of polygonal 
numbers, in which the difference of the 
terms of the corresponding arithmetical 
progression is 5. Thus : 

Aritlnnetieals, 1, 6,11,16,21, &c. 

Heptagonals, 1, 7,18, 34, 55, &c. 

Each term of the latter is found by adding 
the corresponding arithmetical term to its 
preceding term. One of the properties of 
these numbers is, that if they are multiplied 
by 40, and 9 is added to the product, the 
sum is a square number. 

HEPTAN'DllIA (hepta, seven; and an?r, 
a male: Gr.i.the seventh class of the Lin- 
naian system of plants, containing those 
which have seven stamens. 

HEPTARCHY (hepta, seven ; and archo, 
I govern : Gr.), a government exercised by 
seven persons : or a nation divided into se¬ 
ven governments.— Saxon Heptarchy, 


the seven kingdoms existing in England 
between the fifth and ninth centuries. 
These kingdoms were severally named, 
1. Kent; 2. Sussex; 3. Wessex ; 4. Essex; 
5. Northumberland; 6. East-Anglia; and 
7. Mercia. The heptarchy was formed by 
degrees ; but it may be said to have com¬ 
menced in 449. when Hengist arrived on 
the island. In 827 Egbert was enabled, by 
a combination of circumstances, to assume 
tiie title of King of England; but, in 
reality, three of the kingdoms, Northum¬ 
berland, East Anglia, and Mercia, were 
still governed by their own kings, though 
those kings were his vassals and tributa¬ 
ries. The kingdoms he actually governed 
were Kent, Sussex, Wessex, and Essex. 

HERACLPDH3 (the descendants of Her¬ 
cules, in Gr. Heracles). The return of the 
Heraclidce into Peloponnesus is said to have 
taken place in the year of the world 2682, a 
hundred years after they were expelled, and 
eighty after the destruction of Troy. 

IIER'ALD ( Mraut: Fr.), the title of an 
officer, whose duty was, in former times, 
to declare war, to challenge in battle and 
combat, to proclaim peace, and to bear 
messages in war; but is, at present, to con¬ 
duct royal processions, the creations of no¬ 
bility, and the ceremonies of knighthood; 
to publish declarations of war, not to the 
enemy, but at home; to proclaim peace; 
to record and blazon armorial bearings; 
and to rectify abuses in arms, under the 
autnority of the earl-marshal, by whom he 
is created. The heralds were formed into 
a college by Richard III. The three chief 
are called kings-at-arms; the principal of 
these is Garter ; the next is Clarencieux, and 
the third Norroy; the last two are called 
provincial kings. Besides these there are 
six heralds, viz. York, Lancaster, Somerset, 
Richmond, Chester, and Windsor. Below 
these are four pursuivants, viz. Bluemantle, 
Rouge Dragon, Rougecroix, and Portcullis. 
Heralds, amongst the ancient Greeks and 
Romans, were held in great estimation, and 
looked upon as sacred. Those of Greece car¬ 
ried in their hands a rod of laurel, round 
which two serpents, without crests, were 
twisted as emblems of peace. 

HER'ALDRY (same deriv.), the body of 
rules relating to armorial bearings, teach¬ 
ing how to blazon or describe them in 
proper terms, and how to marshal or dis¬ 
pose the different arms in an escutcheon or 
shield. The introduction of armorial bear¬ 
ings, in place of the images and statues of 
the Romans (the right to which was known 
among them by the term jus imaginum), is 
to be ascribed to the northern tribes who 
overran Europe on the decline and fall of 
the empire. Although at first strictly mili¬ 
tary, and intended to afford a means of re¬ 
cognizing the knight who, cased in complete 
armour, was unseen, yet, by being trans¬ 
mitted to his posterity, they became badges 
of civil rank and honour ; and, in course of 
time, other circumstances gave rise to bear¬ 
ings which were not purely military. Thus, 
on the establishment of the feudal system, 
the tenants of the king, or the great lords, 
represented on their shields the services 
they owed to their superiors, by way of at) 



































347 


Htterarg Uveas’ urn* 


[hermetical 


acknowledgment of their fidelity, whence 
originated roses, cinquefoils, spur-rowels, 
hows and arrows, hunting-horns, ships, &c. 
When, inspired with religious enthusiasm, 
the martial youth of almost all Europe left 
their homes, about the end of the lltli cen¬ 
tury, to conquer the Holy Land, the use of 
coats of arms became more general and ne¬ 
cessary. In order to distinguish nations, 
armies, and families, the princes and com¬ 
manders chose their symbols, sometimes 
in commemoration of the exploits and 
events of the campaign, or of the dignity 
of the commander, and sometimes from 
the cause in which they were engaged. 
This probably introduced, or at least made 
more common, the figure of the cross, which 
is borne in a diversity of forms. In like 
manner, when tournaments were invented, 
they are supposed to have given rise to 
the fesse, pale, bend, and other ordinaries, 
which represented the fillets or lists of 
different kinds which were worn by the 
combatants and those who attended. And 
it was from the practice of a herald’s de¬ 
scribing and recording the names, arms, 
and proofs of nobility, of the knights at 
tournaments, that the science took its 
name. In heraldic science, arms are said to 
be of pretension or dominion. That is, na¬ 
tional, or of community, as those of episco¬ 
pal secs, cities, &c.; of concession, that is, 
augmentation of honour, being granted 
by sovereigns; of alliance, being derived 
from the union of families. And of as¬ 
sumption, being adopted according to the 
caprice of individuals. In times of chivalry, 
arms were chiefly displayed on the shield or 
escutcheon, and on the pennon or banner; 
also on sword-hilts, and on the mantle or 
surcoat—which gave rise to the term coat 
of arms. The East seems to have contri¬ 
buted most of the singular devices of he¬ 
raldry. The Normans and French assi¬ 
duously cultivated heraldry, and reduced it 
to a system. In the reign of Henry III. of 
England, the vocabulary of heraldry was 
nearly suqIi as it is at present. [For its 
chief terms see their proper places.] 

IIEllB (herb a: Lat.), a plant with a soft or 
succulent not woody stalk or stem. 

HER'BAL (same deriv.), a book giving an 
account of the names, nature, and uses of 
plants, their classes, genera, and species. 

HERBA'IIIUM ( herba, an herb: Lat.) or 
IIortl’S Siccus (a dry garden : Lat.), a 
collection of specimens of plants carefully 
dried and preserved. The plants should be 
placed between sheets of porous paper as 
soon as possible after being gathered, and 
subjected to pressure. The paper should be 
repeatedly changed until the plants are 
quite dry. They should then be mounted 
on sheets of stout paper, either by means 
of a strong solution of gum, or of slips of 
gummed paper. If well prepared, an herba¬ 
rium is exceedingly useful to the botanist. 
The name of the genus and species of plant 
should be written down, the place where it 
was found, the nature of the soil, and the 
season of the year at which it was procured. 
The specimens may be collected into orders 
and classes, and titled and preserved in a 
portfolio or cabinet. 


HER'BORIZE (same deriv.), a botanical 
term, signifying to search for plants in 
their native places with a view to their 
examination. 

HER'GULES, an old constellation in the 
northern hemisphere. 

HEREDIT'AMENTS (hatreditas, an inhe¬ 
ritance: Lat.), in Law, lands, tenements, 
and whatever a person may have to himself 
and his heirs, by way of inheritance; and 
which, if not otherwise bequeathed, descend 
to the heir, and not to the executor. Cor¬ 
poreal hereditaments are such as affect the 
senses. Incorporeal hereditaments are des¬ 
cendible rights upon or over corporeal he¬ 
reditaments, as a right of pasture, advow- 
sons, &c. 

HER'ESY ( hairesis, a choice: Or.), an 
error in some fundamental doctrine of re¬ 
ligion, or a private opinion different from 
that of the orthodox church. Roman Ca¬ 
tholics hold all errors to be voluntary, 
which are known deviations from the judg¬ 
ment of the Roman Catholic church. A 
diversity of opinion has always existed on 
certain points, and always will exist. How 
unreasonable that, on speculative matters, 
men should be hated and persecuted for 
holding those opinions which, after much 
careful examination, they feel convinced 
are true, by those who, perhaps, scarcely 
understand the nature of what they would 
so tyrannically force upon others, and who 
have, in many cases, never troubled them¬ 
selves about the foundations (if any) upon 
which it rests. Nothing can be more ab¬ 
surd than to demand what is not, even if 
we would, in our power to grant—an assent 
to a doctrine as true which our mind tells 
us is false. The adoption of any particular 
form of religion should be due to a convic¬ 
tion of its truth, ascertained by careful 
inquiry. If a religion be divine, the more 
it is examined the more satisfactory it will 
appear. 

HER'IOT, in Law, the fine paid to the 
lord of the manor by copyholders on the 
death of the tenant. It is, usually, the best 
beast of which the tenant dies possessed. 

HER'ISSON (a hedgehog : Fr.), in Forti¬ 
fication, a beam or bar armed with iron 
spikes pointing outwards, and turning on 
a pivot; used to block up a passage. 

HERMAPH'RODITE ( Ilermaphroditos, 
from the mythological fable of Hermes and 
Aphrodite, that is, Mercury and Venus), in 
Zoology, a term used to designate the union 
of the two sexes in the same individual, as 
in many of the lower animals.-In Bo¬ 

tany, a flower that contains both anthers 
and pistils. In Zoology, hermaphroditism 
is the exception ; in Botany, it is the rule. 

HERMENEU'TICS(/ienneaeuti/fos, skilled 
in interpreting: Or.), the art of iludiug 
the meaning of an author’s words and 
phrases, and of explaining it to others. The 
word is seldom used except in reference to 
theological subjects. 

IlERMET'ICAL SEAL'ING (hermetique, 
hermetical: Fr.), among Chemists, for¬ 
merly signified the method of closing ves¬ 
sels, &c., with the materials of which they 
are made ; thus, glass with glass, and metal 
with metal. The barometer tube is hermcii- 























hermit] 


&\)c Jrctcnttftc aittt 


348 


catty sealed at one end, by melting the glass, 
and causing it to run together, so as com- 
! pletely to close the aperture. The phrase 
I is now employed to signify such a closing 
: of a vessel as prevents access of air to the 
interior. 

HER'MIT ( eremites, from eremos, a de- 
I Bert: Gr.), a person who passes his time in 
! total seclusion from the world. The term 
1 is usually applied to one who lives in soli- 
; tude for the purpose of religious contem¬ 
plation and devotion. In the early ages of 
| Christianity hermits were very numerous ; 
and they still abound amongst Mahom- 
medans and Buddhists. 

HER'MIT CRABS, marine crustaceans 
belonging to the family Paguridce. The 
thorax is covered with a hard crust, but 
the abdomen has only a soft skin, and these 
animals therefore protect themselves by 
taking up their abode in the cast-off uni- 
| valve shells of molluscs, which are quitted 
for others as they grow larger. These they 
drag about with them when they are in 
search of food. From the red colour of 
some species they are frequently called 
soldier crabs. 

HER'NIA (Lat.; from hcrnos, a sprout: 
Gr.), in Surgery, a rupture: a tumour 
formed by the displacement of part of the 
intestines or omentum, which protrudes 
by a natural or accidental opening from the 
cavity in which it is contained. When the 
parts cannot be reduced, or returned into 
the abdominal cavity, the hernia is said to 
b e strangulated ; in that case, the passage 
through the intestines is interrupted, and, 
unless the gut can be replaced by an opera¬ 
tion, death will soon ensue. As soon as 
any person perceives that he is affected 
with a hernia, he should have recourse to 
medical advice, for the disease is then in 
the state most favourable for treatment. 
When the hernia is reduced, it must be 
subjected to a constant compression, which 
is effected by means of a truss. 

HE'RO, in Pagan Mythology, an illus¬ 
trious mortal, supposed to partake of im¬ 
mortality, and after his death to be placed 
among the gods. There is no trace of 
hero-worship in Homer: it seems to have 
begun after his time; and those who fell at 
Marathon were the last to whom such 

honours were paid.- Hero, in a poem or 

romance, the principal personage, or the 
one who has the principal share in the ac- 
: tions related; as, Achilles in the Iliad, 

Ulysses in the Odyssey, &c.- Heroic 

Age, that age or period of the world in 
which the heroes or demigods are supposed 
to have lived. The heroic coincides with 
the fabulous age.- Heroic Verse, hexa¬ 

meter verse, so called because it is used by 
poets in their heroic poems. 

HER'ON (/<>.), a name given to wading 
birds of the genus Ardea. They are allied 
to the crane and stork, but are distin¬ 
guished by the middle claw on each foot 
being serrated. The best known species 
with U3 is the Ardea cinerea, an inhabitant 
of heronries which were formerly more 
numerous than at present, when falconry 
has gone out of fashion. Herons are very 
expert fishers, and take prey either by 


wading after it where the water is shallow, 
or by diving from the air when the object 
of their pursuit appears near the surface. 
They digest an enormous quantity of food 
in a short time. 

HER'PES (Gr.; from herpo, I creep on) 
in Medicine, a term applied to several 
cutaneous eruptions, from their tendency 
to spread or creep from one part of the 
skin to another. One species is called tet¬ 
ters; another, shingles; and another, the 
ringworm, from its spreading in concentric 
circles. They are generally seen in small 
distinct clustres, accompanied with itching, 
arid terminating in scurfy scales. This 
disease takes various names, according to 
its form or the part affected. These erup 
tions differ from erysipelas by an absence of 
tumefaction, and by the natural appearance 
of the skin between the crops of eruption; 
and they are distinguished from othor si¬ 
milar eruptions by the vesicular form of 
the cuticular elevations at their first ap¬ 
pearance by their regular progress, and 
limited duration. 

HERPETOL'OGY (herpeton, a reptile; and 
logos , a discourse: Gr.), that part of Natural 
History which treats of reptiles; a division 
of the sub-kingdom Vertebrata. This class 
of animals is distinguished by having the 
heart so constructed as to transmit only a 
part of the blood to the lungs, the remainder 
being sent back through the body unpu- 
rifled : the animal heat and muscular ac¬ 
tivity are therefore lower with the Reptilia 
than the Mammalia. They are naked, that 
is to say without hair or feathers, being 
clothed only with scales or hard bony 
plates. Reptiles are, with few exceptions, 
oviparous, and do not incubate. They are 
destitute of the teats which are charac¬ 
teristic of mammals. Excluding the am¬ 
phibia (frogs, toads, &c.), which are now 
formed into a separate class, reptiles arc 
divided into five orders:—1. Sauria, Liz¬ 
ards. 2. Ophidia, Snakes. 3. Chelonia, 
Turtles and Tortoises. 4. Emydosauri, 
Crocodiles and Alligators. 5. Amphis- 
bcenia. Fossil remains of some very large or 
curious forms of reptiles have been found. 
[See Ichthyosaurus, Fterodactyle.] 

HER'RING ( liering, from heer, an army : 
Ger., on account of their vast numbers), the 
Clupea Ilarengiis, a malacopterygious fish. 
A grand shoal of many millions, divided in¬ 
to columns of five or six miles in length, 
and about four in breadth, appears at the 
Shetland Isles in June, where they branch 
off in all directions. Their progress is 
marked by the number of birds which fol¬ 
low them to prey upon them. Those which 
arrive at the British coasts are to be found 
in the greatest number off Yarmouth, the 
mart for herrings. Their migration is not 
from one latitude into auother, but from a 
deeper to a shallower part of the ocean, 
where the ova may be deposited, and receive 
the proper amount of heat, light, and oxy¬ 
gen. [See Fisheries.] 

HERSE or HEllSILI/ON (hersc, a harrow: 
Fr.), in Fortification, a portcullis_armed with 
spikes, to block up a gateway or impede the 
march of an enemy. 

1IESTERUS or VES'PER, io Astronomy, 
























1 349 

the evening star; an appellation given to 
the planet Venus when it sets after the 

tun. 

HET'EROCLITE (heteroklitos: from hete¬ 
ros, otherwise ; and klino, I inflict: Gr.), in 
Grammar, a word which is irregular or 
anomalous, either in declension or conjuga¬ 
tion, or which deviates from the forms of 
inflection usual with words of a like kind. 

HET'ERODOX (heterodoxos: from heteros, 
different; and (torn, opinion : Gr.), the oppo¬ 
site of orthodox; a milder term than hereti¬ 
cal, but of similar import. 

HETEROG'AMOUS ( heteros, different: and 
gamos, marriage: Gr.), in Botany a term ap- 
• plied to the flowers of the composites, when 
some of the florets of a capitulum are both 
staminiferous and pistilliferous, whilst 
others are only pistilliferous, or have neither 
stamens nor pistils. 

HETEROG'ENEOUS ( heteros , another ; 
genos, kind : Gr.), that which is composed of 
unlike parts, opposed to homogeneous. 

HETEROPHYI/LOUS ( heteros, different; 
and phullon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, pro¬ 
ducing leaves of several forms. 

HEX'AGON (hex, six ; and gonia, an angle : 
Gr.), in Geometry, a figure of six sides and 
angie3. Its area is the square of one of the 
equal sides multiplied by 2-598076. 

HEXAGYN'IA (hex, six ; and gave, a fe¬ 
male : Gr.), in Botany, an order of plants in 
the Li unreal! system, comprehending those 
with six pistils in the flower. 

HEXAHE'DRON (hex, six; and hedra, a 
base: Gr.), in Geometry, one of the five 
regular solids; the cube. The other four 
are, the tetrahedron or pyramid, the octa¬ 
hedron, the dodecahedron, and the icosa¬ 
hedron. 

HEXAM'ETER (hexametros: from hex, 

\ six; and metron, a measure : Gr.), in an¬ 
cient poetry, a verse consisting of six feet, 
the first four of which may be either dac¬ 
tyls or spondees, the fifth must regularly 
; be a dactyl, and the sixth always a spondee. 
The poems of Homer and Virgil are in this 
verse. 

I HEXAN'DRIA (hex, six; and aner, a 
male: Gr.), in Botany, one of the Linnrean 
classes, comprehending those plants which 
have six stamens in each flower. 

HEX'ASTYLE (hexasiulos: from hex, six; 
and stulos, a column: Gr.), in Architecture, 
a building with six columns in front. 

HIA'TUS (Lat.), an unpleasant opening 
of the mouth, when vowels end and begin 
words; also any deficiency in a manuscript 
which destroys the connection. 

HI'BERNACLE (hibernaculum, winter 
quarters : Lat.), Linnreus’s name for a bulb 
or a bud, in which the embryo of a future 
plant is enclosed by a scaly covering, and 
protected from injuries during winter. 

HIBERNATION. [See Dormant.] 

HIBIS'CUS, a genus of plants, nat. ord. 
Malvacece, containing many species that are 
cultivated on account of their handsome 
flowers. The mutable rose (11. rosa-sinensis) 
and the Syrian hibiscus (27. syriacus) are 
examples. 

HIQK'ORY, the name of some North 
American trees, belonging to the nat. ord. 
Juglandacece, and therefore allied to the 


[HIERO GRAMM ATISTS 


walnut. The common or shell bark hickory 
(Carya alba) and the smooth bark hickory 
(C. glabra) are tall and slender forest trees, 
having an average height of more than 100 
feet. The wood is heavy and much used 
where strength is required. It is much 
prized for heating purposes, and it contains 
a considerable quantity of potash. The 
kernel of the nut of C. alba is eaten, but that 
of the other species is very bitter. The 
Pekkan nut, another North American tree, 
is Carya oliveeformis. 

HIDAL'GO (son of something: Span.), a 
term in Spain for a person of gentle birth, 
Fidalgo is the equivalent term in Portugal. 

HIDE, a word formerly used in land- 
measure, for such a space as might be 
ploughed with one plough ; or as much as 
would maintain a family. 

HI'DEBOUND, in Farriery, a term for a 
disease in horses and cattle in which the 

skin cleaves to the side.-Also a term in 

Botany; a tree being said to be hidebound, 
when the bark is so close or firm as to im¬ 
pede the growth. 

HI'ERAROHY (hierarcilia: from hiereus, 
a priest; and archo, I govern : Gr.), a term 
applied sometimes to the supposed polity, 
or social constitution, among angels. Also 
ecclesiastical government, or the subordi- j 
nation of rank among the different orders 
of the clergy. 

HIEROGLYPHTCS (hierogluphikos : from ! 
hieros, sacred ; and glupho, 1 engrave : Gr.), 
the expression of ideas by representations 
of visible objects ; a word specially applied 
to the sculptured writings of the ancient 
Egyptians. These were wholly undecipher¬ 
able for many ages, but Dr. Young dis¬ 
covered the track, and Champollion pursued 
it with perseverance and ingenuity. They 
are supposed to have consisted of three dif¬ 
ferent characters1. The hieroglyphics, 
properly so called, which were representa¬ 
tions of the objects themselves, either 
entire or abridged; and were divided into 
the figurative proper, figurative conventional, 
and figurative abridged. 2. Characters repre¬ 
senting ideas by visible objects used as 
symbols; thus, a tumult, by a man throwing 
arrows, &c. Sometimes the connection 
between the type and antitype is obvious; 
in others it cannot be traced. These cha¬ 
racters have been called symbolical: the 
Greeks termed them hieroglyphics. 3. Cha¬ 
racters representing sounds, and termed 
phonetic. It is supposed they were like¬ 
nesses of animals or objects whose names 
began with the letters or sounds; writers 
were not confined to the use of one repre¬ 
sentative for each letter. Besides hiero¬ 
glyphics, the Egyptians used hieratic and 
demotic characters, which were conver¬ 
sions of the hieroglyphics into a current 
hand, the latter nearly alphabetical. The 
Mexicans, when the Spaniards invaded their 
country, used hieroglyphic or picture wri¬ 
ting, but they had no alphabet. 

HIEROGRAM'M ATISTS (hierogravinia- 
teus: from hieros, sacred ; and grammateus, 
ascribe : Gr.), in Antiquity, priests amongst 
the Egyptians who presided over learning 
and religion. Their duty was to take care 
of the hieroglyphics, and expound reli- I 


Etfcnmi Crmsurn. 






























hieronicesj Jjrinittfic anti 


350 


gious mysteries and opinions. They were 
also skilled in divination, and were honour¬ 
ed with many exemptions from civil duties 
and taxes. 

IIIERONPCES (hicronikes: from hieros, 
sacred; and nilce, victory : Or.), in Antiquity, 
a conqueror at the Olympic, Pythian, Isth¬ 
mian, and Nemasan games. 

IIIEROPIIAN'TES {hicrophant.es: from 
hieros, sacred; and phaino, I show: Or.), 
the priest who initiated candidates at the 
Eleusinian mysteries. He was required to 
liea citizen of Athens ; and held the office, 
which was of considerable importance, for 
life. 

HI'GHNESS, a title of honour given first 
to bishops, then to princes. The kings of 
England, before James I., were not ad¬ 
dressed with the title of ‘majesty,’ but that 
of highness only 7 . At present the children of 
crowned heads are generally styled royal 
highness, a title first assumed by the Duke 
of Orleans, brother to Louis XIII. Those 
of the emperors of Austria and Russia are 
styled imperial highness. All other princes 
are addressed as serene highness. 

HIGII-PRIEST, the head of the Jewish 
priesthood. Rioses conferred this dignity 
upon his brother Aaron, in whose family it 
descended without interruption. After the 
subjugation of the Jews by the Seleucidae, 
the Ptolemies, and the Romans, it was 
often arbitrarily conferred by their foreign 
masters. The importance of the high- 
priest’s office is indicated by the splendour 
and costliness of his garment,which was 
among the most beautiful works of ancient 
art. 

HI'LUM (a trifle: Lat.), in Botany, the 
part by which the ovule is united to the 
cord that attaches it to the placenta. In 
many ripe seeds the hilum is marked by a 
scar. 

HINDOO'S, the Aryan inhabitants of the 
East Indies; apeopledistinguishedfortheir 
humanity, gentleness, industry, and know¬ 
ledge of the polite arts, at a time when most 
of their Asiatic neighbours were yet only 
in the first stages of civilization, when the 
Greeks were in obscurity, and the nations 
of Europe were in a state of barbarism. 
In earlier times, before they were op¬ 
pressed by a foreign yoke, they had reached 
a high degree of civilization; and their 
country has been considered as the cradle 
of the arts and sciences. [See Buahiiixism 
and Caste.] 

HIPPOCEN'TAUR (hippokentauros: from 
hippos, a horse; and lcentauros, a centaur: 
Or.), in ancient fable, a monster, half man 
and half horse. The 7i ippocentaur differed 
from the centaur in this, that the latter 
rode on an ox, and the former on a horse, 
as the name imports. 

niP'POCRAS, a medicinal drink, com¬ 
posed of wine with an infusion of spices and 
other ingredients ; used as a cordial. 

HIPPOC'RATES’ SLEEVE, in old Phar¬ 
macy, a conical bag, made of a square piece 
of flannel, and used for straining syrups 
and decoctions. 

HIP'PODROME (hippodromes : from hip¬ 
pos, a horse; and dromos, a course: Or.), in 
Antiquity, a course for chariot and horse 


races. The most celebrated was that at 
Olympia, finished by Constantine, and one 
which still fills with astonishment the tra- 
j Teller who visits the Turkish capital. 

HIP'POGRIFF (hippogrifle: IV.), a fabu¬ 
lous monster, compounded of a horse and a 
griffin. In Ariosto’s ‘Orlando Furioso,’ the 
Knight Ruggiero is sent on a liippogriff to 
the moon. 

IIIPPOPOT'AMUS or RrvEit Horse 
(hippopotamos: from hippos, a horse; and 
potainos, a river: Or.), a gigantic pachyder¬ 
matous quadruped, equal to the rhinoceros 
in strength, and inferior only to the ele¬ 
phant in size, being from 12 to 20 feet long. 
It is supposed to be the Behemoth of Job. 
The head is very large, the legs are short 
and thick, and the short tusks are harder and 
whiter than those of the elephant. Its hide 
is so thick that it is bullet proof. It lives 
chiefly in water, and walks at the bottom, 
raising its head occasionally for respiration. 
It feeds on grain and vegetables, and, unless 
attacked or ill-treated, is perfectly harmless. 
There is only one living species, and that 
frequents the rivers of Africa, It is some¬ 
times seen in salt water. The fossil remains 
of several extinct species have been found. 

HIPPU'RIS (hippouris: from hippos, a 
horse; and oura, a tail: Or.), in Botany, a 
genus of plants, mat. ord. Ilaloragacece. They 
grow in damp places, have very simple 
flowers, consisting only of a calyx with one 
stamen and one pistil, and are known as 
marc's tails. They must not be confounded 
with the horse tails, which are eryptogamio 
plants. 

HIPS ( hcopa: Sax.), in Botany, the ripe 
fruit of the dog-rose, which is often made 
into a sweetmeat. 

HIRU'DO (Lat.), the Leech, a genus of 
red-blooded worms, of aquatic habits, pro¬ 
vided with a sucker at both ends of the 
body. The medicinal leech (Hirtulo medi- 
calis) has the oral aperture transverse, tri- 
radiate, and surrounded with three carti¬ 
laginous jaws, each armed with two rows of 
very fine teeth. This apparatus enables it 
to penetrate the skin, and insures a ready 
flow of blood, without causing a dangerous 
wound. The extent of the leech trade may 
be understood from the fact that four of 
the principal dealers in London annually 
import 7,200,000. 

IIIRUN'DO (a swallow: Lat.), in Ornitho¬ 
logy, a genus of fissirostral or v'ide-gaping 
passerine birds, of which there are three 
species in Britain, the chimney swallow 
(II. rustica), the martin (II. urbica), and the 
sand martin (II. riparia ). Africa seems the 
chief resort of the British swallow during 
winter. Some have supposed that they do not 
migrate, but pass the winter under water 
in a torpid state. But no wmrm-blooded 

animal can hybernate under water.-The 

nests of the Uirundo esculenta are reckoned 
a most exquisite delicacy among the Chi¬ 
nese, who make them into soups and use 
them in their most delicate dishes. They 
consist of a gelatinous substance, secreted 
by the bird to form the abode of its young. 
These nests have the form of a saucer, and 
the width of a tumbler. Those taken before 
the bird has laid its eggs are the most 
















351 




[HOLOGRAPH 


valuable: these are of a red colour, and 
nearly transparent, closely resembling isin¬ 
glass, only more brittle. The best kind is 
sold in China at the rate of 9s. an ounce. 
They are dissolved in water, and made into 
a tasteless soup. The collection of the nests 
is said to be attended with difficulty and 
danger, as the birds construct them in 
caverns in sea cliffs. 

HISTOL'OGY (histos, a web ; logos, a dis¬ 
course : Or.), the study of the formation 
and growth of animal and vegetable tissues. 
It is prosecuted by the aid of the micro¬ 
scope. 

IIISTOIt'ICAL PAINT'ING, that depart¬ 
ment of the art which ‘ treats of events, 
actions,and characters (says Mrs. Jameson) 

! of high and general importance. It may 
! be sacred or profane. It is termed sacred 
when the subjects are taken from the Holy 
Scriptures,or the legendary lives of saints; 
profane, when the subjects are borrowed 
from classical or modern history, or from 
i the fables of ancient mythology.’ 

HISTORIOG'R ARnEH ( historia , history; 
and grayho, I write: Or.), a professed writer 
of history. 

HISTORY (historia, from liistoreo, I in¬ 
quire : Or.), a word which seems to have 
been first used by Herodotus. In strictness 
it is applied only to the civil history of man ; 
though, when qualified, it is used to indi¬ 
cate other branches of investigation : thus 
natural history, &c. As'to the class of events 
which it relates, civil history has been 
divided into ecclesiastical, political, and 
literary; as to extent, into universal and 
particular. The whole body of history has 
been classed under five heads:—1. That of 
the Jews. 2. Thatof empiresand states illus¬ 
trated by classical and Jewish writers, viz. 
Assyria, Persia, Egypt, Phoenicia, and Car¬ 
thage. 3. Classical history, being that of the 
Greeks and Romans. 4. That of nations 
possessing annals of their own, viz. China, 
India, Modern Persia, Arabia, and the Mo¬ 
hammedan conquests. 5. Modern European 
history, including the colonies and con¬ 
quests of Europeans. An historian should 
have the rare quality of being free from 
every prejudice, whether of country or of 
religion. The student of history should 
have the same, to profit by it as much as ho 
may. [See Tradition.] 

HISTRION'IO ART ( histrionicus, from 
histrio, an actor, and chiefly a pantomimist: 
Lot.), the art which teaches how to bear a 
part in dramatic representations. 

HITCH, among seamen, a sort of knot 
or noose for fastening a rope to anything. 
Hitches are distinguished by the names of 
a half-hitch, a clove-hitch, a rolling-hitch, &c., 
according to the nature of the knot. 

HOAR'-FROST (har, white : Sax.), the 
white particles of ice formed by the con¬ 
gelation of dew. 

HOAR'HOUND, the name of several 
plants of different genera. The common 
hoarhound is the Marrnbium vulgare, nat. 
ord. Labiates. It has a bitter taste, and is 
used as an attenuant. 

HOCK'DAY or HORD'D AY, a day of 
feasting and mirth, formerly observed in 
England the second Tuesday after Easter, 


to commemorate the destruction of the 
Danes in the time of Etlielred II., a.d. 1002. 

HOG ( hicch: Wei.), in Zoology, a well 
known and valuable quadruped, belonging 
to the genus Sus, which forms a link be¬ 
tween the cloven-footed, the whole-footed, 
and the digitated quadrupeds. The domes¬ 
ticated varieties of the hog are exceedingly 
numerous. The generic characters are, four 
or six incisors in the upper jaw, converg¬ 
ing; six in the lower jaw, projecting; two 
canines in the upper, and two in the lower 
jaw, very long; fourteen molars in each 
jaw; the snout prominent, truncate, and 
containing a peculiar bone; feet cloven. 
In their taste, hogs manifest a strange de¬ 
gree of caprice; for whilst they are singu¬ 
larly delicate in their choice of herbs, they 
will devour with voracity the most nau¬ 
seous and putrid carrion.-The wild boar, 

from which all of our domestic varieties are 
derived, is found in most parts of Europe 
and Asia, and is by no means so filthy or 
stupid an animal as the tame hog. His 
snout is longer, his ears shorter; he roots 
up the ground in a different manner, 
ploughing it up in furrows ; his tusks are 
larger, being, in some instances, ten inches 
long; they are bent circularly, and are ex¬ 
ceedingly sharp at the points. Hunting 
this animal has always been a favourite 
amusement. When he is roused, he goes 
slowly and uniformly forward, frequently 
stopping and facing his pursuers, and in¬ 
flicting severe or even mortal wounds. 

nOGS'HEAD, a measuro of capacity, 
containing 52J imperial gallons. It is equal 
to half a pipe. 

HOLD (healdan: Sax.), in ships, the 
whole interior or cavity of a vessel, which 
contains the ballast, water, coals, wood, 
provisions, and cargo. It is divided into 
the after-hold, the fore-hold, and the main- 
hold, by bulkheads. 

HO'LINESS ( heilig, holy : Ger.), a title 
given to the pope, who is styled ‘your 
holiness,’ or ‘most holy father:’ in Latin, 
sanctissime or beatissime pater. 

HOL'LY ( holeyn: Sta.), the name of some 
evergreen trees belonging to the genus Ilex, 
nat. ord. Aquifoliaceee. The common holly 
{Ilex aquifolium) is well known for its pol¬ 
ished prickly leaves and red fruit. It grows 
to a height of from 20 to 30 feet. The wood 
is very hard and is employed by inlayers and 
turners.- Knee-Holly, a plant, the but¬ 

cher’s broom, of the genus Rascus. — Sea- 
Holly, a plant, of the genus Eryngium. 

HOL'LYHOCK, the Althea rosea of bota¬ 
nists, nat. ord. Malvaccce. It is much culti¬ 
vated in English gardens, but it is a nativo 
of the east. 

HOL'OCAUST Oiolokauston: from holos, 
the whole; and kaio, I burn: Or.), a burnt 
offering, or sacrifice wholly consumed by 
fire ; of this kind was the daily sacrifice in 
the Jewish church. It was Intended as an 
acknowledgment that the person offering, 
and all that belonged to him, were a proof 
of the divine bounty. The pagan nations, 
who also offered holocausts, probably con¬ 
sidered them in the same light. 

HOL'OGRAPH (holographos: from holos, 
the whole; and grapho, I write: Or.), a 






























holy] 


STTjc il'dcnttftc anti 


352 


writing wholly by the hand of the person 
Whose instrument it is. 

HO'LY ALLI'ANCE. A religious feeling 
had long prevailed among the nations of 
the Continent that their preceding suffer¬ 
ings, arising from the horrors of war and 
invasion, were the direct consequences of 
the French revolution, which they looked 
upon as a punishment inflicted upon the 
world for. its impiety. After the fall 
of Napoleon, this feeling still remained 
strong in their minds, and they were 
induced to believe that religion might 
1 be made the basis of international politics. 
Participating in this spirit, and desirous 
of becoming the pacificator of Europe, the 
emperor Alexander of Russia applied to the 
j emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia | 
| to join him in establishing an alliance for 
the promotion of this glorious object. To 
his request these monarchs readily ac¬ 
ceded. The document which Alexander had 
drawn up, and sent to them in his own 
handwriting, was signed by the emperor of 
Austria and the king of Prussia. It was 
stipulated that the three sovereigns should 
invite others to become members of the 
Holy Alliance; and, in the sequel, all the 
European sovereigns, except the pope, 
joined it. Since the secession of England 
and France it can scarcely be said to exist. 

HO'LY-ROOD DAY.afestival observed by 
Roman Catholics on the 14th of September, 
in memory of the exaltation of the Cross. ; 

HO'LY THURS'DAY, in the Roman Ca¬ 
tholic church, the Thursday before Easter 
Sunday. 

HO'LY-WATER, in the Roman Catholic I 
and Greek churches, water which has been 
consecrated by prayers and other cere¬ 
monies, and is used for sprinkling the j 
faithful and things required for the church. 
It is contained in a particular kind of vases, j 
at the doors of churches, and also within 
them at certain places; and from them the 
worshippers sprinkle ’ themselves before 
prayer. The ancient Greeks and Romans 
used lustral water, when entering their tem¬ 
ples ; and employed it on other occasions 1 
also, to sprinkle and purify the people. 

HO'LY WEEK, the week before Easter 
Sunday. 

HOM'AGE ( hommage: Fr.), in Law, the 
oath of submission and loyalty, which the 
inferior or tenant, underthefeudal system, 
used to take to his lord when first admitted 
to his possessions or land. 

HOM'ICIDE Qiomicidium : from homo, a 
human being; and condo, I kill: Lat.), in 
Law, the killing of one human being by 
another. It is of three kinds, justifiable, 
excusable, and felonious; justifiable, when it 
proceeds from unavoidable necessity, with- 
; out an intention to kill, and without negli¬ 
gence; excusable, when it happens from 
misadventure, or in self-defence; felonious, 
when it proceeds from malice, or is done in 
the prosecution of some unlawful act or in 
a sudden passion. Homicide committed with 
premeditated malice is murder; without 
it, manslaughter. Suicide, or self-murder, 
is also felonious homicide. [See Felo-de- 
se.] The lines of distinction between 
I felonious and excusable or justifiable homi¬ 


cide, and between manslaughter and mur¬ 
der, are, in many cases, difficult to define 
with precision. But, in general, the ac¬ 
cused has the advantage of any uncertainty 
or obscurity that may hang over his case, 
since the presumptions of law are usually 
in his favour. 

HOM'ILY (homilia, an assembly: Gr.j, a 
sermon or discourse upon some point of 
religion, delivered in a plain manner, so as 
to be easily understood by the common 
people. In the primitive church, homily 
meant rather a conference or conversation 
by way of question and answer, which made 
part of the office of a bishop till the fifth 
century, when the learned priests were 
allowed to preach, catechize, &c., in the 
same manner as the bishops used to do. 
There are still extant several fine homilies, 
composed by the ancient fathers.- Ho¬ 

miletic Theology, a branch of practical 
theology, which teaches the manner in 
which ministers of the gospel should adapt 
their discourses to the capacities of their 
hearers ; and points out the best methods 
of instructing, both by their doctrines and 
examples. 

IIOMQEOP'ATHY ( homoios, like; and 
pathos, feeling: Gr.), a medical practice 
which had its commencement in the begin¬ 
ning of the present century. The funda¬ 
mental principles are that every medicine | 
has a specific power of inducing a certain 
diseased state of the system; and that if 
such medicine be given to a patient suffer- j 
ing under the disease, it disappears. Medi¬ 
cines, therefore, are administered to an ex¬ 
tent just sufficient to induce an action 
superior to that of the disease; but still in 
infinitesimal quantities, the millionth of a 
grain being often too much. Medical men 
do not generally admit any reality in this 
system; they attribute the cures which it 
seems to effect to regimen and habits bene¬ 
ficial to the patient, and which they them¬ 
selves in many cases would prefer to the 
administering of medicines. 

HOMOGE'NEOUS ( homoios , like; and ge- 
nos, kind : Gr.), a term given to substances 
when they consist throughout of an aggre¬ 
gation of similar particles, in opposition to 
heterogeneous. 

HOMOI/OGY. Those parts of organized 
beings Which correspond in structure and 
origin, but not in office, are termed homo¬ 
logous; those parts which are only alike in 
I function are said to be analogous. Thus, 
the wings of birds and the wings of insects 
are analogous, not homologous; the air- 
j bladder of fishes is homologous with, bv.t 
not analogous to, the lungs of the higher 
vertebrates; whilst the wings of birds and 
the pectoral fins of fishes are both homo¬ 
logous and analogous, that is, they have 
not only the same office, but the same 
structural origin. * No group of organic 
beings,’ says Darwin, * can be well under 
stood until their homologies are made out; 
that is, until the general pattern, or, as it is 
often called, the ideal type, of the several 
members of the group is intelligible. No 
one member may now exist exhibiting the 
full pattern; but this does not make the 
subject less important to the naturalist. 




















553 


ilttcmvn Crca^uni. 


probably makes it more important for tlie 
full understanding of the group. The ho¬ 
mologies of any being, or group of beings, 
can be most surely made out by tracing 
their embryological development when that 
is possible; or by the discovery of organs 
in a rudimentary condition ; or by tracing 
through a long series of beings a close 
gradation from one part to another, until 
the two parts or organs employed for widely 
different functions, and most unlike each 
other, can be joined by a succession of 
short links. No instance is known of a 
close gradation between two organs, unless 
they be homologically one and the same 
organ. The importance of the science of 
homology rests on its giving us the key¬ 
note of the possible amount of difference 
in plan within any group; it allows us to 
class under proper heads the most diver- 
silled organs; it shows us gradations which 
j would otherwise have been overlooked, 
j and thus aids us in our classification; it 
| explains many monstrosities; it leads to 
the detection of obscure and hidden parts, 
or mere vestiges of parts, and shows us 
j the meaning of rudiments.’ 

HOM'OPHONE SIGNS (homos, like; 
phone, a sound: Gr .); in Philology, when 
different signs stand for the same sound 
they are said to be homophone. 

IIOMO'PTEiiA (homos, like; pteron, a 
wing : Gr.), a sub-ordecof insects with four 
membraneous wings, of which the first 
pair are larger, and do not lap over each 
other when the insects are in a state of 
repose. The coccus, the cuckoo-spit insect, 
the Lanthorn Fly, the Cicada, and 
plant-lice (Aphides), belong to this order. 
The metamorphosis of the homoptera is in¬ 
complete. This sub-order is a division of 
the order Rhyncota or Hemiptera. 

HON'EY (honig: Ger.), a sweet viscid 
liquor, secreted in the nectaries of flowers, 
collected by the working bees, and depo¬ 
sited in the cells of the combs. Virgin 
honey is that which is obtained from the 
hive of bees that have never swarmed;, 
also, that which runs out of the comb of 
itself. Honey appears to be merely ga¬ 
thered by the bees; for it consists only of 
vegetable products, such as the sugars of 
grape, gum and manna, along with mucilage 
extractive matter, a little wax, and acid. 
Narbonne honey owes its peculiar excel¬ 
lence to the flowers on which the bees feed. 
Trebizond honey is remarkable for its in¬ 
toxicating properties. Many instances of 
poisonous honey have been recorded. Honey 
contains a crystallizable sugar, and an un- 
crystallizable in the liquid state. 

HON'EYCOMB, a waxen substance, of a 
firm, close, texture, formed by bees into 
hexagonal cells, in which they deposit their 
honey and eggs. These cells are arranged in 
two layers, placed end to end, the openings 
of the different layers being in opposite di¬ 
rections. The comb is placed vertically, 
the cells being therefore horizontal; and 
it is strengthened, where possible, by addi¬ 
tional supports, the parts being fastened to 
one another and to the sides of the hive. 
The interval between the different cakes of 
comb is sufficient readily to allow the pas¬ 


[hooping 


sage of two bees; and passages which are 
pierced here and there afford a communica¬ 
tion between all parts of the hive. The sides j 
of the cells are all much thinner than the j 
finest paper ; and yet they are so strength- j 
ened by their arrangement that they are j 
able to resist all the motions of the bee 
within them. In fact, the construction of 
the cells is such as to allow the greatest 
possible number in a given space, with the 
least possible expenditure of material. 

HON'EY-DEW, a sort of saccharine sub¬ 
stance ejected on plants by certain aphides. 

HON'EY LO'CUST, a leguminous de¬ 
ciduous tree belonging to the genus Gledits- 
chia, so named after Gleditsch, a Berlin 
botanist. Most of the species are natives | 
of China or North America and have acacia- i 
like leaves and large branching thorns. 

HON'EY STONE or Mellite, a mineral 
found in lignite deposits. It has a yellow- j 
ish or reddish colour and crystallizes in j 
octahedrons with a square base. It is a corn 
bination of alumina and mellitic acid, a 
peculiar compound of carbon, oxygen, and 
water. 

HON'EYSUCKLE or Woodbine, well- 
known plants with fragrant flowers, species 
of tire genus Lonicera in the nat. ord. Capri- 
foliacece. 

HONG, the Chinese name for a European 
factory. The Hong merchants, of whom there 
are about a dozen, reside at Canton, and are 
responsible for the conduct of the Europeans 
with whom they deal. 

HON'OUIi ( honor : Lat.), in Law, a supe¬ 
rior seigniory, to which other lordships and 
manors owe suit and service, and which, 

itself, holds of the king only.- Honours 

of War, honourable terms granted to a 
vanquished enemy, when he is permitted to 
march out of a town with drums beating, 
colours flying, &c., and all the insignia of 
military pomp.— Laws of Honour, 
among persons of fashion, signify certain 
rules by which their social intercourse is 
regulated, and which are founded on a re¬ 
gard to reputation. These laws require a 
punctilious attention to decorum in exter¬ 
nal deportment, but often lead to the most 

flagrant violations of moral duty.- Court i 

of Honour, an ancient court of civil and i 
criminal jurisdiction, having power to re¬ 
dress injuries of honour, and to hold pleas 
respecting matters of arms and deeds of war. 

HON'OURABLE (honorabilis: Lat.), a 
title, given by courtesy, to the younger 
sons of earls, and to all the children of vis¬ 
counts and barons; to persons enjoying 
certain places of trust and honour ; collec¬ 
tively, to the House of Commons, to the East 
India Company, and to each of the Inns of 
Court. Also, an epithet of respect or dis¬ 
tinction given by members of the House 
of Commons, when speaking of other mem¬ 
bers, as, ‘ the honourable gentleman.’ 

HOOP'ING-COUGn (houpper, to shout: 
Fr.; if spelled whooping- cough, wopgan, to 
shout: Goth. The French word is derived 
from this), a disease marked by a convul¬ 
sive strangulating cough, in which the pa¬ 
tient whoops, with a deep inspiration of the 
breath. Children are most commonly sub¬ 
ject to it, and it seems to depend on a 
A A 



















hoopoe] 


Clje Jpcfenttftc antf 


354 


specific contagion, which affects them but 
once in tlieir life. 

HOO'POE, an African bird which some¬ 
times visits England; remarkable for the 
crest of feathers on its head. It is the 
Upupa epops of ornithologists, who place it 
along with the wrens and the nuthatch, in 
the family of Certhiadw. 

HOP ( hoppan: Ang. Sax.), the Humulus 
lupulus of botanists, a climbing plant, be¬ 
longing to the order of Urticacece. The 
female flowers are used for the purpose 
of imparting an agreeable aromatic bitter 
flavour to malt liquors, and to preserve 
them from fermentation. Hops are said 
to have been introduced into England from 
the Netherlands in the 10th century ; and 
their cultivation is especially attended to in 
the counties of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Wor¬ 
cester, and Hereford. The best method of 
drying hops is on a kiln over a charcoal fire; 
as soon as the stalks are brittle, and the top 
leaves easily fall off, the process is complete. 
When taken from the kiln they should be 
laid by for three weeks or a month before 
they are bagged. The whole process, from 
the time of planting to the preparation for 
the purposes of commerce, requires much 
experience and many precautions. When 
j hops are to be kept two or three years, they 
must be powerfully compressed, and put 
I into closer canvass bags than when they 
I are to be sent immediately to market; and 
they must be preserved in airy lofts, neither 
too hot nor too cold. The produce is ex¬ 
cessively variable, often in a tenfold pro¬ 
portion in different seasons and situations, 
being very liable to be injured by insects, 
by cold and continued rains, and by thun¬ 
derstorms: so thatafull crop is not obtained 
ofteuer than about once in five years. One 
of the most active constituents of the hop 
is a narcotic essential oil, which gives 
the llower its peculiar smell: its narco¬ 
tic qualities were at one time so highly 
esteemed that a pillow of hops was com¬ 
monly recommended to procure sleep when 
all other remedies had failed. The other 
important elements of the hop are a yellow 
resin, and a bitter principle possessed of 
peculiar medicinal qualities, which che¬ 
mists call lupulin. 

IIOPLI'TES ( hoplitai , from hoplon, arms : 
Gr.), among the Greeks, heavy-armed sol¬ 
diers, who were of the first and principal 
class. 

IIOP'PER, a kind of basket in which 
seed corn is carried at the time of sowing. 
Also, the wooden trough in a mill, into 
which the corn to be ground is put. 

HO'RARY CIR'CLES ( horarius , hourly: 
Lat.), on globes, arc hour lines or circles, 
marking the hours, and drawn on the equa¬ 
tor at the distance of 15° from each other. 

They are meridians.- Horary Motion 

op the Earth, the arc it describes in an 
hour, which is nearly 15 degrees. Hence, 
in reducing motion into time, if 15° is 
equal to 1 hour, 1° is equal to 4'. And the 
clocks at places 15° east of London are an 
hour faster than those in London ; but the 
clocks at places 15° west of London are one 
hour later than those in London: and in pro¬ 
portion for any other number of degrees. 


HORDE, a collective name for those mi¬ 
gratory tribes which, like the Tartars, exist 
not by pasture or agriculture, but by plun 
der and rapine. 

HORI'ZON ( horizon , from liorizo, I termi 
nate: Gr.), in popular language, the line 
where the sky meets the sea, or a plain. As¬ 
tronomers distinguish between the sensible 
and rational horizons: the sensible horizon 
is a plane tangential to the earth’s surface at 
the place of the spectator, extending on all 
sides until it is bounded by the sky. The 
rational horizon is a plane parallel to the 
former, but passing through the centre of 
the earth. It is clear that a spectator whose 
eye is not level with, but at any distance 
whatever above, the sensible horizon, can 
see stars, &c., that are actually below it, in¬ 
dependently of refraction, which causes 
their apparent positions to be higher than 

those they really occupy.- Artificial 

Horizon, an instrument in which mercury 
is employed to form a reflecting plane,which 
is of course parallel with the plane of the 
horizon of that place. It is used in survey¬ 
ing and measuring heights. —Horizon, 
in Painting. In every picture, the artificial 
eye, or point of sight, is conceived to be at 
the same height from the base line as the 
eye of a person supposed to be standing 
there. To this point everything in the pic¬ 
ture tends, as everything in a real view 
tends to the natural eye. The picture then, 
as far as this circumstance is concerned, is 
perfect if the artificial eye and the artificial 
horizon go together ; for these always bear 
the same relation to each other, wherever 
the picture may be placed. 

HORN. Horn is susceptible of being cut 
into a great variety of forms ; its properties 
render it an article of considerable value in 
the hands of the t urner and other manu¬ 
facturers, for combs, snuff-boxes, knife- 
handles, lanterns, &c. Immense quantities 
are annually imported from all parts of the 
world. With reference'to structure, horns 
may be divided into three classes. 1. Ant¬ 
lers, which have the structure of bone. 

2. The horns of the rhinoceros and buffalo, 
which consist of epidermic formations : and 

3. Hollow horns like those of oxen, in which 
the horny matter is disposed in concentric 
layers round a centre of true bone. 

HORN'BILL, a name given to a genus of 
conirostral birds, the Buceros of ornitholo¬ 
gists, on account erf there being a large 
horny protuberance on the upper mandible 
near the base. The species are natives of 
Africa and Asia. 

HORN'BLENDE (called by Hauy Amphi- 
bole), in Mineralogy, a name given to mine¬ 
rals of very different external appearance. 
They are composed of silica, alumina, mag¬ 
nesia, lime, and oxide of iron. Hornblende 
is usually of a greenish or blackish-green 
colour, and forms the bases of rocks of the 
basaltic series. Augite is near akin to it. 

HOR'NET (hymette, from horn, a horn: 
Sax., on account of its horns), a strong and 
stinging insect, a species of the genus 
Vespa, to which the wasps belong. It con¬ 
structs a nest, often as large as a man’s hat, 
in hollow trees, thatch, &c., of the bark of 
the ash tree, or decayed wood gnawed in 



























355 


Httn-ari? Crwtfuni. 


[house 


pieces, ar.d formed, by a viscous fluid which 
it emits, into a kind of pasteboard. 

HORN'SILVER or Luna cornea, names 
given by the alchemists to fused chloride 
of silver, from its resembling horn in ap¬ 
pearance : a similar reason induced them 
to use the term horn lead. It is found 
abundantly in Peru, Mexico, and other parts 
of South America, mixed with veius of 
metallic silver. 

HORN'STONE, in Mineralogy, a siliceous 
stone, having a semi-transparency resem¬ 
bling that of horn: it is a sub-species of 
quartz. Its geological locality is remark¬ 
able, for it occurs in both ancient and re¬ 
cent formations. The liornstone found in 
secondary limestone is called chert by the 
English miners. 

HORN'WORK, in Fortification, an out¬ 
work, which advances towards the field, 
and is composed of two demi-bastions, like 
horns, joined by a curtain. 

HOROI/OGY ( [hora , an hour; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), the principles on which 
the art of making clocks and watches is 
founded. 

HOROM'ETRY {hijra, an hour; and me- 
tron, a measure: Gr.), the art or practice of 
measuring time, by hours and subordinate 
divisions. 

HOR'OSCOPE (hum, an hour; and skopeo, 
I examine: Gr.), in Astrology, a represen¬ 
tation of the appearance of the heavens, 
and positions of the celestial bodies, drawn 
at a certain time—for instance, at the mo¬ 
ment of a person’s birth : it was supposed 
to indicate his future destiny. 

HORSE ( hors: Sax.), the Equus Cad)alius, 
a domestic quadruped that excels all others 
in beauty and usefulness. It is charac¬ 
terized by having six erect and parallel 
fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and six some¬ 
what prominent in the under jaw; the dog¬ 
teeth are solitary ; the molars are four on 
each side of each jaw until the fifth year, 
when a fifth grinder makes its appearance, 
and the displacement of the first set and 
the protrusion of the permanent set of teeth 
commence. Like all the quadrupeds of the 
genus Equus, it has an undivided hoof on 
each foot. The most esteemed breeds of 
horses are, the Barbary or Arabian,remark¬ 
able for their fieetness; the English race¬ 
horse and hunter, which combine beauty 
with swiftness; and the English draught- 
horses, which are distinguished for their 
size and strength, &c. In Africa, horses 
still maintain their original independence, 
and range at pleasure in herds of several 
hundreds, having always one or more as an 
advanced guard, to give an alarm at the 
approach of danger. This is expressed by 
a sudden snorting, at which the main body 
gallops off with the most surprising swift¬ 
ness. In South America there are wild 
horses, the descendants of those introduced 
by the Spaniards and Portuguese. In Ara¬ 
bia, almost every man possesses his horse, 
which lives in the same apartment with 
himself and family, and is considered as 
constituting an important part of it. It 
is fed with the most regular attention, is 
cleaned with an incessant assiduity, and is 
never, on any account, ill-treated. An Arab 


occasionally appears to carry on a conver¬ 
sational intercourse with his horse, and his 
attachment to the animal excites in return 
a corresponding affection. In no country 
of the globe, however, has the breed of 
horses been more attended to than in Great 
Britain, nor are British horses excelled in 
swiftness or beauty by the coursers of Bar¬ 
bary or Arabia; and in supporting fatigue, 
they are much superior to either. But by the 
absurd practice of running our racehorses at 
two or three years old, working others long 
before their limbs are knit or their strength 
established, and cruelly exacting from them 
services far beyond their powers, their use¬ 
fulness is soon destroyed, and their lives 
materially shortened. The age of a horse 
under eight years old is generally to be 
known by his teeth. The black marks, or 
cavities denoting the age, are to be found 
in the corner front teeth adjoining the 
tushes. At four years and a half old, the 
mark teeth are just visible above the gum, 
and the cavity is distinctly to be seen. At 
five, the remaining colt’s teeth are shed, 
and the tushes appear. At six, the tushes 
are up, and appear white, small, and sharp, 
with a small circle of flesh growing near 
them; the horse’s mouth is then completed, 
the corner teeth being filled up. At eight, 

the black marks disappear.- Horse, in 

Military affairs, a body of cavalry.-In 

Naval affairs, a rope extending from the 
middle of a yard to its arms, for supporting 
the sailors’ feet while they furl the sails; 
also, a rod or rope, along which the edge or 
corner of the sail traverses by means of 

hanks.- Horse, in Printing, the sloping 

bench standing on the bank, or table, on 
which the pressmen set the heaps of paper 
before each sheet is placed on that part of 
the press called the tympan. 

HORSE LATITUDES, a name given by 
sailors to a zone of calms in each hemi¬ 
sphere, one on the north border of the 
north-east trades, and the other on the 
south border of the south-east trades. They 
move a little up and down, following the 
declination of the sun. 

HORSE-POWER. A horse draws to the 
greatest advantage when the line of draught 
inclines a little upwards. Desaguliers and 
Smeaton consider the force of one horse 
equal to that of five men, but writers differ 
on this subject. The measure of a horse’s 
power as the standard of that of machi¬ 
nery given by Watt is, that it can raise 
a weight of 33,000 pounds to the height 
of one foot in a minute. Its capability 
of draught or carriage of course diminishes 
as its velocity increases, and it is sup¬ 
posed to do most work when its speed is 2± 
miles per hour, which happens to be tlio 
most useful speed for the piston of a steam- 
engine. The nominal is very different from 
the effective power of a steam-engine : the 
latter being equal to the former, diminished 
by the deduction to be made on account of 
friction, the resistance of the air, &e., and 
which varies not only with different en¬ 
gines, but with the same engine at different 
times, since the overtightening of a single 
screw may seriously increase the amount of 
friction. The nominal horse-power is found 


























horse] Ef)c jgtct'enttfic mits 356 


by multiplying together the pressure in 
pounds on each square inch of the piston 
(which is less than the pressure within the 
boiler), the number of square inches on the 
surface of the piston, the number of feet 
traversed by the piston in its backward and 
forward motion, and the number of revolu- . 
tions made by the crank or fly-wheel per 
minute, and then dividing the resulting j 
product by 33,000. The real or effective 
horse-power is ascertained by means of an 
indicator, or some similar contrivance. 

HO RSE '-RACING, a diversion more used | 
in England than in any other country in 
the world. Horse-races were common 
amongst the Greeks and Romans, and the 
place where they ran or exercised their 
coursers was called the Hippodrome, which 
see. 

HOR'SESHOE, in Fortification, a small 
work of a round or oval figure, enclosed 
with a parapet: sometimes raised in the 
moat or ditch, or in low grounds; and some¬ 
times used to cover a gate, or to serve as a 
lodgment for soldiers. 

HOR'SE-TAIL, a cryptogamic plant, with 
a hollow stem, growing in wet ground, and 
belonging to the genus Equisetum. 

HORTICULTURE ( hortas , a garden ; and 
cultura, tillage : Lat.), the art of cultivating 
a garden and rearing the finest kinds of 
plants. It differs from agriculture chiefly 
in being performed altogether by manual 
labour, and being confined within a limited 
space. 

HOR'TUS SIC'CUS (a dry garden: Lat.). 
[See Herbarium.] 

HOSAN'NA (save now: Heh.), an excla¬ 
mation of joy, found only once in the Old 
Testament, viz. Ps. cxviii. 25. It was used 
by those who conducted Christ into Jeru¬ 
salem : Matt, xxi., Mark xi., and John xii. 
It has been commonly adopted by the 
church. 

HOSE (£?er.), among mariners, a leathern 
pipe for conveying water from the main- 
deck into the casks. Also, a leathern pipe, 
used with fire-engines, for conveying water 
to extinguish fires. 

HOSE'A, a canonical book of the Old 
Testament, and the first of the minor pro¬ 
phets. The prophecies of Hosea are chiefly 
directed to the ten tribes before their cap¬ 
tivity : threatening them with destruction 
in case of disobedience, but comforting 
the pious with the promise of the Messiah : 
and describing the happy state of the 
church in the latter days. 

HOS'PITAL GAN'GRENE, an ulcerating 
gangrene, of a particularly infections na¬ 
ture, which attacks wounds or ulcers in 
crowded hospitals. 

HOS'PITALLERS, an order of religious 
knights, instituted about a.d. 1092, who 
built an hospital at Jerusalem for pilgrims. 
They were first styled knights of St. John 
of Jerusalem, then Knights of Rhodes, and 
finally Knights of Malta, these islands hav¬ 
ing been successively conferred on them. 
From Rhodes they were expelled by the 
Turks in 1522, "when Charles V. granted 
Malta to them A branch of them settled 
earl y in England. In London they acquired 
the property now known as the Temple, 


and the ancient gate of St. John, Clerken- 
well, is a relique of another establishment. 

IIOSPI'TIUM (Lat.), a term used in old 
writers either for an inn or a monastery 
built for the reception of strangers and 
travellers. In the more early ages of the 
world, before public inns were thought of, 
persons who travelled lodged in private 
houses, and were obliged, if an opportunity 
presented itself, to return the favour to 
those that entertained them. This led to 
the most intimate friendship betwixt the 
parties, insomuch that they treated one 
another as relations. Hence the word hos- 
pitium, which properly signifies lodging or 
entertainment at the house of another, is 
used for friendship, founded upon the ba¬ 
sis of hospitality. The word, in modem 
i times, has been almost wholly restricted to 
the celebrated establishments on the St. 
Bernard and St. Gothard in Switzerland, in¬ 
tended for the preservation of travellers, 
or recovery of their bodies, when lost in 
the terrible snow-storms which often occur 
in those elevated and dangerous regions. 

HOS'PODAR or Woiwode, a title borne 
by the princes of Wallachia and Moldavia, 
who receive the investiture of their princi¬ 
palities from the grand seignior. He gives 
them a vest and standard ; they are under 
his protection, and obliged to serve him, 
and he has even sometimes deposed them; 
but in other respects they are absolute so¬ 
vereigns within their own dominions. 

HOST ( hostia, a victim : Lat.), the conse¬ 
crated wafer, supposed by the Roman Ca¬ 
tholics to be changed into the body and 
blood of Christ. The elevation of the host is 
a ceremony during the mass, &c., in which 
the wafer is raised aloft and worshipped; 
it had its rise in the 12th century. The 
wafer is termed a host, because supposed to 
be a daily sacrifice or victim, offered up for 
a propitiation. 

HOSTAGE dotage: Fr.; from hostis, an 
enemy : Lat.), a person given up to an 
enemy as a security for the performance 
of the articles of a treaty, and released on 
| their fulfilment. 

IIOTCH'POT, a quaint legal phrase em¬ 
ployed when it is directed in a settlement 
or will that any member of a class shall 
divide property which he may acquire with 
the rest of that class; this is called bring¬ 
ing it into hotchpot. 

HOT'HOUSE, a building for the rearing 
of exotic plants that require heat, as well 
as for the early ripening of fruit.- Hot¬ 

bed, a bed of earth with horse-dung, or 
other manure, covered with glass : intended 
to raise early plants, or afford heat to such 
as will not thrive in the open air. 

HOTTENTOTS, natives of the southern 
extremity of Africa, a mild inoffensive race, 
both mentally and physically inferior to 
the Caffres. They live in filthy huts shaped 
like a beehive, made of mats spread over a 
frame of sticks. These are easily removed 
frc>m place to place. A collection of them is 
called a kraal. 

HOUND ( hund: Ger.), a dog used in the 
chase. English hounds excel those of all 
other countries, not only from the cli- 
mate being congenial to them, but also 










357 JUterarj) 


from the great attention paid to their breed¬ 
ing and management.- Hounds, in Naval 

Architecture, the sides of the mast near its 
head, which, like shoulders, support the 
rigging, &c. 

HOUR (hora: Lat), in its ordinary ac¬ 
ceptation, the twenty-fourth part of a mean 
solar day. The Italians count twenty-four 
hours from sunset to sunset; astronomers, 
twenty-four hours from midday to midday. 

IIOUR'GLASS, an instrument that mea¬ 
sures time by the running of sand from one 
part to another through a small aperture. 

HOU'RIS (, hdraloyiln , black-eyed : Arab.), 
virgins in Mahomet’s paradise, who, accord¬ 
ing to the description of them in the Koran, 
surpass in voluptuous beauty all that the 
imagination of mortals can conceive. They 
are accordingly destined to be one of the 
rewards of the blest. 

HOURS, CANON'ICAL. The seven hours 
of prayer to which monks and ecclesiastics 
in the Roman Catholic church are bound. 
Except in monasteries, they are said at al¬ 
most any period of the day, either in parts 
or all together. The seven canonical hours 
are— Matins, and Lauds, which may be re¬ 
cited the afternoon or evening before, 
Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Com¬ 
plin. These hours must be said, and not 
read in the ordinary way. 

HOUSE, in its primary sense, any build¬ 
ing or edifice designed or appropriated for 
the habitation of man.-Among the an¬ 

cient Greeks, Romans, and Jews, the houses 
usually enclosed a quadrangular court, open 
to the sky, and called the impluvium (in ; 
and pluvia, rain : Lat.), or cavcedium (cavus, 
hollow ; and cedes, a house: Lat.); it was 
provided with channels to carry off the rain. 

-House, in Astrology, the twelfth part 

of the heavens. The division of the heavens 
into houses was founded upon the pretended 
-influence of the stars, when meeting- in 
them, on all sublunary bodies. These in¬ 
fluences were supposed to be either good or 
bad, and to each of these houses particular 
virtues were assigned, on which astrologers 
prepared and formed a judgment of their 
horoscopes. The horizon and meridian are 
two circles of the celestial houses, which 
divide the heavens into four equal parts, 
each containing three houses; six of which 
are above the horizon, and six below it. Six 
of these are called eastern, and six western 

houses. - House, among genealogists, a 

noble family? or an illustrious race, de¬ 
scended from the same stock ; as, the house 
of Austria, the house of Hanover. 

HOU'SECREAKING. In Law, the break¬ 
ing open and entering of a house by day¬ 
light, with the intent to steal, is a felony : 
if no theft is actually committed, it is a 
misdemeanor. The same crime committed 
j at night is denominated a burglary. 

HOU'SEHOLD, the whole of a family 
! considered collectively, including the mis¬ 
tress, children, and servants. But the 
I household of a sovereign prince includes 
i only the officers and domestics belonging 

| to his palace.- Household op the King. 

j The chief officers of the royal household 
are:— 1. The lord-chamberlain, under whom 
[ are the vice-cliamberlain, groom of the 


Evens turn. [hulk 


stole, lords of the bedchamber, gentlemen 
of the privy chamber, gentlemen ushers, 
master of the ceremonies, gentlemen at 
arms, &c. 2. The lord-steward, in whose 
office are the treasurer and controller of 
the household, yeomen of the guard, &c. 
3. The master of the horse, under whom are 
the equerries. 4. The lord high almoner. 
5. The dean of the chapel royal. When 
there is a queen, as at present, there is a 
suitable modification in the subordinate 
offices : for example, a mistress of the robes 
takes the place of the groom of the stole. 

llOU'SELEEK.tlieSenipervivi/mi Tectorum 
of botanists, a plant with a perennial root, 
that growson the roofs of houses or the tops 
of walls, and belongs to the Crassulaceas. 

HOWTTZER ( haubitze, from hiiufen, to 
fill up: Ger.), a kind of mortar, mounted 
upon a carriage like a gun. Howitzers 
are used to throw grenades, case-shot, and 
sometimes fire-balls: their principal use, 
however, is in the discharge of grenades. 

HOW'LING MO'NKIES. These inhabit 
the forests of South America, and are so 
called from the horrible cries they utter, 
with which it is supposed they intimidate 
their enemies. The sound, ‘a hollow caver¬ 
nous roar,’ is produced with little muscular 
exertion, by a drum-shaped expansion of 
the larynx. These monkies are untameable. 
They have long prehensile tails, which aid 
them in climbing. They form the genus 
Myeetes of naturalists. 

HOY (heu: Ger.), a small vessel for carry¬ 
ing passengers from one place to another. 

HUE AND CRY, in Law, the common 
law process of pursuing a felon. The ori¬ 
ginal signification of the phrase evidently 
was, that the offender should be pursued 
with a loud outcry, in order that all might 
hear and be induced to join in the pursuit. 

HU'GUENOT ( eidgnoten, confederates : 
low Germ.), a French word used after the 
year 1560 as an appellation for a Protest¬ 
ant. Its origin, and consequently its literal 
meaning, has received various explanations. 
The history of the Huguenots forms an im¬ 
portant feature in the annals of persecution; 
but a detail of the sanguinary scenes would 
be altogether incompatible with the plan of 
this volume; we shall, therefore, merely 
remark that the religious prejudices of the 
people w T ere kept alive by contending poli¬ 
tic;'.! factions, till France was nearly deso¬ 
lated by what were termed ‘ religious wars; ’ 
and at length a dreadful massacre of the 
Huguenots took place on St. Bartholomew’s 
day, 1572. Henry IV., 1598, protected them 
by the edict of Nantes; but Louis XIV., 
1685, revoked this edict, in consequence of 
which 500,000 Huguenots fled to Switzer¬ 
land, Germany, Holland, and England,where 
their industry and -wealth found a welcome 
reception. 

HUIS'SIERS (Fr.: from the old word huis, 
a door; whence our tishcr), civil officers in 
France, whose attendance is necessary at 
every judicial tribunal, from that of a jus¬ 
tice of the peace to the court of cassation. 
They answer in some respects to the clerks 
and criers of our courts. 

I1ULK ( hulke, a ship: Ger.), in Naval 
Architecture, the body of a vessel, or 















Cl )t £*cfcutt(tc mill 


358 


humanities] 


that part which is, in truth, the vessel 
itself; the masts, sails, and cordage, com¬ 
posing only the apparatus for its naviga¬ 
tion. Convicts were confined in the hulks 
near Woolwich before being sent out of 
the country. 

IIUMAN'ITIES (humanitas, liberal educa¬ 
tion : Lat.), a term used in the Scotch schools 
and colleges, to signify polite literature, or 
grammar, rhetoric, and poetry, including 
the study of the ancient classics. 

IIUM'BLE-BEE. [See Bee.] 

HUM'BOLDITE, a variety of Datholite, 
named in honour of Humboldt. It is a bo- 
rosilicate of lime, and occurs in small and 
nearly colourless crystals, irregularly aggre¬ 
gated. 

IIU'MERUS (the shoulder: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the upper part of the arm, between 
the scapula and elbow. The os humeri or 
bracMi, as it is called, is articulated at one 
end to the scapula, and at the other to the 
ulna and radius. As to the motion of the 
os humeri, it is more free and extensive 
than that of any bone in the human body, 
being furnished with several flexor and ex- 

IIU'MIC ACID (humus, the earth : Lat), 
or Ulmic Acid, an indefinite substance, 
produced by the action of powerful chemi¬ 
cal agents on sugar, lignin, &c., or by the 
putrefaction of vegetable fibre. 

HU'MITE, a mineral which is colourless, 
or of a yellow or brown colour, and a shin- 
inglustre, and is crystallized in octahedrons. 
It scratches glass readily: heated under the 
blowpipe, it becomes opaque, but does not 
molt: it gives, with borax, a transparent 
glass. It has been found at Somma, in 
Italy. 

HUM'MING-BIRDS, a family of small 
birds, remarkable for the brilliant colours 
of their plumage. The numerous genera 
and species are divisible into two groups: 1. 
riuetlwrniuce, which live entirely in forests, 
and feed chiefly on insects, being seldom 
seen at flowers. 2. Trochilinae, which prefer 
open sunny places, entering the forest only 
when a tree is in blossom, or descending 
into a glade where there are flowers. ‘ The 
mo tions of humming-birds,’says H.W. Bates, 
‘ are unlike those of all other birds. They 
dart to and fro so swiftly that the eye can 
scarcely follow them, and when they stop 
before a flower it is only for a few moments. 
They poise themselves in an unsteady man¬ 
ner, their wings moving with inconceivable 
rapidity, probe the flower, and then shoot 
oil to another part of the tree. They do not 
proceed in that methodical manner which 
bees follow, taking the flowers seriatim, 
but skip about from one part to another in 
the most capricious way. Sometimes two 
males close with each other and fight, 
mounting upwards in the struggle as in¬ 
sects are often seen to do when similarly 
engaged, and then separating hastily and 
darting back to their work. Now and then 
they stop to rest, perching on leafless twigs, 
when they may be sometimes seen probing, 
from the place where they sit, the flowers 
within their reach. The brilliant colours 
with which they are adorned cannot be seen 
whilst they are fluttering about.’ 


IIUM'MOCK, a name given by mariners 
to a hillock or small eminence of land, re¬ 
sembling a cone, and appearing on the sea- 
coast of a country ; also, to a sheet of ice 
which presents a surface generally level, 
but here and there diversified by projec¬ 
tions arising from the ice having been 
thrown up by some pressure or force to 
which it has been subjected. 

HU'MORAL (next), in Medicine, an epi¬ 
thet for whatever relates to the humours or 
fluids of the system.- Humoral Patho¬ 

logy is that which attributes all morbid 
phenomena to the disordered condition of 
the fluids or humours. It is opposed tc 
the nervous pathology , which refers every¬ 
thing to the nervous energy resident in 
the solids, and considers diseases as arising 
from irregularities in the action of the 
nerves. 

HU'MOUR (humor, moisture: Lat.), in 
Medicine, a word much used to express the 
moisture or fluids of animal bodies, or a 

fluid in its morbid or vitiated state.- 

Aqueous humour of the eye, a transparent 
fluid, occupying the space between the crys¬ 
talline lens and the cornea, both before and 

behind the pupil.- Crystalline humour or 

lens, a small transparent solid body, occupy¬ 
ing a middle position in the eye; it is the 
principal instrument in refracting the rays 
of light, so as to form an image on the re¬ 
tina.- Vitreous humour, a fluid contained 

in the minute cells of a transparent mem¬ 
brane, occupying the greater part of the 
cavity of the eye, and all the space between 
the crystalline lens and the retina.— —Hu¬ 
mour, that quality of the mind which cre¬ 
ates ludicrous images or representations. 
JIumour does not possess the brilliancy and 
poignancy of wit. Although it is usually 
employed to raise mirth and render conver¬ 
sation pleasant, it is also often made a 
vehicle for satire. 

HUN'DRED (hundert: Gcr.), a part or di¬ 
vision of a county, which was anciently so 
called from its containing a hundred fami¬ 
lies, or from its furnishing a hundred able 
men for the wars of the sovereign. After 
Alfred divided this kingdom into counties, 
and gave the government of each to a 
sheriff, they were subdivided into hundreds, 
of which the constable was the chief officer. 
By various statutes, hundreds are liable to 
actions for injuries sustained by the riots, 
robberies, malicious mischiefs, &c„ com¬ 
mitted within them. 

HUNT'ING (huntian, to hunt; from hund, 
a dog : S'ax.), the act or diversion of pursu¬ 
ing wild animals. In a rude state of society, 
it is one of the most important employ¬ 
ments of mankind: in a more advanced 
state, it becomes an agreeable amusement, 
and is practised in a great variety of ways, 
according to the country and the descrip¬ 
tion of the game. In England, the fox, the 
stag, and the hare, are the principal objects 
of the chase ; on the continent of Europe, 
the wild boar and the wolf are added to the 
list. Dionysius, who lived-50 n.c., says that 
the inhabitants of the northern part of this 
island tilled no ground, but lived in great 
part upon the food they procured by hunt¬ 
ing. Strabo, who was nearly contemporary 




















359__Etterarg 

with him, also says, that the dogs hred in 
Britain were highly esteemed upon the con¬ 
tinent, on account of their excellent quali¬ 
ties for hunting. As early as the 9th 
century, it formed an essential part of the 
education of a young nobleman. Alfred 
the Great was an expert and successful 
hunter before he was twelve years of age. 
Among the tributes imposed by Athelstan 
after a victory over Constantine, king of 
Wales, were, ‘ hawks and sharp-scented 
dogs, lit for hunting of wild beasts.’ Ed¬ 
ward the Confessor took the greatest de¬ 
light in following a pack of swift hounds 
in pursuit of game, and cheering them with 
his voice. To the passion for hunting which 
animated the feudal kings and nobles of 
Europe, the vast tracts of land which were 
afforested bear fearful testimony; and the 
writers of the time give a strong picture 
of the sufferings of the oppressed com¬ 
monalty under the tyrannical privileges of 
sport which were claimed by their masters. 
In the reign of Edward II., hunting was 
reduced to a perfect science, and rules were 
established for its practice; these were 
afterwards extended by the master of the 
game belonging to Henry IV., and drawn 
up for the use of his son Henry, prince of 
Wales, in two tracts, which are extant. 
Edward III., according to Froissart, while 
■ at war with France, and resident there, had 
with him sixty couples of stag-hounds, and 
as many hare-hounds, and everyday hunted 
or hawked. Gaston, earl of Foix, a foreign 
nobleman, contemporary with Edward,also 
kept COO dogs in his castle forhiinting. The 
bishops and abbots of the middle ages 
hunted with great state, and some of them 
were skilful sportsmen. One of these ec¬ 
clesiastics, an archbishop of York, in 1321, 
carried with him a train of 200 persons, who 
were maintained at the expense of the ab¬ 
beys on his road, and who hunted with a 
pack of hounds from parish to parish. 

HU'ON PINE, a lofty coniferous tree, 
growing in Tasmania, and known to bo¬ 
tanists as Microcachrys tetragona. 

HUR'RICANE ( huracan: Span., from the 
Indian ouragan), a most violent storm, ge¬ 
nerally accompanied with thunder and 
lightning. Hqrricanes are most common 
in the West Indies, the Isle of France, and 
the kingdoms of Siam and China. The ve¬ 
locity of the wind is terrible; com, vines, 
sugar-canes, trees, houses, everything is 
swept away. The hurricane of the tem¬ 
perate zone moves with a velocity of about 
sixty feet in a second: those of the torrid 
zone, from 150 to 300 feet in the same time. 
They appear to have an electric origin, and 
begin in various vrays; sometimes a little 
black cloud rolls down the mountains, sud¬ 
denly unfolds itself, and covers the whole 
horizon ; at others, the storm comes on in 
the shape of a fiery cloud, which appears 
in a calm and serene sky. A hurricane is 
generally preceded by an awful stillness of 
the elements, and a closeness and a misti¬ 
ness in the atmosphere, which makes the 
sun look red, and the stars larger than 
usual. 

HUS'BANDRY, the practical part of the 
Ecience of agriculture, or the business of 


[hyades 


cultivating the earth and rearing animals. 
Husbandry is the proper term for that 
which is commonly called farming. It in¬ 
cludes tillage, breeding, grazing, the man¬ 
agement of the dairy, and every other | 
occupation by which riches may be drawn 
from the superficial products of the earth. 
[See Agriculture.] 

HUSSARS' (Jhusz, twenty ; and ar, pay : 
Hung.), the name by which certain cavalry 
regiments are distinguished. It was ori¬ 
ginally given to the cavalry of Hungary, 
raised in 1458, when Matthias I. ordered 
the prelates and nobles to assemble with 
their cavalry in his camp. Every twenty 
houses were obliged to furnish a man ; 
and hence the name. In the British army, 
there are thirteen regiments of hussars. 
Their equipments are light and elegant: 
their arms are a sabre, a carbine,and a pair 
of pistols. 

IIUS'SITES, the disciples of John Huss, 
a Bohemian, and curate of the chapel of 
Bethlehem at Prague, who, about the year 
1414, embraced and defended the opinions 
of Wickliffe of England ; for which he was 
cited before the council of Constance, and, j 
refusing to renounce his supposed errors, j 
condemned to be burnt alive, which sen- j 
tence was accordingly executed upon him 
at Constance. This gave rise to a rebellion 
of the Hussites, who avenged his death by 
one of the fiercest and most terrible civil , 
wars ever known. The pope and cardinals, 
with a pretended unwillingness to shed ! 
human blood, handed him over to ‘ the ; 
secular arm,’ and earnestly pressed for his 
execution, though he had come to the coun¬ 
cil furnished with a safe-conduct from the 
emperor Sigismund, which that monarch 
had the baseness to violate. It was most 
explicit, stating ‘ that lie was to go, stop, 
remain, and return in safety.’ 

HUS'TINGS (hus, a house; and ting, judg¬ 
ment : Sax.), the principal court of the city 
of London, held before the lord-mayor and 
aldermen. No actions which are merely 

personal can be brought in this court.- 

Also, in common language, the booth or 
elevated place, where candidates at a parlia¬ 
mentary election are proposed and address 
their constituents. 

HUTCHINSO'NIANS, the defenders of 
the philosophy of John Hutchinson, who 
was born in the year 1674. Hutchinson dis¬ 
approved of Newton’s doctrine of gravity. 
He considered the Old Testament to em¬ 
brace a complete system of natural philoso¬ 
phy as well as religion. 

IIY'ACINTH ( [hualcinthos : Or.), the com¬ 
mon name of some bulbous rooted plants 
belonging to the genus Ilyacinthus, nat. 
ord. Liliacece. In Holland, the fondness 
for the n. orientalis at one time amounted 

to a complete mania.- Hyacinth, in 

Mineralogy, one of the names given to the 
yellow or brown crystals of zircon, which 
are found in the beds of streams and rivers, 
particularly in Ceylon. Its most usual 
form, as a crystal, is a four-sided prism, ter¬ 
minated by four rhombic planes. 

HY'ADES (uein, to rain : Or.), a cluster of 
stars, in the forehead of the bull, five of 
which, arranged in the figure of a V, are 

































hyjena] tlTIjc J^ctcnttfic antr 360 


peon by tlie naked eye. In Greek mythology 
the Hyades were the five daughters of Atlas, 
king of Mauritania, who died of grief when 
their brother Hyas was killed by a wild 
boar, when they were changed into stars. 
The ancients connected the rising and set¬ 
ting of these stars with rain, whence the 
name. 

IIY^D'NA or Hyena (huaina: Gr.), a 
genus of digitigrade and carnivorous quad¬ 
rupeds, characterized by having no tuber¬ 
culous teeth or small teeth behind the car¬ 
nivorous. The neck of this animal is very 
thick, and covered with a kind of bristles 
instead of hairs, which naturally stand 
erect, and give it a very formidable appear¬ 
ance ; the body is bulky and rounded, and 
the shape not unlike that of a hog; the legs 
are moderately long and very strong; and 
the general colour is a very dusky olive. It 
inhabits Turkey, Syria, Persia, and Barbary, 
living in caverns and rocky places, and 
; prowling about at night to feed on the re- 
| mains' of dead animals. Naturalists have 
| described three species of the hyaena, the 
I most common being the striped hyaena, or 
j hycevd vulgaris. It is not very swift, but 
i continually lies in wait for other animals, 

’ and scarce anything that comes in its way 
escapes it. 

HY'BRID ( hybrida: Lat.), the produce of 
a female plant or animal which has been fe- 
i cundated by a male of a different species 
j or genus. 

HYDAR'THRUS ( hudor , water; and ar- 
thron, a joint: Gr ), a peculiar and dreadful 
disease of the joints, commonly termed the 
white swelling. The knee, ankle, wrist, and 
elbow are the joints most subject to it; 
but the skin is not at all altered in colour. 
It is distinguished from a rheumatic swell¬ 
ing, by a fixed and wearing pain preceding 
the tumefaction, often for a considerable 
period; also, by the general state of the 
health. 

HY'DATTD ( liudatis , a watery vesicle : 
j Gr.), a vesicle or bladder, distended with an 
aqueous fluid, which is found in the bodies 
of animals. They vary in size from the di¬ 
mensions of a pea to that of a child’s head. 
They have been considered to be formed by 
young entozoa, but Professor Owen says that 
the hydatid ought rather to be considered 
as an abnormal organic cell than as a 
species of animal, even of the simplest 
kind. 

HY'DRA ( Hudra: G'r.), a fabulous mon¬ 
ster with many heads, said to have infested 
the lake of Lerna, in the Peloponnesus. Ac¬ 
cording to the fable, when one of the heads 
was cut off, it was immediately succeeded 
by another,unless the wound was cauterized. 

! But Hercules killed this monster by apply- 
j ing firebrands to the wounds as he cut off 

the heads.- Hydra, in Natural History, 

| a genus of freshwater polypes, of which 
there are several species, some of which are 
found in this country; of these, the prin¬ 
cipal is Hydra viridis, having about ten ten¬ 
tacles shorter than the body. It inhabits 
stagnant waters, and is found on the surface 
of plants. In the quiescent state, it appears, 
nr first sight, like a little transparent green 
le; ly; but. when expanded, it is a linear 


body, fixed at one end, and surrounded at 
the other by tentacles or arms placed in a 
circle round the mouth. It generally pro¬ 
duces its young from the sides : these, at 
first, seem small papillte, increasing in 
length till they assume the form of the 
parent, and then drop off. The whole tribe 
lias a most wonderful faculty of reproduc¬ 
ing parts which have been destroyed ; and 
if cut or divided in any direction, each 
separate part becomes a perfect polype, as 
slips of certain plants become the same 
plants in perfect form.- Hydra, in An¬ 

cient Astronomy, a southern constellation, 
representing a water-serpent. 

HY'DRAGOGUE (hudra gogia: from hu- 
ddr, water; and ago, I carry off: Gr.), a 
medicine that possesses the property of pro¬ 
moting the discharge of watery humours. 

IIYBRAN'GEA (hudor, water: and angos, 
a vessel: Gr.), in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. Saxifragacece. The commonest spe¬ 
cies, II. liortensis, has fine corymbs of light 
rose-coloured flowers, which retain their 
freshness for a long time, and succeed each 
other until late in the autumn. 

HYDRAR'GYRUM (hudrarguros : from 
hudor, water; and arguros, silver: Gr.), a 
name given to quicksilver, or mercury, on 
account of its liquid state and great mobi¬ 
lity. [See Mercury.] 

HY'DRATE (hudor, water: Gr.), in Che¬ 
mistry, a solid which contains ivater in a 
fixed state, as slaked lime, &c. 

HYDRAU'LIC LIME, a lime formed from 
the poorer sorts of limestone, containing 
from 8 to 25 per cent, foreign matter, as 
silica, alumina, magnesia, &c. All water 
limestones are of a bluish-grey or brown 
colour, communicated to them by oxide of 
iron. They are generally termed stone lime, 
but improperly so, since their hardness or 
softness has nothing to do with their pro¬ 
perties. After being calcined, they do not 
slake when moistened; but, if pulverized, 
they absorb water without swelling up, or 
heating, like fat lime, and afford a paste 
which, in the air, never acquires much soli¬ 
dity, but becomes hard under water in a 
few days. The siiex and alumina are essen¬ 
tial, but the oxides of iron and manganese 
are rather prejudicial ingredients. 

IIYDRAU'LIC PRESS, a machine wliiclt 
affords an enormous power of compression. 
It consists, essentially,, of two strong cy¬ 
linders of metal, communicating by a pipe, 
and having, each of them, a solid piston 
working water-tight in it. When water is 
forced into the larger by the smaller, which 
is, in effect, a force-pump, the larger piston 
is driven up with a pressure as much greater 
than the power applied to the smaller, as a 
cross section of the former is greater than 
a cross section of the latter. Let the dia¬ 
meter of the larger piston be 8 inches, 
and that of the smaller one-fourth of an 
inch: a cross section of the larger will lie 
896 times as great as a cross section of the 
smaller; and a force of 1 cwt. exerted on 
the smaller will produce a pressure of 896 
cwt., or nearly 45 tons, on the larger. Some 
presses are constructed capable of exerting 
a pressure of hundreds of tons. To save 
time, a larger force-pump is used at first, 





























361 EtterarM Creatin'#.. [hydrogen 

and then, when extreme pressure is re¬ 
quired, the smaller one. 

IIYDRAU'LIO RAM ( hudor, water; and 
aulos, a pipe : Gr.), a machine for raising 
water, depending on the difference between 
the momenta of water at rest and in mo¬ 
tion. Water, running down an inclined 
pipe, acquires a momentum, which enables 
it to close, by a loaded valve, the aperture 
through which it escaped, and open another 
valve so as to ascend a vertical pipe. The 
very stoppage of the water from running 
off immediately destroys its momentum, 
and the valves fall back—one of them clos¬ 
ing, so as to prevent the water which had 
j been thrown up into the vertical pipe from 
j flowing back ; and the other opening, so as 
to allow the water to flow away again, and 
thus produce a new momentum which re¬ 
peats the process. Every new impulse 
throws water up the vertical pipe, and a 
very low head of water is capable of elevat¬ 
ing the fluid to a considerable height. A 
small stream, with this contrivance, will 
supply fountains, cisterns at the top of a 

1 house, &c. 

HYDRAU'LICS, that branch of hydrosta¬ 
tics which teaches to estimate the velocity 
of moving inelastic fluids. It is this im¬ 
portant science that furnishes the princi- 
: pies upon which the engines are constructed 

1 by which water is raised. It treats of pumps, 
fountains, and a variety of useful machines, 
by which the force of fluids is applied to 

1 practical purposes.-The Romans dis¬ 

played their acquaintance with the art of 

1 conveying water, in their famous aque¬ 
ducts. It is, however, only within the last 
three centuries that this subject has at¬ 
tracted any particular notice. 

HYDRIOD'IC A'CID, a gaseous com¬ 
pound, consisting of hydrogen and iodine, 
i It is rapidly absorbed by water; and is in.- 
\ stantly decomposed by chlorine, iodine 
being set free. 

HYDROBRO'MIC A'CID, a gaseous com¬ 
pound, consisting of hydrogen and bromine. 

HYDROCAIt'BON, a compound of hy¬ 
drogen and carbon. These elements unite 
in a variety of definite proportions, form¬ 
ing several interesting gaseous, liquid, and 
solid compounds, usually called liydrocarbu- 
rets or hydrocarbons. Among these are light 
carburetted hydrogen or fire damp olefiant gas, 
spirit of turpentine, paraffine, naphtha, and 
petroline. 

HYDROCAR'DIA (hudor, water; and kar- 
dia, the heart: Gr.), in Medicine, dropsy of 
the heart. 

HYDROCEPH'ALTTS ( hudrokephalon : 
from hudor, water; and kephale, the head : 
Gr.), in Surgery, dropsy of the brain, or 
water in the head. The acute form of this 
disease is almost confined to childhood. 
The ventricles of the brain are the princi¬ 
pal seat of the w T atery accumulation, which 
is indicated by febrile symptoms, pain in 
the head, and, in very young children, 
enlargement of it. The eyes, which are not 
closed entirely in sleep, are irregularly di¬ 
rected, aud have their pupils dilated. There 
is delirium, and often coma, convulsions, 
and paralysis. 

H ifDROCHLO'RATE, in Chemistry, a 

compound of hydrochloric acid, or muriatic 
acid gas, with a base. 

HYDROCHLO'RIC A'CID, a gaseous com 
pound of hydrogen and chlorine, evolved 
when sulphuric acid is added to common 
salt. It has a very strong affinity for water, 
the absorption of the vapour of which 
from the atmosphere produces the fumes 
perceived when it escapes into it. A so¬ 
lution of the gas in water forms the mu¬ 
riatic acid of the shops. Common salt is a 
muriate of soda. Hydrochloric acid is styled 
clilorhydric acid by the French chemists. 

IIYDROCYANTC A'CID (hudOr, water; 
and kuanos, blue : Gr.), Prussic acid, a com¬ 
pound of hydrogen and cyanogen. It is a 
most deadly poison. Even the prussic acid 
of the shops, which is a weak solution of 
the acid in water, is extremely dangerous, 
unless used with great caution. Its fatal 
effects are so rapid, that it is impossible to 
prevent them by any antidote. The smallest 
quantity of the pure acid applied to the eye 
of a cat, &c., causes instantaneous death. 

If there is the least hope of saving one who 
has swallowed it, a solution of chlorine, 
which decomposes it, should be adminis¬ 
tered ; also ammonia, which both combines 
with it and acts as a stimulant. It is a nar¬ 
cotic ; and, given with great caution, it may 
be used as a powerful sedative and anti¬ 
irritant, especially in whooping-cough. It 
is contained in the leaves of the cherry- 
laurel, in bitter almonds, in the kernels of 
plums and peaches, and the seeds of the 
apple, which derive their peculiar odour 
from it. It was originally obtained from I 
Prussian blue (which see); hence its popular 
name. 

HYDRODYNAMICS (hudor, water; . .. 
dunamis, power: Gr.), the science which 
treats of the forces of liquids in motion. It 
comprehends hydraulics. [See Hydrosta¬ 
tics.] 

HYDROFLUOR'IC A'CID, in Chemistry, 
a gaseous substance obtained from fluor 
spar, which is a fluoride of calcium. It is 
of a corrosive nature, and will dissolve 
glass, for which reason it is used for etching 
on glass. This acid, which consists of 
fluorine and hydrogen, readily combines 
with water; and when it is dropped into 
that fluid, a hissing noise is produced, with 
the evolution of considerable heat. Its 
odour is very penetrating, and its vapour 
dangerous to inspire. When applied to the 
skin, it instantly disorganizes it, and pro¬ 
duces the most painful wounds. It is some¬ 
times, but very rarely, called fluoric acid. 

IIY'DROGEN (hudor, water; and gennao, 

I produce: Gr.), in Chemistry, one of the 
gaseous elements and a constituent of 
water. Whatever process decomposes wa¬ 
ter will produce hydrogen gas, provided 
the oxygen of the water be absorbed by 
any other substance, as is seen in the fol¬ 
lowing experiments. If water is dropped 
gradually through a gun-barrel, or iron 
pipe, made red-hot in the middle, the water 
will be decomposed; the oxygen will form 
an oxide or rust with the iron, and the hy¬ 
drogen will come out pure from the oppo¬ 
site end. If a red-hot iron is plunged into 
water, the hydrogen rises with the vapour, 































1 _ 

hydrography] )t ^ftcuttftc anti 362 j 

and is known by a peculiar smell. This gas 
is fourteen times lighter than common air, 
its specific gravity being about 0 - 0692 ; 
hence it has been applied to the filling of 
balloons. It is also highly inflammable 
under certain circumstances ; hence it was 
formerly known by the name of inflammable 
! air. It is incapable of supporting respira¬ 
tion or combustion, burning only in conse¬ 
quence of its strong attraction for oxygen. 
It may be obtained by putting a few pieces 
of zinc, or a few small iron nails, into a 
mixture of equal parts sulphuric acid and 
water. The oxygen of the water combines 
with the zinc, and this compound is at¬ 
tacked by the acid whilst the hydrogen is 
set free. Mixed with three or four times 
its volume of air, it is highly explosive, and 
hence must not be set on fire as it issues 
from the bottle in which it is evolved, until 
all the common air has been expelled by it. 
When quite pure it is tasteless, colour¬ 
less, and without smell. It combines with 
sulphur, phosphorus, &c. The gas em¬ 
ployed to illuminate our streets is a combi¬ 
nation of hydrogen and carbon. 

HYDROG'RAPHY ( Jiuddr , water ; and 
graphs, a description : Gr.), the art of mea¬ 
suring and describing rivers, bays, lakes, 
gulfs, channels, and other collections of 
j water. 

HY'DROLITE (Jiudor, water; and Kthos, 
a stone : Gr.), in Mineralogy, a silicate of 
alumina, iron, and potash, containing nearly 
30 per cent, of ivater. 

IIYDROL'OGY (7i uddr, water; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), that department of phi¬ 
losophy which treats of and explains the 
i nature and properties of waters in general. 

HY'DROMEL (hudor, water; and meli, 
honey: Gr.), a liquor consisting of honey 
diluted with water. Before fermentation, 
it is called simple hydromel ; after fermen¬ 
tation, vinous hydromel, or mead. 

IIYDROM'ETER (Jiudor, water; and me- 
iron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring the specific gravities of liquids, 
and thence the strength of spirituous 
liquors, these being inversely as their spe¬ 
cific gravities. The hydrometer is some¬ 
times of brass, at others, when for fluids 
which would act upon the metals, of glass. 
It has a bulb about an inch and a quarter 
in diameter; from this project upwards 
a longer stem, which is graduated, and 
downwards a shorter, which is terminated 
, below by a small heavy bull), intended by 
its weight to keep the instrument vertical 
when immersed in fluid. The lighter the 
fluid the deeper the immersion, the amount 
of which is shown by the graduated stem. 
Byke’s hydrometer, used by the excise re¬ 
gulations for taking the specific gravity of 
spirituous liquors, has several smallweights 
which may be placed on the lower bulb. The 
same graduated stem is, therefore, equiva¬ 
lent to several, since its indications have 
different values, according to the weight 
placed on the lower part of the instrument. 
In making experiments with the hydro¬ 
meter, temperature must be carefully taken 
into account, since the higher the tempera¬ 
ture of a liquid the less dense it is. The use 
of the hydrometer depends on thefollowing 

i propositionsl. It will sink in different ! 

fluids in an inverse proportion to the 
density of the fluids; 2. The weight re- , 
quired to sink it equally far in different 
fluids will be directly as the densities of 
the fluids. 

HYDROP'ATHY (Jiudor, water; and 
pathos, disease : Gr.), a term applied to a 
treatment of disease generally called the 
cold-water cure. It was suggested in 1828, 
by Vincent Priessnitz, of Graefenberg in 
i Silesia, and consists in the internal and ex¬ 
ternal administration of cold water, accom¬ 
panied by air and exercise, early hours, and 
strict attention to diet. Such a mode of 
treatment, rationally pursued, must be 
obviously useful to persons residing in 
populous towns, eating and drinking too 
much, and keeping bad hours. 

IIY'DROPHANE (hudor, water; and 
phaino, I make to appear : Gr.), in Minera¬ 
logy, a variety of the opal, which is rendered 
transparent by immersion in water. 

IIYDROPHO'BI A (liudor, water; and 
pliobeomai, I fear : Gr.), a symptom of canine 
madness, or the disease itself. This name 
was given to the disease because persons 
bitten by a rabid dog or cat dread the sight 
of water. According to the generally re¬ 
ceived opinion' of medical practitioners, 
there is no known cure for this terrible 
disease; and the only preventive to be re¬ 
lied upon is the complete excision of the 
bitten part, which should be performed 
as soon as possible ; and caustics, of which 
nitric acid is considered to be the best, 
should be applied to the wound. Unfortu¬ 
nately, the first symptoms of madness in a 
dog are not very well defined ; the animal is 
generally observed to be dull and unsociable, 
refuses food, hangs his head, appears 
drowsy, flies at strangers, and hardly recog¬ 
nizes his master. At some indefinite period 
after the bite, and long after the wound 
has healed, there is itching and pain in the . 
part; heaviness, great restlessness and un¬ 
easiness, with mental alarm, followed by 
pains about the neck, sense of choking aml 
great horror at any attempt to drink, though 
solid food may be swallowed. These symp¬ 
toms are followed by fever, difficult respira¬ 
tion, convulsions, sometimes delirium, arid 
finally death. 

HYDROPHTHAL'MIA (hudor, water; 
and ophthalmos, the eye : Gr.), in Medicine, 
dropsy of the eye. 

HY'DROPS (hudrops : Gr.), in Medicine, 
the dropsy, a preternatural collection of 
serous or watery fluid in the cellular sub¬ 
stance, or different cavities of the body. It 
receives various appellations, according to 
the particular situations in which the fluid 
is lodged ; as hydrocephalus, hydrotkorax, 

&c. 

II Y'DROSCOPE (hudiyr, water; and skopeo, 

1 examine: Gr.), an instrument formerly 
used for measuring time. It was a kind of 
water-clock, consisting of a cylindrical tube 
conical at the bottom; the cylinder was 
graduated, or marked with divisions ; and 
as the surface of the water, which trickled 
out at the point of the cone, successively 
sank to these several divisions, it pointed 
out the hour. 



































363 


JUtcrarj) Cm^ury. [hylobates 


HYDROSTAT'IO BAL'ANCE, a kind of 
balance contrived for finding the specific 
gravities of bodies, solid as well as fluid. 

HYDROSTAT'IO BEL'LOWS, a machine 
for showing that fluids transmit pressure 
equally in every direction. It consists of 
two flat boards united water-tight with 
leather, &c., and having the appearance of 
a bellows; a tube three or four feet long 
with a funnel at its upper end, communi¬ 
cates with the space between the boards. 
When water is poured in through the tube, 
the upper board will rise, and will sustain 
a weight equal to that of a column of water 
having a base equal to that of the bellows, 
and a height equal to that of the tube. A 
person standing on the upper board and 
blowing into the tube may easily lift himself 
up. 

HYDROSTAT'IO PAR'ADOX, a term em¬ 
ployed to designate that principle in hydro¬ 
statics by which any quantity of water, how¬ 
ever small, may be made apparently to 
balance another however great. The small 
quantity does not in reality balance the 
larger ; for the extra pressure is borne by 
the sides of the vessel in which it is placed. 
But, from the nature of fluids, a given 
pressure exerted by a smaller quantity of 
fluid may be made to produce a very great 
pressure in a larger quantity with which it 
communicates. 

HYDROSTAT'IO PRESS, a name some¬ 
times given to the hydraulic press ,whi ch see. 

HYDROSTAT'ICS (Jmddr, water; and 
stao, I stand: Or.), that branch of science 
which treats of the equilibrium of fluids. 
Hydrodynamics treats of fluids in motion, 
and hydraulics of machines having a refer¬ 
ence to fluids. The science is founded on 
the fact that * wherf a liquid mas3isin equi¬ 
librium, every one of its molecules sustains 
and imparts an equal pressure in all direc¬ 
tions.’ Hence water will rise to the same 
level in any number of open vessels which 
communicate. The pressure on a surface 
depends, not on the absolute amount of 
fluid, but on the extent of the surface, and 
the mean height of the columns of fluid 
above it—supposing all of them to reach to 
an imaginary horizontal plane just touched 
j by the highest. That is the pressure on any 
j surface will be equal to that surface multi¬ 
plied by the depth of its centre of gravity 
below the upper surface of the fluid. The 
base of any vessel will sustain the same 
pressure, whether the vessel is conical, 
cylindrical, or otherwise, so long as its sur¬ 
face, and the height of the highest column 
of fluid resting upon or in connection with 
it, continue the same. There will be much 
less fluid in the cone than in a cylinder of 
the same base and height, yet the pressures 
on their bases will be equal. Hence the pres- 
ure on the base of a vessel maybe greater, 
to any amount, than the weight of the 
water which produces it—in the case, for ex¬ 
ample, of a vessel formed of two horizontal 
plates, having an extremely thin water¬ 
tight space between them, and communi¬ 
cating with a vertical pipe of very small 
bore. Let this very thin space, for example, 
be 4 square feet in extent, and let the 
height of the tube which communicates 


with it be 33 feet: the pressure on the upper 
and under interior surfaces of the vessel 
will each be equal to the weight of a 
column of water having a base of 4 square 
feet and a height of 33 feet; that is, 576, the 
number of square inches multiplied into 
15 lbs., or 8640 lbs., equal to 432 tons ; and 
yet the Water may not weigh more than a 
few ounces. This enables us to understand 
the danger of thin crevices behind the walls 
or under the banks of canals, &c. A strong 
cask may easily be burst if, when it has 
been filled with water, a long vertical tube, 
no matter how slender, is screwed into it, 
and also filled with that liquid. When a 
body is placed in a fluid of less specific 
gravity than itself, it displaces a quantity 
of the fluid equal to it in weight, but not 
in bulk; when in a fluid of greater specific 
gravity, it displaces a quantity equal to it 
in bulk, but not in weight; and when in a 
fluid of the same specific gravity, it displaces 
a quantity equal to it, both in weight and 
bulk, and it will remain at rest wherever it 
is placed. 

HYDROSUL'PHURET, in Chemistry, a 
combination of hydrosulphuric acid, or sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogen. 

HYDROTHO'RAX ( hudor , water; and 
tliurax, the trunk of the body : Or.), in Me¬ 
dicine, dropsy of the chest. The symptoms 
are, difficult breathing when in a recumbent 
position, paleness, cough, thirst, swelling 
in the legs and feet, quick, often irregular, 
and intermitting pulse. 

HY'GIENE ( Imgieia, health: Or.), that 
branch of medicine which relates to the 
means of preserving public health. 

HYGROM'ETER ( hugros, moist; and 
raetron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument 
which shows the presence of water in the 
air, and its variation in quantity, and affords 
data for calculating the actual quantity 
existing in a given bulk of air at any given 
■time. There are many kinds of hygro¬ 
meters ; for whatever body either swells or 
shrinks, by dryness or moisture, is capable 
of being formed into one. The higher the 
temperature of air, the larger the quantity 
of vapour it is capable of holding in solu¬ 
tion. That point of temperature at which 
the quantity of moisture it contains would 
just saturate it, is called its dew point; if it 
be cooled ever so little below this point, it 
will begin to deposit moisture in the form 
of dew. The liygrometric condition of the 
air is now usually deduced from an obser¬ 
vation of the dew point, and this may be 
ascertained either by the use of instru¬ 
ments such as Daniell’s hygrometer, which 
gives the dew point by direct observation, 
or by means of the wet and dry bulb ther¬ 
mometers, which afford data for its calcu¬ 
lation. 

HYLOBA'TES ( hulobates, a wood-walker: 
Gr.), a genus of long armed apes, natives of 
India. They have neither tails nor cheek 
pouches. When domesticated, their man- 
nersare gentle. The Gibbon (If. lar) belongs 
to this genus. When this ungainly animal 
is standing upright its fingers reach to 
the ankles. Theliand3 and feet are white 
and there is a white circle round the face, 
the rest of the body being black. It lives 































K\)t Jr>ctenttfic autr 


361 


hymenoptera] 


ill trees and swings by its-arms with great 
agility from branch to branch. The wow 
wow or oungha, so called from its cry, is the 
II. agilis of zoologists. 

HYMENOP'TERA ( hitmen, a membrane ; 
and pteron, a wing: Gr.), an order of insects 
having four naked membranous wings, 
with a few nervures. The posterior pair are 
much smaller than the front pair. During 
flight the wings on each side arc linked 
together by means of a series of small 
hooks on the front edge of the hinder wing, 
which catch hold of the hindmost vein of 
the fore wing. During repose the wings 
are laid over each other on the back. The 
abdomen of the female is terminated by an 
ovipostor. Bees and wasps belong to this 
order. 

HYOSCYA'MTA ( hyoscyamos , henbane: 
Gr.), in Chemistry, the active principle or 
alkaloid of henbane. 

II YPAL'LAGE (hupallage, an exchange: 
Gr.), in Grammar and Rhetoric, a figure 
consisting of a mutual change of cases: 
thus, gladium vngind vacuum, ‘ the sword 
empty of the scabbard.’ 

HY'PER (huper), a Greek word signifying 
over, which is used in English composition 
to denote excess, or something over or be¬ 
yond what is found in other circumstances. 
Thus, in Chemistry, hyper sulphuric acid, an 
acid which contains more oxygen than sul¬ 
phuric. 

HYPER'BATOH (hvpcrbaton, a transpo¬ 
sition : Gr.), in Grammar a figurative con¬ 
struction, inverting the natural and proper 
order of words and sentences. The species 
are the anastrophe, hypallage, husteron-pro- 
teron, &c.; but the proper hyperbaton is a 
long retention of the verb which completes 
the sentence. 

HYPER'BOLA (hupcrbole, an excess: 
Gr., — because the angle which its plane 
forms with the base of the cone is greater 
than that of the parabola), in Geometry, a 
curve formed by cutting a cone in such a 
direction, with regard to its axis, that if 
the cutting plane were produced, it would 
cut also the opposite cone—two hyperbolas 
being produced, the one opposite to the 
other. [See Conic Sections.]-Hyper¬ 

bolic Space, the space or content compre¬ 
hended between the curve of the hyperbola 
and the whole ordinate. 

IIYPER'BOLE (same deriv.), in Rhetoric, 
a representation of anything carried be¬ 
yond the bounds of truth or even proba¬ 
bility : as, ‘ he ran swifter than the wind 
‘lie went slower than a tortoise,’ &c. 
Aristotle observes, that the hyperbole is 
j the favourite figure of young authors, who 
j love excess and exaggeration; but that 
philosophers should not use it without a 
great deal of caution. 

HYPER'BOLOID hupcrbole, an hyper¬ 
bola ; and eidos, form : Gr.), in Geometry, a 
solid generated by the revolution of an 
hyperbola about its axis. 

H YPERBO'REANS (Huperboreioi: from 
huper, beyond, and Boreas, the north wind : 
Gr.), the name given by the ancients to the 
unknown inhabitants of the most northern 
regions of the globe, who were believed 
j always to enjoy a delightful climate, on 


account of being situated beyond the do¬ 
main of Boreas, or the north wind. They 
j were, in fact, the Laplanders, theSamoiede3 
and the most northern of the Russians. 

HYPERCATALEC'TIO (huperkatalektv 
Jcos: from huper, above; and katalektilcos, 
deficient: Gr.), in Greek and Latin poetry, 
a verse which has a syllable or two beyond 
the regular and just measure. 

HYPERCRITTC (huper, signifying ex¬ 
cess ; and Jcritikos, critical: Gr.), one who is 
critical beyond measure or reason ; animad¬ 
verting on faults with unjust severity, and 
shutting his eyes to the merits of a per¬ 
form an ce. 

HYPER'METER (huper, beyond; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), a verse containing 
a syllable more than the ordinary measure. 
When this is the case, the following line 
begins with a vowel, and the redundant 
syllable of the former line blends with the 
first of the following. 

HY'PERSTHENE, in Mineralogy, Labra¬ 
dor hornblende, a ferrosilicateof magnesia, 
with traces of alumina and lime. It occurs 
both crystalline and massive, is resplen¬ 
dent and of a grey-green or reddish hue. ■ 

Hyperstliene Rock, an igneous rock composed 
of pale red, white or greenish felspar and 
hornblende either in large crystals or small 
concretionary masses. 

HYPERTROPHY (huper, beyond; and 
trophe, nourishment: Gr.), a morbid increase 
in any organ without change in the nature 
of its substances. 

HY'PHEN ( huphen, literally, into one; 
Gr.), a mark or character implying that two 
words are to be connected ; as pre-establish¬ 
ed, five-leaved, &c. Hyphens also serve to 
show the connection of such words as are 
divided by one or more of the syllables 
coming at the end of a line. 

HYPNOTTC ( hupnos, sleep: Gr.), an 
epithet applied to such medicines as have 
the quality of producing sleep. 

HYPOB'OLE ( hupobole, a suggesting : 
Gr.), hi Rhetoric, a figure in which several 
things are mentioned that seem to be in 
favour of the opposite side, and each of 
them is refuted in order. 

IIYPOCHO-N'DRIA (hypochondria: from 
hupo, under; and climidros, the cartilage of 
the breast-bone: Gr.), in Anatomy, the 
sides of the belly covered by the inferior 
ribs and their cartilages: it is distinguished 
into the right and left hypochondria. 

HYPOCHONDRI'ASIS (same deriv.), in 
Medicine, an affection characterized by 
dyspepsia, languor and want of energy, by 
sadness, and fear, arising from uncertain 
causes, and by a melancholic temperament. 
The principal causes are sorrow, fear or ex¬ 
cess of any of the passions ; too long con¬ 
tinued watching; and irregular diet. Hypo¬ 
chondriacs are continually apprehending 
future evils ; and in respect to their feelings 
and fears, however groundless, there is 
usually the most obstinate belief and per¬ 
suasion. 

HY'POCIST ( hypociste: Fr. ; hupokistis: 
Horn hupo, under; and kistos, the cistus : 
Gr.), or Succus hypocistidis,in Pharmacy, the 
inspissated juice of the Cytinus hypocistis, 
a parasitical plant found on the roots of 














365 


[hysteron 


Eiterary 


several kinds of cistus in the south of 
Europe. 

HYPOCRATER'IFORM {hupo, under ; 
krater, a cup: Gr.; and forma, a shape; 
Lat.), in Botany, a tubular corolla, hut sud¬ 
denly expanding into a flat border above : 
as in the flower of the Phlox. 

HYPOGA2'OUS {hupogaios: from hupo, 
under; and ge, the earth : Gr.), in Botany, 
a term used to denote all parts of the plant 
which grow under the surface of the 
earth. 

HYPOGAS'TRIC ( hupogastrion, the hypo¬ 
gastrium : from liupo, under; and gaster, 
the belly : Gr.), in Medicine, relating to the 
hypogastrium, or middle part of the lower 
region of the belly. Also, an appellation 
given to the internal branch of the iliac 
artery. 

HYPOGAS'TROCELE ( hupogastrion, the 
hypogastrium ; and kele, a hernia: Gr.), in 
Surgery, a hernia, or rupture, of the lower 
belly. 

HY'POGENE ROCKS {hupo, under; and 
ginomai to be born : Gr.), those rocks which 
have not assumed their present form and 
structure at the surface, but were thrust 
up from below: as granite, gneiss, and other 
crystalline formations. This term, which 
includes both the plutonic and metamorphic 
rocks, is substituted for primary, because 
granitic and gneissic rocks have been found 
amongst rocks of the secondary and 
tertiary periods. 

HYPOGE'UM {hupo, under; and ge, the 
earth: Gr.), a name given by ancient archi¬ 
tects to all the parts of a building which 
were under ground; as the cellar, &c. 

HYPOG'YNOUS {hupo, under; and gune, 
a female : Gr.), in Botany, a term applied to 
stamens that spring from below the base of 
the ovarium. 

HYPONI'TROUS A'CID, in Chemistry, a 
combination of nitrogen and oxygen, inter¬ 
mediate between nitric oxide and hyponi- 
tric acid. It contains one atom of nitrogen 
and three atoms of oxygen. Its salts are 
termed hyponitrites. 

HYPOPHOS'PHOROUS A'CID, in Che¬ 
mistry, an acid containing two atoms of 
phosphorus and one atom of oxygen. Its 
salts are termed hypophosphites. 

HYPOS'TASIS {hupostasis: from hupo, 
under; and istemi, I stand; Gr.),\\\ Theology, 
a term used to denote the subsistence of 
the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, in the 
Godhead, called by the Greek Christians, 
three hypostases. The Latins more generally 
used persona, and this is the modern prac¬ 
tice : hence we say, the Godhead consists of 
three persons. 

HYPOSULPHU'RIC A'CID, in Chemistry, 
an acid intermediate between the sulphu¬ 
rous and sulphuric acids ; it contains two 
atoms of sulphur and five of oxygen. Its 
salts are termed hyposulphites. 

HYPOSUL'PHUROUS A'CID, in Chemis¬ 
try, an acid consisting of an equal number 
of atoms of sulphur and oxygen. Its salts 
are termed hyposulphites. 


Cvcas'uvy. 


HYPOTH'ENUSE or HYPOT'ENUSE 
{hupo, under; and teino, I stretch; Gr.), in 
Geometry, the subtense or longest side of a 
right-angled triangle, or the line that sub¬ 
tends the right angle. 

HYPOTH'ESIS {hupothesis: from liupo, 
under; and titliemi, I place: Gr.), a principle 
taken for granted, in order to draw from it 
a conclusion for the proof of a point in 
question. Also, a system or theory imagined 
or assumed to account for wTiat is not 
understood. 

HYPOTRACHE'LIUM {liupotrachelion: 
from hupo, under; and trachelos, the neck .• 
Gr.), in Architecture, the slenderest part of 
the column ; being that immediately below 
the neck of the capital. 

HYPOTYPO'SIS {hupotuposis, a sketch r 
Gr.), in Rhetoric, the use of descriptive 
language, highly enriched with rhetorical 
figures. 

HYPSO'METRY {hupsos, height: metron, 
measure: Gr.), the art of measuring alti¬ 
tudes. Various methods are adopted :—1. 
By triangulation, the theodolite or some 
equivalent instrument being employed. 
2. By the mercurial barometer. As the 
pressure of the atmosphere decreases the 
higher we ascend, the mercury will fall in 
its tube in proportion to the height to 
which the instrument is carried. When 
possible, two corresponding barometers 
should be simultaneously observed, one at 
the level of the sea or at the foot of the 
height to be measured, and the other on the 
summit. The difference of the readings 
affords a datum for calculations in which 
the temperature of the two stations and 
some other circumstances must be taken 
into consideration. 3. By the Aneroid baro¬ 
meter, by which differences of atmospheric 
pressure are measured by means of metallic 
springs. 4. By observation of the boiling 
point of water. At the level of the sea, 
water boils at the temperature of 212° F., but 
as we ascend, the lessened pressure allows 
ebullition to take place at a lower tem¬ 
perature, and hence we obtain materials for 
calculation. 

HYS'SOP {hussopos: Gr.), a genus of 
labiate plants, one species of which is culti¬ 
vated for use. The leaves have an aromatic 
smell and a warm pungent taste. 

H YSTER'ICS or HYSTE'RIA {husterikos: 
from liustera, the womb : Gr.—because the 
disease is supposed to be connected with it), 
in Medicine, a malady that attacks in pa¬ 
roxysms or fits, which are readily excited 
in those who are subject to them, by pas¬ 
sions of the mind, and by every consider¬ 
able emotion, especially when brought on 
by surprise : hence, sudden joy, grief, fear, 
&c., are very likely to occasion them. 

HYS'TERON PROT'ERON or HUS'TE- 
ROJST PROT'ERON, two Greek words, mean- 
ing the last first: hence it is used, in rhe¬ 
toric, to designate the figure in which that 
word which should follow is used first: as, 
Valetatque vivit (he is well and lives). 













iambic] CI)£ ^ctenttftc auU 366 


i 


I, the ninth letter in the alphabet, and 
the third vowel. Its sound varies; in some 
words it is long, as high, mind, pine; in 
some it is short, as bid, kid; and in others 
it is pronounced like y, as collier, onion, &c. 
In a few words its sound approaches to the 
ee in beef, as in machine, which is the sound 
of the long i in all European languages 
except the English. When two i’s came to¬ 
gether, the Latins contracted them into 
one ; as Dii into Di. In all Latin words of 
Latin origin, i preceding a vowel (unless it 
follows another vowel) is a consonant, as 
Ianus (Janus), coniicio (conjicio); but in 
words of Greek origin it is a vowel, as 
iambus,iaspis. No English word ends with 
i, but when the sound of the letter occurs 
at the end of a word, it is expressed by y. 
It is sometimes used as an abbreviation, as 
E.I.C. East India Company, I.H.S. Jesus Ho- 
minum Salvator (Jesus the Saviour of men), 
&c. I, used as a numeral, signifies no more 
than one, and it stands for as many units as 
there are repetitions of it: thus, II stands 
for 2, III for 3. When put before a higher 
numeral, it is to be subtracted from the 
latter: as IV, 4. And when set after it 
it is to be added to it: as XII, 12. 

I AM'BIO or IAM'BUS ( iambos: Or.), in 
Poetry, afoot consisting of two syllables, 
the first short and the last long, as in 
declare, adorn. Verses composed of short 
and long syllables alternately are termed 
iambics; as, 

If ty-1 rant fac-1 tion dare | assail | her 
throne, 

A peo-1 pie’s love | shall make | her 
cause | their own. 

I'BEX (a wild goat: Lat.), or Steinbock, 
the,Capra Ibex of zoologists, a species of 
goat. It has extremely long horns, which 
bend backwards, are of a blackish colour, 
and annulated on the surface. The body is 
of a dusky yellowish brown colour, and is 
less in proportion to the height than that of 
the common goat; it has, indeed, a great 
resemblance to the deer kind ; the legs are 
also perfectly like those of the deer, 
straight, elegant and slender. The hair is 
harsh, and the male is furnished with a 
black beard. These animals inhabit the 
chain of mountains extending from Mount 
Taurus, between Eastern Tartary and Si¬ 
beria ; they are also to be met with in the 
most precipitous and inaccessible parts of 
the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Carpathians. 
They are remarkably swift, and display 
amazing dexterity and agility in leaping; so 
that the ibex hunter is constantly in immi¬ 
nent peril, from the fear of losing his 
footing when scaling tremendous pre¬ 
cipices, and from the animal when closely 
pursued turning suddenly on his enemy. 
Their cry is a sharp short whistle, not un¬ 
like that of the chamois, but of shorter 
duration ; sometimes, especially when irri¬ 
tated, they make a snorting noise.——The 


name has been given also to a species of 

antelope. 

I'BIS (Gr.), in Ornithology, a genus of 
birds, closely resembling the storks, and 
found, chiefly in warm climates, more parti¬ 
cularly in Egypt. The bill is long and curved, 
the legs are long, and the feet have four 
toes, the front webbed at the base, and all ' 
provided with claws. These birds are 
capable of a powerful and elevated flight, 
extending their neck and legs, and uttering 
a hoarse croak. The white ibis ( Ibis cethio- 
pica) arrives in Egypt about the time that 
the inundation of the Nile commences, 
and migrates about the end of June, at 
which period it is first noticed in Ethiopia. 
The scarlet ibis (Ibis rubra), a splendid bird, 
is found in the hottest part3 of America, in 
large flocks ; the plumage is scarlet; beak 
naked; part of the cheeks, legs, and feet, 
pale red. Other species are found in India, 
Madagascar, the Cape of Good Hope, and 
Mexico. One species, the glossy ibis, has 
been occasionally killed in England. The 
ibis was venerated by the ancient Egyptians; 
and ibis mummies have been found in great 
numbers in Egypt. 

ICE (eis: Ger.), water congealed. If water 
is exposed to a temperature below 32 ° Fahr. 
it assumes a solid state by shooting into 
crystals which cross each other at angles 
of 60 degrees. It is lighter than water, on 
which, therefore, it floats ; and its increase 
of dimensions is acquired with a force suf¬ 
ficient to burst the strongest vessels. [See 
Freezing, &c.] 

ICE'BERGS (eis, ice ; and berg, a moun¬ 
tain : Ger.), masses of ice carried by the 
winds through the polar sea3. They are. 
often of enormous size and height, rising 
300 or 400 feet above the water, and sinking 
four or five times as much below it. Within 
the arctic circle, the congelation begins 
about the 1st of August; and a sheet of 
ice, perhaps an inch in thickness, is formed 
in a single night. In a short time, the whole 
extent of the polar seas is covered with a 
mass several feet thick. As soon as the 
summer heat commences, it is partially 
melted, and, with the first swell of the 

ocean, breaks up.- Floating Ice. There 

are numerous terms for this. A large flat 
mass extending beyond the reach of sight 
is called field-ice; one of smaller dimensions 
a floe; when afield is much broken up, it is 
called a pack. If a ship can sail freely 
through the floating pieces of ice, it is 
called drift-ice. A portion of ice rising 
above the cortunou level is called a hum¬ 
mock, being produced by the crowding of 
one piece over another. 

I'OE-BLINK ( blinken , to glitter: Ger.), a 
name given by seamen to a whitish appear¬ 
ance in the horizon : occasioned by fields 
of ice, which reflect the light obliquely 
against the atmosphere. 

I'CE-HOUSE, a building contrived to pro 

























367 Httcranj Crcatfurn. L ich °k 

serve icc in hot -weather ; the ice is rammed 
as close as possible, and at the bottom is a 
well to drain off the water from any part 
that melts. 

I'CELAND MOSS, Lichen Islandicus, 
Cetraria Islandica, a lichen common in the 
mountainous districts of Europe. It con¬ 
tains a bitter principle, and a large quantity 
of starch. It is tonic and nutritive. 

I'CELAND SPAlt, in Mineralogy, car¬ 
bonate of lime forming crystals of the rliom- 
boliedral system. It occurs in laminated 
masses, easily divisible into rhombs. It is 
highly useful in experiments on double re¬ 
fraction and the polarization of light. 

I'CE-MAKING MACHI'NES. The demand 
for ice botli as a luxury in hot weather, and 
as a remedial agent in many diseases, has led 
to the invention of several machines for its 
manufacture on alarge scale. The principal 
contrivances that have had a successful 
resultare the following :—l. Ether Machines, 
j in which the evaporation of sulphuric ether 
causes a low degree of cold in a quantity of 
common brine, and in this brine troughs 
j containing the water to be frozen are im¬ 
mersed. A steam-engine is employed to 
i drive an air-pump which exhausts the 
vapour from the liquid ether, and also to 
cause the circulation of the brine surround¬ 
ing the vessel containing the ether and the 
troughs with the water to be frozen. The 
ether vapour,is liquefied after the operation 
of cooling the brine has been effected, and 
is then again ready to perform the same 
| operation. 2. Machines in which ammo¬ 
niacal gas, which has a strong affinity for 
water, but is easily separated from it by the 

1 application of heat so employed. A satu¬ 
rated solution of ammonia is placed in a 
i strong vessel which communicates with 
another vessel of one-fourth the size by a 
tube, all being filled with ammoniacal gas. 
The vessel containing the solution being 
heated, the gas is driven off from it, and 
liquefied ammoniacal gas will form in the 
smaller vessel by reason of the increased 
tension. Now if the process be reversed, and 
the vessel containing the liquefied gas be 
placed in contact with a third vessel con¬ 
taining the water to be frozen, whilst the 
larger vessel with the watery solution is 
cooled, the liquid gas will vaporize and rush 
from the smaller to the larger vessel, to 
unite once more with the water. The rapid 
, evaporation causes a degree of cold suffi- 
1 cient to freeze the water in the third vessel. 

I When this has been done the process may 

1 be repeated again and again, each time freez¬ 
ing another supply of water conveniently 
placed in the third vessel. A steam-engine 
is here also employed to work the appa¬ 
ratus, when of a large size. 3. Air Machines, 
of which the effect depends upon the alter¬ 
nate condensation and expansion of com¬ 
mon air. When air is compressed, its heat 
is squeezed out of it, and when it is again 
allowed to expand it absorbs heat from the 
surroundingmedium, and hence causes that 
! medium to fall considerably in temperature, 
i This is the principle of Kirk’s machine, 
which is capable of producing cold suffi¬ 
cient to freeze water for economical pur¬ 
poses. 

ICE PLANT, the Mesembryanthcmuni 
crystallinum, a plant remarkable for the 
little transparent vesicles which cover its 
whole surface. The stems are herbaceous 
and much ramified, and the flowers are : 
white. It is a native of the Capo of Good 
Hope. 

ICH DIEN ( Ger .), the motto of the Prince 
of Wales’s arms, signifying I serve. It was 
first used by Edward the Black Prince, to 
show liis subjection to his father king 
Edward III. 

ICHNEU'MON ( ichneumon, from iclineuo, 

I trace out : Gr.), the name of animals be¬ 
longing to the genus Herpestes. They are 
allied to the civets amongst the Felidw. 
The best known species is the II. ichneumon. 

Its ordinary colour is a chestnut brown; 
the tail tapers to a point, and the toes are 
distant from each other. The habits of the 
ichneumon are very similar to those of the 
ferret ; like that animal, it preys upon 
poultry, rats, &c. ; but it also destroys the 
most venomous serpents, and . seeks the 
eggs of the crocodile, digging them out of 
the sand, and eating them with the greatest 
avidity. In India and Egypt it is domesti¬ 
cated for the purpose of destroying rats and 
mice. The ichneumon of the Nile was one 

of the sacred animals of the Egyptians _ 

Ichneumon, a genus of hymenopterous 
insects belonging to a large family the 
species of which have been denominated 
parasitical, on account of the very extra¬ 
ordinary manner in which they provide for 
the future support of their offspring. The 
fly feeds on the honey of flowers, and, when 
about to lay eggs, perforates the body of 
some other insect, or its larvm, with the 
sting or instrument at the end of its abdo¬ 
men, and there deposits them. These eggs 
in a few days are hatched, and the young 
nourish themselves with the juices of their 
foster-parent, which, however, continues to 
move about and feed till near the time of 
its change to a chrysalis, when the larvae of 
the ichneumon creep out by perforating 
the skin in various places, and each, spin¬ 
ning itself up in a small oval silken case, 
changes into a chrysalis, and after a certain 
period emerges in the state of a complete 
ichneumon. It is as great destroyer of 
caterpillars, plant-lice, and other insects, 
as the He-rpestes is of the eggs and young 
of the crocodile. 

ICHNITES ( ichnos, a track: Gr.), in 
Geology, the fossil footsteps and tracks of 
animals, originally made on the sand, or 
mud of an ancient seashore, or lake margin. 
They are frequently found in quarries, one 
slab showing the impressions themselves, 
and an upper slab a cast of them in relief. 

ICHNOG'RAPIIY (ichnographia : from 
ichnos, a trace ; and grapho, I draw : Gr.), 
in Architecture, the ground-plan of a build¬ 
ing.-in Fortification, a draft of the 

length and breadth of the works raised 

about a place. - In Perspective, the view 

of anything cutoff by a plane parallel to the 
horizon, just at the base of it. 

ICHNOL'OGY, a treatise on ichnites. 

I'CHOR (ichor: Gr.), a thin watery hu¬ 
mour, like serum ; but the word is some¬ 
times used likewise for a thicker kind. 



































®f)e Jktcnttfu antt - 368 


ICHTHYITES] 


flowing from ulcers, called also sanies. The 
term was applied by the Greeks to the fluid 
which issued from the wounds of the gods. 

ICHTHYI'TES ( ichthus , a flsh : Gr.), or 
Ichthyolites, in Geology, the fossil re¬ 
mains of fishes. 

ICHTHYOCOL'LA (iclithuokolla: from 
ichthus, a fish; and holla, glue: Gr.), Isin¬ 
glass, which see. 

I ICHTHYOL'OGY ( ichthus , a flsh; and 
I logos, a discourse: Gr.), that part of zoo¬ 
logy which treats of fishes, their structure, 
form, and classification, their habits, uses, 
&c. Fishes form a distinct class of the 
vertebrate sub-kingdom. They are cold¬ 
blooded aquatic animals, and their red blood 
is aerated by means of gills. The heart has 
onlyone auricle and one ventricle. The sexes 
' are distinct, and the young are produced 
from eggs. These eggs form what is called 
roe, whilst the milt is the male fecundating 
j matter which is brought into contact with 
the eggs after they have been ejected by 
the female fish. Fishes are remarkable for 
their fecundity. A cod fish has been found 
1 to produce 3,G8G,000 eggs or spawn; and a 
ling, 19,248,000. Herrings, weighing from 
four ounces to five and three-quarters, 
from 21,000 to 37,000. Mackerel, weigh¬ 
ing twenty ounces, 454,000. Soles of five 
ounces, 38,000. Many fishes possess an 
internal bladder filled with air, called the 
swim-bladder, and this is thought to be 
instrumental in aiding a flsh to rise from a 
great depth to the surface. The skin is 
sometimes naked, but usually it is clothed 
with either Cycloid or Ctenoid scales. 
Sometimes the fish is protected by Ganoid, 
or Placoid plates. When a fish has the 
full complement of fins, it has one or more 
dorsal fins, one or more anal fins, two 
pectoral fins, two ventral fins, and a caudal 
fin. In some genera, some of these fins are 
wanting, and occasionally a fish has no fins 
whatever. The tail and its fin are the 
principal agents in locomotion, the other 
fins serving more to balance and steer by 
than to drive onwards. In some fishes not 
only do the jaws carry teeth, but every bone 
inside the mouth is similarly armed. In other 
fishes there is not a single tooth in the 
i mouth. Some fishes are vegetable feeders, 

( but the majority are carnivorous, it being 
their lot to eat or be eaten. A fish’s head is a 
complicated structure, and its investigation 
has often employed naturalists, the object 
in view being to find what each bone corre¬ 
sponds with, in the heads of other classes of 
j vertebrata. The class has been divided 
into ten orders, as set forth in the following 
table:— 

Order 1. Dermopteri, boneless fishes, in¬ 
cluding the Lampreys and other genera. 
Order 2. Malacopterygianee, fishes without 
spines in the fins; including Eels, Her¬ 
rings, the Salmon, and Carp families, &c. 
Order 3. Pharyngognathi, fishes whose 
lower pharyngeal bones are united ; in¬ 
cluding the Flying-fishes, the Wrasses, 
&c. 

Order 4. Anacanthini, including the Cod 
family, the Turbot family, the Hemoras, 
&c. 

Order 5. Acanlhoplerygiance, fishes with 


spines in some of the fins, including the 
Perch, Mullet, Mackerel, Gurnard and 
many other families. 

Order 6. Plectognathi, the parts of the upper 
jaw fixed together, and united to the 
skull by a suture, including the Globe 
fishes, the File fishes, &c. 

Order 7. Lophobranchii, fishes whose gills 
are in tufts, including the Pipe fishes, the 
Seahorse, &c. 

Order 8. Ganoidei, the body covered with 
hard plates, including the Sturgeon, &c. 
Order 9. Holocephali, the body covered with 
placoid granules, including the Chimteras. 
Order 10. Plagiostomi, fishes with cartila¬ 
ginous skeletons, and five or more gill 
openings on each side, including the 
Sharks and Rays. i 

ICHTHYOSAURUS ( ichthus, a flsh ; saura, 
a lizard: Gr.), a genus of extinct aquatic j 
reptiles, the remains of which have been 
found in the trias, the lias, and the lower 
chalk. Several species have been made out, 
all carnivorous. One species was more than 
30 feet long. In the same individual (says 
Dr. Buckland) the snout of a porpoise was 
combined with the teeth of a crocodile, the 
head of a lizard with the vertebras of a fish, 
and the sternum of an Ornithorhynchus with 
the paddles of a whale. The general outline 
of an Ichthyosaurus must have most nearly 
resembled the modern porpoise and gram¬ 
pus. It had four broad feet or paddles 
and terminated behind in a long and power¬ 
ful tail. The dung of these animals has 
been found fossilized and has received the 
name of coprolites. The marks upon it 
have enabled conclusions to be drawn as 
to the form of the intestinal canal. 

ICHTHYO'SIS ( ichthus, a fish: Gr.), in 
Medicine, a scaly eruption of the skin to 
which the inhabitants of islands near the 
equator are subject. It is ascribed to an 
unsuitable diet. 

I'CONISM ( eikonismos , a delineation : 
Gr.), in Rhetoric, a figure of speech which 
consists in representing a thing to the life. 

ICON'OCLASTS ( eikon, an image; and 
klao, I break in pieces : Gr.), an appellation 
given to the Coustantinopolitan emperors, 
Leo the Isaurian, and his son Constan¬ 
tine Copronymus, who overthrew images, 
and extirpated their worship in Christian 
churches ; also to the 338 bishops who at¬ 
tended a council at Constantinople, during 
the reign of the latter prince, and advocated 
the same views. The council of Nicsea, in 
787, however, restored their use; it was 
the last council respecting which the 
Greek and Latin churches coincide. The 
Greek church allows pictures, butstudiously 
rejects graven images. 

ICONOG'RAPHY (eikonograpliia: from 
eikon, an image; and grapho, I describe: 
Gr.), the description of images or ancient 
statues, busts, semi-busts, paintings in 
fresco, mosaic works, &c. 

ICOSAHE'DRON ( eikosi , twenty; and 
hedra, a base : Gr.), in Geometry, one.of the 
five regular or Platonic bodies, bounded by 
twenty equilateral and equal triangles. It 
may be considered as formed by twenty 
equal and similar triangular pyramids, 
whose vertices meet in the same point, 













369 iutcrary Erotftir^. [iguana 

wliicb is the centre of a circumscribing 
sphere. 

IC'TERUS ( ikteros: Gr., from resembling 
in colour a bird of that name), in Medicine, 
the disease which we distinguish by the 
name of jaundice. 

IDE'A (Gr., from idem, to see). Locke de¬ 
fined ideas to be whatever is the object of 
the understanding, whatever a man thinks, 
or whatever it is the mind can be employed 
about thinking. Plato used the word ideas 
to signify the archetypes and essences of 
things, objects that are now generally 
thought to be beyond the reach of the 
human intellect. In Kant’s system ideas 
were the forms of the reason’s activity, and 
are independent of experience. 

IDE'AL, an imaginary model of perfec¬ 
tion.-.— Beau Ideal (ideal beauty), an ex¬ 
pression in the Pine Arts, denoting the se¬ 
lection, for a particular object, of the finest 
parts, from different subjects, so as to form 
a perfect whole, such as nature does not 
: usually exhibit. It more particularly ap¬ 
plies to sculpture and painting. 

IDE'ALISM (idea, form : Gr.), schemes of 
philosophy which teach that we are con¬ 
cerned only with ideas, and are ignorant 
of everything else. Bishop Berkeley argued 
that what our senses convey to us is, not 
evidence of an external world, but only of 
our sensations. Further, that we are 
utterly ignorant, and must ever remain so, 
of matter itself, and that it is easier to 
conceive that God directly causes our 
sensations than that they are conveyed to 
us through the unknown world of matter. 

IDEOGRAPHIC (idea, an idea; and 
grapho, I write: Gr.), an epithet given to 
that kind of writing which expresses the 
ideas and not the sound. The Chinese clia- 
i racters are ideographic, though the symbols 
i iiave become merely conventional. Such 
l also were the hieroglyphics of the ancient 
Egyptians. 

IDES (idus, supposed to be from the old 
Etruscan verb iduo, I divide: Lat.), eight 
days in each month of the Roman calendar. 
They began on the 15th of March, May, 

1 July, and October; and on the 13th of the 
other tnonths. The Ides, like the calends 
and nones, were always reckoned back¬ 
wards ; thus they said viii. Idus, the eighth 
day before the Ides, vii. Idus, the seventh 
before the Ides, &c. This method of reckon¬ 
ing is still retained in the chancery of 
,, Rome, and in the calendar of the breviary. 

ID'IOM (idios, peculiar: Gr.), in Grammar, 
a term applied to such phrases as are pecu¬ 
liar to a language, and which, if transferred 
into another, would have no meaning, or a 
i wholly different one. Idioms can never be 
literally translated. 

IDIOPATH'IC (idos, peculiar ; and pathos, 
a feeling, Gr.), an epithet for any disorder 
■ peculiar to a certain part of the body, and 
not arising from a preceding disease: in 
[; which sense it is opposed to sympathetic. 

1 Thus, an epilepsy is idiopathic, when it 
li happens merely through some morbid 
(i state of the brain : and sympathetic, when 
; it is the consequence of some other dis- 
^ order. 

L--- 

IDIOSYN'CRAGY ("didsuiikrasia: from 
idios, peculiar; sun, with ; and krasis, a tem¬ 
perament: Gr.), a peculiar temperament or 
organizaton of the body, by which it is ren¬ 
dered more liable to certain disorders than 
bodies differently constituted usually are. 

ID'IOT (idiutes, an inexperienced person : 
Gr.), in Law, one who has been born totally 
without understanding. A lunatic is one 
who has lost it by sickness, grief, &c., so as 
to have no lucid intervals. Commissions 
are issued upon petition, by the lord-chan¬ 
cellor, to determine whether or not a party 
be under such imbecility as to require 
protection in the management of his 
affairs. 

I'DOCRASE (idea, form ; and krasis, mix¬ 
ture : Gr.), because a mixture of the forms 
of other minerals, the volcanic garnet, some¬ 
times called volcanic chrysolite or hyacinth. 1 
It is found in the ejected masses of Vesu¬ 
vius and elsewhere, and is of various colours. 

It is an alumino-silicate of lime, with about 
one-twentieth oxide of iron. 

IDOL'ATRY (eidololatreia: from eidolon, \ 
an image • and latreia, service : Gr.), in its 
literal acceptation, denotes the worship 
paid to idols. 

I'DYL (eidullion, a dim. of eidos, form: 
Gr.), a short pastoral poem, exemplified by 
the Idyls of Theocritus and Gesner. 

IGNES'CENT (ignesco, I kindle : Lat.), in 
Mineralogy, an epithet applied to a stone or 
mineral which gives out sparks when struck 
with steel or iron. 

IG'NIS FAT'UUS (vain fire : Lat.), a me¬ 
teor or light that appears in the night over 
marshy grounds. It is occasioned by an 
ascent from the earth of phosphuretted 
hydrogen gas, derived from animal and 
vegetable remains, and igniting of itself in 
the air. It is vulgarly called Will-o'-the 
wisp, or Jaclc-o'-lantem. 

IG'NIS JUDPGIUM (the judgment of 
fire : Lat.), in Archaeology, the old judicial 
trial by fire. 

IG'NIS SA'CER (holy fire: Lat.), in Medi- j 
cine, the disease vulgarly known by the j 
name of St. Anthony's fire. 

IGNITION (ignis, fire : Lat.), the act of 
taking fire ; combustion is a consequence of 
ignition. Iron, when red-hot, is ignited; 1 
but when plunged into oxygen it undergoes 
combustion. Spontaneous ignition is that 
which takes place of itself. 

IGNORA'MUS (Lat.), in Law, the term 
used by the grand jury when they ignore or 
throw out a bill of indictment. It means, 
‘We know nothing about it, or have not 
sufficient evidence respecting it.’ 

IGUA'NA (Ind.), in Zoology, a genus of 
reptiles, found in the tropical parts of 
America. They are characterized by a body 
and long round tail covered with imbricated 
scales, five toes on each foot, a dewlap un¬ 
der the throat, and a toothed ridge along 
the back. They feed on fruits, seeds, and 
leaves. The female deposits her eggs, 
which are about the size of a pigeon’s, in 
the sand. Some species attain a great size, 
and are very active ; but although formid¬ 
able in appearance, they are all timid and 
defenceless. 

B B 









































JjcmUttic antr 


37 c* 


tGUANODON] 


IGUAN'ODON (iguana; and odous, a 
tooth : Gr.), an extinct herbivorous reptile 
of enormous dimensions, the fossil remains 
of which have been found in the Wealden 
beds. Its chief distinctive character is the 
form of the teeth, which have serrated 
edges, like those of the iguana. Prom the 
proportions which the hones of the iguano- 
don hear to the iguana, this monster of a 
former world must have been 70 feet from 
the snout to the tail; and the latter alone 
must have been 52} feet in length. The 
circumference of the body was about 14} 
feet, and the snout was armed with a short 
I but strong horn; but its tail must have 
been its most effective weapon. 

IL'EUM {ilia, the bowels : Lat.), the last 
portion of the small intestine, terminating 
at the valve of the caecum. 

I'LEX {Lat), in Botany, a genus of ever- 
1 green shrubs, nat. ord. Aqui/oliacecc, in- 
j eluding the holy. 

IL'l AC PAS'SION (ilia, the bowels: Lat.), 
a sort of nervous colic, in which bilious 
and faecal matter is voided by the mouth, 
on account of obstructions in the intestinal 
I canal 

IL'IAD ( Ilias, from Ilion, Troy: Gr.), the 
oldest epic poem in existence; generally 
attributed to Homer. It is in Greek hexa¬ 
meter verse, and is divided into 24 books. 
Its theme is ‘ the wrath of Achilles, which 
brought countless woes upon the Greeks, 
and hurled many valiant souls down to 
Hades ’ at the siege of Troy, when that tvar- 
rior had quarrelled with Agamemnon, the 
leader of the Greeks. The siege proceeds, 
but Achilles withdraws himself; the gods 
take different sides and assist in the light; 
single combats are related between Paris 
and Menelaus, and Hector and Ajax. Many 
engagements take place without decisive 
results. In one of them, Patroclus the 
friend of Achilles is slain, and this enrages 
.Achilles so much that he returns to the 
fight, having obtained a new suit of armour 
and a splendid shield from Vulcan. Hector 
is slain by Achilles, and the body is dragged 
along the ground behind the victor’s 
chariot. Priam, his father, however, ran¬ 
soms the body, the funeral obsequies 
are duly performed, and so the poem ends. 
One of the most beautiful passages in this 
celebrated poem is that which relates the 
parting of Hector and his wife Andromache. 
The Iliad is so wanting in continuity, and 
contains so many inconsistent passages, 
that it is thought to be the work of several 
persons. Writers differ as to the date of its 
composition, but it may be most probably 
assigned to the 900th century b.o. [See 
Odyssey.] 

IL'IUM OS (the bone of the entrails: 
Lat), in Anatomy, the haunch-bone. 

IL'LATIVE CONVER'SION ( Hiatus, in¬ 
ferred: Lat.), in Logic, that in which the 
truth of the converse follows from the 
truth of the proposition given. Thus, from 
the fact that no honourable man is a liar, 
it follows that no liar is an honourable 
man. 

ILLI'CITTM (illicio, I allure: Lat. ; it is an 
enticing plant on account of its smell), a 
genus of evergreen shrub, nat. ord. Win¬ 


ter acece. The species are natives of Japan 
and Florida. 

ILLUMINATI (the enlightened : Lat.), a 
secret society formed in Bavaria in 1776. 
Its professed object was the attainment of 
a higher degree of virtue and morality than 
was found in ordinary society. It was 
suppressed by the Bavarian government in 
1784. By some writers, the Illuminati are 
said to have had a powerful influence in 
promoting the French revolution; and by 
others the assertion is absolutely denied. 

-Among the early Christians, the term 

Illuminati was given to persons who had 
received baptism; in which ceremony a 
iighted taper was given to them, as a sym¬ 
bol of the faith and grace they had obtained 
by that sac.ramen t. 

ILLU'MINATING ( illumino, I make splen¬ 
did : Lat ), the art of laying colours on ini¬ 
tial capitals in books, or otherwise embel¬ 
lishing manuscripts, after the manner of the 
artists formerly called Illuminators. Manu¬ 
scripts, containing portraits, pictures, and 
emblematic figures, form a valuable part of 
the riches preserved in the principal libra¬ 
ries in Europe. 

IM'AGE (imago: Lat), in Optics, the ap¬ 
pearance or picture of an object, formed 
either by reflection or refraction. With a 
convex lens, the image is as much less than 
the object as the square of the distance of 
the lens from the object is greater than the 
square of the distance of the lens from the 
image. In plane mirrors, the image is of 
the same magnitude as the object, and ap- j 
pears as far behind the mirror as theobject 
is before it. In convex mirrors, the image is 
less than theobject. In concave mirrors, the 
image is larger or smaller than the object, 
accoi-ding as the latter is in that conjugate 
focus, which is nearer to or further from 
the mirror. The brightness of an image is 
proportional to the apparent magnitude of 
the mirror or lens, as seen from the object, 
multiplied by the area of the object, and 
divided by the area of the image. Hence, 
when, as with the magic lantern, the image 
is larger than the object, the latter must 
be strongly illuminated. When the object 
and its image are only physical points, as 
in the case of the stars, the brightness of 
the image is proportional to the magnitude 
of the lens, or the square of the diameter 
of the aperture of the telescope. Hence 
stars, invisible with small telescopes, are 

rendered visible by larger. -Image, in 

Rhetoric, a lively description of anything, 
in a discourse, which presents a kind of pic¬ 
ture to the mind.- Image, in a religious 

sense, an artificial representation of some 
person or thing, used either by way of 
decoration and ornament, or as an object of 
religious worship and veneration. 

IMAGINARY QUANTITIES or Surds, 
in Algebra, the even roots of negative 
quantities, being the imaginary results 
of some impossible operation. Thus, 

V — x‘ z is an impossible quantity, since no 
quantity multiplied by itself can produce 

_X2. 

IMAGINATION ( imaginatio: Lat.), in 
Metaphysics, that action of the mind by 
which it combines ideas, and * bodies forth > 



























371 


Ettcrary Crsa^iuy. [impetratioh 


the forms and images of things.’ In many 
philosophical disquisitions, imagination is 
used almost synonymously with fancy. 
But the object of the latter seems to be to 
furnish materials which may be used by the 
former. 

IMAGO (image: Lat.), in Entomology, the 
j typical or perfect form of a species of 
insect after undergoing metamorphosis. 

IM'AM or IM'AN, an inferior order of 
ministers of religion in the Turkish em¬ 
pire. The chief imam of each mosque as¬ 
sists at circumcisions, marriages, burials, 
Ac., and presides over the assembly of the 
faithful: the solemn noon prayer on Friday 
being superintended by the khatib. The 
legitimate successor of Mahomet, in -whom 
j theoretically the temporal and ecclesiastical 
government of Islam should reside, is 
j termed Imam by pre-eminence; but the 
Turks are not agreed as to what precisely 
this dignity is, or who bears it. 

IM'BRIOATE or IM'BRICATED (imbri- 
! catus, laid one upon another like tiles: 

; Lat.), in Botany, lying one over another, 
like tiles on a roof; thus, the scales on the 
cups of some acorns. 

IMMER'SION (immersio, from immergo, 
I plunge into : Lat.), in Astronomy, the dis¬ 
appearance of any celestial object behind 
another, or its shadow. Thus, in an eclipse 
of one of Jupiter’s satellites, the immersion 
j occurs when the satellite disappears behind 
the body of the planet, or enters its sha¬ 
dow. The reappearance of the body is 
called its emersion. The immersions and 
emersions of fixed stars, occulted by the 
moon, are highly important for the correc- 
tion of lunar tables.- Baptism by immer¬ 

sion seems to have been the most ancient 
! method of administering that sacrament; 

a triple immersion being used, at least after 
i some time, in honour of the Trinity. 

IMMOLA'TION (immolatio, a sacrificing: 

I Lat.), a ceremony used in the Roman sacri¬ 
fices ; it consisted in throwing upon the 
head of the victim some sort of corn and 
frankincense, together with the mola, or 
salt cake, and a little wine. 

IM'PACT (impingo, I dash against any¬ 
thing : Lat.), in Mechanics, the simple or 
I single action of one body upon another, 
j The point of impact is the point or place 
where the body acts. 

IMPA'LEMENT, in Heraldry, the divi¬ 
sion of a shield palewise, when it is said to 
lie party per pale. Impalement per baron et 
feme is the division which takes place on 
marriage, the husband’s coat being borne 
on the dexter side, and the wife’s on the 
sinister. -Impalement, a species of pun¬ 

ishment used by some barbarous nations, 
and consisting in a stake being thrust up 
through the body, and the victim being 
left to die a lingering death. 

IMPAllISYLLAB'IC (impar, unequal; 
and syllaba, a syllable: Lat), in Grammar, 
an epithet for words not having the same 
number of syllables. 

IMPAR'LANCE (parler, to speak: Fr.), 
an old law term for a privilege or license 
granted, on petitioning the court for time 
to consider what answer the defendant 
should make to the plaintiffs declaration. 


IMPASTA'TION (Fr., from p&te, paste), 1 
the baking or binding together with some 
cement, and the hardening by air or fire, 
a mixture of various materials of different 
colours and consistencies, so as to form 
them into a paste of some kind. 

IMPASTO (Ital.), a term used by artists 
with reference to the degree of thickness 
with which the colours in an oil painting 
are laid on. In some pictures the impasto 
is so thin that the threads of the canvass 
may be counted; in others, those of Rem¬ 
brandt for instance, it is so thick that the 
paint stands up in lumps. 

IMPA'TIENS (impatient: Lat), the name 
given by Linnmus to the botanical genus 
which includes the well-known balsams, on 
account of the elastic force with which the 
valves of the fruit separate on being 
touched when near maturity. 

IMPEACH'MENT (empUcliement: Fr.), in 
Laiv, the accusation brought against a 
public officer in parliament, for treason or 
other crimes and misdemeanors. An im¬ 
peachment by the House of Commons is of 
the nature of a presentment to the House 
of Lords, the supreme court of criminal 
jurisdiction. The articles of impeachment, 
found by the Commons, are the same as a 
bill of indictment, which is to be tried by 
the Lords. 

IMPENETRABILITY (impenetrabilis, 
that cannot be penetrated: Lat.), in Philo¬ 
sophy, that quality of matter which pre¬ 
vents two bodies from occupying the same j 
space, at the same time. 

IMPER'ATIVE (iwperativus, proceeding 
from a command : Lat.), in Grammar, one | 
of the moods of a verb, used when we would 
command, exhort, or advise. 

IMPERA'TOR (commander: Lat.), in ] 
Roman Antiquity, a title of honour con- | 
ferred on victorious generals by their j 
armies, and confirmed by the senate. 
After the overthrow of the republic, im- 
perator became the highest title of the 
supreme ruler; and, in later times, it had 
the signification which we attach to the 
word emperor. 

IMPEll'FECT (imperfectus, unfinished: 
Lat.), a tense in grammar, denoting a mo- ' 
difleatkm of a verb, which expresses that j 
the action or event of which we speak was, j 
at the time to which we refer, in an un¬ 
finished state. In English, it is designated 
by teas, with the present participle. 

IMPER'SONAL VERB (impersonalis: 
Lat.), in Grammar, a verb used only in the 
third person singular, with it for a nomina¬ 
tive in English ; as it rains. Impersonal 
verbs, in every language, must refer to 
some noun ; and therefore must, in reality, 
have some nominative case. 

IMPETI'GO (Lat.), in Medicine, an erup¬ 
tion of small pustules, sometimes called 
the moist-tetter. Certain trades, in which 
irritating substances are brought in contact 
with the skin, often produce it. Cleanli¬ 
ness is a great preventive of it. 

IMPETRA'TION (impetratio, an obtain¬ 
ing by request: Lat.\ the obtaining any¬ 
thing by request or prayer; but in our old 
statutes, it is taken for the pre-obtaining 
from the court of Rome, of church bene* 





























impetus] (JTIjc Scientific anfl 


flees in this realm, the disposal of which 
belonged to the king and other lay patrons, 
i IM'PETUS (Lat \ in Mechanics, the force 
with which one body impels or strikes an¬ 
other. 

IM'PORTS AND EX'PORTS ( importo , I 
carry into ; and exporto, I carry away : Lat.). 
Under these appellations are comprised the 
various commodities brought into this 
country from abroad; and those home 
manufactures and products which, through 
our commercial relations, we sell or barter, 
and send to other countries. 

IMPO'SE (impose!', to impose: Fr.), in 
Printing, to put the pages on the imposing 
stone, and fit on the chase, so as to prepare 
the form for the press. 

IMPOSITION OF HANDS (impositio, a 
laying on: Lat.), a religious ceremony in 
which the bishop lays his hands upon the 
head of a person, in ordination, confirma¬ 
tion, or in the uttering a blessing. This 
practice is also generally observed by dis¬ 
senters at the ordination of their ministers, 
while a blessing is invoked on the labours 
I of him they are ordaining. Imposition of 
hands was a Jewish ceremony, introduced 
not by any divine authority, but by custom ; 
! their practice being, whenever they prayed 
for any person, to lay their hands on his 
head. 

IMPOS'STBLE (impossibilis: Lat.). A 
thing is said to be physically impossible, if 
it cannot be done by any natural powers, as 
the resurrection of the dead; and morally 
impossible, if in its own nature it is pos¬ 
sible, but is attended with difficulties or 
circumstances which give it the appearance 
of being impossible :— morally impossible is 
the same as extremely improbable. 

IM'POST ( impositus, laid on : Lat.), any 
J tax or tribute imposed by authority, par- 
i ticularly a duty or tax laid by government 
on goods imported.—In Architecture, 
that part of a pillar, pier, or pilaster, which 
receives an arch; and generally any sup¬ 
porting piece. 

IMPOS'THUME, in Surgery, an abscess, 
or gathering of corrupt matter, in any part 
of the body. 

IMPREGNATION (applied to animals 
and plants), the act of fecundating and 
making fruitful. In Botany, a deposit of 
the fecundating dust or pollen of the sta¬ 
mens on the pistils of a plant. 

IMPRESCRIPTIBLE RIGHTS (in, not ; 
and prcescribo, I object to : Lat.), such rights 
as a man may use or not at pleasure; those 
which cannot be lost to him by those 
claims! °f another which are founded on 
prescription. 

IMPRES'SION (impressio: Lat.), in the 
Arts, is used to signify the transfer of en¬ 
gravings from a hard to a soft substance, 
whether by means of the press, as in 
copper-plate and lithographic, printing, or 
by means of wax, &c., as with copies ob¬ 
tained from medals and engraved gems-. 
The word is used also to denote a single 
edition of a book. 

IMPRIMATUR (let it be printed: Lat.). 
the word by which the licenser allows a 
book to be printed, in countries where the 
censorship of books is rigorously exercised. 


372 


The fornnilar is still used in some of our 
universities, particularly those of Scot¬ 
land. 

IMPRI'MJS (Lat.), in the first place ; first 
in order. 

IMPROMPTU (Fr.), in Literature, a 
short and pointed production, supposed to 
be brought forth without premeditation. 

IMPROPRIATION (in, to ; and proprins, 
one’s own : Lat.), in Law, the ownership 
of tithes, glebe or other ecclesiastical dues, 
by a layman. The term appropriation is 
generally used if they are in the hands of 
ecclesiastical persons. When the religious 
societies were dissolved at the reformation, 
the lands, &c., belonging to many benefices 
which had been in their hands were given 
to the king, who granted them to lay im¬ 
propriators. 

IMPROVVISATO'RI (Ital; from impro- 
viso, unpremeditatedly: Lat), those who 
compose and recite verses extempora¬ 
neously, either accompanying the voice, or 
not, with an instrument; as is the practice 
in Italy. A talent for the extemporaneous 
recitation of verses seems almost a pe¬ 
culiar characteristic of the Italians. It is 
no uncommon thing to see two masks that 
happen to meet during the carnival clial- 
I lenging each other inverse, and answering 
stanza for stanza with genuine humour 
and poetic feeling. The talent of an im- 
provvisatore (says Sismondi) is the gift of 
nature, and a talent which has frequently 
no relation to the other faculties. When it 
is manifested in a child it is studiously cul¬ 
tivated, and he receives all the instruction 
which seems likely to be useful to him in 
his art. The improvvisatore generally begs 
from the audience a subject for his verse. 
The topics usually presented to him are 
drawn from mythology, religion, history, 

I or some passing event of the day. After 
having been informed of the subject, lie 
remains a moment in meditation, to view it 
in its various lights, and to shape out the 
plan of the little poem which he is about to 
compose. He then prepares the eight first 
verses, that his mind during the recitation 
of them may receive the proper impulse, 
In about seven or eight minutes he is fully 
prepared, and commences his poem, which 
often consists of 500 or 600 verses. His 
eyes wander around him, his features glow, 
and he struggles with the prophetic spirit 
which seems to animate him. 

INA'LIENABLE (in, not; and alienabilis, 
capable of being transferred: Lat.), an 
epithet applied to such things as cannot bo 
legally alienated or made over to another: 
thus, the dominions of a sovereign, the 
revenues of the church, the estates of a 
minor, &c. are inalienable, otherwise than 
with a reserve of the right of redemption. 

INAUGURATION ( inauguratio , a begin¬ 
ning: Lat., literally the taking of omens: 
a practice observed by the Romans at the 
commencement of every important en¬ 
terprise;, the act of inducting into office 
with solemnity: as the coronation of an em¬ 
peror or king, or the consecration of a 
prelate. 

IN CA, the name or title given by the 
natives of Peru to their king and to the 
















373 


Ettentru CrcaSurj). 


[incompatible 


princes of the blood, before the conquest of 
that country by the Spaniards. 

INCANDES'CENCE ( ivcandesqo, I grow 
hot: Lat.), the glowing whiteness of a me¬ 
tallic or other body, caused by intense heat. 

INCARNATION (in; and caro, flesh: 
Lat.), in Surgery, the process of healing 
wounds, and replacing morbid with new 
flesh. 

IN'CENSE ( encens; Fr.) [See Frankin¬ 
cense.] The burning of incense made part 
A the daily service of the Jewish temple; 
and in the Roman Catholic church it is the 
deacon’s office to incense the officiating 
priest or prelate and the choir. In the 
religious rites of heathen nations, too, spices 
and fragrant gums were burnt as incense. 

-Incensed, in Heraldry, an epithet for 

panthers when represented with lire issuing 
from their mouths and ears. 

INCEPTIVE MAG'NITUDE ( incipio, I 
begin: Lat.), a first principle having no mag¬ 
nitude itself, but capable of producing it by 
being enlarged; thus, a point. — In Gram¬ 
mar, an inceptive, or inchoative verb, i ndicates 
acommencementof increase in the qualities 
indicated by the original verb. Thus, augeo 
means ‘I increase;’ but augesco, ‘ I begin 
to increase.’ 

INCIDENCE, Angle of ( inciclo , I fall 
upon : Lat.), the angle formed by a straight 
line which cuts any other line or surface 
with the perpendicular to that line or sur¬ 
face drawn through the point of intersection. 

-In Optics, when rays of light striking 

a body are reflected, the angle of incidence 
and the angle of reflection are equal. 

IN'CIDENT ( incidens, happening: Lat.), in 
Law, something i hat inseparably belongs to 
another termed the principal: thus, a court 
baron is incident to a manor. 

INCINERATION (in, into; and cinis, 
ashes : Lat.), in Chemistry, the combustion 
of organic substances, for the purpose of 
obtaining their incombustible residue. 

INCI'SORS ( incido, I cut through : Lat.), 
the name given to the front teeth in the 
jaws of vertebrate animals, because they cut 
the food. 

INCLINATION ( inclinatio : L+ct.), a word 
frequently used in Geometry and Natural 
Philosophy, and signifying the mutual 
approach, tendency, or leaning of two lines 
or two planes towards each other, so as to 
make an angle. — Inclination of aright 
line to a plane, the acute angle which that 
line makes with another right line drawn 
in the plane through the point where the 
inclined line intersects it, and through the 
point where it is also cut by a perpendicular 
to the plane let down from any point of the 

inclined line.- Inclination of the axis 

of the earth, the angle which it makes with 
the axis of the ecliptic, or the angle con¬ 
tained between the planes of the equator 
! and the ecliptic, viz. 23° 28'. Inclination of 

the lunar orbit to the ecliptic, 5° 8' 48".- 

Inclination in terrestrial magnetism is 
tlie angle which the magnetic needle makes 
with the plane of the horizon. The dip, as 
it is frequently termed, varies from the mag¬ 
netic equator, where it is ml, to the mag¬ 
netic pole, where the needle is at right 
angles to the plane of the horizon. Lines 


drawn through points on the earth’s sur¬ 
face, where the angles of dip are equal, are 
termed isoclinal lines. 

INCLI'NED PLANE (inclino, I incline: 
Lat.), in Mechanics, one of the six mechani¬ 
cal powers, and one of the two to which all 
are reducible—a plane inclined to the hori¬ 
zon, or making an angle with it. The wedge 
is a modification of the inclined plane, being 
formed of two inclined planes placed base 
to base. The screw is another modification, 
being, in fact, merely an inclined plane 
wound round a cylinder. Its common ap¬ 
plication is to elevate bodies, which are 
raised perpendicularly while they are moved 
up the plane. And the mechanical advan¬ 
tage is as the increased distance moved 
over : that is, as the length of the inclined 
plane is to the perpendicular height gained. 
Thus, if the inclined plane is one hundred 
times as long as it is high, not taking fric¬ 
tion into account, it will require only the 
hundredth of a given weight to raise it along 
the inclined plane; but in accordance with 
that invariable law, ‘What is gained in 
power is lost in time,’ the power will move ) 
one hundred times as far as the perpendicu¬ 
lar distance through which the weight is 
raised, and will take one hundred times as 
long a time as if the inclined plane were not 
used with it. The inclined plane, in this 
case, bears ninety-nine hundredths of the 
weight of the body. 

IN CCE'NA DOM'INI (at the Lord’s sup¬ 
per : Lat.), the title of a celebrated papal bull, 
which enumerates certain rights claimed by 
the Romish church, and anathematizes those 
who violate them. All sects of heretics are 
cursed in it, by their several names. It was 
formerly read every year on Holy Thursday, 
whence its name; but latterly on Easter 
Monday. A copy of it is hung up on the door 
of St. Peter’s, and another on that of St. 
John Lateran; and all primates, patriarchs, 
bishops, &c., are required to have it read 
in their clmr'dies once or more every year. 

INCOG'NITO (abbreviated to incog, un¬ 
known : Ital.), so disguised as not to be re¬ 
cognized ; a mode of travelling without any 
mark of distinction, which is sometimes 
adopted by princes and eminent persons 
who do not wish to be publicly received. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE CLOTH (in, not; and 
combustibilis, that may be burned : Lat ), a 
cloth made from a stone termed Amianthus 
or Asbestos. The ancients used it for wrap¬ 
ping round the dead bodies consumed on the 
funeral pyre, that their remains might not 
mingle with those of the wood, &c., used to 
consume them. 

INCOMMEN'SURABLE (in, not; con, to¬ 
gether ; and mensurabilis, that can be mea¬ 
sured : Lat.), a term applied to two lines or 
quantities which have no common mea¬ 
sure by which they can be exactly divided. 
Quantities are incommensurable, when no 
third quantity can be found that is an ali¬ 
quot part of each. 

INCOMPATIBLE (in, not; and compassi- 
bilis, that may be suffered together: Lat.), 
in Chemistry, bodies which cannot be placed 
together in solution without mutual decom¬ 
position ; thus the solution of a salt of ba¬ 
rytes is incompatible with the solution of a 































CCIjc JMcuttfic antt 376 


indulgence] 


on one side, and negative on the other. 
Induction, in Law, the introduction of a 
clergyman into possession of a benefice or 
living, to which he is collated or presented. 

■- Induction, in Logic, a process of rea¬ 

soning, by which we draw a general infer¬ 
ence from a number of facts. Applied to 
physical enquiries, it has been styled gene¬ 
ralisation from experience. It consists (says 
J. S. Mill) in inferring from some individual 
instances in which a phenomenon is obser¬ 
ved to occur, that it occurs in all instances 
of a certain class; namely in all which re¬ 
semble the former in what are regarded as 
the material circumstances. 

INDUL'GENCE ( indulgentia , a. pardon : 
Led.), in the Roman Catholic church, a re¬ 
mission of the punishment due to sins, 
granted by the pope or church, and sup¬ 
posed to save the sinner from purgatory. 
Ciement VI., in his decretal, declares that 
an infinite treasure of merits was left by 
Christ, arising from his own sufferings and 
the good works of the Virgin and the 
saints; and that the pastors of the church, 
and more especially the popes, who are the 
sovereign disposers of this treasure, have 
authority to apply it to the living, by virtue 
of the keys, and to the dead, by way of 
suffrage, so as to discharge them from their 
respective proportions of punishment by 
taking just so much merit out of this ge¬ 
neral treasure as they conceive the debt re¬ 
quires, and offering it to God. The histo¬ 
rical origin of indulgences is traced to the 
public penances and the canonical punish¬ 
ments which the old Christian church im¬ 
posed on the community, especially on 
those who did not remain firm unto mar¬ 
tyrdom. In the pontificate of Leo X., the 
flagrant abuse of indulgences became an 
! open scandal, and led to the reformation in 
Germany. 

I INDUL'TO (a pardon : Ttal.), in the church 
; bf Rome, a power granted to present to 
! benefices, or to do something contrary to 
! ordinary law. 

| INER'TIA or VIS INEIFTLE (inactivity; 
the effect of inactivity : Led.), in Mechanics, 
that property of matter which causes it, as 
it were, to resist a change of state: that 
is, prevents it from stopping when in mo¬ 
tion, and from moving when at rest. But 
it may be said, that however great the 
velocity of a moving body, it will always 
stop at last. This is true: but it does not 
j stop of itself; it is stopped by the resist¬ 
ance of the air and by friction. No such 
agents interfere with the motions of the 
heavenly bodies, and therefore they con¬ 
tinue to obey the impulse they origin¬ 
ally received. This seeming resistance of 
bodies to motion or rest is merely a conse¬ 
quence of the necessity there is for time to 
elapse while they are receiving or losing 
motion, which can neither be imparted nor 
removed instantaneously. 

INESCUTCH'EON, in Heraldry, a small 
escutcheon borne within the shield. 

IN ES'SE ( Lat .), actually existing; dis¬ 
tinguished from in posse, which denotes 
that a thing is not, but may be. 

IN'PAMY ( infamia: Lat.), in Law, that 
total doss of character or public disgrace 


by which a person was formerly rendered 
incapable of being a witness or a juror. No 
person is now excluded, on this account, 
from being a witness. 

IN'FANCY ( infantia, literally inability to 
speak: Lat.), the period, physically consi¬ 
dered, from birth to seven years; and le¬ 
gally till twenty-one, previously to which 
age no one can inherit, or incur any debt 
except for necessaries. The contracts of a 
minor, however, are not void, but voidable ; 
and though they cannot beenforced against 
him, he may enforce them against another, 
and may confirm them at the end of his 
minority. Under seven years of age, he 
cannot be guilty of felony; between seven : 
and fourteen, there is a presumption that 
he is doli inceipcix (not capable of guilt); 
but, if it is shown that he could distinguish 
between good and evil, he may be con¬ 
demned even to death. 

INFAN'TE and INFAN'TA, appellations 
given to all the sons and daughters of the 
kings of Spain and Portugal, except the 
eldest. The dignity of the title consists 
in the pre-eminence implied by styling the 
children of the king the children. It was 
anciently given to all hidalgos. The word 
childe was used in a similar way in England 
during the middle ages. 

IN'FANTRY (infanterie: Fr.), in Military 
affairs, the whole body of foot soldiers, as 
distinguished from ceevalry. Infantry is 
divided into light infantry and that of the 
line. The latter forms the great mass of 
the army, which is intended to fight in line. 
The light infantry serves chiefly in the out¬ 
posts, furnishes sharpshooters, makes bold 
expeditions, and harasses the enemy. The 
excellence of infantry depends on their 
good order in advancing and retreating, 
perfect acquaintance with their drill and 
duties, a just delivery of their fire, and 
great calmness in all circumstances. In 
the British army there are 109 regiments of 
regular infantry. 

INFEC'TION ( inficio, I corrupt: Lat.), the 
morbid effluvia of one animal body affecting 
the similar organs of another: as small-pox, 
putridity, &c. It has been questioned 
whether this effect can be carried from 
place to place, and whether most diseases, 
called infectious, are not occasioned by 
local circumstances which affect certain 
subjects in the population. Infection is 1 ! 
considered to differ from contagion, by 
being communicated through the air in¬ 
stead of from person to person. The infec¬ 
tion of the plague and of the yellow fever is 
imported in ships and conveyed in clothing; 
persons also take infection from the air of 
apartments where the sick are confined. 

INFER'NAL MACHI'NE, a name which 
has been given on more than one occasion ! 
to a terrific engine invented for the purpose 
of assassination. That which was intended 1 
for the destruction of Louis-Pliilippe, on 
the 28th July, 1835, and which, though the 
king and his three sons who were riding 
with him escaped, killed sixteen and 
wounded eighteen persons, consisted of a 
number of gun-barrels, so arranged in a 
frame as to be fired off in a volley. 

IN'FIDEL (infldelis, Led.), a term of re- I 
































377 


Httcrarn Erea£ury. 


proacb for any one who rejects the funda¬ 
mental articles of religious belief of a coun- 
■ try. In Turkey the Christians are styled 
infidels; in Europe, the Mahommedans. 

INFILTRATION, the act or process of 
entering the pores or cavities of a body. 
i [See Filtration.] 

IN'FINITE ( infinities, boundless: Lat.). 
In Mathematics, infinite quantities are such 
j as are either greater or less than any as¬ 
sailable ones. An infinite series is one in 
I which the terms continue to be produced 
unceasingly. 

INFINITES'IMAL (from a superlative 
form of infinitus, boundless : Lat.), a term 
denoting an indefinitely small quantity. 

INFIN'ITIVE (infinities, boundless : Lat.), 
in Grammar, a mood expressing the action 
of the verb, without affirming or denying 
it of any subject. 

INFIN'ITY ( infinitas: Lat.), a term ap¬ 
plied to the vast and the minute, to dis¬ 
tances and spaces too great to be expressed 
by any number of integers, or too small to 
be expressed by any fraction; one of the 
incomprehensible but necessarily existing 
wonders of the universe. 

INFIR'MARY ( infirmus, weak : Lat.), a 
charitable establishment, where the poor 
j may receive medical advice and medicines 
! gratis. 

INFLAMMATION (infiammatio, a preter¬ 
natural heat: Lat.), in Pathology, a state of 
any portion of the animal body, character- 
j ized by heat, pain, and redness, attended 
with more or less of tumefaction and fever, 
j Inflammation is divided into two species, 
“phlegmonous and erysipelatous: the former 
is known by its bright red colour, tension, 
heat, and painful tumefaction ; the latter, 
i by its dull red colour, vanishing upon pres- 
! sure, and its exhibiting scarcely any per- 
i ceptible swelling. Besides this division, 
inflammation is either acute or chronic, 
local or general, simple or complicated with 
other diseases. In inflammation, the vas¬ 
cular action of the part is increased ; and 
if it does not terminate in resolution, it 
ends by adhesion, suppuration, and ulcera¬ 
tion, which, when the action is healthy, 
follow each other regularly. 

INFLECT'ED ( inflecto, I bend in: Lat.), 
in Botany, an epithet for a leaf that is bent 
i Inwards at the end towards the stem ; also 
for a calyx that is bent inwards. 

INFLECTION ( infiectio, a turning: Lat.), 
in Optics, the bending or refraction of the 
rays of light, caused by the unequal thick¬ 
ness of any medium.- Inflection, in 

* Grammar, the change which a word under- 
I goes in its termination, to express case, 
number, gender, mood, tense, &c.— Point 
of Inflection, in Geometry, that point 
in which the direction of a curve changes 
from concavity to convexity, and viceversd. 

INFLORESCENCE ( infloresco, I flourish : 
Lat.), in Botany, the manner in which 
flowers are arranged on the axis, or the 
branching of the floral axis. It is sometimes 
termed Anthotaxis. 

INFLUEN'ZA (influence : Ital.; because 
produced, in the opinion of the ignorant, 
by the influence of the stars), in Medicine, 
6u epidemic catarrh, usually attended by 


[infusoria 


languor, headache, quick pulse, and fe 
brile symptoms, which are sometimes of a | 
serious character. It assumes a variety of j 
aspects, dependent on the seasons and other j 
causes. It is supposed to arise from the [ 
presence in the air of a minute quantity 
of highly irritating vapour. 

IN FORMA PAUPERIS. [See Forma 
Pauperis.] 

INFORMATION ( informatio, a represen- 1 
tation : Lat.), in Law, an accusation or com¬ 
plaint exhibited against a person for some 
criminal offence. An information differs 
from an indictment, inasmuch as the latter i 
is laid on the oath of twelve men, but the 1 
information is only the allegation of the ; 
person who exhibits it. Informations are , 
charges on oath, laid before a justice or • 
justices of the peace, with a view to sum¬ 
mary conviction; or a complaint brought 
by the crown itself. The latter is of two | 
kinds: that which is filed ex officio by the j 
attorney-general, in some particular kinds ! 
of misdemeanor of a public nature, and 
calculated to affect the government; and 
that filed, at the relation of some private 
person or informer, by the master of the | 
crown office, for certain gross misde- j 
meanors not immediately calculated to 
disturb the government. 

INFORM'ED STARS (slcllee informes: 
Lat.), in Astronomy, stars not included in 
any constellation. 

IN FORO CONSCIENTI2E (in the court I 
of conscience: Lat.), an expression made 
use of when a man is morally but not le¬ 
gally bound to do something. 

INFRALAfjjjA'RIANS ( infra lapsum, un- i 
der the fall: 5 bat.), Presbyterians who hold 
that God created a certain number of human : 
beings, who must be damned whatever , 
efforts they make to avoid it. They are 
so called, because they maintain that God i 
formed his decrees after his knowledge of 
the fall, and in consequence of it. [See 
SUPRALAPSARIANS.] 

IN'FULA (Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, a 
kind of fillet, made of white wool, loosely 
twisted, and tied with a white band. At 
Roman marriages, the bride carried wool 
on a distaff in the procession, and fixed it 
as an infula on the door-case of her future 
husband. The infula was used also as an 
ornament on festive and solemn occasions. 

INFUNDIBU'LIFORM (infundibulum, a 
funnel; and forma, a form: Lat.), in Bo- j 
tany, having the shape of a funnel; as, a 
flower with a conical border rising from a 
tube. 

INFUNDIB'ULUM CER'EBRI (the fun¬ 
nel of the brain : Lat.), in Anatomy, a cavity 
of the brain through which serous humours 
are discharged. 

INFU'SION (infusio, a pouring upon: I 
Lat.), in Pharmacy, a method of obtaining 
the active constituents of plants, roots, &c., 
by pouring hot water upon them. Also, the 
liquor in which the plants, &c., are steeped, 
and which is impregnated with their pecu¬ 
liar qualities. 

INFUSO'RIA ( infusus, poured upon 
Lat.), animalcules which are so termed be- ! 
cause found very abundantly in stale infu- I 
sions, The name was formerly applied to a 

























Elje ^cteuttfic atift 


378 


ingot] 

heterogeneous assemblage of objects, some 
vegetable, others animal, but it is now re¬ 
stricted to a tribe of minute animals, desti¬ 
tute of shells, and moving by means of cilia. 
They are objects of study to microscopists. 
[See DlATOMACEiE, POLYCYSTINA, IlOTA- 
I TOBIA.] 

IN'GOT ( lingot: Fr .), a small bar of metal 
: made of a certain form and size by casting 
it in moulds. The term is chiefly applied 
to the small bars of gold and silver intended 
either for coining or for exportation to fo¬ 
reign countries. 

IN'GRAILED (in; and gr&le, hail: Fr.), in 
Heraldry, an epithet for anything repre¬ 
sented with the edges ragged, or notched 
semicircularly, as if broken by something 
having fallen upon it, the points being 
turned outward to the field. When they 
are turned inwards towards the ordinary, it 
is invecked. 

IN'GRESS (ingressus: Lat.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, a term applied to the entrance of the 
moon into the shadow of the earth in 
eclipses, the sun’s entrance into a sign, &c. 

- Ingress, egress, and regress, in Law, 

words frequently used in leases of lands, 
which signify a free entry into, a going out 
of, and returning to the premises leased. 

IN'GUINAL (inguinalis, from ingum, the 
groin: Lat.), in Anatomy, &c., belonging to 
the groin. Hence inguinal hernia, called 
by surgeons bubonocele, is a hernia in that 
part. 

INHERITANCE (hcereditas: Lat.), a per¬ 
petual right or interest in an estate, vested 
in a person and his heirs. The inheritances 
mentioned in pur law are either corporeal 
or incorporeal: the corporeal relate to lands, 
i tenements, &e., that may be touched or 
! handled ; and the incorporeal, to such rights 
as are annexed to corporeal inheritances, 
as advowsons, tithes, annuities, offices, &c. 
There is likewise another inheritance,which 
is termed in severalty: that is, where.two 
or more hold lauds or tenements severally, 
as when two persons hold to them and the 
heirs of their two bodies; in which case 
these two have a joint estate during their 
lives, but their heirs have several inherit¬ 
ances. According to the law of inheritance, 
the eldest male child is always preferred, in 
case of intestacy, while sisters take equally 
where there are no sons. He that is of the 
whole blood is preferred [see Descent] be¬ 
fore another that has only a part of the 
blood of his ancestor. Goods and chattels 
cannot be made heritable. [See Heir¬ 
loom.] 

i INHIBI'TION (inhibitio, from inhibeo, I 
restrain: Lat.), in Ecclesiastical Law, a 
writ to forbid a judge’s proceeding in a 
cause that lies before him. This writ gene- 
i rally issuesjmt of a higher court to an in¬ 
ferior, and is of much the same nature as a 
prohibition. 

INJEC'TION ( injicio , I throw into: Lat.), 
in Anatomy, the act of filling the vessels of 
a dead subject with any coloured matter, to 

show their ramifications.- Injection, in 

Surgery, the forcing any liquid into the body 
by means of a syringe or pipe. 

INJUNCTION ( injunctio, a command: 
Lat.), in Law, a writ issuing under the seal 


of a court of equity, where the court thinks 
fit to interfere with the acts of parties or 
the course of other jurisdictions. Thus, 
injunctions are granted to stay proceed¬ 
ings at common law, to prevent the nego¬ 
tiation of notes or other securities, to re¬ 
strain parties from the commissionof waste, 
to preserve property which is in the course 
of litigation, &c. Disobedience of an in¬ 
junction is a contempt of the court from 
which it issues, punishable by imprison¬ 
ment. 

IN'JURY (injuria: Lat.), in a legal sense, ; 
any wrong or damage done to another, 1 
either in his person, rights, reputation, or 
goods. Whatever impairs the quality or 
diminishes the value of goods or property, 
is an injury; so also whatever impairs the 
health, weakens the mental faculties, or 
prejudices the character of a person, is an 
injury. 

INK (encre: Fr.). Tangallate of iron, 
kept suspended in water by gum-arabic, a 
little logwood being generally added to 
improve the colour, constitutes common 
writing ink. It may be made by boiling six 
ounces of finely bruised galls in six pints of 
soft water, and adding to the decoction 
four ounces of gum-arabic and four ounces 
of green vitriol. The whole must be well 
mixed, and then placed in a well-corked 
bottle, which should be occasionally shaken. 
After two months, the ink is to be poured 
off from the residue into glass bottles, into 
each of which a clove or two, or a drop of 
creosote, has been put, to prevent mouldi¬ 
ness, and well corked. A little sugar gives 
a gloss ; and as it prevents rapid drying, is 
added to copying ink. Indian ink is made 
with very fine lampblack and size. Marking 
ink mnv be made by dissolving one drachm 
of fused nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) In an 
ounce of water, which has been previously 
thickened with sap green. Before writing 
with it, the linen must be prepared, by the 
application of a weak solution of carbonate 
of soda thickened with gum-arabic, and 
allowed to dry. Printing ink is boiled 
linseed or nut oil, and lampblack. Red ink 
is a solution of alum coloured with Brazil 
wood. Sympathetic inks are of many kinds; 
they remain invisible until heated, or 
until some substance is applied to them. 
Thus, solutions of cobalt become blue or 
green while heated; lemon-juice turns 
brown in the same circumstances, and very 
dilute sulphuric acid blackens. The heat 
concentrates the acids, and enables them to j 
act on the paper. A writing made -with a 1 
weak infusion of galls becomes visible if 
wetted with a weak solution of sulphate of 
iron ; if made with a weak solution of prus- 
siate of potash, it is rendered visible by a 
solution of sulphate of iron, &c. 

IN'LAND BILLS, in Commerce, bills 
payable in the country where they are 
drawn. 

INLAY'ING, the art of ornamenting 
furniture, or other similar objects, by letting 
into them pieces of metal, ivory, or other 
wood. 

IN LIM'INE (on the threshold: Lat.) 
at the outset; before anything is said or 
done. 





















879 Htteraitf [inquisition 

IN'NATE IDE'AS ( innatus , born with us 
Lat.), principles or ideas supposed to be 
stamped on the mind from the first moment 
of its existence, and brought into the world 
with it: a doctrine which has given rise to 
much discussion, and which the celebrated 
Locke took great pains to refute. 

INN'KEEPERS were formerly liable to 
make good all losses of property belonging 
to their guests and brought to the inn. 
But now by an Act of Parliament passed in 
1S63, no innkeeper is liable to make good 
any loss to property brought to his inn 
(not being a horse or carriage) to a greater 
amount than 301., except in two cases : viz. 
1, where the innkeeper or his servant has 
been guilty of wilful neglect; and, 2, 
where the goods have been deposited with 
the innkeeper expressly for safe custody. 

IN'NOCENTS’ BAY, a festival observed 
by the Christian church on the 28tli of 
December, in memory of the children that 
were slain by command of Herod. 

INNOMINA'TUM (not mimed : Lat.). The 
bones at each side of the pelvis are called 
os innominatum (an unnamed bone), because 
the three bones of which it consists in the 
young subject, viz. the ischium or hip-bone, 
the ilium or liaunch-bone, and the pubis or 
share-bone, grow together in the adult, so 
as to form a single bone, which is thus left 
without a name. 

INNS OP COURT, four corporate so¬ 
cieties in London. Every candidate for the 
rank of barrister-at-law must bo admitted a 
member of one of them, and submit to its 
regulations, as a student. They are, the 
Inner Temple, the Middle Temple, Lincoln's 
Inn, and Gray's Inn. The government of 
each of these inns is vested in a body of 
senior members styled Masters of the 
Bench, or Benchers, and they alone have 
the privilege of calling gentlemen to the 
bar. Each inn has its own hall and library. 
The Temple Church belongs jointly to the 
two Temples ; the other two inns have their 
separate chapels. 

INOOULA'TION (inocnlatio, an ingraft¬ 
ing : Lat.), in Surgery, the operation of 
giving the small-pox to persons, by incision. 
In its more general sense, it includes the 
insertion of any poisonous or infectious 
matter. Inoculation for the small-pox 
was introduced into general notice by Lady 
Mary Wortley Montagu, about the year 
1721, her son having been inoculated at 
Constantinople during her residence-there, 
and her infant daughter being the first that 
underwent the operation in this country. 
It is performed by inserting the point of a 
lancet, armed with the proper matter, just 
under the cuticle. The disease is milder 
when produced in this way than when re¬ 
ceived naturally. The communication of 
the cow-pock infection is termed Vaccina¬ 
tion, which see.- Inoculation, in Gar¬ 

dening, a kind of grafting in the bud ; as 
when the bud of one fruit-tree is set in the 
stock or branch of another, so as to make 
several sorts of fruit grow on the same tree. 
The time to inoculate is when the buds are 
formed at the extremities of the same year’s 
shoot, indicating that the spring growth 

1 for that season is complete. 

INOR'DINATE PROPORTION ( inordi- 
natus, out of order: Lat.), in Geometry, 
that in which the order of the terms com¬ 
pared is irregular or disturbed. 

INORGAN'IC BOD'IES (in, not; and or - 
ganicus, organized: Lat.), such as belong 
neither to the animal kingdom nor to the 
vegetable. 

INOSCULATION (in; and osculatio, a 
union of blood-vessels, literally a kissing : 
Lat.), in Anatomy, the union of vessels, by 
conjunction of their extremities; where 
the ramifications which unite are small or 
capillary, the vessels are usually said to 
anastomose. [See Anastomosis.] 

IN PARTI'BUS INPIDE'LIUM (in the 
parts of unbelievers : Lat.), a phrase em¬ 
ployed with reference to certain vicars 
apostolic appointed by the Pope, with the 
titles of ancient and no longer existing 
dioceses, to dioceses in heretical or heathen 
lands. They were first appointed for In¬ 
dia and other parts of the East. 

IN PRO'PRIA PERSO'NA (Lat.), in one’s 
own person or character. 

IN'QUEST ( inqueesitus, sought for : Lat..), 
a judicial inquiry. It may either be a jury 
to decide on the guilt of an accused person, 
according to fact and law ; to examine the 
weights and measures used by shopkeepers; 
to decide on the cause of any violent or 
sudden death ; or to examine into accusa¬ 
tions before trial, 

INQUI'RY (inquiro, I search for: Lat.) 
Writ of, in Law, a writ that issues out to 
the sheriff, to summon a jury to inquire 
what damages a plaintiff has sustained in 
an action upon the case where judgment 
goes by default. 

INQUISITION, Office of the (inqui- 
sitio, a searching for: Lat.), an ecclesias¬ 
tical court founded by Innocent III., who, 
in 1206, sent Dominic and others to excite 
the Roman Catholic princes and people to 
extirpate heretics, to inquire into their 
number and quality, and to transmit a faith¬ 
ful account of these particulars. From the 
nature of their office, these agents were 
called inquisitors ; and thus arose a tribunal 
which was received in all Italy, and through¬ 
out the dominions of Spain, excepting the 
kingdom of Naples and the provinces of 
the Netherlands. The principle of juris¬ 
prudence upon which the Inquisition pro¬ 
ceeded was that of taking no other proof 
of a delinquent’s guilt than his own con¬ 
fession. He was closely confined in a dark 
and dismal cell, where he was compelled 
to sit motionless and silent, and if his 
feelings found vent in a tone of complaint, 
the ever-watchful keeper warned him to be 
silent. He was accused of nothing specific, 
but was told that his guilt was known, and 
was required to acknowledge it. If he con¬ 
fessed the crime of which he was accused, 
he pronounced his own sentence, and his 
property was confiscated. If he declared 
himself innocent, contrary to the testimony 
of his secret accusers, lie was put to the 
torture. When sentence of death was pro¬ 
nounced against him, the auto-da-fS was 
ordered. At daybreak, the solemn sound 
of the great bell of the cathedral called the < 
faithful to the dreadful spectacle. The con- 























inquisitor] CIjc i»>rin> lie antf 


380 


demned appeared barefooted, clothed in the 
frightful san benito, a frock of yellow sack¬ 
cloth painted with flames, &c., and a conical 
cap on their heads. The Dominicans, with 
the banner of the Inquisition, led the way. 
Then came the penitents, who were to be 
punished by flues, &c., and after the cross, 
which was borne behind the penitents, 
walked the unfortunate wretches who were 
condemned to be burnt alive. The proces¬ 
sion was closed by monks and priests, and 
the heretics were then handed over to the 
executioner, who finished the horrid spec¬ 
tacle in the presence of the multitudes 
assembled to witness the agonies of the 
victims! According to a calculation which 
may be depended on as moderate, 340,000 
perspns were punished by the Inquisition, 
j from 1481 to 1808, of whom nearly 32,000 
j were burnt. The Inquisition had been 
| abolished during the French rule in Spain ; 
it was re-established by Ferdinand VII. in 
1814 ; but on the adoption of the constitu¬ 
tion of the Cortes, in 1820, it was again 
abolished. It was established in Portugal 
in 1557, but was abolished by the Cortes 
in 1821. There were also branches of the 
Inquisition in different parts of France, 
Italy, &c.; but the progress of civilization 
has left them little power anywhere, and 
has put an end to their existence in most 
places. 

INQUISTTOR (a searcher: Lat.), in Law, 
any officer, as the sheriff and the coroner, 
having power to inquire into certain mat¬ 
ters.— Grand Inquisitor, the name 
given to a judge of the Inquisition. 

INRO'LLMENT, in Law, the registering 
or entering on the rolls of the Court of 
Chancery or some other Court, any deed, 
decree, judgment, or other act that the law 
j requires to be inrolled. 

INSAN'ITY ( insanitas: Lat.), mental de¬ 
rangement of any degree, from a slight 
aberration to raving madness. It is, how¬ 
ever, rarely used to express the temporary 
delirium occasioned by fever, &c. 

INSCltl'BED FIG'URE ( inscribo , I write 
in : Lat.), in Geometry, a circle drawn 
j within any figure, and touching all its 
sides; or a figure drawn within a circle 
which touches all its angles. 

INSCRIP'TI (inscribed: Lat.), in Roman 
Antiquity, a name given to those who were 
! branded with any ignominious mark. 

INSCRIPTION ( inscriptio: Lat.), any 
monumental writing,engraved on oraffixed 
! to a thing, to give a more distinct know- 
| ledge of it, or to transmit some important 
fact to posterity. The inscriptions men¬ 
tioned by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus 
j sufficiently show that this was the first 
method of conveying instruction to man- 
i kind, and transmitting knowledge to pos¬ 
terity; thus, the ancients engraved upon 
pillars both the principles of sciences and 
J the history of the world. Pisistratus carved 
| precepts of husbandry on pillars of stone; 
j and the treaties of confederacy between 
i the Romans and Jews were engraved on 
plates of brass. Antiquarians have accord¬ 
ingly been, at all times, very anxio us to 
examine the inscriptions on ancient ruins, 
coins, medals, &a -Inscription, in Nu¬ 


mismatics, words placed in the middle ol 
the reverse side of some coins and medals. 

INSEC'TA (Lat., from inseco, I cut into), 
a class of articulate animals. [Sec Ento¬ 
mology.] 

INSECTIV'OROUS ( insecta , insects ; and 
voro, l devour: Lat.), an epithet for such 
animals as feed on insects. 

IN SITU, a Latin phrase employed by 
geologists with reference to a rock which 
retains its original position in distinction 
to a fragment which has been moved from 
its place. 

INSOLA'TION (insolatio: Lat.), a term j 
sometimes made use of to denote that ex¬ 
posure to the sun which is made in order ! 
to promote the chemical action of one sub¬ 
stance upon another: thus, the immediate 
combination of hydrogen and chlorine, so 
as to form hydrochloric acid.- Insola¬ 

tion or scorching, a disease in plants arising 
from exposure to too bright a light, and i 
due to an excessive evaporation. 

INSOL'VENCY (in, not; and solvo, 1 pay: 
Lat.), the state of a person who has not 
property sufficient for the payment of his j 
debts. 

INSPIRATION ( inspiratio, a breathing 
into : Lat.), in Physiology, the act of draw- i 
ing air into the lungs. 

INSPISSA'TION (inspissatus, thickened: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, the bringing a liquor 
to a thicker consistence by evaporation. 

INSTALLATION (in; and stallum, a 
stall: Mod. Lat.), the ceremony of induct¬ 
ing, or investing with any charge, office, or 
rank; as, the placing a dean or prebendary 
in his stall or seat, or the admission of a 
knight into his order. 

INSTAL'MENT (installer, to put in pos¬ 
session of a place, &c.: Fr.; from stello, I 
send : Gr.), in commercial transactions, the 
payment of a certain portion of a gross 
sum, which is to be paid at different times, 
or, as it is said, by instalments. In consti¬ 
tuting a capital-stock by subscriptions of 
individuals, it is customary to afford facili¬ 
ties to subscribers by dividing the sum 
subscribed into instalments, or portions 
payable at distinct periods. In large con¬ 
tracts, also, it is not unusual to agree that 
the money shall be paid by instalments. 

IN'STANT (installs: Lat.), the smallest 
perceptible portion of time; or that in 
which we perceive no succession. School¬ 
men distinguish three kinds of instant: 
the temporary, a portion of time preceding 
another ; the natural, which is a mere pri¬ 
ority of nature ; and the rational, which is 
not a real point, but one which the under¬ 
standing supposes to have existed before 
another, from the nature of things, which 
cause it to be looked on as pre-existing. 

INSTAN'TER (Lat.), in Law, instantly, 
without the least delay; as, 4 the party was 
compelled to plead instanter.' 

IN STATU QUO (in the state in which: 
Lat.), a phrase signifying that condition in 
which things were at a certain former pe¬ 
riod ; as when belligerent parties, in con¬ 
cluding a treaty, agree that their mutual 
relations shall be in statu quo fuerunt ante 
helium, or as they were before the com¬ 
mencement of the war. 
























381 Etterarg 


IN'STINCT ( instinctus , impulse: Lat.), 
that power of volition or impulse produced 
by the peculiar nature of an animal, which 
prompts it to do certain things, indepen¬ 
dent of all instruction or experience, and 
without deliberation, not only where such 
| acts are immediately connected with its 
i own individual preservation, or with that 
of its kind, but often where they are alto¬ 
gether foreign to the apparent wants of the 
individual, and sometimes, also, extremely 
complicated. We cannot attribute these 
actions to intelligence, without supposing 
a degree of foresight and understanding 
infinitely superior to what we can admit in 
the species that perform them. The actions 
performed by instinct are not the effects of 
imitation, for the individuals that execute 
them have often never seen them done by 
others. They are so much the property of 
the species, that all the individuals perform 
them in the same manner, without any 
modification or improvement. The duck¬ 
ling hastens to the water, the hen remains 
the proper time on her eggs during incuba¬ 
tion, the beaver builds his curious habita¬ 
tion with a skill peculiar to the species, 
and the bees construct, with mathematical 
accuracy, their waxen cells. Instinct, 
then, is a general property of animated 
matter or a law of organized life in a state 
of action. 

INSTITUTE or INSTITUTION (institu- 
tio, an arrangement: Lat.), any society es¬ 
tablished according to certain laws or regu¬ 
lations, for the furtherance of some parti¬ 
cular object; such are colleges or seminaries 
for the cultivation of the sciences, literary 
institutes, mechanics’ institutes, and 
others.— The word institution is applied 
also to a body of laws, rites, and ceremonies, 
which are enjoined by authority as perma¬ 
nent rules of conduct or of government; 
thus, the institutions of Moses or Lycurgus. 

! And to a society of individuals established 
for the promotion of any public object; as 

a charitable or benevolent institution. - 

The term is used likewise for the putting a 
clerk into possession of a spiritual benefice; 
his title will, however, become void, unless, 
within two months after actual possession 
he publicly read in the church of the bene¬ 
fice upon some Lord’s-day.and at one of the 
appointed times, the morning and evening 
service according to the Book of Common 
Prayer, and afterwards publicly declare his 
assent to such book, and also read the 
Thirty-nine Articles, and declare his assent 
to them; and within three months, on 
some Lord’s-day, in the same place, read a 
! declaration, by him subscribed before the 
l ordinary, of conformity to the liturgy. 

INSTRUMENT, Musical (Fr.<, a ma- 
| chine, artificially constructed, for the pro¬ 
duction of musical sounds. It is of three 
kinds, the wind instrument, e. g. the flute, 
the stringed instrument, e.g. the violin, 
and the instrument of percussion, e.g. the 

drum. -Instrument, in Law, a deed or 

writing creating or declaring legal rights, 
and duly executed. 

IN'SULATED ( insulatus , made into an 
island: Lat.), in Architecture, an appellation 
given to such columns as stand alone, or 


Ctfatfury. [intend ant 


free from any contiguous wall, &c., like an 
island in the sea : whence the name. 

INSULATION (same deriv.), in electrical 
experiments, that state in which the com¬ 
munication of electric fluid is prevented by 
the interposition of a non-conductor. 

INSURANCE, in Law and Commerce, the 
act of providing against a possible loss, by 
entering into a contract with one who is 
willing to give assurance ; that is, to bind 
himself to make good such possible loss, 
should it occur. The instrument by which 
the contract is made is denominated apolicy, 
and the stipulated consideration is called 
the premium. Besides policiesfor protection 
against losses by fire or risks at sea, there are 
others on lives, by which a party, for a certain 
premium, agrees to pay a certain sum, if a 
person, to whose life it relates, shall die 
within a time specified, or to pay the execu¬ 
tors of the insured a certain sum at the 
time of his death. Such policies, however, 
usually make an exception in the case of 
death by suicide. In this way a family may 
be furnished with means of support in case 
of the death of its head. According to 
general practice, a life insurance is seldom 
made by the payment of a single sum at the 
time it is effected, but almost always by the 
payment of an annual premium during its 
continuance. An individual, therefore, who 
has insured a sum on his life, would forfeit 
all the advantages of the insurance were he 
not to continue regularly to make his peri¬ 
odical payments. The insurance of life is 
now more generally expressed by the word 
assurance. 

INTA'GLIOS ( intagliare, to cut in: Ttal.), 
precious stones, on which are engraved the 
heads of eminent men, inscriptions, &c., 
and which are usually set in rings, &c. [See 
Gems.] 

INTEGER ( integer, whole Lat.), in Arith¬ 
metic, any number which is not a frac- j 
tion. 

INTEGRAL CAL'CULUS (same deriv.), 
that branch of mathematical analysis j 
which treats of the processes by which a [ 
function may be found, such that its dif¬ 
ferential shall be a given quantity. [See 
Calculus, Differential.] When an in- 
tegral is given, its differential' may bo 
obtained by general rules ; but when a dif- j 
ferential is given, the analyst can only ! 
compare the differential expression which 
is to be integrated with the differentials of 
known quantities, and, from such compa¬ 
rison, infer the form of the corresponding 
integral. There is no direct method of re¬ 
turning from the differential to the integral. 

INTEGRANT PARTS (same deriv.), the 
parts of a body obtained by mechanical di¬ 
vision. Constituent parts differ from these, in J 
being the result of chemical decomposition. 

INTEG'UMENT {integumentum: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, a covering or membrane which 
invests any particular part of an organized 
body. The skin of a leaf and the shell of a 
crab, for example, are integuments. 

INTELLECT ( intellectus: Lat.), that 
faculty of the human mind which receives 
or comprehends the ideas communicated to [ 
it; otherwise called the understanding. 

INTEN'DANT Nintendo, I give my mind [ 







































iNTERCALARY] 


CIk ^n'cuttftc an® 


382 


to anything : Lat.), a word much used in 
Prance, and" denoting a person who has the 
charge, direction, or management of some 
office or department; as an intendant of 
marine, an intendant of finance, &c. 

INTERCAL'ARY {intercalarius, that is to 
he inserted : Lat.), in Chronology, an epithet 
applied to the day inserted in a leap-year. 
The intercalary day was assigned to Febru¬ 
ary because it was the shortest month. It 
was inserted by the ancient Romans be¬ 
tween the 24th and 25tli, a place it still re¬ 
tains in the ecclesiastical calendar ; but in 
the civil, a day is added at the end of the 
month. [See Calendar and Bissextile.] 

INTERCOLUMNIA'TION ( intercohmi - 

nium: Lat.), in Architecture, the space 
between two columns, which is always to 
be proportioned to the height and diameter 
of the columns. 

INTERCOSTAL {inter, between ; and 
costa, a rib : Lat.), in Aiiatomy, an appella¬ 
tion given to such muscles, nerves, arteries, 
and veins, as lie between the ribs. 

INTERDICT ( interdictio, a prohibiting : 
Lat..), an ecclesiastical censure, by which 
the church of Rome forbids the perform¬ 
ance of divine service in a kingdom, pro¬ 
vince, town, &e. In the middle ages, it 
was a very formidable matter ; it caused all 
spiritual services to cease in the kingdom 
against which it was issued : the churches 
were shut up, no sacraments except bap¬ 
tism were administered, corpses were 
buried Without funeral rites, and all the 
| functions of a church which was then 
believed to be the only medium of salvation 
ceased. In 998, Gregory Y. compelled king 
Robert of France to dissolve his marriage 
with his cousin Bertha, by an interdict. 
England was laid under an interdict by 
Innocent III. in the reign of John. The 
last time it was tried as an instrument of 
intimidation wae in 1809, when a pow r erless 
interdict was issued against Napoleon by 
Pius VII. 

INTEREST ( intfrSt: Fr.), the sum of 
money paid or allowed, according to a fixed 
rate, for the loan or use of some other sum. 
The sura lent is called the •principal; the 
sum agreed on as interest is called the rate 
\ per cent Interest is distinguished into 
I simple and compound. Simple interest is 
that which is paid on the sum originally 
lent. Compound interest is that which is 
paid not only upon the principal but upon 
arrears of unpaid interest. When interest 
at five per cent, is thus added to principal 
| the accumulations equal the original sum 

| in about fourteen years..- Interest, in 

Arithmetic, a rule by which the interest 
on money is computed. 

INTERFE'RENCE {inter, between; and 
fero, I bring : Lat.), in Optics, certain phe¬ 
nomena which result from the action of 
rays of light upon each other. If two rai- 
J nute pencils of light, radiating from two 
J different luminous points, fall on a piece 
of paper, &c., at the same spot, equally 
j distant from the luminous points, a greater 
; intensity of light is produced than by 
either pencil singly; also, if the length 
of one of the rays exceeds that of the other 
by some certain difference, or by some | 


multiple of that difference, the intensity of 
the light thrown on the paper is similarly ; 
augmented. But if one ray is longer than 
the other, only to the amount of half that 
difference, or some multiple of the half, the 
two pencils will destroy each other, and a 
black spot or fringe will be produced. The 
difference of length required by the different 
coloured rays is different. This mutual 
action of the rays, increasing each other in 
one case, and destroying each other in the 
other, is termed interference. It is analo¬ 
gous to what occurs when two organ-pipes 
are sounded together, according as they 
are quite or not quite in unison ; if they 
are quite in unison, each will increase the 
sound of the other; if not quite in unison, 
intervals of silence will be produced, 
instead of a continuous sound. If light is 
merely the vibration of an ethereal medium, 
the effects produced with the two rays of 
light can be explained in the same way as 
that with the two sounds; that is, the waves 
of light, like those of sound, when they cor¬ 
respond, augment each other, but, when 
they come in contact in opposite phases, 
neutralize each other. The ease with which 
theundulatory theory explainsinterference, 
and the difficulty of explaining it by the 
theory of emission, are considered a very 
strong argument in favour of the truth of 
the former. 

INTERJECTION ( interjectio, literally a 
throwing betwmen; Lat.), in Grammar, an 
indeclinable part of speech, serving to ex¬ 
press some passion oremotion of the mind ; 
as, ‘Alas! my fondest hopes are now for 
ever fled.’ 

INTERLOC'UTORY OR'DER or DE¬ 
CREE' ( interlocutio, a speaking between : 
Lat.), in Law, an order that does not decide 
the cause, but only some matter incident 
to it, which may happen in an intermediate 
stage. 

INTERLUDE {interludo, I play between : 
Lat), in the Drama, a light entertainment 
exhibited on the stage between the princi¬ 
pal performance and the after-piece. At 
present, the term interlude is applied prin¬ 
cipally to comic operas, written for two or 
three persons. In ancient tragedy, the 
chorus sang the interludes betw'een the 

INTERLU'NIUM {Lat), in Astronomy, 
the time in vdiich the moon does not per¬ 
ceptibly change. 

INTERMITTENT FE'VERS {intermitto, 

I leave off for a time: Lat.), such fevers as 
subside and soon return. These fevers are 
distinguished into various classes, accord¬ 
ing to the interval of time between the 
attacks ; as tertian fever, quartan fever, &c. 

INTERMODIL'LION {inter, between : 
Lat.; and modillion), in Architecture, the 
space between turn modillions, which should 
be equal throughout the entablature. 

INTERNODE {inter, between ; and nodus t 
a knot: Lat), in Botany, the space inter¬ 
vening on a branch between the leaves ; or 
that contained between any two knots or 
joints of the stalk of a plant. 

INTEROS'SEOUS MUS'CLES {inter, be¬ 
tween ; and ossa, the bones: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, small muscles between the meta- 


























583 


iLtttrarg Crialurg. 


[intention 


carpal bones of tlie hand, invented for mov¬ 
ing the fingers ; and between the metatar¬ 
sal bones of the foot, for moving the toes. 

INTERPLEADER. In Law, a bill of 
interpleader in equity is filed by one from 
whom the same article or sum is claimed 
by two parties, with a view to ascertain 
the person to whom it ought to be delivered 
or paid. In common law courts, relief can 
be given against adverse claims made on 
sheriffs, &c., having no interest in tt ,3 
matter, by a judge’s order, calling on a 
third party to maintain or relinquish his 
claims. 

INTERPOLATION (interpolatio: Lat.), in 
Mathematics, that branch of analysis which 
treats of the methods by which, when a 
series of quantities succeeding each other, 
and formed all according to some determi¬ 
nate law, are given, others subjected to the 
same law may be interposed between them. 

-In Philological criticism, the insertion 

of spurious passages in the writings of 
some ancient author. 

INTERREG'NUM (Lat.), the time during 
which a throne is vacant, in elective king¬ 
doms; for in such as are hereditary, like 
that of England, there is no such thing as 

fin i Vi Him vn 

INTERROGATION ( interrogate , a ques¬ 
tioning : Lat.), in Grammar, the character (?) 
denoting a question ; as, ‘ Do you love me 1 ’ 

-Interrogation, in Rhetoric, a figure 

containing a proposition in the form of a 
question. 

INTERROG'ATORY ( interrogatorivs : 
Lat), in Law, a question in writing, de¬ 
manded of a witness in a cause, who is to 
answer it under the solemnity of an oath. 

INTERSECTION {intersectio: Lat.), in Ma¬ 
thematics, the cutting of one line or plane 
by another ; thus we say, that the mutual 
intersection of two planes is a right line. 

INTERSTEL'LAR. {inter, between; and 
Stella, a star: Lat.), in Astronomy, between 
the stars ; also, what is situated beyond the 
solar svstGm 

INTERVAL ( intervallum, literally the 
space between two palisades: Lat.), in 
Music, the difference between the number 
of vibrations produced by one sonorous 
body of a certain magnitude and texture, 
and the number of those produced by 
another of a different magnitude and tex¬ 
ture, in the same time. The ancients divided 
the intervals into simple or uncomposite, 
which they called diastems; and composite, 
which they called systems. Modern musicians 
consider the semitone as a simple interval, 
and call only those composite which consist 
of two or more semitones. 

INTESTACY {intestatus, a person that 
has made no will: Lat.), in Law, the condi 
tion of one who dies without leaving a will. 
Freehold lands and tenements, in which he 
has an estate of inheritance, descend to his 
heir; copyhold lands, to the heir by the 
custom of the manor; chattels must be 
distributed, subject to debts, by the party 
who takes out letters of administration. 
[See Administration, Letters of.] 

INTESTINA'LIA (intestina, an intestine: 
Lat.), intestinal worms. [See Entozoa.] 

INTESTINES (same deriv.), the convo¬ 


luted membranous and muscular tube 
reaching from the stomach to the anus.’ 
They consist of the large and small intes¬ 
tines ; the former including the caecum, colon, 
and rectum; the latter, the duodenum, the 
jejunv^s, and the ileum. They are attached 
to th ; body by the mesentery. The inner 
surface of the small intestines is covered 
with villi, hair-like bodies formed of folds 
of the mucous membrane. The structure 
of the intestinal canal is very different in 
different animals. 

INTONATION {in; and tonus, a tone : 
Lat.), in music, the act of sounding with 
the voice the notes of the scale, in succes¬ 
sion, or at any intervals. To do this suc¬ 
cessfully, a good ear is almost indispen¬ 
sable ; and the key, or, as it has been some¬ 
times called, the tone, in which the piece is 
written, must be carefully observed. 

INTRA'DOS, the interior and lower line 
or curve of an arch, the exterior being 
termed the extrados. 

INTRAN'SITIVE {intransitivus: Lat.), in 
Grammar, an epithet for a verb which ex¬ 
presses actions that do not pass over to an 
object; as, I go, I come, I sleep, &c. 

IN TRAN'SITU (Lat.), during the passage 
from one place to another. 

INTRENCH'MENT, in Fortification, any 
temporary work that shelters a post against 
the attacks of an enemy. 

INTRU'SION (i intrude, I thrust in : Lat.), 
in Law, a species of injury to freehold pro¬ 
perty, which occurs when a stranger in¬ 
trudes between the death of a tenant for 
life or years, and the entry of the heir of a 
remainderman, or reversioner, expectant 
on the estate for life or years, who had died 
previous to the decease of such tenant. 

INTUITION (intueor, I contemplate: 
Lat), in Philosophy, knowledge obtained 
without the instrumentality of reason ; the 
instantaneous act of the mind, in perceiving 
the agreement or disagreement of two 
ideas. 

INTUSSUSCEPTION (intus, within ; and 
susceptio, a receiving: Lat.), in Anatomy, 
the falling of one part of an intestine into 
another; or the passing of one part within 
another, causing a duplicature of the intes¬ 
tine. 

IN'ULIN, in Chemistry, a white and pul¬ 
verulent starch-like substance, extracted 
from the root of the Inula Stellenium, or 
elecampane. In its chemical properties, it 
seems intermediate between gum and 
starch 

INUNDATION (inundatio: Lat.), in Agri¬ 
culture, the overflowing of land from na¬ 
tural causes, and without the intervention 
of art. It is termed irrigation when it is 
the result of design and skill. 

. IN VAC'UO (Lat.), in empty space, or in 
space devoid of air. 

INVAL'ID (invalidus, weak : Lat.), a per¬ 
son who is maimed, wounded, or otherwise 
disabled. In military and naval affairs, a 
soldier or sailor wounded or disabled in 
war, and unfit for service. 

INVENTION (inventio , from invenio I 
find: Lat.), in the Fine Arts, the production 
and selection of such objects as are proper 
to enter into the composition of a work of 






















inverse] ‘g'Ctflltt'tfc HttiJ 384 


art.-In Poetic, it is applied to whatever nules, found growing on their fronds. In 

the poet adds to the history of the subject, the Eqivisetacece, the cases of the reproduc- 


-In Rhetoric, the finding and selecting 

of arguments and means of illustration. 

INVER'SE PROPORTION ( inversus, in¬ 
verted: Lat.), in Arithmetic, a rule in which 
it depends on the question whether the 
first or the second term in the statement 
shall he the greater. When the quantity 
required must he larger than the given 
quantity of the same kind, the second term 
must he the greater, and vice versd. This 
rule is used when the effect or result of any 
I operation is less in proportion as the cause 
is greater, or is greater in proportion as the 
Ciiiisc is less 

INVER'SE RATIO (same deriv.), the 
ratio of the reciprocals, or the ratio in¬ 
verted. Thus, i: or C : 5, is the inverse 
of the ratio 5: 6. 

INVERSION ( inversio: Lat.), in Arith¬ 
metic, &c., the changing antecedents into 
consequents in the terms of a proportion, 

and the contrary.-In Grammar, a change 

of the natural order of words.-In Mu¬ 

sic, the change of place between two notes 
of an interval.-In Rhetoric and Philo¬ 

logy, the transposition of words out of 
their natural order. Thus, ‘ Mulierem for- 
tem qv.is inveniet ? ’ for ‘ Quis inveniet mulie¬ 
rem fortem?' There were much greater 
facilities for transposition in the ancient 
than in the modern languages, on account 
of the different cases, <fcc., being indicated 
by their terminations. 

INVERTEBRATES (in, not; and verte- 
j bratus, furnished with a backbone: Lat.), 
j animals without vertebrae, or an internal 
' bony skeleton ; such as worms and shellfish. 

INVESTITURE (Fr.), in Feudal Law, the 
open deli very of seisin or possession. There 
was anciently a great variety of ceremo¬ 
nies used at investitures. Originally they 
were made by a certain form of words; 
afterwards, by such things as had the 
greatest resemblance to what was to be 
transferred: thus, where lands were in¬ 
tended to pass, a turf, &c., was delivered 
by the grantor to the grantee. 

INVOCATION ( invocatio, from invoco, I 
call upon : Lat.), in Poetry, an address at 
the beginning of a poem, in which the poet 
calls for the assistance of some divinity, 
particularly of his muse, or the deity of 
poetry. In the course of an epic poem 
several invocations may occur, particularly 
when anything extraordinary is to be rela¬ 
ted ; but the first invocation is always the 
most considerable. 

INVOICE (in; and voie, the road: Fr.), 
in Commerce, a written account of the 
particulars of merchandize shipped, or 
sent to a purchaser, factor, &c., with the 
value or prices and charges annexed. 

INVOLU'CRUM (a covering: Lat.), in 
Botany, the name of the leaves or scales sur¬ 
rounding the heads of composite flowers; 
also the whorl of bracts at the base of the 
entire umbel in umbelliferous plants. This 
is called the general involucre; whilst that 
at the base of the smaller umbels is called 
the partial involucre or involucel. In ferns, 
the superincumbent cuticle covering the 
sori, or small heaps of reproductive gra- 


tive organs. 

INVOLUTE (involutus, folded in: Lat), 
in the higher Geometry, a curve supposed 
to be described by the extremity of a 
string, unwinding itself from the arc of 
another curve, about which it has been 
lapped. 

INVOLUTION (involutio, a wrapping up : 
Lat.), in Arithmetic and Algebra, the rais¬ 
ing any quantity to a given power, by mul¬ 
tiplying it into itself the required number 
of times : thus, the cube or third power of 
4 is obtained by multiplying4, the root, into 
itself twice; as 4x4x4=64. The index, 
or exponent of the power, in this case 3, 
tells the number of factors, each of which 
is equal to the quantity to be involved; and 
the number of multiplications to be per¬ 
formed is always one less than the expo¬ 
nent. [See Index.] 

I'ODINE ( iudes, violet-coloured: Gr.), in 
Chemistry, a substance of a dark colour 
and a metallic lustre ; when dry it fuses at 
227°, and boils and evaporates at 345°, pro¬ 
ducing purple fumes, whence its name ; if i 
heated with water, it distils over at a tem¬ 
perature below 212°. It is a supporter of j 
combustion; phosphorus placed in it will 
take fire spontaneously.' It is an irritant 
poison, has an acrid taste, and an odour 
somewhat like that of chlorine : in small i 
doses it has been found useful in certain 
forms of glandular disease. It is dissolved 
by 7000 times its weight of water, the solu¬ 
tion being brown ; it dissolves easily in j 
alcohol and ether. Starch will detect iodine 
in water containing only the 400,000th part 
of its weight of that substance, on account 
of the blue tinge produced by the iodide of 
starch which it forms; but the liquid must 
be cold, as this blue substance gives a co¬ 
lourless solution with hot water. Its com¬ 
pounds are termed iodides. It is used 
chiefly in medicine and photography, and, 
in this country, is generally obtained from 
kelp. 

ION'IC OR'DER, the third of the five 
orders of architecture; being a kind of 
mean between the massive and the grace¬ 
ful. The first idea of this order was given 
by the people of Ionia. Its distinguishing 
feature is the volute of its capital. In the 
Grecian Ionic, there are two front and two 
rear volutes, connected by baluster-like 
forms on the flanks. In the Roman 
Ionic, there are on each column four dia¬ 
gonal volutes, and an abacus with curved 
sides ; so that it presents the same appear- ; 
ance from whatever side it is viewed. The 
Greek volute continues the fillet of the 
spiral along the face of the abacus; in 
the Roman its origin is behind the ovolo. 
The height of the column is about nine 
diameters; and the base varies in different 
examples. The shaft is cut with 24 flutes. 

In Grecian specimens, the entablature is 
very simple; in modern, it is sometimes 
greatly enriched ; and the frieze is often 
cushioned— that is, presents a convex in¬ 
stead of a plane surface in front. 

ION'IC PHILOS'OPHERS, a sect founded 
by Thales, a native of Miletus in Ionia, 
































385 


mtcrary Crcas'tun. 


which occasioned his followers to assume 
the appellation of Ionic. Thales was suc¬ 
ceeded by Anaximenes, his disciple; also 
by Diogenes of Apollonia, and Heraclitus 
of Ephesus. Thales considered water, and 
Anaximenes air, as the original material out 
of which all things had sprung, and into 
which they -would ultimately be resolved. 
Their successors improved these doctrines, 
by considering any material element as a 
mere symbol, calculated to present more 
vividly to the imagination the energy of 
! some one principle which is the ground 
of all vital appearances: hence they are 
not to be considered as materialists. They 
admitted but one -world, which they re¬ 
garded as the work of God, and 'animated 
by him as its soul. They maintained that 
the universe was governed by destiny ; 
by which they meant the immutable laws 
of Providence. They asserted matter to be 
changeable, but denied that it was divisible 
to infinity. They believed the existence of 
spirits or demons, as intelligent and im¬ 
mortal substances. Tlis soul, according to 
their doctrine, existed after it left the body; 
and they attributed to inanimate things a 
kind of torpid soul. 

IPECACUAN'HA, the root of the Cepliae- 
lis Ipecacuanha, a small composite plant 
found in damp Brazilian forests. It was 
Introduced into Europe in the 17tli century, 
when it was much esteemed for the cure of 
dysenteries. Its taste is bitter and acrid ; 

. it is one of the safest and mildest emetics 
with which we are acquainted, and is admi- 
; nistered as a powder, as a tincture, or in- 
I fused in wine. 

| IRID'IUM {iris, the rainbow: Gr.), a 
metal discovered in 1803, which received 
its name from its soluble compounds pre¬ 
senting all the colours of the rainbow. 
Iridium occurs only in the ore of platinum ; 
it is the most refractory of all the metals, 
is brittle, and has a white colour. No acid 
will attack it, but it oxidises when ignited 
to redness in the air. Its equivalent is 99. 

I'RIS (same deriv.), in Anatomy, a varie¬ 
gated circle which surrounds the pupil of 
the eye. It is formed by the choroid mem¬ 
brane, which becomes detached from the 
| sclerotic coat when it reaches the edge of 
I the cornea, and forms a curtain behind it. 
By the dilation or contraction of the iris 
more or less light is admitted through the 

1 opening in front called the pupil.-In 

; Astronomy, one of the newly discovered 
planets, of the group between Mars and 

Jupiter. Its period is about 1342 days.- 

I In Botany, a genus of bulbous rooted 
: plants with handsome flowers : nat. order 
i Iridacece. 

I'RON (iren: Sax.), a metal known from 
a very remote antiquity. It is of a peculiar 
grey colour, ar>d very bright when polished; 
it is not very malleable, but is extremely 
ductile and tenacious. At a red heat, it is 
soft and pliable. Its specific gravity is 7’7 ; 
it requires the highest temperature of a 
wind furnace to melt it. It is attracted by 
I the magnet. It has been found native, that 
j is, in the metallic state, only in bodies of 
meteoric origin. Its ores are very abuudant 
as oxides, carbonates, &c.; and in com¬ 


[iron 


bination with earthy matters, as clay iron 
stone in the coal districts; more or less of 
it is found also In almost all soils; and it 
causes a red colour in many. It combines 
with carbon so as to form steel, and in still 
greater quantity so as to form cast iron. 
At a high temperature, it burns slowly in 
the air; but in pure oxygen, with great 
brilliancy and the abundant emission of 
sparks. The acids act energetically on 
iron. It readily combines with sulphur 
when heated. It rusts in a moist atmo¬ 
sphere, particularly when carbonic acid is 
present in abundance, oxide of iron, or 
carbonate, being formed. In the great iron¬ 
works, the ore, broken into small pieces, 
and mixed with lime or some other sub¬ 
stance to promote its fusion, is thrown 
into the furnace; and baskets of charcoal 
or coke, in due proportion, are thrown in 
along with it. A part of the bottom of 
the furnace is filled with fuel only. This 
being kindled, the blast of a great bel¬ 
lows, or of a blowing machine, is directed 
on it, and soon raises the whole to a most 
intense heat; this melts the ore immedi¬ 
ately above it, and the reduced metal drops 
down through the fuel and collects at the 
bottom. The rest sinks down to fill up the 
void left by the consumed fuel; and this, 
being in its turn exposed to the blast, is 
also reduced. More ore and fuel are sup¬ 
plied above, and the operation goes on till 
the melted metal at the bottom, increasing 
in quantity, rises almost to the aperture 
which admits the current of air; it is then 
let out by piercing a hole in the side of the 
furnace, and, being conducted to moulds, 
forms what are called pigs of cast iron. 
The substitution of pit-coal in 1619 for 
wood, in the smelting of iron,which became 
general in 1740, gave an extraordinary im¬ 
petus to the working of this important 
metal. In 1740, the amount of iron pro¬ 
duced in England and Wales was only 17,000 
tons; in 1850, it was 2,000,000 tons. But, on 
account of the sulphur and other impurities 
contained in mineral coal, the metal pro¬ 
duced with it is not so fine, nor does it 
answer for some purposes so well, as that 
obtained with wood. The use of a hot blast 
instead of cold air in blowing, the superior 
efficiency of which was discovered in 1827, 
was the greatest improvement ever effected 
by simple means in any manufacture. Pig 
iron contains from 2 to 5 per cent, of its 
weight of carbon. Wrought or malleable 
iron is nearly pure iron. It may be made 
either by direct reduction of the ore, or by 
removing the carbon and impurities from 
cast iron. In the latter case the principle 
of the processes adopted is to bring the 
melted iron into contact with air sufficient 
to oxidate the carbon and silicon. The 
usual plan is to stir the melted iron whilst 
in the furnace with a rake, and this is 
called puddling. According to Mr. Besse¬ 
mer’s plan, jets of air are forced through the 
melted iron by a blowing machine. In 
either case the iron on being removed from 
the furnace is hammered and then passed 
between rollers, with the view of induc¬ 
ing the fibrous structure which imparts 
strength and toughness to it. Malleable 


























38G 


iron-flint] 


iron is distinguished from cast iron not 
only by having a fibrous in place of a gra¬ 
nular or crystalline structure, but.by its 
capability of being tvelded— that is, two 
pieces raised to a white heat may be 
pressed or hammered into such firm union 
that they form one piece. Great Britain is 
the largest iron producing country in the 
world, her annual production of cast iron 
being nearly four millions of tons. 

IRON-FLINT, in Mineralogy, a sub-spe¬ 
cies of quartz, with a fracture more or less 
conchoidal, shining and nearly vitreous. It 
occurs in six-sided prisms, in small grains, 
and also in masses. Its varieties are red, 
yellow, and greenish. 

IRON PYRI'TES ( purites , from pur, fire : 
Gr.), yellow sulphuret of iron, an abundant ore 
of iron, containing one atom of iron, and 
four of oxygen; it is used chiefly for the pro¬ 
duction of sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, 
and recently for obtaining sulphur. Sul- 
phurets of the metals were termed pyrites, 
because the yellow sulphuret of iron, to 
which in strictness the name should be con¬ 
fined, strikes fire with steel. 

I'RONY ( eironeia, from eiron, a dissem¬ 
bler: Gr.), in Rhetoric, was understood by 
the ancients, at first, to mean the represen¬ 
tation of things or qualities as less than they 
really are; afterwards, and among the mo¬ 
derns, it designated the use of expressions 
contrary to the thoughts of the speaker. 
In the ordinary sense, irony means the 
bestowing of praise where evidently none 
is deserved* 

IRRADIA'TION ( irradio, I illuminate: 
Lat.), in Physics and Astronomy, the appa¬ 
rent enlargement of an object strongly illu¬ 
minated. This is due to the impression 
produced by light on the retina being ex¬ 
tended to a small distance round the focus 
of the rays concentrated by the crystalline 
lens. Irradiation causes a star to appear 
not a point, but a disc; and makes the 
bright part of the moon seem of greater 
diameter than the dark portion, at her first 
quarter. 

IRRITABIL'ITY ( irritabilitas: Lat.), in 
Physiology, a property possessed by most 
of the living tissues, in consequence of 
which motion is produced under the action 
of certain stimuli. 

ISA'IAH, or the Prophecy oe Isaiah, 
a canonical book of the Old Testament. 
Isaiah is the first of the four great prophets, 
the other three being Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 
and Daniel. 

ISCHIADTC ( ischiadilcos, from ischion, 
the hip-joint: Gr.), in Medicine, an epithet 
for that rheumatic affection of the hip 
called sciatica. 

IS'CHIUM ( ischion, the hip-joint: Gr.) 
in Anatomy, one of the bones of the fcetal 
pelvis, and part of the os innominatum of 
the adult. [See Innominatum Os.] 

ISCHNOPHO'NIA (ischnophonia: from 
ischnos, slender; and phone, a voice : Gr.), 
in Medicine, a shrillness of the voice; but 
more frequently an impediment or hesita¬ 
tion of speech. 

IS'ERINE (because from Iser, in Bohe¬ 
mia), titaniate of iron; a mineral of an iron- 
black colour, and of a splendid metallic 


in small obtuse angular 

grains. „ , 

I'SI AC MYS'TERIES. The worship of Isis 
[See Osiris] was transplanted from Egypt 
to Italy, but the rites became so licentious 
that they were forbidden, and Tiberius , 
ordered the images of the goddess to be cast | 
into the Tiber. They were however revived, 
and fell under the lash of Juvenal. 

I'SINGLASS ( hausen-blasse, sturgeon’s 
bladder: Ger.), in Commerce, a substance, 
consisting of gelatine, and obtained chiefly 
from the sounds or air-bladders of stur¬ 
geons. The sounds of fresh-water fish are 
to be preferred for the purpose, because 
these are the most transparent, flexible, 
and delicate; but those of the cod andling 
are used by the fishermen of Newfound¬ 
land and Iceland. The coarser sorts of isin¬ 
glass are made of the intestines of the fish. 
Good isinglass should be perfectly free from 
taste and smell, and quite soluble in boiling 
water. Isinglass boiled in milk forms a 
nutritious jelly, which, when flavoured, is 
blanc-manger. It is also used for fining 
fermented liquors, and various other pur¬ 
poses. 

IS'LAMISM, the practical as well as the 
doctrinal tenets of the Mohammedan reli¬ 
gion, embracing the whole of their civil and 
religious polity. 

ISOCH'RONAL, or ISOCH'RONOUS, 

([isoclironos: from isos, equal; and chronos, 
time : Gr.), performed in equal times. An 
epithet applied to the vibrations of a pen¬ 
dulum. 

ISOLA'TION ( isola, an island : Ital,), the 
same as insulation, which see. 

ISOMER'IC BODIES (isos, equal; and 
meros, a part: Gr.), in Chemistry, are com¬ 
pounds which consist of the same elements 
in the same proportions, but have different 
properties—probably from the different way 
in which they are combined or grouped. 
Cyanic, cyanuric and fulminic acids are ex¬ 
amples; all these being compounds of car¬ 
bon, nitrogen, and oxygen in the same 
proportions. 

ISOMET'RICAL PERSPECTIVE (isos, 
equal; metron, measure : Gr.). There is a 
useful method of drawing objects whereby 
three sides of a parallelopiped are shown, 
and every part of the drawing is on the 
same scale, there being no diminution of 
distant parts as in ordinary perspective 
drawings. Such drawings are said to be in 
isometrical perspective. 

ISOMORPHISM (isos, equal; and morph?, 
a form : Gr.). Substances whicli resemble 
each other in their crystalline forms, but 
differ in their elements, are isomorphous. 
Phosphate and biphosphate of soda are iso¬ 
morphous with arseniate and binarseniate 
of soda. 

ISOPERIMET'RICAL FIG'URES (isoper- 
metros, of equal circumference : Gr.), such 
as haveequal perimeters or circumferences. 

ISOS'CELES (isoskeles: from isos, equal; 
and skelos, a leg: Gr.), in Geometry, a term 
applied to a triangle having two equal 
sides. 

ISOTHER'MAL (isos, equal; and therm?, 
heat: Gr.), having an equal temperature. 
Isothermal lines are those drawn on a map 


Ci )t -gtttenttftc antt 

lustre, occurring 



























387 


3f.ttenui> ^Treasury. 


[jACAMAH 


through places having the same annual 
mean temperature. Geographers, to avoid 
confusion, group the lines into zone 3 or 
bands, which are called isothermal zones. 

ISOTON'IC ( isotonos , equally stretched : 
Gr.), in Music, the scale of equal tempera¬ 
ment, in which the octave is divided into 
twelve equal parts or mean semitones. 

IS'SUANT (issuing: Fr.), in Heraldry, an 
epithet for a lion or other beast coming out 
of the bottom line of any chief or fess. 

IS'SUE ( Fr .), in Law, the legitimate off¬ 
spring of parents.-The point or matter 

at issue between contending parties in a 
suit is some fact affirmed on the one side 
and denied on the other.- Issue, in Medi¬ 

cine, an artificial vent for noxious humours 
in the body. 

IST-H'MIAN GAMES, so called because 
they were celebrated in the Isthmus of 
Corinth, which joins the Peloponnesus to 
the continent. They were held at the tem¬ 
ple of Isthmian Neptune, which was sur¬ 
rounded with a thick forest of pine ; and 
tho contests were of the same kind as at 
the Olympic games. 

ISTH'MUS ( isthmos: Gr.), in Geography, 
a neck or narrow strip of land which joins a 
peninsula to a continent, as the isthmus of 
Corinth; or -which unites two continents, 
as the isthmus of Darien, that connects 
North and South America. 

ITAL'IAN LAN'GUAGE. This beautiful 
and harmonious language is derived from 
the classical Latin, corrupted by many local 
dialects. The Italian differs from Latin 
very much as the modern differs from 
ancient Greek. [See Greek Language.] 
For a long period Italy has lost the high 
place she once possessed in literature ; but 
Dante (1265—1321), Petrarch (1304—1374), 
Boccaccio (1313—1375), Ariosto ( 1474 —1533), 
and Torquato Tasso (1544—1595) have writ¬ 
ten works which will make her language to 
be studied when it has ceased to be a living 
tongue. And amongst dii minores there were 
l’ulci, Boiardo, Bernardo Tasso, Guarini 
Metastasio, Goldoni, and Alfleri. These 
were poets, but there are many celebra¬ 
ted names in other departments : for 
example, Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Ben¬ 
venuto, Cellini, and Vasari, as writers of 
prose. Galileo was a leading pioneer in 
science. In painting and sculpture, it is 
universally admitted that the Italians have 
excelled all the other moderns. 


ITAL'IC SCHOOL OF PHILOS'OPHY, 
the Pythagorean and Eleatic systems taken 
together. The term is, however, sometimes 
used to express that founded by Pythago¬ 
ras ; which was so called, because he taught 
in Italy, spreading his doctrines among the 
people of Tarentum, Metapontus, Heraclea, 
&c. 

ITAL'ICS, in Printing, characters or let¬ 
ters (first used in Italy) which stand in¬ 
clining ; thus— Italic. They are often used 
by way of distinction from Roman letters, 
for emphasis or antithesis, or on account of 
some peculiar importance attached to the 
words in which they are employed. 

I'VORY (ivoire: Fr.; ebur: Lat.), the tusk 
of the male elephant, a hard solid substance, 
of a white creamy colour, and greatly 
esteemed for the fineness of its grain, and 
the high polish it is capable of receiving. 
That of India becomes yellow ; but that of 
Achem and Ceylon is free from this imper¬ 
fection. Ivory is extensively used by cutlers 
in the manufacture of handles for knives 
and forks; by miniature painters for their 
tablets ; by turners, in making numberless 
useful and ornamental objects, as well as for 
chessmen, billiard-balls, toys, &c.; also by 
musical and philosophical instrument- 
makers; by comb-makers ; and by dentists 
for making artificial teeth, for which, how¬ 
ever, the ivory of the walrus is preferred. 
Each tusk weighs, on an average, about 
60 lbs.; and about 2,000 cwt. are imported 
each year. The western and eastern coasts 
of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, 
India, and the countries to the eastward of 
the straits of Malacca, are the great sources 
whence supplies of ivory are derived. The 
structure of ivory is the same as that of 
the dentine of the human tooth. [See 
Dentine.] 

I'VORY BLACK, the mixture of charcoal 
and phosphate of lime obtained by burning 
bone ; it is very effective in depriving cer¬ 
tain substances of their colour. 

I'VY (ifig: Sax.), Hedera helix : nat. 
order, Araliacece, an evergreen climbing 
shrub, which attaches itself to other objects 
by aerial roots. In classical mythology this 
plant was sacred to Bacchus, whose head 
was represented as surrounded by a wreath 

of it.- Ground Ivy is a trailing perennial 

plant, with a blue flower, which is wild in 
Britain. It is the Glechoma hederacea of 
botanists : nat. order, Labialw. 


J 


J, when reckoned a distinct letter, as it 
now always is, instead of being mixed up 
with i, as formerly, in dictionaries, &c., is 
the tenth in the alphabet; and has a soft 
sound in English, like that of the g in 
genius: thus, jet. It is only within the last 
century that any distinction has been made 
between i and j. In the Spanish language, 


j represents a guttural; and is often sub¬ 
stituted for x, which has the same sound. 

JAC'AMAR, in Ornithology, a genus of 
scansorial birds, closely allied to the king¬ 
fishers, but differing from them in their 
feet, and in inhabiting moist places; also, 
their plumage is not so smooth, and always 
exhibits a metallic lustre. They are solitary 





































jacinth] 


388 


El)c fi'rtenttfic antr 


birds, feed on insects, and build in low 
busbes. They were arranged by Linnaeus 
under the genus Alcedo, but were placed by 
Cuvier in a separate genus, Galbula. There 
are several species, some of which are 
natives of India, but the most beautiful are 
met with in South America. 

JA'CINTH ( jacinthe: Fr.), the Hyacinth, 
which see. 

JACK, in Mechanics, a well-known con¬ 
trivance for raising weights. The ordinary 
| kitchen-jack is a compound machine, in 
which the weight with which the spit is 
charged is the power applied to overcome 
the friction of the parts, and in which a 
steady and uniform motion is obtained by 

means of the fly.-The smoke-jaclc is 

moved by a fan placed horizontally in the 
chimney; and, being made to revolve per¬ 
petually by the draught of the fire, it re¬ 
quires no winding up.- Jack, in Ichthyo¬ 
logy, a name given to a young pike.- 

Jack, the horse or wooden frame upon 
which timber is sawn; a coat of mail, and 
likewise the garment worn over it; the 
small bowl which serves as a mark at the 

exercise of bowling, &c.- Jack, in a ship, 

an ensign or flag hoisted up at the spritsail- 
topmast head. 

JACK, or JACA TREE, the common 
naiue of an East Indian tree, the Artocarpus 
integrifolia of botanists, allied to the mul¬ 
berry-tree. It produces a fruit somewhat 
resembling but inferior to the bread fruit, 
the produce of another species of Arto- 
earpus. 

JACK'AL ( tschakkal: Ar.), the Canis 
aureus of zoologists, a beast of prey, resem¬ 
bling the fox in appearance, but the wolf in 
its habits. It rouses other beasts by its cry, 
so that they are easily taken by the lion, 
whence it is called the lion's provider. Like 
the vulture and hyaena, the jackal feeds 
upon putrefying animal substances, which 
it scents at a great distance; and thus it 
soon frees the air from the effluvium. It is 
a native of Asia and Africa; it breeds with 
the dog, and their offspring are very prolific. 
It is abundant in the warmer parts of India 
and Africa, but is not found in the New 
World. 

JACK'D AW, the Corvus Monedula of 
ornithologists, a black bird of the crow 
family, well known for its mischievous 
habits and garrulity. 

JAC'OBIN, a name given, during the re¬ 
volution in France, to the more violent 
advocates for republican government. The 
appellation originated in the circumstance 
that the secret meetings of the party were 
held in a building anciently belonging to 
the Jacobin monks (an order of Domini¬ 
cans), where they concerted measures for 
influencing the proceedings of the National 
Assembly. Hence the word Jacobin has 
been applied to any turbulent demagogue 
who opposes government, in a secret and 
unlawful manner. The Jacobin Club had 
the following originSome short time 
after the American revolution, political 
societies were formed in Paris (where 
bureaux d'esprit, or associations for the dis¬ 
cussion of literary subjects, had previously 
been common), in which political subjects 


were debated, and the members of which 
were almost universally inclined to re¬ 
publicanism. At first their true object 
was studiously concealed; but, gathering 
strength, they displayed their real inten¬ 
tions. Their external symbol was a red 
cap; but afterwards a dirty dress was the 
token of their sansculottism. The revolu¬ 
tion proceeding rapidly, similar societies 
were formed in nearly all the towns of 
France; and thus they became enabled to 
direct the public opinion. In 1792, the 
leading club, in which sometimes more 
than 2,500 members convened, kept up a 
correspondence with more than 400 affiliated 
societies; and the number of Jacobins in all 
France was estimated at about 400,000. 

JAC'OBITES ( Jacobus , James: Lat.), in 
English History, that party which, after 
the revolution of 1088, adhered to James II. 
and his descendants. Subsequently to the 
death of James, they languished for a 
while, but then revived; and towards the 
close of the reign of Anne, Bolingbroke 
and others of her ministers were in treaty 
with his son regarding his return. The 
first Scotch rebellion broke out in 1715, 
after the accession of George I., but failed ; 
the failure of the second rebellion, also, in 
1745, put an end to the political existence 
of the party, even in Scotland ; though a 
correspondence is said to have been kept 
up with Charles Edward until his death in 
1787. His brother, the cardinal of York, 
died in 1807. According to the strict rules 
of hereditary descent, the house of Sardinia 
and some other families intervene between 
the House of Brunswick and the crown of 

England..- Jacobites, in Church History, 

the name of two sects of Christians in 
Syria and the adjacent countries. They 
hold that Jesus Christ had but one nature, 
and they practice circumcision before 
baptism. Many vain attempts have been 
made to unite them with the Church of 
Rome. 

JA'COB’S STAFF, the same as cross staff, 
a mathematical instrument, for taking 
heights and distances where much accuracy 
is not required. 

JACO'BUS (James: Lat.), a gold coin be¬ 
longing to the reign of James I., of the 
value of 25s. 

JADE, in Mineralogy, nephrite, a stone 
remarkable for its hardness and tenacity. 
It consists, essentially, of silica, alumina, 
and magnesia. The Chinese manufacture 
it into various articles. 

JA'GUAR, the Leopardus on$a of zoolo¬ 
gists, one of the Felidae which has a body 
four or five feet long, with fur coloured 
brownish yellow, with black spots. It 
haunts the wooded banks of great rivers in 
South America. It is a voracious animal, 
attacking oxen, horses, and any smaller 
animals that come in its way, but seldom 
man. It roars much by night. It is usually 
killed by being driven by dogs up a tree, 
where it is despatched by bullets. 

JAL'AP (from Xalapa, in Mexico, whence 
it originally came), a resin extracted from 
the roots of various plants belonging to the 
genus Ipomcea and other genera: nat. order, 
Convolvulacece. It is obtained in globular 




















389 ILUcntrj) ^Tt'casurj). [jesuits 

pieces of a dense and resinous texture ; in 
powder it lias a nauseous odour and taste. 
It is a drastic purge, but is liable to gripe 
and nauseate. 

JAMB (javibe, a leg: Fr.), in Architecture, 
tlie side-piece or post of a door; or tlie side- 
piece of a fireplace. 

JAN'IZARIES, or JAN'ISSARIES (a cor¬ 
ruption of yeni tscheri, new troops : Turk.), 
the appellation given to the grand seignior’s 
guard, or the soldiers of the Turkish in¬ 
fantry. The janizaries becoming turbulent, 
and rising in arms against the sultau in 
May 1826, they were attacked, defeated, and 
subsequently abolished; and their place 
was supplied by troops trained after the 
European manner. 

i JAN'SENISTS, a set of Roman Catholics 
in Prance, who followed the opinions of 
Jansen, bishop of Ypres, and constituted a 
formidable party in the latter half of the 
17th century. They were Calvinists in some 
respects; in others they approached to the 
reformed opinions ; but they never sepa¬ 
rated from the Romish Church. Certain 
doctrines extracted from their writings 

1 were condemned by the bulls of two popes. 
They maintained a severe contest with the 
Jesuits, by whom they were at last crushed. 
Arnauld, of the monastery of Port Royal, 
was one of the most eminent of the Jan- 
senists. That monastery was suppressed 
by Louis XIV. in 1709. 

JAN'UARY ( Januarius, literally pertain¬ 
ing to Janus: Lat.), the first month of the 

! year. According to some, its name was 
given by the Romans in honour of Janus, 
the divinity who presided over the new 
year and all new undertakings; but, ac¬ 
cording to others, it is derived from janua, 
a gate. 

JAPAN VARNISH is the produce of a 
tree belonging to the genus Rhus : nat. ord. 
Anacardiacece. It seldom exceeds the height 
of 20 feet. From the seed, oil and wax are 
pressed, whilst the sap, taken from the tree 
in spring, yields the well known lacquer. 
When it first exudes on cutting the trunk, 
it is white and of the consistence of cream, 
but it soon turns black. But the common 
Japan varnish of Europe is composed of 
seedlac, resin, and spirit of wine. To this 
is added the colour required. After every 
coat, the article must be subjected to as 
high a temperature as may be applied 
without injuring it or the varnish. Figures 
or flowers, upon the japan, should be exe¬ 
cuted with coloured varnish; but oil, 
which cannot be lasting, is frequently sub¬ 
stituted. All bodies, the substance of which 
is firm, may be japanned. Paper is too flex¬ 
ible, unless under the form of ‘ papier 
mac he.’ The manufacture of japanned 
goods, as tea-trays, candlesticks, snuff 
boxes, &c., is carried on very extensively 
at Birmingham. 

JAP'ANESE CE'DAR, The, is an evergreen 
coniferous tree, which reaches the height of 
from 80 to 100 feet in its native land. It is 
the Cryptomeria japonica of botanists : nat. 
ord. Coniferce. It is being introduced isito 
English shrubberies. 

JAP'ANESE ME'DLAR, The, is the edible 
fruit of an evergreen tree called Eriobotrya 

japonica by botanists: nat. ord. Rosacece• 
The flower is white, the ripe fruit yellow> 
and somewhat resembling a plum in shape* 

JARGOO'N, in Mineralogy, one of the 
varieties of zircon, found in Ceylon. 

JAS'MINE ( jasmin: Fr., from iasjne, a 
fragrant perfume : Gr.), the name of plants 
belonging to the genus Jasminum. One 
species with white flowers, the J. officinale, 
thrives in this country without shelter; its 
flowers are highly fragrant, and afford, by 
distillation, an essential oil. 

JAS'PER ( jaspe: Fr.), in Mineralogy, a 
genus of stones, of the siliceous class, 
being a sub-species of rhomboidal quartz. 
It is of a complex irregular structure, of a 
great variety of colours, and emulates the 
appearance of the finer marbles or semi- 
pellucid gems. They all readily strike fire 
with steel. 

JAS'PI CA'MEA ( jasper, and cameo), 
the dull, broad-zoned, green and white 
cameo; a very elegant species, much re¬ 
sembling the common cameo in alL things 
but colour. 

JAS'PONYX ( jasper, and onyx), in Mi¬ 
neralogy, the purest horn-coloured onyx, 
with beautiful green zones, composed of 
the materials of the finest jaspers. 

JAT'ROPHA, in Botany, a genus of 
plants : nat. ord. Eupliorbiacece. [See Cas- 
sada.] 

JAUN'DICE (jaunice, from jaune, yellow : 
Fr.), a disease of which the distinguishing 
peculiarity is, that the skin becomes yellow. 
It proceeds from some affection of the liver 
and gall-bladder ; and is often superinduced 
by a long continuance of melancholy and 
painful emotions. 

JAY (geai : Fr.), the Garrulus glandarius 
of ornithologists, a handsome British bird 
of the crow family. Its upper wing-feathers 
are blue, variegated with black and white. ; 
Jays are lively, petulant, and rapid in their 1 
movements, as well as exceedingly noisy; 
and, like their kindred the magpie and 
jackdaw, they can be taught a variety of 
words and harsh grating sounds. 

JEI-IO'VAH (‘I am:’ Heb.), one of the 
Scripture names of God, signifying the 
Being who is self-existent and gives exist¬ 
ence to others. It was so venerated by the 
Jews that they never pronounced it, nor 
even fully wrote it. When reading the 
Scriptures, they used the word Adonai 
(Lord) wherever it occurred. [See Elohim.] 

JEL'LY ( gclteiFr.). [See Gelatine.] 

JERKED BEEF, or Charque, an article 
of large consumption in Brazil, Cuba, and 
other places. Its preparation is chiefly 
carried on in Chili and Buenos Ayres during 
the dry summer months. The meat is cut 
up in thin slices without bones or fat, and 
thoroughly dried on hurdles in the sun. 
The slices are then made up into bundles, 
and sewed up in hides. 

JERU'SALEM A'RTICHOKE. [See Arti¬ 
choke.] 

JESS'ED, in Heraldry, an epithet for a 
hawk or falcon having the jesses or straps 
of leather, which were used for tying the 
bells on its legs, and which are generally of 
a different tincture. 

JES'UITS, or the Society of Jesus, a 





















J^ricnttftc antt 


390 


jet] 

political and religious order in tlie Roman 
Catholic church, con-esponding with a 
chief at Rome, was instituted by Ignatius 
Loyola, a.d. 1540. It is a religious body, 
with a military constitution. Its superior 
is called its general, and his government is 
despotic. Unlike other communities of 
i monks, the duties of this are to be per- 
| formed in active life. Its ostensible aim is 
to rectify every disorder in society; and 
the means by which this is to be effected is 
the possession of unlimited power. No 
other religious order affords a parallel to 
this; for, while those who give themselves 
only to devotion and religious contempla¬ 
tion present few distinguishing traits, the 
Society of Jesus early raised itself to a de¬ 
gree of historical importance unparalleled 
in its kind. Their privileges and immuni¬ 
ties were almost unbounded; and they were 
exempt from all episcopal and civil juris¬ 
diction and taxes, so that they acknow¬ 
ledged no authority but that of the pope 
and the superiors of their order. It was 
expelled from England in 1604; from Venice 
in 1606; Portugal in 1759 ; France in 1764; 
Spain and Italy in 1767; and was suppressed 
by Clement XIV. in 1773. The order has, 
however, since been restored. 

JET, a solid, opaque, inflammable sub¬ 
stance, found in large detached masses, of 
i a fine and regular structure, having a grain 
like that of wood, splitting more easily in 
one direction than in any other, and taking 
■ a good polish. It is very light, moderately 
hard, and not fusible; but it is readily in¬ 
flammable, and burns a long time with a 
fine greenish flame. It attracts light sub¬ 
stances when rubbed, becoming electric, 
like amber; hence it has been called black 
amber. It is frequently used for ornamental 
purposes, buttons, bracelets, snuff-boxes, 
&c. Mineralogists consider jet to be a 
variety of lignite, and, therefore, to be of 
vegetable origin. 

JET D’EAU (FY.), a fountain which throws 
water up into the air. When the jet is 
slightly inclined it throws the water to a 
greater height than when it is perpendicu- 
| lar, but the effect which it produces is not 
nearly so pleasing. 

JEU D’ESPRI'T (Ft.), a witty saying. 

JEWS, the descendants of Abraham, 

! once an independent tribe in Palestine, but 
dispersed by the Romans. They are still 
distinguished by their religion, peculiar 
! pursuits, and primitive customs; but have 
lost the distinction of twelve tribes, though 
perhaps more numerous than at any period. 
[See Judaism.] They are the negotiators 
of money between all nations, and are 
| everywhere remarkablefortheir successful 
enterprise and accumulation of wealth. 

JEW’S'-HARP (jaw’s harp, from the 
place where it is played), an instrument of 
music, of a very imperfect character. It is 
placed between the teeth, and, by means 
of a spring struck by the finger, gives a 
Bound that is modulated by the breath. 

JEWS'-STONE, the fossil spine of a very 
large egg-shaped sea-urchin. Its colour is 
a pale dusky grey, with a tinge of red. 

JIB, the foremost sail of a ship, extended 
from the oixter end of the jib-boom towards 


the foretopmast-head. In sloops, it is on 
the bowsprit, and extends towards the lower 
mast-head. Beyond the jib-boom is some¬ 
times extended the flying jib-boom. 

JIG'GER, in a ship, a rope about five 
feet long, with a block at one end and a 
sheave at the other; it is used to hold on 
the cable when it is heaved into the ship 
by the windlass. 

JOB, or the Book op Jon, a canonical 
book of the Old Testament, containing the 
narrative of a series of calamities which 
happened to a man named Job, as a trial of 
his patience and fortitude; together with 
conferences which he held with his several j 
friends on the subject of his misfortunes; j 
and the manner in which he was restored 
to happiness. Many of the Jewish Rabbins 
hold that this relation is purely a fiction; 
others think it a simple narrative of a 
matter of fact; while a third class of critics 
acknowledge that the groundwork of the 
story is true, but that it is written in a 
poetical style, and decorated with peculiar 
circumstances, to render the narration 
more profitable and interesting. 

JOIN'ER ( joindre , to join : Fr.j, a me¬ 
chanic who fits together the several pieces 
of wood which have been prepared for each 
other. He differs from the carpenter, inas¬ 
much as he does the finer work, that re¬ 
quires more skill. 

JOINT {Fr.j, in Anatomy, the place where 
any bone is articulated or joined with an¬ 
other.- Joint, in Botany, the knot in the 

stalk of a plant.- Joint, in Joinery, the 

parts where two pieces of wood are united. 
-Joint, in Masonry, the separation be¬ 
tween the stones, which is filled with 
mortar. 

JOINT - STOCK COM'PANIES, com¬ 
mercial associations, having a stock or 
fund formed by the union of contributions 
from different persons. [See Company.] 

JOINT TEN'ANCY (joint-tenancier, a 
joined-tenant: Fr.j, in Law, an estate 
vested in two or more persons created at 
the same time, each having the same in¬ 
terest and title. It is subject to the right 
of survivorship; and may be severed by 
partition, or by the alienation of any party. 
Personal chattels may be the subject of 
joint tenancy. 

JOIN'TURE {Fr.j, in Law, the annuity 
payable to a widow out of her husband’s 
estate, either under his will or by virtue of 
her marriage settlement. 

JO'NAH, PitornECY op, a canonical book 
of the Old Testament, in which it is related 
that Jonah was commanded by God to go 
and prophesy the destruction of the Nine- 
vites, on account of their wickedness. In¬ 
stead of obeying the divine command, he 
embarked for Tarshisli; but a tempest 
arising, the mariners drew lots to deter¬ 
mine who was the cause of it; and the lot 
falling on him, he was thrown into the sea. 
Being swallowed by a great fish, he was, 
after three days, cast on the shore; and 
boldly preaching to the people of Nineveh, 
he predicted their destruction, which, how¬ 
ever, on account of their repentance, was 
averted. Jonah, dreading the suspicion 
which might attach to him as a false pro- 































mtcrarg Ci£a£urjn [judges 


i 391 

! _ 

1 phet, rntired to a mountain at a distance 

from the city, where he learnt the folly and 
unreasonableness of his own discontent. 

: It may be observed that some critics con- 
; sider this book as a number of traditions, 

| collected after the destruction of Nineveh ; 
while others treat it as a mere allegorical 
poem. 

JON'GLEURS, an old French word 
derived from the Latin Joculatores, the 
name given to the buffoons of the time of 
the Troubadours. They stationed them¬ 
selves at cross roads, in grotesque dresses, 
and drew a crowd around them by the ex¬ 
hibition of dancing monkeys and the perfor¬ 
mance of legerdemain feats, accompanied 
by ridiculous antics and grimaces. They 
thus prepared the bystanders for the verses 
they recited. Troubadours were frequently 
introduced at a princely court, under the 
name of Jongleurs. In this word we see 
the origin of our Jugglers. 

JON'QUIL (jonquille: Fr.), a plant of the 
genus Narcissus, the flowers of which are 
either single or double, and are much es¬ 
teemed for their sweet scent. 

JOSH'UA, a canonical book of the Old 
Testament, containing a history of the wars 
and transactions of the person whose name 
it bears. It is divisible into three parts, 
the first of which is a history of the con¬ 
quest of Canaan ; the second, which begins 
with the I2th chapter, is a description of 
that country, and the division of ,it among 
the tribes; and the third, comprised in the 
last two chapters, contains the renewal of 
the covenant which he caused the Israelites 
to make, and the death of their victorious 
leader. 

JOUR'NAL ( giornalc : Ital. ; from diur- 
nale, belonging to a day : Lat.), any book in 
which is kept an account of what passes 
from day to day. It is often applied to a 

periodical publication.-In Navigation, a 

book in which is kept an account of the 
ship’s course, winds, weather, &c. 

JU'BILEE ( jubilo , I shout: Lat), a grand 
festival celebrated every forty-ninth or fif¬ 
tieth year—it is not certain which—by the 
Jews, in commemoration of their deliver¬ 
ance out of Egypt. At this festival, which 
was a season of joy, all debts were to be 
cancelled; all bond-servants were set free; 
all slaves or captives were released; and all 
estates which had been sold reverted to the 
original proprietors or their descendants. 

-In imitation of the Jewish jubilee, the 

Roman Catholic church instituted a year of 
jubilee, during which the popes grant ple¬ 
nary indulgences, &c. It was first esta¬ 
blished by Boniface VIII., who proclaimed 
a general indulgence to all Christians who 
should visit the tombs of the apostles, at 
Rome, in the year 1300 ; and was intended 
to be celebrated only every hundredth year; 
but it was found so gainful, that Clement 
VI. reduced the interval to fifty years; on 
which occasion it received the name of 
jubilee, as it thus acquired some resem¬ 
blance to the Jewish festival of that name. 
In 1389, Urban V. reduced the term to 
thirty-three years ; but it was raised again, 
by Nicholas V., to fifty; and finally, in 1470, 
ivas settled at twenty-five, by Paul II. It 


begins on Christmas-day, by the pope open¬ 
ing with great solemnity a door in the 
church of St. Peter’s, which is walled up at 
every other time. 

JU'DAISM, the religious doctrines and 
rites of the Jews, a people of Judah, or 
Judea. These doctrines and rites are de¬ 
tailed in the five books of Moses, hence 
called the Law. The Garaites acknowledge 
no other code; but the Rabbinists, one of 
the two sects into which the Jews are 
divided, add those precepts inculcated by 
the Talmud. The following is a summary 
of the religiotis creed of the Jews 1, that 
God is a creator and active supporter of all 
things; 2, that God is one, and eternally 
unchangeable; 3, that God is incorporeal, 
and cannot have any material properties; 4, 
that God shall eternally subsist; 5, that 
God is alone to be worshipped; 6, that 
whatever has been taught by the prophets 
is true ; 7, that Moses is the head and father 
of all contemporary doctors, and of all those 
who lived before and shall live after him; 
8, that the law was given by Moses ; 9, that 
the law shall always exist, and never be 
altered ; 10, that God knows all the thoughts 
and actions of man; 11, that God will re¬ 
ward the observance and punish the breach 
of his law; 12, that the Messiah is to come, 
though he tarry a long time ; and 13, that 
there shall be a resurrection of the dead 
when God shall think fit. These doctrines, 
commonly received by the Jews to this day, 
were drawn up about the end of the 11th 
century by the famous Jewish rabbi 
Maimonides. 

JUDGE (judex: Lat.). In the superior 
courts of common law in England there are 
fifteen judges, viz.the Lord Chief Justice 
of the King’s (or Queen’s) Bench; the Lord 
Chief Justice of the Common Tleas; the 
Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer; the 
four Puisne or inferior Judges of the two 
first courts ; and the four Puisne Barons of 
the latter court. The salary of the Chief 
Justice of the King’s (or Queen’s) Bench is 
8,0001.; that of the other Chief Justices 
7,0001.; and that of the Puisne Judges, 5,0001. 
The Chief Justices are installed or placed 
on the bench by the Lord Chancellor, and 
the Puisne Judges by the Lord Chancellor 
and the Chief Justices. The Judges of the 
Court of Chancery consist of the Lord 
Chancellor, the Master of the Rolls, the 
two Lords Justices, and three Vice-Chan¬ 
cellors. 

JUDG'ES, the Book op, a canonical book 
of the Old Testament, so called from its re¬ 
lating the state of the Israelites under the 
administration of many illustrious persons 
who were called judges, from the circum¬ 
stance of their being both the civil and 
military governors of the people. The 
power of the judges extended to affairs of 
peace and war. They were protectors of the 
laws, defenders of religion, and avengers 
of all crimes; but they could make no laws, 
and impose no new burdens upon the 
people. They lived without pomp or reti¬ 
nue, unless their own fortunes enabled them 
to do it; for the revenues of their office 
consisted in voluntary presents from the 
people. Their administration continued 



























judgment] (£t)C ^CtCltttftC ailtf 392 

from the death of Joshua till the beginning 
of the reign of Saul. 

JUDG'MENT ( jvgement: Fr.), in Law, 
the sentence or doom pronounced in any 
cause, civil or criminal, by the judge or 
court by which it is tried. Judgments are 
either interlocutory, that is, given in the 
middle of a cause on some intermediate 
point, or final, so as to put an end to the 

action_In Metaphysics, a faculty of the 

soul, by which it compares ideas, and per¬ 
ceives their agreement or disagreement. 

JUDI'CIUM DE'I (the judgment of God : 
Lat.), a term formerly used to express all 
extraordinary trials regarding accusations 
which were incapable of proof or disproof 
by ordinary means : such as those of arms, 
ordeals, &c. It was supposed that God 
would, in such cases, specially interfere 
to clear the innocent and confound the 
guilty. 

JU'GULAR FINS (jugulum, the throat, 
Lat.), in Ichthyology, when the ventral fins 
are placed on the throat before the pectoral 
fins they are called jugular, as in' the cod 
and whiting. 

JU'GULAR VEINS (same deriv.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, veins which run from the head down 
the sides of the neck, and are divided, 
from their situation, into external or super¬ 
ficial, and internal or deep-seated. By their 
union with the subclavian vein, they form 
the superior vena cava, which ends in the 
superior portion of the right auricle of the 

JU'JUBE (.Fr.), a half-dried fruit of the 
plum kind, about the size and shape of an 
olive, the produce of the Bliamnus Zizyphus 
of Linnaeus. Jujubes, when in perfection, 
have an agreeable sweet taste; in the 
southern parts of Europe, 'where they are 
common, they constitute an article of food 
in their fresh state; but they are medicinal 
when half dried. 

JU'LIAN PE'RIOD, in Chronology, a re¬ 
volution of 7980 years; which arises from 
multiplying 28,19, and 15—that is, the solar 
cycle, the lunar cycle, and the cycle of in¬ 
diction—into one another. This period is 
of great use, as the standard and general 
receptacle of all other epochas, periods, and 
cycles; and had historians remarked the 
number of each cycle corresponding to each 
year, there could have been no dispute 
about the time of any action or event in 
past ages.—When the Christian era com¬ 
menced, 4,713 years of the Julian period 
were elapsed; 4,713, therefore, being added 
to the year of our Lord, will give the year 
of the Julian period. When the correspond¬ 
ing year of the Julian period is required for 
any year before Christ, subtract the year 
before Christ from 4,714, and the remainder 
is the required number. 

JULY', the seventh month of the year. 
It was the fifth month of the old Roman 
year, and was known at first by the name 
of Quintilis. It received the name of July 
in compliment to Julius Caesar, who re¬ 
formed the calendar, placing this month, as 
it is at present, the seventh in order. 

JUNCA'CEvE (juncus, a rush, Lat.), anat. 
order of herbs, including the common 
rushes. 

JUNE, the sixth month of the year, and 
that in which is the summer solstice. It was 
the fourth month of the old Roman year, 
but the sixth of the year as reformed by 
Julius Caesar. Some suppose it received its 
name in honour of Junius Brutus. 

JU'NIPER-TREE (juniperus : Lat.), the 
Juniperus communis, the berries of which 
are considered as stomachic, carminative, 
and diuretic. The oil obtained from them 

is employed to flavour Hollands gin.- 

Juniperus Sabina, or savin, is a powerful 
and active medicine; but its heating quali¬ 
ties render it hurtful, unless used- with the 

greatest caution.- Juniperus Bermudiana 

is the pencil cedar, a tree growing at the 

Bermudas.- Juniperus Virginiana, the red 

cedar of North America, yields a rubefacient 
oil. The Junipers belong to the order of 
Coniferce. 

JU'PITER, in Astronomy, the largest of 
the planets, and the most brilliant, except¬ 
ing Venus. Jupiter revolves about the sun 
at the distance of 490 millions of miles from 
that body, and his periodical revolution is 
estimated at 4,332 days 14 hours 2 min. 8} 
secs., or about twelve of our years. His 
mean diameter is 87,000 miles, his bulk 1,300 
times greater than that of our globe, and 
the length of his day and night is equal to 
somewhat less than ten of our hours. It 
has therefore been calculated that this 
planet moves in its orbit at the rate of 
26,000 miles in an hour; its equatorial parts, 
therefore, are carried round 26 times faster 
than the similar parts of ourearth. Jupiter 
is surrounded with what are called by us 
his zones or belts, but which have been 
supposed to be clouds. His axis is so nearly 
perpendicular to the plane of his orbit that 
he has little change of seasons, the obliquity 
being only 1° 18' 5" at the beginning of the 
present century, and it undergoes a diminu¬ 
tion of about the fourth of a second in a 
year-. The difference in the length of Lis 
polar and equatorial diameters is equal to 
about 6,000 miles, the former being to the 
latter as 14 to 15. This is evidently occa¬ 
sioned bj r the quick motion round his axis. 

His density is very nearly the same as that 
of the sun, or about one-fourth of the mean 
density of the earth. Four satellites re¬ 
volve about Jupiter; they are frequently 
eclipsed in the shadow of their primary, or 
hidden behind his body; and the great use 
made of these eclipses by geographers and 
navigators has occasioned them to be very 
carefully observed. 

JURISCONSULT (juris consultus, skilled 
in the law : Lat.), a class of Roman lawyers, 
denoted by the abbreviation ictus; they 
very probably confined themselves to the 
giving of opinions. 

JURISDICTION (jurisdictio: Lat.), in its 
most general sense, the power to make, de¬ 
clare, or apply the law; when confined to 
judiciary department, it is what we deno¬ 
minate the judicial power, the right of ad¬ 
ministering justice through the laws. 

JURISPRUDENCE ( juris-prudentia: 
Lat.), the science concerned with the ex¬ 
position of the principles of laws, excluding 
from this term the laws of God, the rules of 
morality, and those general expressions of 













393 ILttcrary Cvcatfurg. [justification 


fact which are only laws in a metaphorical 
or figurative sense. A law properly so 
called is a command given hy political 
superiors to political inferiors, obliging the 
latter to pursue a certain course of conduct. 
General or comparative jurisprudence, the 
philosophy of positive law, is to be distin¬ 
guished on the one hand from national or 
particular jurisprudence, and on the other 
from the science of legislation, being con¬ 
cerned with the principles on which the 
systems of law in civilized communities are 
built, and with the notions and distinctions 
common to such systems. 

JU'RY ( jurt , sworn : Fr.), in Law, a cer¬ 
tain number of persons sworn to decide 
justly on the matter before them. The 
origin of the trial by jury has been traced 
back to a very early period in British his¬ 
tory, and seems, indeed, in some form, to 
have been used from the earliest times. 
The constitution of England, in committing 
the administration of justice to the hands 
of juries, has subjected them to no re¬ 
straint that can prevent the free discharge 
of their duty. All questions of fact are 
submitted to the jury, questions of law 
being reserved for the decision of the court. 
A juror, in giving his verdict, is to be go¬ 
verned by nothing but his own opinion. 
The jury may find, under certain circum¬ 
stances, a special verdict—that is, one in 
which the facts of the case are specially 
stated, and which leaves it to the court to 
apply the law ; or they may find a general 
verdict, subject to a special case, as to a 
point of law. Juries are of several kinds; 
among these, there are, in the polity of 
Britain, grand and petty juries in criminal 
cases, and common and special juries in 

civil.-The Grand Jury consists of a body 

of men of some consideration in their 
county: they are summoned by the sheriff 
for every session of the peace, every com¬ 
mission of oyer and terminer, and of general 
gaol delivery; and to them all indictments 
are preferred. The grand jury must consist 
of twelve persons at least, and not more 
than twenty-three; that twelve may be a 
majority. The members are instructed in 
the articles of their enquiry, by the judge or 
justice who presides on the bench. They 
then withdraw, to sit and receive indict¬ 
ments ; and they are only to hear evidence 
on the part of the prosecution : for the find¬ 
ing an indictment is merely in the nature 
of an enquiry or accusation, which is after¬ 
wards to be tried and determined ; and the 
grand jury are only to ascertain whether or 
not there be sufficient cause to call upon 
the party to answer it. Formerly, the 
grand jury used to endorse their decision 
upon the indictment, in Latin ; but now, 
they write upon an indictment which they 
reject, either the words ‘ Not a true bill,’ or 
‘Not found,’ and upon one of the truth of 

which they are satisfied, ‘ A true bill.’- 

The Petit or Petty Jury consists of twelve 
persons, and no more: it is for the trial of 
all criminal offences, and of all issues of 
fact in civil cases of the common law. The 
qualifications of petty jurors do not differ, 
generally, from those necessary for grand 
jurors: their duties being equally im¬ 


portant, and demanding equal intelligence. 

- A Special Jury is composed of persons 

of a higher rank, such as merchants, 
bankers, and landowners. They are sum¬ 
moned only at the instance of one of the 
parties. When the cause is called for trial, 
if all the jurors do not appear, or if any 
of them are justly objected to and set 
aside, either party may pray a tales. That is, 
the deficiency may be supplied from among 
the bystanders, having suitable qualifica¬ 
tions : which is called taking jurors de 
talibus circumstantibus (from similar men 
among the bystanders): from which cir¬ 
cumstance, the persons thus selected are 
called talesmen. Formerly, questions of 
fact could not be decided in the Court of 
Chancery through the instrumentality of a 
jury, but by recent Acts of Parliament 
juries may now be summoned and questions 
of fact tried by a judge of that court in the 
same way as in a court of common law. 

JU'RY-MAST, a temporary or occasional 
mast, used in the place of the foremast or 
mainmast, which has been destroyed by a 
storm. 

JUS DIYI'NUM (divine law), that law 

which is made known by a revelation.- 

Jus Gentium, the law of nations, or the 
laws established between different king¬ 
doms and states, in relation to each other. 

-Jus HiEREDiTATis, the right or law of 

inheritance.-Jus Patronatus, in the 

canon law, the right of presenting to a 
benefice ; or a kind of commission granted 
by the bishop to enquire who is the rightful 

patron of a church.-Jus Possessions, 

the right of seisin or possession, usjuspro- 
prietatis is the right of ownership of lands, 

&c.-Jus Imaginum, in Antiquity, the 

right of using pictures and statues, similar 
to the modern right of bearing coats of 
arms: it was allowed to none but those 
wiiose ancestors or themselves had borne 

some curule office.-Jus Quiritium, the 

fullest enjoyment of Roman citizenship. 
This was also called jus civile and jus 
urbanum. 

JUS'TICE (justitia: Lat.) is either distri¬ 
butive or commutative. Distributive justice 
belongs to magistrates or rulers ; and con¬ 
sists in dispensing to every man that which 
the laws and the principles of equity re¬ 
quire. Commutative justice consists in fair 
dealing in trade, and other mutual inter¬ 
course between man and man. 

JUS'TICE OF THE PEACE, a magistrate, 
appointed by royal commission to keep the 
peace of the county or borough in which 
he resides. On the commission of grave 
offences the preliminary enquiry is usually 
made before a justice ; who may either dis¬ 
miss the person charged or commit him for 
trial. Many statutes have empowered jus¬ 
tices to act judicially in numerous minor 
matters. The court of quarter sessions in 
counties and boroughs is composed of tiie 
justices in the commission of the peace. 

JUSTI'CIARY, or Court of Justiciary, 
in Scotland, a court of supreme jurisdiction 
in all criminal cases. No appeal is com¬ 
petent to the House of Lords from this 
court. 

JUSTIFICATION (justus, just; and/ado, 
















JUTE 


Cije J^cknltfk anti 


394 


I make: Lat.), in Law, tlie showing good 
reason, in a court, why one has done that 
for which he is called to answer. Pleas in 
Justification must set forth some special 
matter: thus, on being sued for a trespass, 
a person may justify it by proving that the 
land is his own freehold; that he entered a 
house in order to apprehend a felon, or, by 
virtue of a warrant, to levy a forfeiture, or 
in order to take a distress. 

JUTE, a fibre largely imported into this 


K 


. K, the eleventh letter of the alphabet, is 
usually denominated a guttural, but it is 
more properly a palatal, being formed by 
pressing the root of the tongue against the 
upper part of the mouth, with a depression 
of the lower jaw and opening of the teeth. 
It has the hard sound of c before e and i, 
where, according to the English analogy, c 
would be soft, as in the words kept and 
king ; it is seldom found at the end of words 
except in monosyllables, as clock, back, &c.; 
being generally omitted where it was for¬ 
merly used, as in music, public, &c. It is 
introduced between a vowel and the silent 
e final, as choice, broke, &c. Before n the k 
is silent, as in knife, knee. It is borrowed 
from the Greek kappa, and was very little 
used among the Latins, perhaps never but 
in words borrowed from the Greek language. 
It was often employed by the Romans, in¬ 
stead of c, as an abbreviation : thus K. T. 
for capite tonsus. We use it as an abbrevia¬ 
tion for Knight; as K.C.B. Knight Comman¬ 
der of the Bath. As a numeral the Romans 
used it for 250, and, with a stroke over it, 
for 250,000. 

K AABA.the name given byMahommedans 
to theholy house at Mecca, which is thought 
to have been originally built by angels in 
Paradise. In its wall is a black stone, pro¬ 
bably of meteoric origin, which is said to 
have been brought by the angel Gabriel 
from Paradise, and to this great respect is 
paid. 

KALEI'DOSCOPE ( kalos, beautiful; eidos, 
form ; and skopeo, I examined: Gr.), an 
optical instrument for presenting to the eye 
an ever-varying succession of splendid 
tints and symmetrical forms. It was in¬ 
vented by Sir D. Brewster; and is chiefly 
used by calico-printers, potters, and carpet- 
manufacturers, who are thus supplied with 
an endless variety of patterns. It is now 
sold as a common toy. It consists of a 
tube, containing two reflecting surfaces i n- 
clined to each other at any angle which is 
an aliquot part of 360°. The eye-glass placed 
immediately against one end of the mirrors, 
as well as another glass similarly situated at 
their other end, are of common transparent 
glass ; the tube is continued a little beyond 
this second glass, and, at its termination 
is closed by a ground glass, which can be 
put on and off. In the vacant space thus 


formed are placed beads, pieces of coloured 
glass, and other small bright objects; and 
the changes produced in their positions by 
turning the tube give rise to the different 
figures. 

KA'LI (the ashes of vegetable sub¬ 
stances : Arab.), the Salsola Kali, or glass- 
wort, a shore plant, from which the alkali 
of commerce was formerly procured by 
burning. 

KAL'MIA, in Botany, a beautiful North 
American genus of shrubs, called laurel, 
ivy-bush, calico-bush, &c., having cup¬ 
shaped flowers, of a fine rose or purple 
colour, disposed in large corymbs. It is 
naturally allied to Rhododendron. The wood 
is very hard, susceptible of a fine polish, 
and resembles box. 

KAMPTU'LICON, a compound of gutta¬ 
percha, caoutchouc, and ground cork, in¬ 
timately mixed and subjected to great 
pressure. It is chiefly used for covering 
floors, for which purpose it possesses the 
advantages of being unaffected by damp, 
being a non-conductor of heat, and a dead- 
ener of sound. 

KAM'SIN, the name given to a hot and 
dry southerly wind, common in Egypt and 
the deserts of Africa, which prevails more 
or less for fifty days. On the approach of 
this wind the sky becomes dark and heavy, 
the air grey and thick, and filled with a 
dust so subtle that it penetrates every¬ 
where. It is not remarkably hot at first, 
but its temperature increases the longer it 
continues, and while it lasts causes a diffi¬ 
culty of breathing, which, when at its high¬ 
est pitch, sometimes ends in suffocation. 

KANGAROO', the name of some Austra¬ 
lian animals belonging to the genus 
Macropus. The limbs are strangely dispro- 
portioned, the fore legs being small and 
short, whilst the hinder are long and power¬ 
ful. The largest species, M. Major, is four 
or five feet in length, wuth a tail three feet; 
its usual position is standing on its hind 
feet, its fore feet being employed like a pair 
of hands. It lives on vegetables, and, in¬ 
stead of walking, takes leaps of about fif¬ 
teen feet. It is furnished, like the opossum, 
with a pouch in the abdomen, which is a 
receptacle for its young, and is resorted to 
after they become strong for the sake of 
warmth and protection. They use theii 


country for the purpose of manufacture, is 
obtained from the inner bark of an East 
Indian tree, the Corchoruscapsularis, which 
belongs, like our lime tree, to the nat. order 

Tiliacece, 

JUTES, the people of Jutland, some of 
whom, it is traditionally said, formed 
colonies in Kent and the Isle of Wight 
under Hengist and Horsa, who landed in the 
Isle of Thanet in A.D. 449. 






















395 


Htteravj) 


tails and hinder feet as weapons of de¬ 
fence. When they are pursued and over¬ 
taken by dogs they turn, and, seizing them 
with their fore feet, strike them violently 
with their hinder limbs, thereby often de- 
j stroying them. The flesh of these animals 
is said to be nutritious and savoury, some¬ 
what resembling mutton. 

KAN'TIAN PHILOS'OPHY, called also 
Critical Philosophy, a system invented by 
Kant, professor of philosophy in the uni¬ 
versity of KOnigsberg, during the latter 
half cf the last century. He divides the 
speculative portion of our nature into three 
provinces, sense, understanding, and reason. 
Our senses tell us only what things appear 
to be, not what they are or are not. Expe¬ 
rience requires time and space. The truth 
of the fundamental axioms of geometry 
rests on our intuitions of space, in its three 
dimensions—intuitions not derived from 
sense, but the ground of all our experience. 
The understanding combines and classifies 
j the materials yielded by sense; and its ope- 
I rations are generalized into four categories: 
quantity, including unity, multeity, and 
totality ; quality, divided into reality, nega¬ 
tion, and limitation ; relation, that is, sub¬ 
stance and accident, cause and effect, action 
and reaction ; and modality, subdivided into 
possibility, existence, and necessity. These 
are the moulds in which the rude material 
is shaped into conception, and becomes 
knowledge. The categories are the subject- 
matter of logic. Reason consists in the 
power of forming ideas, which regulate, 
but can never constitute, science. The 
reason strives perpetually after the exist¬ 
ence of God, immortality, &c., but it can 
decide nothing about them. The moral 
faculty, or practical reason, supplies the de¬ 
ficiencies of speculative reason; but it 
determines not what is, but what ought to 
be: the speculative reason gives the form 
of our knowledge, the practical prescribes 
the form of our action. Obligation is not 
merely a feeling: it is a pure form, under 
which the reason is obliged to regard hu¬ 
man conduct. The personality of man, 
which lies at the ground of speculative 
knowledge, becomes, in relation to action, 
freedom of the will. The only valid founda¬ 
tions of belief in God, the immortality of 
the soul, and a future state, in which the 
demands of the practical reason shall be 
realized, are to be sought for in our moral 
nature. 

KA'OLIN, the Chinese name for porce¬ 
lain clay, which consists essentially of silica 
and a smaller quantity of alumina, and is 
derived from the decomposition of the fel¬ 
spar of granitic rocks. It is found in vast 
quantities in Cornwall. 

KAR'PHOLITE ( karphos, any small dry 
body—a fruit; and lithos, a stone: Gr.), a 
mineral, of a fibrous structure and a yellow 
colour. It is a hydrated silicate of alumina 
and manganese. 

KARROO, the name given at the Cape of 
Good Hope to large tracts of ground com¬ 
posed of sand mixed with clay containing 
particles of iron, which give it a yellow 
colour. The Great Karroo, in the middle of 
the colony, is a tract nearly 300 miles long 


[keei 


by from 80 to 100 miles broad, and having 
an elevation of 3,000 feet. 

KAYAGS, an armed Turkish constable. 

KAWA or AVA, the native name of a 
plant ( Macropiper uiethysticum), nat. ord. 
Piperacece, grown in Polynesia for the sake 
of its juice, from which is prepared an in- 
toxicatin g beverage, having peculiar effect s. 

* The taste is sweet and agreeable, produc¬ 
ing a glow in the stomach. It induces a 
sort of intoxication widely different from 
the form that alcoholic inebriation assumes. 
Men under the influence of Kawa neither 
stagger about, nor speak thick and loud 
A sort of shiver affects the whole frame, 
the gait becomes listless and slow, but they 
never lose consciousness. At last great 
weakness is felt in all the joints; headache 
and an irresistible inclination to sleep in¬ 
tervene, and a state of complete repose 
becomes an absolute necessity. Inveterate 
drinkers are haggard and melancholy, their 
eyes are sunken, their teeth of a bright 
yellow colour, the skin' dry and chopped, 
and the body covered with boils.’— Voyage 
of the Novara. In preparing the beverage 
the root is chewed in the mouth, and when 
changed into little cones held together by 
saliva they are mingled with water in a 
wooden vessel and gently squeezed by the 
hand. It is drunk out of the half of a 
cocoa-nut shell. Chemists have discovered 
a peculiar alkaloid in the root, which has 
been named Kawaine. 

KECK'LING, among seamen, winding or 
twining small ropes about a cable or bolt- 
rope, to save them from galling. 

KEDGE or KEDG'ER ( kaghe, a small ves¬ 
sel : Dut.), a small anchor used to keep a 
ship steady when riding in a harbour or 

river.- Kedgixg, furling the sails, and 

letting a ship drift with the tide, when the 
wind is contrary to it. 

KEEL ( koilos, hollow, a term specially 
applied to ships: Gr.), the lowest piece of 
timber in a ship, running her whole length 
from the lower part of her stem to the 
lower part of her stern-post, and support¬ 
ing the whole frame. Sometimes a second 
keel, or false keel, as it is called, is put 

under the first.- Keel or Carina, in 

Botany, the lower part of a papilionaceous 
corolla, enclosing the stamens and pistil. 
It consists of two petals more or less united 
into a form which has suggested its name. 

-A leaf is said to he keeled when it has a 

longitudinal prominence on the back. 

KEEL'-HAULING, among seamen, a pu¬ 
nishment formerly inflicted on offenders at 
sea, by letting them down from the yard¬ 
arm with ropes, and drawing them under 
the keel from one side to the other. 

KEEL'AGIS, the duty paid by a ship on 
coming into port. 

KEEL'SON or KEL'SON, in Naval Archi¬ 
tecture, the inside keel; a principal timber 
in a ship, laid withinside across all the tim¬ 
bers over the keel, and fastened with long 
bolts, so as to form the interior or counter¬ 
part of the keel. 

KEEP ( kepan, to keep: Ang. Sax.), a 
strong tower in old castles, into which the 
besieged retreated in cases of extremity 
It is also called the donjon or dungeon. 





























keeper] 


Cljc Jj>ctcnttfu autt 


396 


KEEP'ER (same deriv.), a title given to 
various official persons, as, the keeper of the 
great seal, a lord by his office, and one of 
the privy council, through whose hands 
pass all charters, commissions, and grants 
of the sovereign under the great seal; the 
keeper of the privy seal, through whose hands 
pass all charters, &c., before they come to 
the great seal. There are also other official 
persons bearing the title of keeper. 

KEEP'ING (same deriv.), a term used in 
various branches of the fine arts, to denote 
the just proportion and relation of the 

various parts.-In Painting, it signifies 

the peculiar management of colouring and 
cliiaro oscuro, so as to produce a proper de¬ 
gree of rilievo in different objects, accord¬ 
ing to their relative position and import¬ 
ance. If the lights, shadows, and half-tints 
be not in proper keeping, that is, in their 
exact relative proportion of depths, no ro¬ 
tundity can be effected; and without due 
opposition of light, shade, and colours, no 
apparent separation of objects can take 
place. 

KELP, the calcined ashes of marine plants 
from which soda was formerly obtained. 
Since the alkali required for manufacturing 
purposes can now be obtained more cheaply 
from common salt, sea-weed is consumed 
as manure, except what is required for the 
obtaining of iodine. 

KEP'LER’S LAWS, in Astronomy, those 
laws which govern the planetary motions. 
They were first discovered and demon¬ 
strated by Kepler, and are three in num¬ 
ber :—1. The planets describe ellipses, each 
of which has one of its foci in the sun. 2. 
Every planet moves, so that the line drawn 
from it to the sun describes about the sun 
areas proportional to the times. 3. The 
squares of the times of the revolutions of 
the planets are as the cubes of their mean 
distances from the sun. 

KER'MES (a little worm : Arab.), species 
of the genus Coccus of entomologists, 
found in the excrescences of oak-trees, 
growing in the south of Europe. It is an 
article extensively used in dyeing, and is 
inferior to nothing but cochineal as a means 
of producing scarlet. Kermes-grains, as 
they are called, are the dried bodies of the 
female insects of the species Coccus Ilicis, 
which lives upon the leaves of the Quercus 
Ilex, or prickly oak. It was formerly called 
Vermiculus, whence the French Vermillion. 
Kermes has been employed from time im¬ 
memorial in India to dye silk; and was also 
used by the ancient Greeks and Romans 
for the same purpose; but since the intro¬ 
duction of cochineal, it has become an 
object of comparatively trifling importance. 

-Kermes Mineral, a name given, on 

account of its red colour, to the sulphuret 
of antimony. 

KES'TREL. the Falco Tinnunculus, a 
British bird with yellow legs, a brown 
back, a spotted breast, and a rounded tail, 
broad towards the end. It is about the 
size of a pigeon, and very bold. It builds 
in hollow oaks, and feeds on quails and 
other small birds. 

KETCH ( caicchio : Ital.), a vessel with a 
main and mizen mast, usually from 100 to 


250 tons burden. Ketches are generally 
used as yachts, or as bomb-vessels; the 
latter, which are built remarkably strong, 
are furnished with all the apparatus neces¬ 
sary for carrying on a vigorous bombard¬ 
ment. 

KETCH'UP or CATS'UP, a sauce prepared 
from mushrooms. 

KEY ( ccege: Sax.), in Architecture, a 
piece of wood let into the back of another 
in a direction contrary to the grain, to pre¬ 
vent warping.-In Music, the funda¬ 

mental note or tone, to which the whole 
piece is accommodated, and in which it 
usually begins and always ends. There 
are but two species of keys: one of the 
major and one of the minor mode, all the 
keys in which we employ sharps or flats 
being deduced from the natural keys of C 
major and A minor, of which they are mere 

transpositions.-The keys of an organ or 

pianoforte are moveable projecting levers, 
made of ivory or wood, so placed as conve¬ 
niently to receive the fingers of the per¬ 
former, by which the mechanism is set in 
motion, and the sounds produced. The 
whole together form the keyboard or (Hamer. 

KEY'-STONE, in Architecture, the last 
or middle stone placed on the top of the 
arch or vault. 

KHA'LIF. [See Caliph.] 

KHAN, an Asiatic governor. In the north 
of Asia, this title expresses the full regal 
dignity; but there are also khans of pro¬ 
vinces, cities, &c.- Khan, a word used 

by us to signify an eastern caravansera, in 
which travellers receive a gratuitous lodg¬ 
ing for one night. 

KID'NAPPING (kind, a child : But.; and 
nap or nab), the forcible seizing and taking 
away a man, woman, or child, in order to 
carry them abroad. The offence is felony. 
Masters of vessels leaving any of their men 
in other countries against their will are 
punishable. The taking away or detaining 
any child under ten years of age, with 
intent to deprive the parents or guardians 
of the possession of such child, or with 
intent to steal any article on its person, is 
punishable with penal servitude of not 
more than seven nor less than three years, 
or imprisonment, with or without hard 
labour, for not more than two years; and 
also, if a male, with a whipping, if the court 
think fit. 

KID'NEY-BEAN, a garden pulse, so 
named from its resembling a kidney in 
shape; it has a papilionaceous flower, the 
pistil of which becomes a long pod, that is 
eaten before the seeds are fully formed. 
There are several species belonging to the 
leguminous genus Phaseolus. 

KID'NEYS, in Anatomy, two oblong flat¬ 
tened glands, the office of which is to se¬ 
parate the urine from the blood. One of 
them lies on the right, and the other on the 
left, of the back-bone. At the middle of each 
kidney, where the blood-vessels enter, is a 
large membranous bag, which diminishes 
like a funnel, and forms a long canal (the 
ureter), that conveys the urine from the 
kidney to the bladder. 

KIL'LAS, a provincial name for the clay- 
slate rocks of Corn walk 

























397 


ICttcrary QDmjurg. 


[kipper 


KILN ( cyln: Sax.), a large furnace or 
Btove, used for heating, drying, or burning: 
thus, a malt-kiln, brick-kiln, &c. 

KIL'OGRAMME or KIL'OGRAM (chilias, 
a thousand: Gr. ; and gramme), one thou¬ 
sand French grammes, or 15,434 grains troy. 

KIL'OLITRE ( chilias, a thousand : Gr.; 
and litre), one thousaud French litres, or 
61,028 cubic inches. 

KIL'OMETRE (chilias, a thousand-: Gr.; 
and mitre), one thousand French metres, 
or 39,370 - 091 inches=3280'9 feet. 

KINCOB, Indian brocade. 

KING ( cyning: Sax.), in Ancient and Mo¬ 
dern History, the name given to an officer 
who exercises the supreme functions of 
political government. Kings are absolute 
monarchs, when they possess the powers 
of government without control, or the en¬ 
tire sovereignty over a nation ; and limited 
monarchs, when their power is restrained 
by fixed laws ; hereditary, when they hold 
the powers of government by right of birth 
or inheritance; and elective, when raised to 
the throne by election.-The English mo¬ 

narch’s power is limited. He has the pre¬ 
rogative of commanding armies and equip¬ 
ping fleets; but without the concurrence 
of his parliament he cannot maintain them. 
He can bestow places and employments; 
but without his parliament he cannot pay 
the salaries attached to them. He can de¬ 
clare war; but without his parliament it 
is impossible for him to carry it on. ‘He 
can do no wrongsince his ministers are 
accountable for the acts they advise. The 
' law ascribes to a king of England, in his 
olitical capacity, immortality, for ‘ the 
ing never dies; ’ and on his decease, which 
is called his demise, his regal dignity is 
vested, without any interregnum or inter¬ 
val, at once in his heir. 

KING- AT-A RMS, in Heraldry, an officer 
of great antiquity, whose business is to 
direct the heralds, preside at their chapters, 
and have the jurisdiction of armoury. In 
England there are three kings-at-arms, 
Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy: the first 
is called ■principal king-at-arms, the other 
two provincial kings. Norroy officiatesmortli 
of the Trent. There are also Lion king-at- 
arms for Scotland, and Ulster king-at-arms 
for Ireland. 

KING'DOM, in Natural History, a general 
division of natural objects, as the animal, 
the mineral, and the vegetable kingdoms. 

KING'FISHER. [See Halcyon.] 

KINGS, Books of, two canonical books 
i of the Old Testament, so called because 
they contain the history of the kings of 
j Israel and Judah, from the beginning of 
the reign of Solomon down to the Baby¬ 
lonish captivity, for the space of nearly six 
hundred years. 

KING’S BENCH (Bancus Regius), so called 
because the king used formerly to sit there 
in person. It may follow the person of the 
sovereign to any part of the kingdom, but 
for centuries has been held at the ancient 
royal palace of Westminster. It is the 
supreme court of common law in this king¬ 
dom, consisting of the Lord Chief Justice, 
and four puisne or inferior judges, who hear 
| and determine, for the most part, all pleas 


which concern the crown. The jurisdiction 
of this court is very extensive. Its justices 
are sovereign justices of oyer and terminer, 
of gaol delivery, and of eyre; supreme 
conservators of the peace; and coroners 
throughout England, some provincial juris¬ 
dictions excepted. They have cognizance of 
all matters of a criminal and public nature, 
judicially brought before them, to give re¬ 
medy either by the common law or by sta¬ 
tute ; and their power is original and ordi¬ 
nary : that is, after the king has appointed 
them, they do not derive their jurisdic¬ 
tion from him, but from the law. They 
can take any cause out of an inferior court, 
by a writ of certiorari, and, by means of a 
prohibition, can restrain all other courts 
from proceeding, where they exceed or 
misuse their powers. Whatever crime is 
against the public good, though it does 
not injure any particular person, comes 
within the scope of the jurisdiction of 
this court; and no subject can suffer any 
kind of unlawful violence or injury to his 
person, liberty, or possessions, but he may 
here have a proper remedy, not only by 
way of satisfaction in damages, but by the 
exemplary punishment of the offender: 
for this court is considered as the guardian 
of the morals of all the subjects of the 
realm. It is in the discretion of this court 
to inflict fine and imprisonment, or punish¬ 
ment more severe, on offenders. It may 
commit to any prison it shall think proper ; 
and the law allows no other court to remove 
or bail persons it imprisons; but this court 
may grant a habeas-corpus tc relieve per¬ 
sons imprisoned by any other authority or 
means. This court can try ail causes capable 
of coming before a jury, in many of which 
the sovereign is plaintiff. There is a crown 
side, or crown office, which takes cognizance 
of all criminal causes, from treason down 
to the most trivial breach of the peace; 
and a plea side, which takes cognizance of 
civil causes. 

KING’S E'VIL, in Medicine, a scrofulous 
disease usually attended with suppurating 
tumours. The gift of curing this disease 
was formerly attributed to the kings and 
queens of England, and had its origin in 
the time of Edward the Confessor ; but the 
practice of touching for the evil (as it was 
termed) has been discontinued since Queen 
Anne’s time. 

KIN'IC ACID, sometimes called cinclionic 
acid, is obtained from the cinchona bark. 
It forms salts called kinates. 

KI'NO (Ind.), an extract obtained from 
some species of Pterocarpus, leguminous 
trees growing in Africa and the East Indies. 
The best kind is in the form of brilliant 
fragments of a deep brownish-red colour. 
It contains tannin, gum, and extractive 
matter, and is highly astringent. 

KI'OSK (Turk.), a kind of summer-house, 
or open pavilion, with a tent-shaped roof, 
and supported by pillars. Kiosks have been 
introduced from Turkey and Persia into 
European gardens, which they greatly em¬ 
bellish. 

KIP'PER, a term applied to a salmon 
when unfit to be taken, and to the time 
when they are so considered. Kippered 









CTje Jbmnttftc antf 


39S 


KIRKj 


salmon means salmon split open, salted and 
dried or smoked. 

KIRK ( kirche: Ger.), the name given in 
Scotland to the church, as a building, and 
also to the form of religion established in 
that country.- Kiric-sessions, an in¬ 

ferior ecclesiastical court in Scotland, con¬ 
sisting of the ministers, elders, and deacons 
of a parish. 

KIRSCH'WASSER (cherry-water: Germ.), 
a spirituous liquor obtained by fermenting 
and distilling bruised cherries, called kit¬ 
sch en in German. It often contains a con¬ 
siderable amount of prussic acid, derived 
from the bruised kernels of the fruit. 

KIT'-OAT, a term applied to a portrait 
three-fourths of the length of the body. 
The word originated with a club in London, 
to which Addison and Steele belonged, and 
which was so called from a pastrycook 
named Christopher (Kit) Cat, who served it 
with mutton-pies! It was necessary that 
the pictures which decorated the room in 
which the club met should be of this size, 
on account of its height. Among these 
were the portraits of the members, painted 
by Sir Godfrey Kneller. 

KITE (cyte: Sax.), a bird of prey, the 
Falco Milvus, remarkable for gliding 
through the air without often moving its 
wings. The tail is forked, which distin¬ 
guishes it from all other British birds of 
prey. Kite, a play thin g for boys, consist¬ 
ing of a slight wooden frame covered with 
paper, and constructed so as to rise in the 
air, where, by the aid of a long string, it 
may be allowed to fly at the pleasure of the 
person who holds it. Romas in France, and 
Dr. Franklin in America, first used a kite 
for the purpose of raising an electrical 
conductor into the air, and bringing down 
atmospheric electricity—a very dangerous 
experiment, particularly in a thunderstorm, 
and fatal to one experimentalist. 

KIWI-KIWI, the New Zealander’s name 
for some species of rare birds allied to the 
ostriches and belonging to the genus 
Apteryx of naturalists. They have long 
bills, hair-like plumage, and wings so small 
that they appear to have none until closely 
examined. The plumage is prized as an 
ornament by the Maori chiefs. 

KNEE'-PAN, in Anatomy, the patella, a 
little round bone placed in the fore-part of 
the knee. It is attached by a ligament to 
the upper surface of the tibia. It protects 
the joint in front and changes the direction 
of the tendons which descend from the 
thigh to be inserted in the tibia. 

KNEES ( cneo, the knee: Sax.), in Naval 
Architecture, pieces of timber bowed like 
a knee, which bind the beams and side tim¬ 
bers together. -Knees, in Russia, nobles 

of the first class, descended from the for¬ 
mer ruling families of particular provinces 
in the Russian empire. 

KNIGHT ( kneclit, an attendant: Ger.), a 
title of honour, originally bestowed on 
every young man of rank after he was ad¬ 
mitted to the privilege of bearing arms. 
It is now an order of gentlemen next to 
baronets, or a mere honorary distinction. 
A knight is at present made by the sove¬ 
reign touching him with a sword as he 


kneels, and saying, * Rise up, Sir Thomas 
Phillips,’or whatever may be the name of 
him who receives the honour of knighthood. 
[See Chivalry.] 

KNIGHT-ER'RANT, in the language of 
Chivalry, a knight wandering in search of 
adventures, sometimes under vows for a 
certain period ; he was not altogether a fio 

tion of romance. 

KNIGHT-MAR'SHAL, an ofllcer in the 
roval household of Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land, who formerly had jurisdiction and 
cognizance of offences committed within 
the household and verge, and of all con¬ 
tracts to which members of the household 
were parties. 

KNIGHT OF THE SHIRE, a member of 
parliament representing a shire, in contra¬ 
distinction from a burgess, who represents 
a borough. A knight of the shire is so 
called, because, as the terms of the writ for 
election still require, it was formerly neces¬ 
sary that he should be a knight. This 
restriction was coeval with the tenure of 
knight-service, when every man who re¬ 
ceived a knight’s fee immediately of the 
crown was constrained to be a knight; but 
at present any person may be chosen to fill 
this office, and he does not now require a 
money qualification. 

KNIGHT'-SEltVICE, a tenure of lands, 
instituted on the decline of the feudal 
spirit, with the view of reviving political 
vigour. It originally consisted in investi¬ 
ture* of lands, upon express condition that 
the person so invested should serve in the 
wars of his lord. 

KNIGHT'HOOD, ORDERS OF. These 
were of two kinds : associations or fraterni¬ 
ties of a religious character, such as those 
of the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic 
knights; or mere honorary bodies, estab¬ 
lished by sovereigns, such as the order of 
the Garter. 

KNOT (knoten: Germ.), in Seamen’s lan¬ 
guage, one of the divisions of the log-line, 
which, to avoid the necessity of calculation, 
are at such intervals that the number of 
knots unwound while the glass runs down 
shows the number of miles sailed per hour. 
Thus, let it be a lialf-minute glass, it will 
run down 120 times in an hour; if, there¬ 
fore, the knots, which are pieces of coloured 
cloth, are fastened at distances each equal 
to the 120th part of a mile, the number of 
knots run out will be the number of miles 
per hour. A nautical mile is the sixtieth 
of a degree, or about 6,100 feet; the one- 
liundred-and-twentieth of this is 61 feet; 
hence, with a half-minute glass, the knots 
must be 51 feet apart, and at a proportional 
distance with any other glass. The first 
knot is placed about five fathoms from the 
log, to allow the latter to get clear of the 
ship, and that space is called the stray line. 

[See Log.]-Knot, a fen bird allied to the 

snipes, the Tringa canutus of ornithologists, 
the flesh of which is very delicious. 

KNOUT, an instrument of punishment 
in Russia. It consists of a handle two feet 
long, having a flat leathern thong about 
four feet long attached to it. At the end 
of the thong is a ring of brass, to which is 
fastened a strip of hide which has been 


























399 


Httcrnrg (Ertttfurg. 


[laboratory 


6oaked in milk and dried in the sun to 
make it hard, and is about two inches wide 
at first, but terminates in a point. A prac¬ 
tised hand will deeply indent a deal board 
with this cruel instrument. If it happen 
to strike the culprit with its edge it cuts 
like a knife. 

KOL'LYRITE, in Mineralogy, hydrous 
silicate of alumina, a variety of clay, the 
colour of which is either pure white or 
slightly shaded with grey or yellow. 

KO'RAN. [See Alcoran.] 

KOU'MISS or KTJ'MISS, an intoxicating 
liquor made by the Calmuck Tartars, by fer¬ 
menting and distilling mare’s milk. 


KOUPH'OLITE (kouphos , light; and li- 
thos, a stone: Or.), in Mineralogy, a variety 
of phrenite, of a greenish-white colour, 
translucent, glistening, and pearly. It is 
found in the Pyrenees. 

KRA'KEN (Germ), a name formerly 
applied to a fabulous marine monster of 
great size. 

KRE'OSOTE. [See Creosote.] 

KU'FIC, a term applied to the ancient 
Arabic letters, &c., so called from Kufa on 
the Euphrates. 

KY'AHITE. [See CYANITEj 


L, the twelfth letter of the English al¬ 
phabet. It is the first mute, or semi-vowel, 
and is formed in the voice by intercepting 
the breath between the tip of the tonguetad 
i the fore-part of the palate, with the mouth 
1 open. There is something of aspiration in 
i its sound, and therefore our British an- 
! cestors usually doubled it, or added an h to 
it; as in llan, or Ilia??, a temple. In English 
words of one syllable, it is doubled at the 
end, as in all, wall, mill, well, &c., but not 
after diphthongs and digraphs, as foul, fool, 
prowl, growl, foal, &c.j some words of more 
syllables than one, as foretel, &c., are now 
written with a double l. In some words, l is 
silent, as in half, calf, talk, chalk. In com¬ 
bination, it may be placed aftermost of the 
consonants, as in blue, clear, flame, &c., but 
before none of them. In some ancient lan¬ 
guages, it is represented by two lines form¬ 
ing an angle. In the Greek, the vertex of 
the angle is at the top ; in the Etruscan, at 
the right-hand side; in the Celtic, at the 
left, or below, &c. The Romans used it as 
an abbreviation for Lucias; for Sestertium, 
the equivalent to a thousand sesterces, as 
LLS. [see H.] We use it for Law, as B.C.L. 
Bachelor of Civil Law; and doubled for 
Laras, as LL.D. Doctor of Laras ; for loco, as 
L.S. Loco Sigilli (the place of the seal); also, 
with figures, for the sign of the pound ster¬ 
ling (abbrev. of libra, a pound : Lat.) As 
a numeral, L denoted, with the Romans, 50; 
and, with a dash over it, 50,000. 

LA, in Music, the syllable by which Guido 
indicated the sixth note in the scale. [See 
Gamut.] 

LAB'ADISTS, a sect who lived in the 
17th century, the followers of Jean de La- 
badie. They endeavoured to introduce the 
doctrines of the Quietists among Protest¬ 
ants [see Quietism]; aud, like the Quiet¬ 
ists, were in some instances guilty of im¬ 
morality: 

LA'BARUM (Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, 
the standard borne before the emperors ; 
being a rich purple streamer, supported by 
a spear. It was introduced by Constantine 
after his conversion, and contained a figure 


of the cross and the Greek words * en touto 
nilca,' conquer in this. 

LAB'DANUM or LAD'ANUM, the resin 
of the Cystus Creticus, a shrub which grows 
in Arabia, Candia, and other parts of the 
Greek Archipelago. It is used in medicine, 
chiefly in external applications. 

LA'BEL (labellum, a small slip of writ¬ 
ing: Lat.), in Heraldry, a figure, chiefly 
used as a distinction or difference in the 
coat armour of an eldest son, in which 
case it has three points. If borne by the 
heir presumptive to a grandfather living, 
it has five points ; and so on. 

LA'BELLUM (dim. of labium, a lip: Lat.), 
in Botany, the middle division of the corolla 
in orchids. It is usually larger than 
the other divisions, and unlike them in 
form. It is not unfrequently spurred or 
furnished with appendages. 

LA'BIA (Lat.), in Anatomy, the lips, the 
red part of which is called Prolabium, and 
the angles their commissures. 

LA'BIAIS ( labium , a lip : Lat.), in Gram¬ 
mar, an epithet for those letters which are 
pronounced chiefly by means of the lips, 
viz. b, f, rn, p, v. 

LABIA'TiE, a natural order of plants 
consisting of herbs and undershrubs na¬ 
tives for the most part of temperate regions. 
The corolla is more or less bi-labiate, whence 
the name of the order. The plants abound 
with volatile oils, which are largely em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of perfumery. 
Many kitchen herbs belong to this order, 
such as mint, thyme, sage, marjoram, and 
savory. The well-known lavender, hyssop, 
rosemary, and salvia, as well as the fragrant 
patchouli, are placed here. 

LA'BIATE (same deriv.), lipped; a term 
applied by botanists to a monopetalous 
corolla with two lip-like divisions of the 
limb, such as is seen in the order Labiatce. 

LABORATORY (laboro, I work out: 
Lat.), a workshop or building, properly 
fitted up with apparatus necessary for the 
various operations, processes, and experi¬ 
ments, that may be required by the prac¬ 
tical chemist.—In military affairs, a place 


























Efje Swnttfic nixts 


400 


labour] 

where all sorts of fireworks are prepared, 
both for actual service and for experi¬ 
ments. 

LA'BOUR ( labor: Lat.) It is interesting 
to mark the progressive advance in the 
price of labour during the last 500 years, 
compared with the prices of provisions; 
and satisfactory at the same time to know 
that the wages of the labourerand artisan 
of every description have risen in a much 
greater proportion than wheat, by the price 
of which their wages were originally regu¬ 
lated. In the year 1352, 25 Edw. III., wheat 
was Is. lOd. per bushel. The following are 
the rates of wages per day at that time, 
as established by lawHaymakers, Id. 
A mower of meadows, 5 d .; or 6 d. an acre. 
Reapers of corn, in the first week of Au¬ 
gust, 2d., in the second, 3d., and so till the 
end of August, without meat, drink, or 
other allowance, finding their own tools. 
For threshing a quarter of wheat or rye, 
2Id. ; a quarter of barley, beans, peas, and 
oats, 1 id. A master carpenter received 3d. 
per day; other carpenters, 2d. A master 
mason, 4d.; other masons, 3d.; and their 
servants, lid. Nearly a century after, i. e. 
in the year 1455, 23 Henry VI., the wages 
were :—For a bailiff of husbandry, 23s. 4d. 
per annum, and clothing of the value of 5s., 
with meat and drink ; chief hind, carter, 
or shepherd, 20s., clothing 4s.; boy under 
14 years, 6s., clothing 3s. Free mason, or 
master carpenter, 4d. per day, and, without 
meat or drink, 5id. Master tiler or slater, 
mason, or ordinary carpenter, and other 
artificers concerned in building, 3d. per day, 
and, without meat and drink, 4id.; every 
other labourer 2d., and, without meat and 
drink, 3id.; after Michaelmas there was a 
proportional abatement. In time of harvest, 
a mower 4d. a day, and, without meat and 
drink, 6d.; a reaper or carter, 3d., and, with¬ 
out meat and drink, 5d.; a woman labourer, 
and other labourers, 2d. per day, and, with¬ 
out meat and drink, 4ld.—It has been 
found that the factory operative in Eng¬ 
land w T orks 69 hours per week, for which, on 
an average, he has 11s. wages ; in France, 
he works from 72 to 84 hours, and has 
5s. 8d.; in Switzerland, he works from 78 to 
84 hours, and has 4s. 5d.; in the Tyrol, he 
works from 72 to 80 hours, and has 4s.; in 
Saxony, he works 72 hours, and has 3s. 6d.; 
at Bonn, in Prussia, he works 94 hours, and 
has 2s. 6d. 

LAB'RADORITE or LAB'RADOR SPAR, 
a mineral found on the coast of Labrador, 
and also in some parts of Europe. It is a 
variety of opaline felspar, and reflects beau¬ 
tiful colours, according to the direction in 
which the light falls on it. 

LAB'YRINTH (laburinthos: Or.), a maze 
or place full of intricate windings, which 
render it difficult to find the w r ay from the 
interior to the entrance. The labyrinth of 
Egypt, built by Psammeticbus, on the banks 
of the Nile, consisted of twelve contiguous 
palaces, containing 3000 chambers, 1500 of 
which were underground. Pliny says it ex¬ 
isted in his time, and was then 3600 years 
old. There were also other celebrated laby¬ 
rinths in antiquity, such as those of Crete, 
Cusium, &c.- Labyrinth, in Anatomy, 


that part of the internal ear which is behind 
the cavity of the tympanum. 

LABYRIN'THODON ( laburintlios , a laby¬ 
rinth ; odotis, a tooth : Gr.), a genus of fossil 
batrachians, of which a few bones and some 
foot-marks have been found in the triassic 
strata of Europe. The animals appear to 
have been gigantic frogs. The structure 
of the teeth is very curious, exhibiting a 
radiating series of folds •which resemble 
the windings on the surface of the brain. 

LAC. [See Gum-lac.] 

LAC'CIC A'CID, an acid obtained from 
stick-lac. It is yellow, crystallizable, and 
forms salts termed laccates. 

LACE, a delicate kind of network, used 
as an ornament of dress, formed of silk, 
cotton, or flax, &c. The most celebrated 
and costly is made at Brussels. Bucking¬ 
hamshire formerly manufactured large 
quantities of what was called pillow or 
bobbin lace, from being woven upon a 
pillow or cushion by means of bobbins; 
but the machine lace of England is now 
equal to any wrought by hand, and is much 
cheaper. In speaking of the modern ma¬ 
chine-made bobbin-net lace. Dr. Ure says, 
‘ This elegant texture possesses all the 
strength and regularity of the old Bucking¬ 
ham lace, and is far superior in these re¬ 
spects to the point net and warp lace, which 
had preceded, and, in some measure, paved 
the way for it. Bobbin-net maybe said to 
surpass every other branch of human in¬ 
dustry in the complex ingenuity of its ina- 
cbinery; one of Fisher’s spotting frames 
being as much beyond the most curious 
chronometer in multiplicity of mechanical 
device as that is beyond a common roast¬ 
ing-jack.’ A rack of lace is a certain length 
of work, which, counted perpendicularly, 
contains 240 meshes or holes; and such has 
been the progress of improvement and eco¬ 
nomy in this manufacture, that the cost of 
labour in making a rack, which was, twenty 
years ago, 3s. 6 d., is now not more than one 

penny!- Lace made by caterpillars. These 

animals have been very ingeniously used 
as a means of producing an exceedingly 
fine kind of lace, possessed of considerable 
durability. A stone slab or other flat body 
having been covered with a paste, made of 
the leaves of the plant on which the cater¬ 
pillar feeds, the pattern intended to be left 
open is drawn upon it with olive-oil, and, 
having been placed in a sloping position, 
caterpillars remarkable for producing a 
strong web are put at its lower side. They 
eat and spin their way to the top, carefully 
avoiding every place that has been touched 
with the oil. A veil made in thiB way, 
26} inches by 17 inches weighed only 1 - 51 gr. 
One of the same size, made of the finest 
patent net, would weigh about sixty times 
as much. 

LACE BARK, the inner bark of an ever¬ 
green shrub, a native of Jamaica, the Lagetta 
lintearia, nat. order Thymelacece. When 
macerated and stretched it has the appear¬ 
ance of coarse lace or net. 

LACER'TA (a lizard : Lat.), in Zoology, 
the Lizard. The gradual discovery of many 
new forms has caused naturalists to form 
several genera in place of the Linnasan 

















401 Ei'terarp 


genus Lacerta. These constitute the family, 
Lacertinidce. The species are all scaly 
four-legged reptiles furnished with long 
tails. They are harmless, timid, and nimble 
in their motions, feeding on insects and 
fruit, and loving warmth. 

LACH'RYMAL ( lacliryma , a tear: Lat.), an 
appellation given to several parts of the 
eye from their serving to secrete or convey 
away the tears: as the lachrymal dads, the 
| lachrymal glands. 

LACIIRYM'ATORY (same deriv.), in An¬ 
tiquity, a small glass bottle or phial in 
which were collected the tears of a de¬ 
ceased person’s friends, and preserved along 
with the ashes and urn. Many of them have 
; been found in the tombs and sepulchres of 
the ancients. 

LA'CING ( lacer , to lace : Fr.), among ma¬ 
riners, the rope or line used to confine the 
heads of sails to their yards. 

L ACIN'IATED ( lacinia , a lappet: Lat.), in 
Botany, an epithet denoting a leaf which 
has several sinuses down to the middle, and 
the lobes which separate these indented or 
jagged. 

i LACK (lakh, an East Indian word), in 
Commerce, the number of 100,000 rupees, 
equal to about 10,000/. sterling. 

LAC'QUER or LACK'ER (lac, a gum used 
in the varnish), a sort of varnish applied to 
tin, brass, or other metals. The basis of 
lacquer is a solution of shellac iii alcohol, 
coloured with gamboge, saffron, &c. It is 
used to give a golden colour to brass 
and other metals, and to preserve their 
lustre. 

LAC'TEALS or LAC'TEAL VES'SELS 
(lac, milk : Lat.), in Anatomy, the absorb¬ 
ents of the mesentery, which convey the 
milklike fluid, termed chyle, from the small 
intestines to the thoracic duct. 

LAC'TIC A'CID (same deriv.), in Chemis¬ 
try, the acid of sour milk, and the constant 
product of the fermentation of sugar, 
starch, and bodies of that class. It may be 
obtained from beet-root; and the acidity of 
sauerkraut is due to its presence. The juice 
of flesh contains it. Its salts are termed 

ldiCtB,t6S 

LACTIF'EROUS (lac, milk : and fero, I 
bear : Lat.) or Lactescent, in Botany, an 
appellation given to plants abounding with 
a milky juice, as the sow-thistle and eu¬ 
phorbia, 

LACTOM'BTER (gala, milk; and metron, 
a measure: Or.; or lac, milk: Lat.; and 
metron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
! ascertaining the quantity of cream in milk. 

LACTU'CA (a lettuce; from lac, milk: Lat., 
on account of the appearance of its juice), 
in Botany, the name of a genus of plants : 
nat. ord. Compositce. The Lactuca sativa, 
or common lettuce, is a well-known salad 
herb. The Lactuca virosa, or strong-scented 
lettuce, a common plant in our hedges and 
ditches, has an opiate juice. 

LACU'NAR, (Lat.), in Architecture, the 
ceiling or under surface of the member of 
an order; the under side,of the corona of 
a cornice ; the under side of the architrave, 
between the columns. Any ceiling or under 
surface, consisting of compartments sunk, 
but without spaces or bands between the 


GDratfurg. [lamaism 


panels, is a lacunar: if there are bands, it 
is a laquear. 

LACUS'TRINE (lacus, a lake: Lat.), ap¬ 
pertaining to a lake. Lacustrine Dwellings 
are the dwellings of ancient peoples, carried 
on piles over a lake. The piles on which 
such dwellings stood, and the remains of 
pottery and implements in stone, bone, 
and metal, have been recently discovered 
in several lakes in Switzerland, Savoy, and 
Scotland.- Lacustrine deposits, in Geo¬ 

logy, are the deposits at the bottom of 
lakes. 

LA'DY-BIRD or LA'DY-COW, In Ento¬ 
mology, small beetles with red or yellow 
wing-cases marked with black spots, belong¬ 
ing to the genus Coccinella. They, as well 
as their larvm, feed on aphides or plant lice. 

LA'DY-DAY, the.25th of March, so called 
because it is the day of the Annunciation 
of the Virgin Mary. 

LADY’S-SLIPPER, a rare English orchid, 
the Cypripedium calceolus of botanists ; the 
labellum or middle petal is inflated and 
bears some remote resemblance to a slipper. 

LAGOON' (lagone, a pool: Ital.), a name 
given to those creeks, or shallow lakes, 
which extend along the shore of the Adri¬ 
atic, and which contain numerous small 
islands: Venice, for instance, is built on 
sixty of them. Towards the sea the islets 
are secured by dams, natural or artiflcial. 

LAGOON ISLAND. [See Atoli..] 

LAGOPHTHAL'MIA (logos, a hare; and 
ophthalmos, an eye : Gr.), in Medicine, a dis¬ 
ease in which the eye cannot be shut. It 
may arise from various causes, but the most 
frequent is a cicatrix, after a wound, ulcer, 
or burn. 

LAG'OPUS (logos, a hare; pous, foot: Gr.), 
a genus of gallinaceous birds, belonging to 
the family of Tetraonidae, and including the 
Ptarmigan and Red Grouse. 

LAIR (lager: Ger.), among sportsmen, the 
place where the deer harbour by day. This 
term is also used to signify a place where 
cattle usually rest under shelter; also the 
bed or couch of a wild beast. 

LAIRD, a title of honour in the High¬ 
lands, formerly equivalent to Lord, but now 
applied to a landed proprietor under the 
degree of knight. 

LAKE (lacus: Lat.), a large collection of 
inland water, having no direct communica¬ 
tion with the ocean. The largest lake on 
the old continent is the Caspian Sea, 700 
miles long, and 200 broad. In North 
America, a series of magnificent lakes run 
into each other, the largest of which, Lake 
Superior, is 540 miles long, and 150 broad. 
All the great American lakes are of fresh 

water.- Lake, in Painting, a fine red 

colour, between carmine and Vermillion. 
It is formed by precipitating the colouring 
matter from vegetable solutions, or cochi¬ 
neal, by means of alum or oxide of tin. 
There are cochineal and lac lakes, madder 
lake, &c. 

LAMAISM, the form of Buddhism 
(which see) prevalent.in Tibet. The Grand 
(Dalail Lama, the successor of Sakya-sinha, 
or Buddha the founder of Buddhism, and 
who is believed to be animated by the per- j 
fectly virtuous soul of that holy man,resides j 
D D 



























LAMBDAGISMJ 


%\)t gctcntitfc antf ' 402 


at Teshu Lumbo, in the north of Tibet, and 
is undoubtedly one of the most honoured 
beings living in the world. He is worship¬ 
ped as a supernatural being by his subjects, 
and is never to be seen but in the secret 
recesses of his palace, where he sits cross- 
legged on a cushion. The people believe 
that the supreme divinity lies in him, that 
he knows and sees everything in the deepest 
recesses of the heart, and that he never 
dies, but that, on the dissolution of his 
mortal frame, his soul enters into another 
body, in which he is born again, and in 
which he can be discovered only by some 
among a favoured class of priests. The 
worship paid to him by his followers con¬ 
sists in clamorous songs and prayers, in 
splendid processions, in the solemnisation 
of certain festivals, and in austerities prac¬ 
tised by them. The inferior priests are 
also called Lamas, and their residences 
Lamaseries; on all their temples and sacred 
articles are inscribed the words ‘ Om Mani 
Padari om,’ an invocation to Sakya, and 
supposed to signify * Hail to him of the 
Lotus and Jewel.’ Sakya is usually repre¬ 
sented as holding a lotus flower with a 
jewel in it. These words are continually 
in the mouths of the devotees, and are 
placed upon the cylinders, which are so 
mounted that they can be made to revolve 
by means of a piece of string. Inside are 
placed written prayers, which are supposed 
to be repeated every time the cylinder 
makes a revolution. There are also praying 
machines turned by a stream of water. 
These consist likewise of revolving cylin¬ 
ders containing prayers, and their rotation 
is believed to redound to the benefit ct the 
faithful. There are two principal sects of 
Lamas, those who wear red mitres and 
those who wear yellow. The yellow-mitred 
Lamas have, however, driven the red mitres 
out of Tibet, and the latter are now only to 
be found in Sikkim and Bhotan, amongst 
the Himalayas. 

LAM'BDACISM (lambdakismos, from 
lambda, the Greek J), a fault in speaking, 
which consists in too much stress being laid 
on the pronunciation of the letter l. 

LAMBDOI'DAL ( lambdoeides , from lamb¬ 
da, the Greek l ; aud eidos, form : Gr.), in 
Anatomy, an epithet for a suture of the 
occiput. 

LAMEL'LiE (Lat.), in Natural History, 
thin plates. 

LAMENTA'TIONS (lamentatio: Lat.), a 
canonical book of the Old Testament, writ¬ 
ten by the prophet Jeremiah. The first four 
chapters of the Lamentations are an abece¬ 
dary, every verse or couplet beginning with 
one of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, 
in the alphabetical order. 

LA'MIiE {Lat.), the name given by the 
Homans to evil spirits, who, they supposed, 
assumed the shape of handsome women, 
but changed themselves into ugly shapes 
whenever they chose. They could take out 
and replace their eyes, and amongst other 
evil deeds they devoured children. 

LAM'INA (a thin plate: Lat.), a layer 
coat or thin plate; applied to the plates 

of minerals, bones, &c.-In Botany, 

the broad or spreading part of a petal as 


distinguished from the tube or claw. Also 
the broad part of a leaf as distinguished 

from the stalk.-In Mineralogy, a plate 

or thin piece of metal.- Lamina, in 

Anatomy, the two plates or tables of tlio 
skull. 

LAM'INABLE (same deriv.), an epithet 
for a metal which may be extended by pass¬ 
ing it between steel or hardened cast-iron 
rollers. 

LAM'MAS-DAY, a festival celebrated on 
the first of August by the Roman Catholic 
church, in memory of St. Peter’s imprison¬ 
ment. This word has been derived from 
Lamb-mass, on account of the custom, ob- ’ 
served in some places, of bringing a lamb 
alive into the .church on this day during 
mass; also from Loaf-mass, considering it 
a thanksgiving day for the first fruits of 
the corn, &c. 

L AM'PAS or L AM'PERS (lainpas, a torch: 
Gr.), a swelling in the palate of a horse’s 
mouth. It is so called, because cured by i 
burning with a lamp or hot iron. 

LAMP'BLACK, a colour procured from 1 
the soot of a lamp; or rather, a fine soot 
formed by the condensation of the smoke 
of burning pitch, or some resinous sub- j 
stance in a chimney terminating in a cone 
of cloth. 

LAM'PREY, a genus of eel-like fishes, 
which adhere firmly to rocks and other 
bodies by the suctorial mouth. They form 
the genus Petromyzon of ichthyologists. 
Their bones are cartilaginous, and they are 
destitute of fins at the fore part of the body. 
They are considered a delicacy, and are in 
season in the months of March, April, and 
May. Three species have been taken in 
British rivers. [See Petromyzon.] 

LAMPY'RIDiE ( lampuris , a glow-worm : 
Gr.), a family of soft-skinned serricoru 
beetles, in one division of which the female 
is luminous. [See Glow-worm.] 

LA'NATE ( lanatus, furnished with wool: 
Lat.), in Botany, covered with a substance 
like curled hairs ; as a Innate leaf or stem, i 

LAN'CASTER, CHANCELLOR OP THE 
Duchy op, the officer before whom, or his 
deputy, the court of the duchy of Lancaster 
is held. The office lias long been a sinecure; 
its salary is 40001. per annum. Its holder 
has a seat in the cabinet. 

LAN'CEOLATE (lanceolatus, from lancea, j 
a lance : Lat.), in Botany, oblong and gradu¬ 
ally tapering towards each extremity ; as, a 
lanceolate leaf. 

LA'NCERS (same deriv.), a, body of men 
armed with long lances, and mounted on 
swift horses. They were first employed in 
Poland, but are now common in other 
countries. In the British army there are 
five regiments of lancers. 

LA'NCET ( lancette: Fr.\ a two-edged sur¬ 
gical instrument, used in bleeding, opening 
tumours, &c. 

LAND ( Ger .), in Geography, the solid 
matter which constitutes the fixed part of 
the surface of the globe, as distinguished 

from water.- Land, in seamen’s language, 

makes part of several compound terms: 
thus, to make the land is to discover land 
from sea, as the ship approaches it. Land' 
locked is when, .and lies all round the ship 




























403 


ilitcrarn Creas'tinj. 


[LANTERN-FL"2 


bo that no visible point is open to the sea : 
if at anchor in such a place, she is said to 
ride land-locked, and is considered safe 
from wind and tide. A land-mark is any 
mountain, rock, steeple, tree, &c., that may 
Berve to make the laud known at sea, and 
thus direct ships passing by how to steer, 
so as to avoid rocks, shoals, whirlpools, &c. 
The land is shut in, when another point of 
land hinders the sight of that from which 
the ship came. The ship lies land to, when 
she is so far from shore that it can only be 
just discerned. Land-turn is a wind that in 
almost all hot countries blows, at certain 
times, from the shore in the night. To set 
the land is to see by the compass how it 
bears from the ship. A land-breeze is a cur¬ 
rent of air which, in many parts within the 
tropics, particularly in the West Indies, 
regularly sets from the land towards the 
sea during the night, and this even on op¬ 
posite points of the coast. The land radi¬ 
ates heat much more rapidly than the sea, 
j and consequently the air upon it becomes 
colder and more dense than that over the 
I sea. It, therefore, presses upon and takes 
j the place of the latter which ascends. This 
process will take place as long as the radia¬ 
tion goes on. By day the reverse process 
takes place by reason of the greater heating 
of the air over the land. 

LANDAU', a coach which separates at the 
top, so as to form an open carriage. It de¬ 
rives its name from the place in Germany 
where it was originally made. 

LAND'GRAVE ( landgraf, land-count: 
Ger.), a title assumed by some German 
counts, in the 12th century, to distinguish 
them from the counts under their jurisdic¬ 
tion. 

LAND'ING (landung: Ger), in Architec¬ 
ture, the first part of a floor at the head of 
a flight of stairs. 

LAND'SLIP, the sliding down of a con¬ 
siderable tract of land from a more elevated 
place, on account of an earthquake, of 
being undermined by water, &c. 

LAND'WATTER, an oflicer of the Cus¬ 
tom-house, whose duty it is, upon landing 
any merchandise, to examine and take an 
account of the various articles. 

LAND'WEHR (land-guard: Ger.), the 
militia of Prussia and Austria. 

LAN'GREL SHOT or LAN'GRAGE, a 
particular kind of shot used at sea for dis¬ 
abling the sails and rigging of an enemy’s 
ship. It consists of two bars of iron, vvliich 
are joined in the middle by a chain or 
shackle, that it may be the more easily put 
into the gun, and half a ball of iron at each 
etid: it does great execution among the 
enemy’s rigging. 

LAN'GUAGE {Iangage: Fr.), the faculty 
of articulate speech is one of the marks by 
which man is distinguished from the brutes. 
As to the origin of speech several theories 
have been proposed, but that seems the 
most probable which assumes it to be the 
result of a mental instinct, from being 
given to it by the intellect. The study of 
languages, comparing one with another so 
as to ascertain the principles common to 
all, and the principles distinctive of each 
class or family, has been pursued on a ra¬ 


tional system only of late years, and though 
something has been done in regard to trac¬ 
ing the growth and relationship of tongues, 
much remains to be oifected before the 
study can take its place amongst other 
sciences. After investigating the grammars 
of the best known tongues it has been pro¬ 
posed to divide them into three families, 
viz.: the Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian, 
each containing various languages, dead 
and living. The Aryan family embraces 
the Sanscrit, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Teuto¬ 
nic, and other languages. The Semitic 
division comprehends the Arabic Hebrew 
and Syriac with their cognate tongues. To 
the northern division of the Turanian 
family belong the Mongolian, Turkish, 
Finnish, and other languages, whilst in 
the southern division of that family are 
placed the Malayan and many little known 
eastern tongues. 

LAN'GUED {langue, the tongue : Fr.), it 
Heraldry, an epithet for the tongue of an 
animal, represented of a different tincture 
from the body. 

LANGUEN'TE ( Ital .), a musical term, 
signifying that the passage is to be per¬ 
formed softly or languishingly. 

LAN'IARD, a short piece of rope or line, 
fastened to several portions of a ship’s rig¬ 
ging, &c., and serving to secure them in 
their places; but more especially those used 
to extend the shrouds and stays of the 
masts. 

LANIG'EROUS {lanigcr, fleece-bearing: 
Lat.) or LANUGINOUS, an epithet applied to 
such trees as bear a woolly or downy sub¬ 
stance, such as the catkins of willows, &c. 

LA'NIUS (abutcher; from lanio, I tear to 
pieces: Lat.), in Ornithology, a genus of pas¬ 
serine birds, known as Shrikes or Butcher¬ 
birds, so called from the savage manner in I 
which theyrendtheirprey, which consists of I 
small birds. They have straight bills with 
a tooth on each mandible at the extremity, 
like other dentirostres, and a tongue jagged 
at each end. The species best known in 
England are the Great Shrike (Lanius Ex- 
cubitor) and the Red-backed Shrike (Lanius 
Gollurio). The shrikes imitate part of the 
songs of other birds near them. They have 
acquired one of these common names from 
the habit they have of hanging up their 
prey (mice, frogs, small birds, &c.) upon a 
thorn, or wedged in a forked branch, as a 
butcher hangs up his meat. This is for the 
convenience of tearing the food in pieces. 

LANNElt, the Falco lanarius of orni¬ 
thologists, a bird of prey which inhabits 
the south of Europe. In size it is between 
the Peregrine and the Gyr-falcon. The 
male, which is smaller, is called the 
Lanneret. 

L ANS'QUENETS {landes knecht, a country 
lad : Ger.), German infantry, raised by the 
emperor Maximilian, to oppose that of the 
Swiss, in the fifteenth century. 

LAN'TERN ( lanterne: Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, an erection, either square, circular, 
elliptical, or polygonal, on the plan ; placed 
on the top of a dome, or over an apartment, 
to give light. 

LAN'TERN-FLY, a liomopterous insect 
of South America, of the genus Fulgora, 




























)t <g?muttftc <mtr 


404 


laocoon] 


Baid to emit a strong phosphoric light from 
some part of its head; but the existence of 
this property has been denied. 

LAOC'OON, a celebrated relic of Greek 
Bculpture, executed in marble by Agesander 
and his two sons, Polydorus and Atheno- 
dorus, the three most celebrated artists at 
Rhodes. This fine production of antiquity 
was found at Rome in the palace of Titus, 
in the beginning of the 16th century, and 
is now in the Vatican Museum at Rome. 
Laocoon, a priest of Neptune, is repre¬ 
sented, with his two sons, enveloped in the 
folds of two monstrous serpents; and the 
whole displays the most thorough know¬ 
ledge of anatomy, of character, and of ideal 
perfection. The story of the serpents issu¬ 
ing from the sea, and strangling the priest 
whilst sacrificing a bullock, and twining 
round the sons, is told by Virgil in the 
second book of the iEneid. 

LAP'IDARY ( lapidarius , relating to 
stones: Lat.), one who polishes and en¬ 
graves stones. This is effected by means 
of friction produced by wheels of various 
materials, according to the nature of the 
stone to be worked. Thus diamonds re¬ 
quire wheels of soft steel; rubies, sapphires, 
and topazes, copper wheels ; emeralds, ame¬ 
thysts, &c., leaden wheels—worked with oil 

and various powders.-The term is also 

applied to a virtuoso skilled in the nature, 
kinds, &c., of precious stones, or a mer- 

| chant who deals in them.- Lapidary 

I Style, that which is proper for monu¬ 
mental or other inscriptions, requiring 
terseness, compactness, and elegance. 

LA'PIS ( Lat .), in Roman Antiquity, a 
mile ; because, at every mile, a stone (lapis) 
was erected, with the distance from Rome 
marked upon it. Thus centesimus lapis, or 
centesimum (ad centesimum lapidevi, if 
written in full), meant one hundred miles 
from that city. The use of milestones has 
been adopted by all the nations of modern 
Europe. 

LA'PIS LA'ZULI, a blue mineral, con¬ 
sisting chiefly of silica and alumina, with a 
little soda, and some peculiar combination 
of sulphur, to which its colour is considered 
due. It is often sprinkled with yellow 
pyrites, and is found in masses or nodules. 
It was formerly much used in inlaid work, 
and furnished the pigment called Ultra- 
marine (which see), until anew method of 
preparing this was discovered. 

LA'PIS MARMO'REUS (marble stone: 
Lat.), in Archaeology, a marble stone in 
Westminster Hall, in the midst of which 
stood a chair in which our kings anciently 
sat at their coronation. The courts of 
Chancery and King’s Bench were erected 
over this stone. 

LAPSE (lapsus, a slipping : Lat.), in Ec¬ 
clesiastical Law, an omission on the part of 
the patron to present to a benefice within 
six months after it is vacant, upon which 
default the ordinary has a right to collate 
to it. If the ordinary neglect to present 
for six months, the right of presentation 
passes to the metropolitan; and if the me¬ 
tropolitan neglect for six months, to the 

crown.- Lapsed Legacy, one which falls 

or is lost by a lapse; as where the legatee 


dies before the testator, or where a legacy 
is given upon a future contingency, and 
the legatee dies before the contingency 
happens. If the legatee who dies before 
the testator be a child of the latter, and 
leave issue, the legacy does not lapse, but 
goes to the issue—unless this is prevented 
by a clause in the will. 

LAP'WING, or Pee-wit, theVanellus cris- 
tatus of ornithologists, a British bird allied 
to the plovers. The young ones are covered 
with a thick down when they are hatched; 
and at the approach of danger they squat 
down, while the mother tries to draw off 
the attention of the intruders, by fluttering 
about with cries of pain, and even running 
along the ground as if lame. 

LAR'BOARD, a term for the left-hand 
side of a ship, when looking towards the 
stem or head; opposed to starboard. As 
serious mistakes are likely from the resem¬ 
blance in sound between the words larboard 
and starboard, portn s now generally used 
instead of the former. 

LAR'CENY (latrocinium, highway rob¬ 
bery : Lat.), in Law, the felonious and 
fraudulent taking away the goods or pro¬ 
perty of another without his consent. 
Larceny was formerly divided into grand 
and petty : the former being the stealing of 
an article over the value of one shilling, 
and the latter not over that sum ; but this, 
with other distinctions, has been abolished. 
In certain cases, however, in which without 
great rigour it would be difficult to preserve 
property, the punishment of larceny has 
been made very severe. 

LARCH (larix: Lat.), a well-known deci- 
duous-leafed coniferous tree, the Larix 
Europcea of botanists. It abounds with 
resin from which turpentine is obtained. 
Its timber is very strong and remarkably 
durable when exposed to the weather. 
Similar timber is yielded by two North 
American species, the black larch and red 
larch. 

LA'RES (Lat.), in Antiquity, the domestic 
or household gods among the Romans, 
which the family honoured as their protec¬ 
tors. They were images of wood, stone, or 
metal, and generally stood upon the hearth 
in a kind of shrine. There were also Lares 
of the city, country, &c. 

LAR'GO and LARGHET'TO (Ital.), musi¬ 
cal terms directing a slow movement. Largo 
is one degree quicker than grave, and two 
degrees quicker than adagio. Larghetto is 
one degree quicker than largo. 

LARK (lerche: Ger.), birds of the genus 
Alauda. The sky-lark, or lavrock (Alauda 
arvensis), which is the most harmonious of 
this musical family, commences its song 
early in the spring, continues it during the 
whole summer, and is one of those few 
birds that chant whilst on the wing. When 
it first rises from the earth, its notes are 
feeble and interrupted ; as it ascends, how¬ 
ever, they gradually swell to their full tone 
and long after it is lost to the sight it still 
continues to charm the ear with its melody. 
It mounts almost perpendicularly, but de¬ 
scends in an oblique direction, unless 
threatened with danger, when it drops like 
a stone. The wood-lark, Alauda arbgrea, is 





















405 


Eiterar# SDreatfurg. 


distinguished hy its smaller size and less 
distinct colours. It is generally found near 
the borders of woods, perches on trees, and 
sings during the night, so as to be some¬ 
times mistaken for the nightingale. There 
are two or three other species, but they are 
very inferior us songsters to the before- 
mentioned. 

LARK'SPUR, the name of plants belong¬ 
ing to the genus Delphinium (allied to the 
ranunculus and columbine) of which there 
are numerous species. Many of these are 
common in our gardens, where they are 
cultivated for the beauty and brilliant col¬ 
ours of their flowers. 

LA'RUS ( Lot.; from laws : Gr.), in Orni¬ 
thology, a genus of seabirds with long 
wings and webbed feet, well-known as 
Gulls. Many species frequent our coasts, 
and of these the Larus canus is the com¬ 
monest. It feeds on flsh and carrion, is 
very voracious, and when frightened dis¬ 
charges the contents of the maw. 

LAR'VA (a mask: Lat.), in Entomology, 
the grub or caterpillar state of an insect ; 
the stage in the metamorphosis of an in¬ 
sect which it assumes on issuing from the 
egg, and before it becomes a pupa. The 
term is also applied to the early stage of 
lower animals.- Larva, among the an¬ 

cient Romans, a spectre, often represented 
under the form of a skeleton; or an old man, 
with shorn locks and a long beard, and 
carrying an owl on his hand. 

LARYNGO'SCOPE ( larugx , the throat; and 
scopeo, I see, Gr.), an instrument for exam¬ 
ining visually the parts within the larynx. 
It consists of a concave reflecting mirror, 
its centre perforated with an aperture 
through which the surgeon looks. This is 
held before his eye, by means of a handle 
which is grasped by the teeth. A column 
of light from a lamp placed in a suitable 
position is reflected from the mirror, and 
thrown into the patient’s open mouth, 
whilst a metal speculum is introduced 
therein, and held above the larynx. Any 
image thrown upon the metal speculum is 
clearly seen by the surgeon looking 
through the perforation in the mirror be¬ 
fore his eye. 

LARYNGOT'OMY (larunx, and temno, I 
cut: Gr.), in Surgery, the operation of cut¬ 
ting the larynx or windpipe, for assisting 
obstructed respiration, or removing foreign 
j bodies. 

LA'RYNX ( larugx: Gr.), an organ of the 
i voice, being a cartilaginous cavity which is 
connected with the windpipe, and on the 
size and flexibility of which depend the 
powers and tones of the human voice. The 
superior opening of the larynx is called the 
glottis. 

LASCAR', in the East Indies, a native sea¬ 
man. 

LAS'SITUDE ( lassitudo, weariness: Lat.), 
among Physicians, a morbid sensation of 
languor which often precedes disease. 

LAST ( hlcestan, to load : Sax.), a measure 
or weight of different amount in different 
places, and with regard to different arti¬ 
cles. It is, however, generally estimated at 
4000 lbs. 

LATEEN' SAILS, triangular sails with 


[latria 


very long yards, much inclined to the hori¬ 
zon. They are frequently used by xebecs, 
polacres, settees and other vessels navi¬ 
gated in the Mediterranean. 

LA'TENT HEAT (latens, lying hid: Lat.), 
an expression formerly employed under an 
erroneous theory to signify heat in combi¬ 
nation, in distinction from sensible heat; 
the portion of heat which seems to disap¬ 
pear when a body changes its form from the 
solid to the fluid, or from the fluid to the 
aeriform state, &c. [See Heat.] 

LAT'ERAN COUN'CILS, councils held 
in the basilica of the church of St. John 
Lateran, at Rome. Eleven have been held 
in this basilica, four of which are con¬ 
sidered by the Roman Catholics as general. 
This chureh derives its name from the Ro¬ 
man family of the Laterani, who had on its 
site a palace which was seized by Nero, and 
made an imperial residence. 

LAT'ERITE {later, a brick: Lat.), a red 
brick-like rock, composed of alumina and 
oxide of iron. It occurs between layers of 
basalt in volcanic countries. 

LATERI'TIOUS (same deriv.), of a brick- 
red colour. 

LATEX (juice : Lat.), in Botany, the ela¬ 
borated or descending sap, a granular fluid 
which flows along tubes called laticiferous 
vessels. 

LATH (tcetta: Sax.), in Carpentry, along 
thin piece of wood, nailed to the rafters of 
a wall or roof to receive the plaster or 
covering. 

LATHE, an engine used in turning wood, 
ivory, and other materials.-A term ap¬ 

plied in Kent to part of a county, containing 
three or four hundreds. 

LATICLA'VE ( latus clavus: Lat.), the 
broad purple stripe which the Roman sena¬ 
tors and patricians were allowed to wear on 
the toga. 

LAT'IN, the language spoken by the an¬ 
cient Romans, or the inhabitants of La- 
tium, from which it derives its name. 

LAT'ITAT (he lurks: Lat.), in Law, a 
writ formerly used in personal actions 
where the party had to be arrested in any 
other county than Middlesex. It derived 
its name from a supposition or fiction that 
the person concealed himself, and could not 
be found in Middlesex, the county where I 
ttiG court sat 

LAT'ITUDE ( latitudo, breadth : Lat.), in 
Geography, the distance of any place from 
the equator, measured in degrees, minutes, 
and seconds, upon the meridian of that 
place. It is either north or south, accord¬ 
ing as the place is situated on the north or 

south side of the equator.-In Astronomy, 

the distance of a star north or south of the 
ecliptic. 

LATITTIDINA'RIAN (same deriv.), one 
who admits a latitude in belief and in the 

interpretation of the Scriptures.-In a 

general sense a latitudinarian is one who 
is not restrained by precise settled limits in 
opinion. 

LATRI'A ( latreia, divine worship : Gr.), 
the highest kind of worship, or that paid to 
God : distinguished by the Roman Catholics 
from dulia, or the inferior worship paid to 
saints. 


















jlatrobite] 


Ei)t J^ctenttfic nutf 


403 


LATRO'BITE, a mineral of a pale red 
colour, massive or crystallized: found in 
an island near the Labrador coast. It is a 
silicate of alumina, with lime, potash, and 
oxide of manganese. 

LAT'TEN (laiton: Fr.), plates of brass or 
bronze, reduced to different thicknesses, 
according to the uses for which they are 
intended. Tinned iron is sometimes called 
latten. 

LAUD'ANUM (laudo, I praise : Lat., from 
its excellent qualities), in Medicine, a liquid 
preparation of opium. 

LAUDS (laudo, I praise: Lat.), in the Ro¬ 
man Catholic church, prayers formerly said 
at daybreak, but now joined to matins. 

LAUNCE-FISH, or SAND LAUNCE, the 
name given to two species offish belonging 
to the genus Ammodytes, which are taken 
upon the British coasts. They bury them¬ 
selves in the sand when the tide retires, and 
are dug out by the fishermen for bait. 

LAUNCH, a particular kind of flat boat, 
used in underrunning the cables of ships. 
It is the largest of a man-of-war’s boats. 

LACRA'CEH5, a natural order of exo¬ 
genous trees, having flowers without petals 
and anthers which open by recurved valves 
to set the pollen free. Most of the species 
are aromatic and fragrant. To this order 
belong the Cinna3ion, Camphor, and Sas¬ 
safras trees, as well as the Laurels. [See 
Laurus.] 

LAU'REATE (laureatus, crowned with 
laurel: Lat.). In England the poet-laureate 
was formerly an officer of the royal house¬ 
hold, whose business was to compose a 
birth-day odefor the monarch, and another 
for the new year. These obligations have 
been dispensed with : and the honour of the 
laureateship, with the salary, is now given 
as the reward of high poetic genius. 

LAUREA'TION (same deriv.), in the 
Scotch universities, the act of taking the 
degree of master of arts, which the stu¬ 
dents are permitted to do after four years’ 
study 

LAUREN'TIAN SYSTEM, in Geology, a 
series of palasozoic strata of considerable 
thickness, forming t he oldest known strata 
of our globe. They have been found in 
Scotland, the United States, and Canada, in 
Which colony they occupy an area of 200,000 
square miles. They consist chiefly of meta- 
morpliic rocks (gneiss, quartzites, and 
schists), and are traversed by numerous 
dykes of granite, syenite and greenstone. 
It was supposed that they were destitute of 
organic remains, but a few invertebrate 
fossils (a coralline and some rhizopodous 
shells) have been recently discovered in 
their limestones. This system, which de¬ 
rives its name from the river St. Lawrence, 
lies under two other’formations of similar 
character (the Labrador and Huronian 
series) both older than the Silurian. 

LAU'RUS (Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants belonging to the nat. ord. Lauracece. 

- Laurus nobilis, the sweet bay tree, a 

native of Italy, but cultivated in our gar¬ 
dens and shrubberies as a handsome ever¬ 
green. It is the laurel which was sacred to 
Apollo, and was used for garlands. 

IiA'YA, the melted matter that flows 


from volcanoes, and solidifies to stone. 
Basalt is ancient lava. 

LAVAN'DULA (from lavo, I wash : Lat., 
from its being anciently used in baths and 
fomentations), in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. Labiatw, containing the Lavandula 
Spica, or common lavender, a plant culti¬ 
vated in our gardens on account of the fra¬ 
grance of its ljowers. The essential oil, ob¬ 
tained from it by distillation, is of a bright 
yellow colour, of a very pungent taste, and 
possesses, if carefully distilled, the fra¬ 
grance of the lavender in perfection. 

LAW (loi: Fr.), a body of rules applicable 
to a given subject; also, a single one of 
those rules. The term has, therefore, a col¬ 
lective and a particular m ean in g. Whenever 
certain events invariably follow certain 
antecedents, we use the word law meta¬ 
phorically, to express this invariable 
sequence. Thu3 we say the law of gravi- \ 
tation, the laws of motion, &c. In its 
strict sense, law is * a command issued by 
a superior, imposing an- obligation on an 
inferior.’ Unman law is comprehended 
under several heads:—The law of nations 
comprises the rules respected by the mu¬ 
tual consent of Christian nations, but 
seldom voluntarily infringed, and when 
infringed, considered to require reparation. 
They relate to the intercourse of nations in 
peace, the grounds of just war, the limits 
of lawful hostility, the rights of conquest, 
the privileges of ambassadors, &c. Positive 
or municipal law is a rule of civil conduct, 
prescribed by the supreme power in the 
state, commanding what is right, and pro¬ 
hibiting what is wrong; it comprehends 
the duties of individuals towards the com¬ 
munity, and towards each other. Some¬ 
times laws are enacted to explain other 
laws, sometimes to suit particular emer¬ 
gencies. Municipal law is in some cases 
supposed to have the immediate sanction 
of heaven. Thus, in Mohammedan govern¬ 
ments, the code of law is found altogether, 
or principally, in the Koran. The Hindoos 
also, and some other nations, pretend to a re¬ 
ligious sanction for their laws. Roman late, 
as collected and digested in the pandects, 
code, and institutes of the emperor Justinian, 
is the great foundation of most of the laws 
used in the states of modern Europe, and 
constitutes the civil law, which in England 
is chiefly confined to ecclesiastical matters. 
Canon law consists of the rules framed by 
the Christian church for its own spiritual 
guidance. In Roman Catholic times, it 
consisted of edicts of popes, decrees of 
councils, and authoritative declarations of 
fathers and doctors of the church. The 
canons of the Protestant church were 
enacted in 1603. The common laiv of England 
(in contradistinction from civil law, and 
from equity) consists in a certain portion 
of our laws, relating to a definite subject- 
matter, and administered in courts which 
follow certain rules of evidence and modes 
of procedure. But, used in contradistinc¬ 
tion from statute law, which is of positive 
enactment, it means the ancient customary 
law, as set forth in the writings of the early 
jurists and in the reported judgments of tli6 
bench. Since, in its popular sense, com 










































m 


llttcrary Cfrearfuru* 


[lead 


raon law is opposed to equity and eccle¬ 
siastical law, it comprises the whole of hotli 
civil and criminal law, as administered 
by courts having trial by jury, with all 
subjects which come under the jurisdic¬ 
tion of the common law courts of West¬ 
minster Hall, and the various jurisdic¬ 
tions, not exercising equitable authority, 
throughout the country. Equity was no 
doubt originally a jurisdiction of a reme¬ 
dial character to moderate the rigour of 
legal judgments, according to the conscien¬ 
tious opinion of the judge; but, at present, 
its rules arc as accurately laid down by pre¬ 
cedents as those of common law. Maritime 
law is that which relates to harbours, ships, 
and sailors. Martial law is that proclaimed 
by authority of parliament, on an emer¬ 
gency of rebellion, invasion, or insurrec¬ 
tion ; it puts under the cognizance of courts- 
martial a variety of matters not ordinarily 
appertaining to them, that they may be 
tried in a summary way; and is generally 
accompanied by the power of arresting, de¬ 
taining, and summarily trying suspected 
persons. Military law is that administered 
by courts-martial under the authority of 
parliament, the mutiny act, &c. 

LAWN ( linon: Fr.), a superior kind of 
linen cloth. It was formerly made only in 
France and Flanders ; but at present the 
lawn manufacture is brought to great per¬ 
fection in Scotland and Ireland, where it 
bids fair to rival our foreign competitors. 

LAY ( laikos , from laos, the people : Gr.), 
an epithet in ecclesiastical law for-what be¬ 
longs to the people, in contradistinction 
from that which belongs to persons in or¬ 
ders. The term is used also by clergymen 
and lawyers, to indicate persons not belong¬ 
ing to their respective professions.- Lay 

Brothers and Lay Sisters, in the Roman 
Catholic church, are such as perform the 
secular and servile oillces in a monastery 
or convent.- Lay Corporation, any cor¬ 

poration or body which consists of lay¬ 
men, created for some temporal purpose : 
such as charitable corporations, which are 
constituted for the perpetual distribution 

of the free alms of the founder.- Lay 

Fee, lands held in fee of a lay lord, as 
distinguished from those lands which be¬ 
long to the church.- Lay Impropria¬ 

tion, the impropriating or applying the 
revenues of the church to the use of a 
layman. 

LAY'ER {Lager, pressed down : Ger.), in 
Horticulture, a young shoot or twig bent 
down and covered with mould, for growth 
or propagation. This operation is per¬ 
formed by slitting or notching the branches, 
or by twisting them, and then laying them 
under the mould, the ground being first 
made very light. After being laid, they 
are watered. The slitting or notching ob¬ 
structs the return of the sap from the 
leaves, and causes its accumulation at the 
wounded part, when roots are produced 
in consequence of the efforts of nature to 
perpetuate life. 

LAY FIG'URE, among Painters, a struc¬ 
ture usually of wood made to imitate rudely 
the human form. It is provided with joints 
go that it may be put into any attitude or 


posture. Its principal use is for adjusting 
drapery. 

LAZAltET'TO ( Ital.), an hospital for the 
reception of those afflicted with contagious 
diseases. In some places, lazarettos are set 
apart for the observance of quarantine. 

LAZO or LASSOO Span.), an implement em¬ 
ployed by the Spaniards of South America 
for catching wild animals. It consists of a 
long and very strong rope made of raw 
hide, one end of which is attached to the 
saddle (for it is used when the man is on 
horseback) and the other carries a small 
metal ring by which a noose can be formed. 
When it is about to be used the noose,with 
a diameter of about eight feet, is whirled 
round the head, and dexterously kept open. 
The hunter gallops after his prey, and at the 
proper moment flings the noose so that it 
will unerringly catch a bull by the horns, 
and with the aid of his well-broken horse 
stop it in full career. 

LAZ'ULITE, a mineral of a slight indigo- 
blue colour, generally granular or occur¬ 
ring in small pieces not exceeding the size 
of a hazel-nut. It is found in narrow veins, 
traversing clay-slate, with quartz, in Salz¬ 
burg ; and consists of alumina, silex, mag¬ 
nesia, lime, and oxide of iron. 

LEAD {Iced: Sax.), in Mineralogy, a 
metal found in considerable quantity and 
widely distributed, but seldom, if at all, 
in the pure metallic state. It i3 of a 
bluish-grey colour, and very brilliant when 
fresh cut, but soon tarnishes from expo¬ 
sure to the air. It is the softest and least 
elastic of all the metals; is easily flattened 
under the hammer ; and is ductile in a very 
great degree, though much less so than 
gold. It may easily be cut with a knife, 
and stains the fingers bluish-grey when 
rubbed. Its specific gravity is 1P45. Lead 
fuses at about 000° Fahr., and renders other 
more refractory metals fusible. It becomes 
fluid long before it is red-hot, which is the 
case with no other metal, except tin ; after 
melting, it very readily changes to an 
oxide of a grey colour, which, if the fire 
is increased and the mass is often stirred, 
assumes a yellow, and afterwards a fine 
florid red colour: this is the minium or com¬ 
mon red lead of the shops. If the heat is 
rendered yet more intense, it runs into an 
oleaginous mass, which, as it cools, becomes 
of a yellowish or reddish colour, and is com¬ 
posed of a number of thin laminae: this is 
litharge. These several substances have 
nothing of the appearance of the metal 
from which they are produced ; yet, if a 
little iron-filings be added to them over 
the fire, or some pieces of charcoal or any 
other inflammable matter be thrown into 
them while they are hot, they become lead 
again, their oxygen being removed by the 
combustible substance. Massicot, the yel¬ 
low oxide of lead, is soluble in manyheids, 
and forms salts, of which the acetate and 
carbonate are the most important, the latter 
being, under the name of white lead, the 
basis of white oil-paint. The sulpliuret is 
the most common ore of lead, and is the 
galena of mineralogists. It is roasted to 
expel the sulphur, which is driven off in 
the shape of sulphurous acid. Perfectly 


























leaf] 


CIj t £ctenttttc antt 


408 


pure Avater soon corrodes lead, the oxygen 
it contains in solution forming an oxide, 
and its carbonic acid a carbonate. But 
river, and other waters bolding sulphates, 
and carbonates in solution, have no such 
effect; they cover its surface with a thin 
coating, which entirely protects it. As 
a portion of this coating is carbonate of 
lead, iron or zinc pipes, in connection with 
| it, may be a source of danger: the galvanic 
action causes alkaline matter to be evolved 
on the lead, which renders the oxide and cai - - 
bonate soluble, and therefore in a state to 
be injurious. Persons,like painters, whose 
trades require them to come very much in 
contact with preparations of this metal, 
sometimes suffer A r ery severely from the 
effects of slow poisoning by it. The 
painter’s colic is a very common and a 
very dreadful disease. Also, the acidity of 
sour Avines, &c., is often most nefariously 
corrected Avith sugar of lead, a highly poi¬ 
sonous substance. Sulphuretted hydrogen 
affords a most delicate test for lead, since 
it Avill blacken, or at least darken, any fluid 
j containing even a minute quantity of a 
i salt of lead in solution. In 1861 there Avere 
390 lead mines Avorked in the United King¬ 
dom, and the quantity of lead obtained from 
the ore raised during the year amounted 
to 63,634 tons of the A r alue of l,445,255i. 

-Lead for soundpkg. The common 

hand lead Aveighs 11 lbs., and has about 20 
fathoms of line: the deep-sea lead weighs 
28 lbs. The line is marked specially at 
6, 7, 10, 13, 17, and 20, and the numbers 
between these are called deeps: hence they i 
say, ‘ By the mark 7,’ meaning 7 fathoms, J 
and ‘ By the deep 9,’ meaning 9 fathoms, j 
The common lead is heaved from the side ; 
the deep-sea lead, from the fore-part of the 
| vessel, and generally when the ship is 
i heaved to. 

LEAF(<Sto.), an expansion of the bark of a 
plant. It consists of cellular tissue or paren¬ 
chyma through Avhich vascular tissue in the 
form of A'eins, ribs, and nerves, ramify, the 
whole being covered with epidermis through 
Avhich in most cases pass minute orifices, 
called stomata. Leaves are either sessile, 
that is, directly seated on the branch, or j 
petiolate, that is, furnished with footstalks j 
or petioles. The angle formed by the leaf ] 
and the branch is called the axil, and here 
it is that new leaf-buds usually appear. The 
young leaf is generally protected by some 
sort of sheath called a stipule, Avhich drops 
off when the leaf has expanded. When 
leaves fall annually, they are styled decid¬ 
uous, otherAvise they are evergreen. The 
functions of leaves seem to be to expose 
j the sap to the air and light, whereby it be- 
[ comes elaborated and fitted for the forma¬ 
tion of wood, new leaves, &c. 

LEAF'-BUD, the rudiment’ of young 
1 branches, made up of scales surrounding a 
minute axis, which directly communicates 
with the cellular tissue of the stem. Sti- 
; inulated by light and heat, they form 
branches or, if artificially removed from 
the plant, they serve to multiply the indi¬ 
vidual from Avhich they have been taken. 

LEAGUE ( lieue: Fr.), a measure of 
length. The sea league is three nautical or 


geographical miles, or the twentieth of a 
degree : that is, about 345 English statute 

miles.- League ( ligue: Fr.; from ligo, I 

bind: Lat.), in Politics, a treaty of alliance 
between different states or parties, entered 
into for the execution of some common 
enterprise. It may be offensive or defensive, 
or both. It is offensive when the contract¬ 
ing parties agree to unite in attacking a 
common enemy ; defensive, when the par¬ 
ties agree ;to act in concert in defending 
each other against an enemy. 

LEAK'AGE (Leek, a, leak: Ger.), in Com¬ 
merce, an allowance, intended to compen¬ 
sate for the leaking of casks, or the Avaste 
of liquors by leaking. 

LEAP YEAR (lileapan, to jump: Sax.). 
[See Bissextile.] 

LEASE (laisser, to allow : Fr.), in Laiv, a 
demise of lands or tenements, generally in 
consideration of rent or other annual re- 




j 




compense, for a term of years, for life, or j 
at Avill. The party letting the lands, &c., ! 
is called the lessor, and the party to whom | 
they are let, the lessee. The lease must be ! 
for a shorter term than that during which ! 
what is leased belongs to the lessor, since, if 
it be for his whole term, it is not a lease, but 

an assignment. - Lease and Release, j 

in our law, two deeds by which in conjunc- j 
tion a freehold estate in lands and tene- 
ment.s could be conveyed. This form of 
conveyance Avas originally devised by laiv- 
yers as a means of secret conveyance. Land 
Avas made over to the purchaser by bargain 
and sale for a year: this did not require 
registration. Then the purchaser received 
a release of all the vendor’s remaining 
interest. The necessity for executing the 
lease for a year has been abolished by act 
of parliament. 

LEASH (liasse, a string: Fr.), in Sport¬ 
ing, the number three ; as a leash of birds, 
a leash of greyhounds, &c. Also, a leather 
thong, by which a falconer held his hawk. 

LEATH'ER (Leder; Ger.), the prepared 
skins of animals. Tanning renders skin 
strong, tough, durable, and often water¬ 
proof, and prevents its puti'efaction. In 
tanning, the skins are first cleaned of hair 
and cuticle: they are then impregnated 
; either Avith vegetable tan and extract, if 
j tanned leather is to be produced, or with 
alum and other salts if tawed leather; and 
sometimes the tAvo processes of tanning 
and tawing are both employed. Lastly, they 
are treated with oil, which is termed curry¬ 
ing. Thick sole leather is tanned; Avhite 
kid, for gloves, is tawed, upper leather, for 
boots and shoes, is tanned and curried; [ 
fine Turkey leather is tawed, and after¬ 
wards slightly tanned. [See Tanning.] 

LEAV'EN (levo, I make light: Lat.), a 
piece of sour dough, used to ferment, and 
render light a much larger quantity of 
dough or paste. During the seA r en days of 
the passover, no leaven was permitted to 
be in the houses of the Jews. 

LEGTISTER'NIUM (Lat.: from lectus, a 
couch; and sterno, I prepare), a religious 
ceremony, used by the ancient Romans in 
times of great public calamity. It con- - 
sisted in inviting the gods to an entertain¬ 
ment, their statues being taken doivn from 







































409 ilttcravu 


tlie pedestals, laid on couches and placed 
at table, while the attendants gravely put 
! the viands to their lips, 

LED'GER, the principal hook used by 
merchants, in which every customer’s par¬ 
ticular account is kept: that into which a 
summary of the journal is carried. — 
Ledger-lines, in Music, those lines added 
to the usual stave of live lines, when more 
are wanted for notes ascending or de¬ 
scending. 

LEE {lee ; Ger.), a sea term for the quar¬ 
ter opposite to that from which the wind 

j comes.- Lee-board, a small platform of 

planks, which, being let down into the 
water on the lee-side of flat-bottomed boats, 
opposes the tendency of the wind to drive 

them to leeward.- Lee-lurch, a sudden and 

violent roll of the ship to leeward in a high 

sea.-The lee side of a ship is the opposite 

of that on which the wind blows when it 
I crosses her course, and which is called the 

weather side. - Lee-shore, a shore on the 

lee side of a ship.- Lee-tide, a tide running 

in the same direction as that in which the 

! wind blows.- Lee-way, the deviation of 

the course actually run by the ship from 
the course steered upon; the ship being 
generally impelled sideways as well as for¬ 
wards by the action of the wind or cur¬ 
rents.- Leeward, pertaining to the quar¬ 

ter towards which the wind blows. The 
1 terms leeicard and windward were given to 
| the West Indian islands, with reference to 
their situation in a voyage from the ports 

| of Spain to Carthagena or Portobello.- 

Under the lee of a ship, on the side of it 
opposite to that on which the wind blows. 

- Under the lee of the land, near the shore 

which breaks the force of the wind. 

LEECH (tec: Sax.). [See Hirudo.] 
LEG'AC Y (lego, I bequeath: Lat.), in Law, 
a bequest or gift by will of any personal 
! effects; a testamentary gift of real pro¬ 
perty being a devise. The person bequeatli- 
| ingis called the testator, and lie to whom it 
I | is bequeathed the legatee. There is also a 
residuary legatee, or one to whom, after the 
several devises or bequests made by will, 
the residue of the testator’s estate and 
| effects are given. A general legacy is one 
| not referring to any particular thing of the 
j kind, as where a diamond ring, but not a 
particular ring, is bequeathed. A specific 
legacy is a bequest of a particular thing, as 
j distinguished from all others of the same 
j kind; as a bequest of ‘the diamond ring 
which was given me by A.’ A legacy i s 
demonstrative when it is in its nature a 
general legacy; but there is a particular 
< fund pointed out to satisfy it. General 
legacies are subject to a rateable abatement 
if the estate will not pay all in full. But a 
specific legacy is subject to no abatement, 
/ except that which may be required by pay¬ 
ment of debts. A specific legacy may, 
|; however, be adeemed, that is, taken away : 
thus, if a particular horse is left to any one, 
but is sold by the testator before his death, 
that legacy is adeemed; if 1001. in consols 
is bequeathed, but it is afterwards trans¬ 
ferred by the testator to another stock, 
that legacy also is adeemed. A demonstra¬ 
tive legacy does not abate with the genera 


CreasUirjn [legion 


legacies, and is not liable to ademption by 
the non-existence or alienation of the fund 
pointed out for satisfying it. If a general 
legacy is bequeathed, no certain time of j 
payment being mentioned, the legatee will 
be entitled to interest on his legacy from 
the expiration of a year after the death of 
the testator. That time is allowed an exe¬ 
cutor to ascertain if there be any debts; 
and if a legacy has been paid, the legatee 
must refund, should it be necessary for 
the payment of a debt, even though the 
year have expired. When the legatee is an 
infant child of the testator, he will be allow¬ 
ed interest for maintenance from the time 
of the death of the testator. If the legacy 
given is payable at a certain day, it must 
be paid along with interest from that day ; 
but the executor is not bound to pay it 
before the year is expired, though the day 
mentioned is earlier than that time. If the 
legatee dies before the testator, his legacy 
lapses, unless he was a child of the testator 
and has left issue. 

LEG'ATE ( legatus: Lat.), the pope’s am¬ 
bassador to foreign countries: usually 
either a cardinal or a bishop. The power of 
a. legate is sometimes given without the 
title. It was one of the ecclesiastical privi¬ 
leges of England from the Norman conquest 
that no foreign legate should be sent here, 
unless the king desired it upon some extra¬ 
ordinary emergency, as when a case was 
too difficult for the English prelates. 

LEGA'TION ( legatio, an embassy : Lat.), 
a term denoting the body of official persons 
attached to an embassy. Hence secretary \ 
of legation. 

LEGATO (tied: Ital.), in Music, a word 
used in an opposite sense to staccato, and 
implying that the notes of a movement or 
passage are to be performed in a smooth 
and gliding manner. 

LE'GEND ( legendum, to be read: Lat.), a 
book used in the ancient Homan Catholic ! 
churches, and containing the lessons which 
were to be read. The word was afterwards 
employed to denote a chronicle or register 
of the lives of saints ; and as these histories 
were filled with ridiculous stories, the off¬ 
spring either of credulity or fraud, the 
name legend was given to improbable or 
incredible fables that make pretensions to 

truth.- Legend, the motto engraved 

upon medals, which differs from the in¬ 
scription properly so called. The latter sig¬ 
nifies words placed on the reverse of a 
medal in lieu of figures; but the former, 
those round the head or other figure. 

LE'GERDEMAIN (light of hand: Fr.), 
tricks which, from the dexterity of the per¬ 
former, are made to deceive the observer, 
and are called sleight of hand. 

LE'GION ( [legio: Lat.), in Roman Anti- • 
quity, a body of soldiers in the Roman 
army, consisting of different numbers at 
different periods. In the war with Hanni¬ 
bal it was 5000; after this it was increased 
to, in some cases, 6000 or 6200; but the 
cavalry always remained the same. The 
number of legions kept in pay together 
also differed according to times and occa¬ 
sions. Each legion w'as divided into ten 
cohorts., thirty maniples, or sixty centuries; 






















Ci )t &ucnf{ftc antr 


410 


LEGION ] 


hence, if the century always consisted of 
100 men, the legion would contain 6000. The 
300 cavalry attached to a legion were divi¬ 
ded into ten turmce or troops, and each troop 
into three decurice, or bodies of ten men 
each. Originally the legion was drawn up 
in three lines: the hastati, or first line, 
were young men in the flower of life, and 
were at first armed with spears ( liastce), 
whence the name ; the principes, or second 
line, were men in the prime of life; and the 
triarii, or third line, were veteran soldiers. 
To these were afterwards added the velites, 
or skirmishers. Each legion was, as it were, 
a separate army, having its cavalry and 
light infantry, with the various warlike 
engines then in use; and this arrangement 
had so many advantages that it was revived 
by the elder Napoleon, who even made his 
legion to consist of the same number as the 
Roman. His had the advantage of artil¬ 
lery. The 24 tribunimilitum were the chief 
officers of the legion, and its principal stan¬ 
dard was a silver or bronze eagle. The 
legions were named according to the order 
in which they were raised, from their com¬ 
manders (as the Claudian legion), or from 
the place where they were stationed, &c. 
Under Augustus there were 25 legions; 
under Alexander Severus, 32. 

LE'GION OP HON'OUR, an order insti¬ 
tuted by Napoleon, while consul (May 19, 
1802), for military and civil merit. It con¬ 
sisted of different grades, as grand crosses, 
crosses, commanders, officers, and legion¬ 
aries ; all of whom received pensions with 
this mark of distinction. After the restora¬ 
tion of Louis XVIII., the order underwent 
some modifications, and the number of its 
members was diminished. 

LE'GISLATURE(?efifis,of a law; and latia, a 
proposing : Lat.), that body in a state which 
is empowered to make laws. [See Consti¬ 
tution, Commons, Parliament, &c.] 

LEGITIMACY ( legithnus , lawful: Lat.), 
in Politics, in its strict sense, means the 
accordance of an action or an institution 
with the municipal law of the land. In 
the language of modern politics, the term 
has been used with reference to the old 
hereditary dynasties, and in contradistinc¬ 
tion from those founded by recent wars 
and revolutions. But it is now very gene¬ 
rally held that municipal law, or peaceable 
possession, affords the only right to a 
throne; and that all governments become 
legitimate as soon as they are thoroughly 
established. 

LEGU'ME ( legumen: Lat.), in Botany, a 
cue-celled, one or many-seeded, two-valved 
superior fruit, dehiscing by a suture along 
its face and its back, aud bearing its seeds 
on the ventral suture only. The fruit of 
the pea and bean is a legume. It is some¬ 
times indeliiscent, as in the Cassia Fistula ; 
but the line of dehiscence in such species 
is indicated by the presence of sutures. 
In many genera it passes into a drupe. 

LEM'MA (lemma, from lambano, I take 
Gr.), in Mathematics, a preliminary proposi¬ 
tion which serves to prepare the way for 
the demonstration of some other. 

LEM'MING ( Leming: Ger.), the My odes 
Norvegicus of Zoologists, a rodent animal 


allied to the rat, very abundant in the north 
of Europe, and on the shores of the Arctic j 
ocean. It is as large as a rat, and is covered 
with a black aud yellow fur. Lemmings j 
occasionally migrate in such vast bodies as j 
to devastate the country through which j: 
they pass. In these emigrations they move I 
in a straight line, regarding neither rivers, ! I 
mountains, nor any other obstacle. 

LEM'ON ( limon: Fr.), the fruit of a spiny 
tree, the Citrus Limonum of Botanists, a 
member of the orange order. It was origin- j 
ally brought from the tropical parts of 
Asia, but now grown in the south of Europe 
and other warm climates.-The prepara¬ 

tion called salt of lemons, &c., used to re- ! 
move ink-stains from linen, is binoxalate of 
potash. Its effect is produced by the oxalic ; 
acid dissolving with facility the oxide of 
iron in the ink, on the combination of 
which with the tannin and gallic acid the 
colour depends ; while, at the same time, it j 
can be used without any risk of injury to j 
the cloth, on which it has no effect. 

LE'MUR (a ghost: Lat.), a genus of 
quadrumanous animals. Each of their four 
extremities is provided with an opposable 
thumb ; but the index digit of the hinder 
hand has its nail developed into a long, 
curved, sharp-pointed claw. The lemurs 
differ from the typical quadrumana, and 
approximate to the ordinary quadruped, in 
their elongated pointed head and sharp 
projecting muzzle. They are all natives of 
Madagascar and the neighbouring islands. 
Though they belong to a hot climate, they 
are covered with fur ; but this is necessary, 
since they move about in the night season, 
when, even in tropical climates, it is often 
very cold. They feed on fruits, insects, and 
small birds. 

LEM'URES (Lat.), among the ancient 
Romans, spectres or ghosts, believed to bo 
the souls of the dead, which tormented men 
in the night. In order to propitiate them, 
a festival named Lemuria was observed. 
The legend is that it was instituted by 
Romulus for his brother Remus, and was 
named by him, on that account, Remuria, 
which became corrupted into Lemuria. 

LENS (a lentil: Lat.), in Optics, a thin 
piece of glass or other transparent medium, 
bounded on both sides by polished spherical 
surfaces, or on one side by a spherical, and 
on the other by a plane surface. These 
spherical surfaces may be either convex or 
concave ; and, by combination, give rise to 
the following :—A spherical lens, or sphere; 
a double convex lens, or one having two con¬ 
vex surfaces .which causes rays of light to 
converge ; a plano-convex lens, having one 
plane and one convex spherical surface, 
which also causes the rays of light to con¬ 
verge ; a double concave lens, having two 
concave surfaces, which causes the rays of 
light to diverge; a plano-concave lens, hav¬ 
ing one plane and one concave spherical 
surface, which also causes the rays of light 
to diverge; a meniscus, having one convex 
and one concave surface, the radius of the 
concave being the larger—it causes the rays 
of light to converge ; a concavo-convex lens, 
having also one convex aud one concave 
surface, but the radius of the concave being 





























411 


tlie smaller—it causes the rays to diverge. 
The effect of a meniscus is the same as 
that of a convex lens of the same focal 
distance; and that of a concavo-convex 
lens, the same as that of a concave lens 
of the same focal distance. The focus of 
a concave lens is imaginary. The focus 
of a lens may he very conveniently found 
in practice, by ascertaining at what distance 
from it the sun’s rays are concentrated to 
the smallest point. [See Optics, Concave, 
&c.] 

LENTIC'ULAR SCAL'PEL ( lenticulaire : 
Fr.), a surgical instrument employed for 
removing the jagged particles of hone from 
the edge of the perforation made in the 
cranium with a trephine. 

LENTI'GO (a freckle : Lai.'), in Medicine, 
a freckly eruption on the skin. 

LEN'TIL (tens: Lat.), the Ervum lens of 
Botanists, a leguminous herb. The seeds, 
which are contained in a pod, are round, 
flat, and rather convex in the middle. It is 
cultivated for its seeds, which afford a nu¬ 
tritious food, and also as fodder for cattle. 

LEN'ZPNITE, a hydrated silicate of alu¬ 
mina, found at Erfield in Prussia: it is white, 
trauslucent, and falls into small hard grains 
when put into water. 

LE'O (a lion : Lat.), in Astronomy, one of 
the twelve signs of the zodiac, the fifth in 
order. 

LE'ONLNE VERSE, a kind of Latin verse, 
consisting of hexameters and pentameters, 
of which the final and middle syllables 
rhyme. According to some, it derived its 
name from one of the popes, Leo; according 
to others, from Leoninus, a monk of the 
12th century. The following, which is the 
Latin paraphrase of a well-known doggrel 
verse, has been given as an example 

‘Daemon languebat; monachus tunc esse 
volebat: 

Ast ubi convaluit, mansit ut antd fuit.’ 

LEOP'ARD (leo, a lion ; and pardus, a pan¬ 
ther: Lat.), the Leopardus varius of Zoo¬ 
logists. The panther is now considered to 
belong to the same species, the only dif¬ 
ference being that the leopard has small 
spots thickly set, whilst the panther’s spots 
are large and open. But it has been found 
that there is so much variation in these re¬ 
spects that the distinction cannot be relied 
on. The species is a native both of Africa 
and Asia. The body of this fierce and ra¬ 
pacious animal is about four feet long. 
From the great flexibility of the limbs and 
spine, it can take surprising leaps, swim, 
crawl, and ascend trees. The hunting 
leopard of India is the Cheetah. 

LEPID'OLITE ( lepis , a scale ; and lithos, 
a stone : Gr.), a mineral of a granular and 
foliated texture, moderately hard, and of a 
pinkish colour. It contains lithia. 

\ LEPIDOP'TERA (lepis, a thin flake; and 
pteron, a wing: Gr.), in Entomology, an order 
of insects comprehending the butterflies 
and moths. The maxillae are modified into 
a spiral suctorial apparatus (hence they form 
a section of the transtellate insects); they 
possess-for the most part four large mem¬ 
branous wings, more or less covered with 
delicate scales ; and their metamorphosis 


[letter 


is complete. The abdomen of lepidopterous 
insects consists of six or seven annuli, 
and is attached to the thorax by a very 
small portion of its diameter. The females 
usually deposit their ova, often very nu¬ 
merous, on the vegetables that are to nou¬ 
rish the larvae—which are well known as 
caterpillars—and perish soon after. Some 
species of larvae attack woollen cloths, furs, 
leather, bacon, wax, &c. Some of them 
form societies, and live under a silken tent, 
which they spin in common. Caterpillars 
usually change their skin four times, be¬ 
fore passing into the state of nymph or 
chrysalis: most of them spin a cocoon, in 
which they enclose themselves. The lepi- 
doptera issue from their nymphal envelope 
through a slit which is effected in the back 
of the thorax. 

LEP'ROSY (lepra, from lepros, rough: 
Gr.), a cutaneous disease, appearing in dry, 
white, thin, scurfy scales, either on the 
whole body or some part of it. The leprosy 
is of various kinds : that to which the Jews 
were particularly subject is supposed to 
have been elephantiasis, or black leprosy. 
The Jewish law, without excepting even 
kings, excluded lepers from communion 
with mankind, banishing them into the 
country or uninhabited places. 

LE'PUS (a hare : Lat.). [See HARE.] 

LE'ROl LE VETJT (the king wills it :Fr.). 
^See Assent.] 

LETH'ARGY ( letliargia, from lithe, for¬ 
getfulness : Gr.), a heavy unnatural slum¬ 
ber, sometimes bordering on apoplexy, from 
which it is difficult to rouse the patient. 
Sometimes it arises from a plethoric state, 
or from over-fatigue of mind. 

LE'THE, in the ancient Mythology, one 
of the rivers of hell, signifying oblivion or 
forgetfulness; its waters having, according 
to poetical fiction, the peculiar quality of 
making those who drank of them entirely 
forget everything. 

LETTER ( littera, Lat.), a mark or cha¬ 
racter, written, printed, or engraved; used 
as the representative of a sound, or of an 
articulation of the human organs of speech. 
As sounds are audible, and communicate 
ideas by means of the ear, so letters are 
visible representatives of sounds, and com¬ 
municate thoughts by means of the eye. It 
is not known by whom, or even by what 
nation, letters were invented. They are 
divided into vowels and consonants, and 
the latter into mutes and liquids. Diph¬ 
thongs, also, are included in the classifica¬ 
tion.— Letter of Attorney, called also 
power of attorney, in Law, a writing by 
which a person appoints another to do a law¬ 
ful act in his stead, as to receive debts, &c. 

-Letter of Credit, among Merchants, 

a letter written by a merchant or banker to 
his correspondent abroad, requesting him 
to credit the bearer as far as a certain 
sum.- Letter of Marque, an extraordi¬ 

nary commission granted by the govern¬ 
ment to commanders of merchant-ship3 
or others, in time of war, to make reprisals 
on the enemy. The ship so commissioned 
is also called a letter of marque. (See Pri¬ 
vateer.]-Letters-patent, writings to 

which is attached the great seal of Eng 


Htterarj) Cveatftiry. 


































Lettish] VL\)Z Scientific tflltf 412 


land; so called because they are open. 

to the direction of the gravitating force at 



They'authorize some act, grant some right, 

any given place, and when consequently it 



or confer some place or dignity. [See 

lies in the plane of the horizon of that place. 



.Patent.] » 

A spirit level is attached to the telescope of 



LET'TISH, the language spolcen in Cour- 

the levelling instrument by which engineers 



land and Livonia. With the Lithuanian, a 

ascertain the difference of elevation be- 



language spoken in Eastern Prussia and the 

tween two points. Levelling may also be 



neighbouring part of Russia, it forms the 

performed by the theodolite.-The art of 



Lettic division of the Indo-European or 

levelling is particularly applied to the laying 



Aryan family. 

out grounds, regulating descents, draining 



LEU'CIN ( leukos , white : Gr.), inChemis- 

morasses, conducting water, &c.; and, in 



trv, a white pulverulent substance obtained 

fortification, the reducing an uneven sur- 



from the fibres of beef, albumen, or casein, 

facetothatofaplane, so that the works may 



by boiling it in a strong solution of potash 

be of a corresponding height and figure. 



and neutralizing the liquid with sulphuric 

LE'VER (lever, to raise: Nr.), in Mechanics, 



acid. 

a rod moving about a centre or prop called 



LEU'CITE (same deriv.), a crystallized 

a fulcrum, and having forces applied to two 



mineral, consisting of silica, alumina, and 

or moi - e points in it. The lever is either 



potash; of a grey or white colour, and gener- 

rectilinear, as a balance-beam ; or angular. 



ally opaque; somewhat like a garnet. It 

as a bell-crank. And its arms move in 



occurs in lava , particularly that of Vesuvius: 

the same plane, as in the examples just 



lienee it has been termed Vesuvian or vol- 

mentioned ; or in different planes, as in the 



came garnet. 

mechanism of organs, locomotives, &c. 



LEUCOPHLEGMA'TIC (leukophlegmatos: 

The lever also lias equal arms, as in the 



from leulcos, white; and phlegma, phlegm : 

common balance, where no mechanical ad- 



Gr.), in Medicine, an epithet for a dropsical 

vantage is gained; or unequal. If unequal, 



habit, with a white bloated skin. 

the fulcrum is either between the extremi- 



LEUCO'THIOP ( leulcos , white; and Ai- 

ties, or at one of them. When the fulcrum 



thiops, an Ethiopian: Gr.), an albino, or a 

is between the extremities, whether equi- 



white person of a black race. 

distant from them or not, it isaleverof tlio 



LEVANT' ( levante, rising: Ital.), a name 

first order. If the fulcrum is at one ex- 



under which are included Turkey, Syria, Asia 

tremity, and the power at the other, it is a 



Minor, Greece, Egypt, &c., washed by the 

lever of the second order. If the fulcrum is 



Mediterranean and its contiguous waters. 

at one extremity, and the weight or resist- 



The word is applied, in a general sense, to 

ance at the other, it is a lever of tho 



any country which is to the east of us. 

third order. Whatever the kind of lever. 



LEVA'RI FA'CIAS (you will cause to be 

when there is equilibrium, the power is to 



raised : Lat.), in Law, a writ directed to the 

the weight as the length of the arm on 



sheriff to levy a judgment debt upon the 

which the weight acts is to the length of 


* 

lands and goods of the party against whom 

the arm on which the power acts—provided 



it is issued; and by virtue of which the 

the directions in which the power and 



sheriff may seize all his goods, and receive 

weight act are perpendicular to the arms of 



the rents and profits of his lands, till satis- 

the lever ; otherwise, the power is to tho 



faction be made. It is superseded, in prac- 

weight as the lengthof a perpendicular from 



tice, except in cases of outlawry, by a writ 

the fulcrum to the direction in which the 



of clegit, which takes possession of the lands 

weight acts is to the length of a perpendi- 



themselves. 

cularfrom the fulcrum to the direction in 



LEVA'TORS ( levator , a lifter: Lat), in 

which the power acts. 



Anatomy, an appellation given to several 

LEVIGA'TION (levigatio, a smoothing : 



muscles, whose office is to lift up the parts 

Lat.), the mechanical operation or process 



to which they are respectively attached. 

of grinding the parts of bodies to a fine 



LEV'EE {lever, to rise: Fr., —because it 

paste, by rubbing them with the flat face 



was originally a visit paid to the sovereign, 

of a stone called a muller upon another 



on his rising in the morning), a ceremonial 

stone called the table or slab, or by anal- 



Visit to the sovereign, paid by the nobility. 

ogous means. If the result is stirred in 



gentry, &c., tohim. Itis attended by gentle- 

water, powders of different degrees of 



men only, by which it is distinguished from 

fineness may be obtained by separating 



what is termed a drawing-room. The Com- 

those which subside in successive intervals 



mander-in-chief of the Army and the Speak- 

of time. 



erof the House of Commons have also their 

LE'VITES, a term applied in Scripture 



levees. 

to such of the tribe of Levi as were era- 



LEV'EE-EN-MASSE (a universal rising : 

ployed in the lower offices and ministries 



Fr.), a military expression for the patriotic 

of the temple. In this particular, they 



rising of a whole people, including all those 

were distinguished from the priests, who. 



capable of bearing arms, who are not other- 

being descended from Aaron, were likewise 



wise engaged in the regular service. It is 

of the tribe of Levi. The Levites bore 



the most formidable obstacle an enemy can 

some resemblance in the tabernacle and 



encounter. In Germany it is called the Land- 

temple of the Jews to the deacons among 



sturm, in distinction from the Landwehr, or 

Christians. They were employed in bring^ 



militia; and in 1813 the governments of 

ing wood, water, and other necessaries for 



Northern Germany called it forth in every 

the sacrifice, and they sang and played 



part of the country. 

upon instruments in the temple. They 



LEV'EL {Icefel: Sax.), is an instrument for 

also applied themselves to the study of the 



ascertaining when a line is at right angles 

law, and were the ordinary judges' of tho 

























413 


Etterarj) Crta^uni. 


country, though always subordinate to the 
priests. Their subsistence was derivedfrom 
the tithes of corn, fruit, and cattle, through¬ 
out Israel; but the priests were entitled to 
a tenth of their tithes, by way of first-fruits 
to the Lord. 

LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the 
Old Testament, so called from its contain¬ 
ing the laws and regulations relating to 
the priests, Levites, and sacrifices. These 
duties, rites, and ceremonies formed what 
is termed the Levitical law. 

LEV'ITY ( levitas: Lat.), in Physics, the 
privation or want of weight in a body, when 
compared with another that is heavier; in 
which sense it stands opposed to gravity. 

LEXICOL'OGY (lexis, diction ; and logos, 
a description : Gr.), that branch of literature 
which treats of the proper meaning and 
just application of words. 

LEX'ICON ( Gr .), a book containing an 
alphabetical arrangement of the words of a 
language, with an explanation of the mean¬ 
ing of each. 

LEY, in Chemistry, the solution of a 
caustic alkali: in ordinary language, the 
impure alkaline solution obtained from 
ashes, and rendered caustic by lime. 

LEY'DEN J AR (from the place where its 
principle was discovered), in electrical ex- 
i periments, a glass jar having the outside and 
the inside coated to a certain height with 
| tin-foil. The glass under the foil can then 
be charged with the opposite electricities, 

! which may be preserved in the same state for 
any length of time. But if a piece of metal 
be made to connect the two coatings the 
two charges instantly unite with violence. 

LEZE-MAJ'ESTY ( crimen Icescemojestatis: 
Lat.), in Jurisprudence, any offence against 
the sovereign power of the state. Among 
the Romans, it comprehended rebellion, 
usurpation of office, &c. 

LHER'ZOLITE, in Mineralogy, a variety 
of pyroxene, of an emerald-green colour, 
brilliant when crystallized, and translucent. 

LIA'NAS, or LIA'NES (liar, to tie: Span.), 
the name given in Spanish America to 
twining plants which spread from tree to 
tree and render a tropical forest impassable 
—the Cable plants of the English. 

LI'AS, in Geology, a secondary formation 
lying between the oolite and the trias, con¬ 
sisting of beds of argillaceous limestone, 
marl, and clay, richly stored with fossils. 
The name is an English provincial one, but 
it has been generally adopted by geologists. 
In England the lias forms an almost con¬ 
tinuous band from the sea at Lyme Regis, 
in Dorsetshire, to the coast of Yorkshire, 
being only interrupted by the Mendip Hills 
in the southern and'by the marshland at 
the mouth of the Humber in the northern 
part of this long range. At Whitby the 
strata consist of shales enclosing jet and 
large fragments of bitumenised wood. The 
lime obtained from some of the lias beds 
has the valuable property of hardening 
underwater. In France and Germany the 
lias is also well developed. As to fossils, 
ammonites and other mollusca abound ; fish 
are plentiful, but the most remarkable fea¬ 
ture is the number of gigantic reptiles that 
have been discovered in this formation 


[libel 


[See Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus 
Pterodactyle.) 

LIBA'TION ( libatio, from libo, I pour out 
Lat.), among the Greeks and Romans, was 
an essential part of solemn sacrifices. It 
was also performed alone, as a drink-offer¬ 
ing, by way of procuring the protection 
and favour of the gods in the ordinary 
affairs of life. At sacrifices, after the liba¬ 
tion had been tasted by the priest and hand¬ 
ed to the bystanders, it was poured upon 
the victim. At entertainments, a little wine 
was generally poured out of the cup, before 
the liquor began to circulate, to show their 
gratitude to the gods for the blessings they 
enjoyed. The libations to the dead were 
not performed till the ninth day after the 
burning or interment; and consisted of 
milk, Avine, or blood, and generally con¬ 
cluded the funeral solemnities. 

LI'BEL ( libellus , a little book : Lat.), In 
Law, the publication of written or printed 
matter which tends to degrade a man in the 
opinion of his neighbours, or to make him 
hated or ridiculous. Both the author and 
the publisher of a libel are liable to an action 
Any book, pamphlet, writing, or picture, 
containing such representations, although 
only communicated to a single person, is 
considered in law a publication ; and libel¬ 
lers may be brought to punishment by a 
prosecution, or be compelled to make re¬ 
paration by a civil action. The latter 
is grounded upon the injury which the 
libel is supposed to occasion to the indivi¬ 
dual ; the public prosecution, upon its ten¬ 
dency to provoke a breach of the peace. 
A person who sends a libel privately to the 
person libelled is indictable (but not action¬ 
able), because this proceeding has a ten¬ 
dency to cause a breach of the peace. For¬ 
merly it was immaterial, with respect to 
an indictment for libel, whether the mat¬ 
ter of it was true or false, since the provo¬ 
cation, and not the falsity, was to be pun¬ 
ished criminally; but it was otherwise in 
an action for damages. At present, however, 
in pleading to an indictment, the defendant 
may, by way of defence, allege the truth of 
the matters charged, and may show that 
their publication is for the good of society. 
Special provisions have been made for the 
benefit of editors and proprietors of news¬ 
papers and other periodical publications. 
Unless the intent is shown to be malicious, 
it is no libel to print or reprint parliamen¬ 
tary papers, or extracts from them. The 
jury are now authorized to decide not only 
on the publication and meaning of the libel 
but also on its criminality, which was for¬ 
merly left to the judge. Libel is a greater 
offence than slander. Any person who with 
a view to extort money or to procure an 
appointment publishes, or threatens to 
publish, a libel, or offers to prevent the 
publishing of one, is indictable. In all in¬ 
dictments or informations by a private 
prosecutor for a defamatory libel, if judg¬ 
ment is given for the defendant, he is en¬ 
titled to costs from the prosecutor.-. 

Libel, in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty 
courts, the formal written statement of 
the complainant’s ground of complaint 
against the defendant. 

















Efje Scientific anfc 411 


li bet aula] 


LIBEL'LULA, in Entomology, a genus 
of neuropterous insects including the va¬ 
rious species,of Dragon-fly, which see. 

Ll'BER (tlie inner bark: Lai.), in Botany, 
the inner lining of the hark of exogenous 
plants. It is a mixture of woody and cellu¬ 
lar tissue, and seems to be formed annually 
at the same time as the concentric zones of 
wood. It conveys downwards the secretions 
elaborated in the bark and leaves; and it is 
the principal seat of thelaticiferous vessels. 
The liber layer of the Lime and some other 
trees affords material for cordage and mats. 
[See Lace Bark.] It is their liber which 
renders the flax, hemp, mallow, and nettle 
tribes valuable for manufacturing purposes. 
Sacks are made in Western India from a 
tree called Antiaris saccidora by cutting a 
thick branch, letting it soak a while in water, 
and then beating it with clubs until the li¬ 
ber and bark separate from the wood. They 
are then pulled inside out, and the wood is 
sawn off near the lower end, where a piece 
is left to form the bottom of the sack. 

LTB'ERAL ARTS ( liberalis, belonging to 
freedom : Lat.), such as depend more on the 
exertion of the mind than on manual la¬ 
bour. The term was first applied to them 
to distinguish them from the mechanic arts, 
originally exercised chiefly by slaves. 

LIBER'TUS (a freedman: Lat.), in Roman 
Antiquity, a person who from being a slave 
had obtained his freedom. According to 
Suetonius, the liberti were such as had been 
actually made free themselves ; the libertini 
were the children of such persons; but li- 
bertinus seems rather to mean one belong¬ 
ing to the class of liberti. 

LIB'ERTY (libertas: Lat.), in general de¬ 
notes a state of freedom, as distinguished 
from slavery, the power of living as a man 
pleases, or without being controlled by an¬ 
other. It is of various kinds:—1. Natural 
liberty, a state of exemption from the con¬ 
trol of others, and from positive laws and 
the institutions of social life. 2. Civil li¬ 
berty, the security from the arbitrary will 
of others, which is afforded by the laws. 3. 
Political liberty, civil liberty in a more ex- 
i tensive sense; it properly designates the 
J freedom of a nation or state from all unjust 
abridgment of its rights and independence 
by another nation. 4. Eeligious liberty, or 
liberty of conscience, the right of forming 
one’s own opinion on religious subjects and 
of worshipping the Supreme Being accord¬ 
ing to the dictates of conscience, unfetter¬ 
ed by external control.- Liberty of the 

Press, the free power of publishing what 
one pleases ; subject, however, to punish¬ 
ment for what is mishievous to public mo¬ 
rals, or injurious to individuals. ‘ Men,’ says 
Lord Macaulay, ‘are never so likely to settle 
a question rightly as when they discuss it 
freely. A government can interfere in dis¬ 
cussion only by making it less free than it 
would otherwise be. Men are most likely to 
form just opinions when they have no other 
wish than to know the truth, and are exempt 
from all influence either of hope or fear. 
Government, as government, can bring 
nothing but the influence of hopes and 
fears to support its doctrines. It carries 
on controversy not with reason but with 


bribes and threats. If it employs reasons, 
it does so not in virtue of any powers which 
belong to it as a government. Thus, instead 
of a contest between argument and argu¬ 
ment, we have a contest between argument 
and force. Instead of a contest in which 
truth, from the natural constitution of the 
human mind, has a decided advantage over 
falsehood, we have a contest in which truth 
can be victorious only by accident.’ 

LI'BRA (the balance: Lat.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, a sign of the aodiac: so called be¬ 
cause, when the sun enters it, the days and 
nights are equal.- Libra, in Roman An¬ 

tiquity, a pound weight; also a coin equal 
in value to twenty denarii. 

LI'BRARY ( librarium: Lat.), a word used 
to denote either a collection of books or the 
apartment or edifice for holding them. The 
first public library of which we have any 
certain account in history was founded at 
Athens by Hipparchus, 520 n.o.; the second 
of any note, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, 284. The latter was burnt by 
the Roman army, 47 B.c., 400,000 valuable 
books being destroyed in the conflagration. 
A second library, formed from the remains 
of the first at Alexandria, by Ptolemy’s suc¬ 
cessors, and said to have consisted of 700,000 
volumes, was totally destroyed by the Sara¬ 
cens, at the command of the caliph Omar, 

а. d. 642. How many treasures of ancient 
lore were thus irremediably lost must ever 
remain unknown : but it is more than pro¬ 
bable, when wo consider the labour of tran¬ 
scribing, that a very trifling portion of the 
literature of remote ages has been preserved 
to us. The most valuable libraries in 
Europe, at present existing, have been 
stated to contain printed books and manu¬ 
scripts as follows:—The Royal Library, 
Paris, 824,000 vols. and 80,000 MSS. The 
Bodleian Library, Oxford, 420,000 vols. and 
30,000 MSS. The Royal Central, Munich, 
800,000 vols. and 24,000 MSS. The Vatican, 
Rome, 100,000 vols. and 40,000 MSS. Uni¬ 
versity, Gottingen, 300,000 vols. and 5,000 
MSS. British Museum, nearly 700,000 vols. 
and 32,000 MSS. Vienna, 453,000 vols. and 
16,000 MSS. St. Petersburg, 505,000 vols. 
and 21,000 MSS. Naples, 300,000 vols. and 

б, 000 MSS. Dresden, 300,000 vols. and 3,700 
MSS. Copenhagen, 557.000 vols. and 30,000 
MSS. Berlin, 460,000 vols. and 5,000 MSS. 
These numbers can be given only as ap¬ 
proximations, since the number of works 
in the various libraries is continually aug¬ 
mented, and in some of them with great ra¬ 
pidity ; but they serve to convey an idea of 
the vastness of these collections, as well as 
their relative magnitudes. 

LIBRA'TION ( libratio , a weighing : Lat), 
in Astronomy, an apparent irregularity of 
the moon’s motion, which makes her seem 
to librate about her axis, sometimes from 
the east to the west, at others from the 
west to the east; so that the parts in the 
western limb or margin of the moon some¬ 
times recede from the centre of the disk, 
and sometimes move towards it, by which 
means they become alternately visible and 
invisible to the inhabitants of the earth. It 
is of three kinds:—1. Libration in longitude, 
which is ccasioned by the rotary motion of 






















41 o jlttcnuy 

! the moou about her axis not being always 
precisely equal to the angular velocity in 
her orbit. 2. Libration in latitude, which is 
occasioned by the inclination of the moon’s 
axis of rotation to the plane of her orbit: 
her axis retaining the same direction in 
space, the poles of rotation and parts adja¬ 
cent to them become alternately visible as 
she moves in her orbit. 3.. Diurnal libration, 
which is a consequence of the lunar paral¬ 
lax : the spectator at the earth’s surface 
J observes points on the moon’s disk at her 
rising, which disappear as her elevation in¬ 
creases, while new ones on the opposite 
border come into view as she descends. 

LICENTIATE (same deriv.), in Law, one 
■who has full license to practise any art or 
faculty; generally, a physician who has a 
license to practise granted by the College 
of Physicians. Cambridge is the only Eng¬ 
lish university which grants the degree of 
licentiate, and that only in medicine. 

LICHENOG'RAPHY ( leiclien , a lichen ; 
and grapho, I write: Gr.), the science which 
illustrates the natural history of lichens. 

LICH'ENS (Lat. ; from leiclien: Gr.), in 
Botany, an order of cryptogamic plants 
found in all parts of the world. They grow 
on the ground, on rocks and stones, and on 
tree trunks. They are frequently mere 
crusts of various bright colours; but often 
they rise up, and form small branches. They 
draw their nourishment from the air, not 
from the substance to which they are at¬ 
tached. The reproductive matter is of two 
kinds:—1. Spores, which are usually im¬ 
mersed in discs or shields that burst through 
the outer layer. 2. Minute cells, that are 
thrown off from an inner layer. Lichens 
are abundant in the temperate and cold 
parts of the earth. Many of them are of no 
I known use ; but some, as the reindeer moss 
( Cenomyce rangiferina), the Iceland moss 
(Cetraria Islandica ), and several species of 
Gyrophora (Tripe de roche), are capable of 
supportinganimal life. Iceland moss, when 
deprived of its bitterness by boiling, is an 
excellent food for invalids. Some lichens 
are used as medicines ; thus, the Variolaria 
faginea. But their principal importance is 
as dyes, many of them affording brilliant 
j colours ; thus, orchil, cudbear, perolle, &c. 

[ * Lichens,’ says Mr. II. Y. Hind, ‘ grow with 
exceeding slowness, but retain tlieir.general 
form and vitality for very many years. They 
are truly “ time-stains^ They survive the 
most intense cold ami live during long 
summer droughts in tropical climates. 
From the polar zones to the equator, under 
all conditions of heat and cold, on the most 
unyielding and barren rocks, on the living 
i and the dead, wherever there is light, li- 

I chens grow.’ 

LIC'TORS (I lictores , from ligo, I bind: 

II Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, officers or beadles 
who carried the fasces before the chief 
magistrates whenever they appeared in 

| public. It was also a part of their duty to 
be the public executioners in beheading, 
, scourging, &c. A dictator was attended by 
twenty-four lictors; a consul by twelve; 
the master of the horse, and prmtor, by six; 
and each Vestal virgin had one. 

LIEGE (lige: Fr.), a term used chiefly in 


(toaguvjn [ltfe 


combination : thus, liege lord, one that ac¬ 
knowledges no superior, the chief lord of 
the fee; liege man, who owes homage and al¬ 
legiance to the liege lord. By the term liege 
people are meant the subjects of a monarch, 
because they owe him their allegiance. 

LI'EN (a bond: Fr.), in Law, the right 
which one person, in certain cases, pos¬ 
sesses of detaining property belonging to 
another, when placed in his possession, until 
some demand, which he has, is satisfied. 
Liens are of two kinds: particular liens, 
that is, where the person in possession of 
goods may detain them until a claim which 
accrues to him in respect of those identical 
goods is satisfied ; and general liens, that is, 
where the person in possession 'may detain 
the goods, not only for his claim accruing 
in respect of them, but also for the general 
balance of his account with the owners. 
Some liens are created by express agree¬ 
ment, and some by usage. 

LIEUTEN'ANT (Fr., literally one who 
holds a place), an officer who supplies the 
place and discharges the office of a superior 
in his absence. Of these, some are civil, as 
lord-lieutenants of kingdoms, and lord-lieu¬ 
tenants of counties; and others are mili¬ 
tary, as lieutenant-generals, lieutenant- 
colonels, lieutenants of horse, foot, or of 

ships of war.- Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 

the chief executive officer of the Irish go¬ 
vernment, representing, in some respects, 
the person of the sovereign. He corre¬ 
sponds with the secretary for the Home De 
partment; but the management of Irish 
affairs in London is chiefly committed to 
his chief secretary. His salary is usually 
20,0301. per annum. He has the power of 
bestowing certain offices under the govern¬ 
ment, of creating knights, and of pardoning 
all crimes except high treason. Before the 
union, he summoned and prorogued the 
Irish parliament; but no bill could be pas¬ 
sed without the royal assent.- Lord-lieu¬ 

tenants of counties, officers who, upon any 
invasion or rebellion, have power to call out 
the militia, and to give commissions to 
colonels and other officers, to arm and form 
them into regiments, troops, and companies. 
Under the lord-lieutenants are deputy-lieu¬ 
tenants, who have similar powers; these are 
chosen by the lord-lieutenants out of the 
principal gentlemen of each county, and pre¬ 
sented to the sovereign for approbation.-. 

Lieutenant-general,an officer next in rank to 

the general.- Lieutenant-colonel, the officer 

between the colonel and the major.-• 

Lieutenant, in the army, the officer next 
below a captain. In the navy, an officer 
who ranks with a captain in the army : there 
are first and second lieutenants, with differ¬ 
ent pay. 

LIFE (liflan, to live : Sax.), in a general 
sense, that state of animals and plants, or 
of any organized beings, in which their 
natural functions and motions are per¬ 
formed ; or in which the organs are capable 
of performing their functions. The life of 
an animal body may be spoken of in a 
chemical and a physiological sense. Life i3 
antagonistic to ordinary chemical action: 
the moment death occurs, decomposition 
begins, though it may not be at once per- 






























life-boat] 


ceptible: the stomach, on which, during 
life, the gastric juice has no action, is some¬ 
times perfoi'ated by it after death. The 
following are-tlie results of careful investi¬ 
gation, regarding the duration of human 
life1. The proportion of births to the 
actual stationary population of any place, 
expresses, or is relative to, the average 
duration of life in that population. For 
! example, suppose this proportion to be in 
1 the ratio of one to twenty-eight, the average 1 
life of the inhabitants of the place will be 
found to be twenty-eight years. 2. The 
female sex enjoys at every period of life, 

J except at puberty, at which epoch the 
; mortality is rather higher among young fe- 
j males, a greater longevity than the male 
sex. 3. Pregnancy and labour occasion, 
indeed, a considerable loss of life ; but this 
loss disappears, or is merged, in the general 
j mass. 4. The so-called climacteric periods 
i of life do not seem to have any influence on 
I the longevity of either sex. 5. The average 
duration of life, at the present time, is in 
Russia about twenty-one years; in Prussia, 
twenty-nine; in Switzerland, thirty-four; 
in France, thirty-six; and in England, 
j thirty-eightyears. 6. The average duration 
of life has, in recent times, increased very 
greatly in most cities of Europe, which 
arises from greater cleanliness and better 
ventilation. 7. In reference to the influence 
of professions or occupations in life, it 
seems that ecclesiastics are, on the whole, 
the longest, and medical men the shortest 
livers : military men are nearly between the 
two extremes; but yet, proportionally, 
they, more frequently than others, reach 
very advanced years. 8. The mortality is 
generally greater in manufacturing than in 
agricultural districts. 9. Marriage is de- 
I cidedly favourable to longevity. 10. The 
mortality among the poor is always greater 
1 than among the wealthier classes. 11. The 
j mortality in a population appears to be al¬ 
ways proportionate to its fecundity : as the 
number of births increases, so does the 
number of deaths at the same time. 

LI'FE-BOAT, a vessel so constructed as 
to be capable of putting to sea in the most 
stormy weather, and withstanding the fury 
of a tempest; by means of life-boats many 
lives are annually saved from wrecks and 
vessels in distress. They are generally 
built wide and shallow, with the head and 
stern alike, that they may be rowed in either 
direction. They are cased round on the 
inside of the upper part with cork, to render 
| them buoyant, although filled with water, 
and loaded with as many persons as can be 
placed in them ; the cork also tends to pre¬ 
serve equilibrium, or to restore it. It is 
painted white, to be conspicuous on emer¬ 
ging from a hollow sea. 

LI'FE-BUOY, a buoy with a mast, to 
render it conspicuous. It is thrown into 
the sea when any one falls overboard ; and 
has usually attached to it a composition, 
which is fired by the very act of disengaging 
it from its place, and which burns with a 
strong light. 

LI'FE-ESTATES, in Law, freehold estates 
not of inheritance. 

LI'FE-GUARDS, the body-guard of a 


sovereign prince. There are two regiments 
of English life-guards, each having 32 offi¬ 
cers, 53 non-commissioned officers, and 351 
privates. 

LIFTS, the ropes which support the ends 
of yards or booms against the weight of 
I the men upon them. 

LIG'AMENT (Ligamentum, from ligo, I 
bind : Lat.), in Anatomy, a strong elastic 
membrane, connecting the extremities of 
the movable bones. Boiled in water, 
membranes yield more or less gelatine, and 
leave some insoluble albumen. They are 
divided generally into capsular ligaments, 
which surround the joints like a bag, and 
connecting ligaments. 

LIG'ATURE ( ligatura , from same : Lat.), , 
in Surgery, a cord, band, or string of va¬ 
rious thickness, covered with white wax; 
it is used for the purpose of tying arteries, 

veins, or other parts.-In Music, a line , 

connecting notes. 

LIGHT, in Physics, that peculiar pro¬ 
perty of matter which affects the nerves of j 

sight, and causes us to see.-A ray vj 

light is an exceedingly small portion ot 
light as it comes from a luminous body. 

A beam of light is a collection of parallel 
rays. A medium is a body which affords a \ 
passage for the rays of light. A pencil of \ 
rays is a mass of diverging or converging i 
rays. Converging rays are those which tend 
to a common point; diverging rays, those 
which come from one point, and continually 
separate as they proceed. The rays of light j 
are parallel, where the lines which they de- | 
scribeareso. The radiant point is the point 
from which diverging raj’s proceed. The 
focus is the point to which the converging 
rays are directed. Light passes off from a 
luminous body in all directions; and its 
intensity decreases as the square of the dis¬ 
tance increases: thus, if one object is twice 
as far from a luminous body as another of 
the same size, it will receive only one-fourth 
as much light as the latter. The velocity 
with which light travels is enormous; it 
was estimated, on astronomical data, at j 
183,470 miles per second ; but according to 
Leon Foucault’s recent experiments with the 
‘ turning mirror,’ it is 185,170 English miles 
per second ; and it requires little more than 
a quarter of an hour to pass through the 
diameter of the earth’s orbit. When light 
encounters an obstacle, some of it is re¬ 
flected, some absorbed, and, if the inter¬ 
posed body is not opaque, some of it is 
transmitted. During transmission it is 
modified, being in some cases, as with 
doubly refracting crystals, decomposed into 
two white rays, possessing different pro¬ 
perties; and in others, as with glass 
prisms, decomposed into a number of 
coloured rays, accompanied by rays which 
are colourless, and in fact invisible, but 
which have marked chemical and calorific 
properties. Light, heat, and the chemical 
principle seem to be modifications of the 
same element; but there are circumstances 
in which they differa thin plate of glass 
will intercept much of the heat, butnoneof 
the light, of an ordinary fire; the quantitj-, 
however, of heat intercepted diminishes 
as its intensity is increased, and the raya 


Etjc JMnitific antf 


416 
































417 


JUtevan) Cratfurg- 


from a body that is white-hot pass through 
it with but little interruption. On the 
other hand, obsidian and black mica allow 
free passage to the heat, but intercept all 
the light. Pale yellow glass intercepts all 
the chemical, but transmits all the lumi¬ 
nous rays. Blue glass intercepts most of the 
luminous, but none of the chemical rays. 
Solar light may be considered to consist of 
two rays of different polarities; of three 
kinds of rays having different properties, 
the calorific, the chemical, and the luminous; 
and the last of three different colours, the 
blue, the yellow, and the red, from which all 
others are formed : white being due tc the 
presence, and black to the absence, of all 
the colours. Two theories have been pro¬ 
posed regarding the nature of light, each 
capable of explaining all its phenomena, 
with perhaps the exception of interference 
[which see]. The one called that of emis¬ 
sion, adopted by Newton, supposed light to 
consist of exceedingly minute particles of 
a peculiar matter thrown out by a luminous 
body. It seems most in accordance with 
chemical science, many experiments in 
which appear to show that light is actually 
combined in some instances with elemen¬ 
tary substances, and in others liberated 
from them. Thus, when carbon and oxygen 
are united so as to form carbonic acid, light 
is set free; but when carbonic acid is again 
! decomposed by the vegetable, light is re¬ 
quired, seemingly that it may enter into 
combination. The other theory, called the 
! urululatory, adopted by most modern phi- 
i losophers, supposes light to be the vibration 
j of some ethereal medium which pervades 
l all space, just as sound is the vibration of 
atmospheric air. Astronomy furnishes us 
with some reason for supposing the ex¬ 
istence of such a medium ; and it is certain 
that we cannot as yet satisfactorily explain 
the plienemenon of interference, except by 

the undulatory theory.- Effects of light on 

vegetables. The change of position in the 
leaves of plants, at different periods of the 
day, is entirely owing to the agency of 
light, and that plants which grow in win¬ 
dows in the inside of houses, are, as it were, 
solicitous to turn their leaves towards the 
light. The more fully plants are exposed 
to the light, the more colour they acquire. 
I Sir Humphry Davy found, by experiment, 
that red rose-trees, carefully excluded from 
the light, produce roses almost white. 

: LI'GHTHOUSE, a tower or lofty building 

or. the sea-coast, intended to direct seamen 
in navigating ships at night, by the exhi¬ 
bition of a light which is of some definite 
intensity and colour, and which sometimes 
| revolves or disappears at certain fixed 
periods. Lighthouses were used in very 
ancient times ; that which was constructed 
on the isle of Pharos, opposite to Alexan- 
f dria, was so celebrated, that it has given its 
name to all similar erections. It is said to 
have been 500 feet high; to have been 
visible at a distance of 45 miles; and to 
have cost 800 talents, or about 16,0001. of 
our money. The old mode of lighting a 
V beacon was to burn wood or coal in a grate 
on the top ; down to 1807, candles were 
burned in the Eddystone lighthouse. But, 


[lightning 


whatever materials are used, much of the 
light must be lost, unless means are taken 
to give it a horizontal direction. This may 
be effected by either a catoptric or dioptric 
apparatus, that is, either by reflection or 
refraction. When the catoptric system is 
used, the flame of an argand burner is 
usually placed in the focus of a parabolic 
reflector; and, to produce a light of suffi¬ 
cient intensity, eight lamps and mirrors are 
generally united, in such a way that the 
lights are blended into one. When the light 
is to revolve, the lamps are attached to a 
frame, which is moved round with the pro¬ 
per velocity by clockwork. If the dioptric 
system is employed, eight powerful lenses 
are fixed in a frame, their axis being in 
the same plane, and meeting in a com¬ 
mon focus, in which the lamp is placed. 
Various methods have been devised for 
preventing a loss of the rays which pass 
above and below the lenses. When it is 
not a revolving light, the number of lenses 
ought to be, practically, infinite, that the 
light may be thrown to every part of the 
horizon. Thirty-two lenses have been 
used; but far more successful results are 
obtained by using a cylindric belt of glass, 
whose figure is generated by the revolution 
of the largest vertical outline of a powerful 
double convex lens round itsfocus. This belt 
is aided above and below by a series of pris¬ 
matic rings or zones, which throw most of 
the remaining light also in a proper direc¬ 
tion. The light is generally produced by an 
argand burner; and, as the dioptric system 
requires a more powerful lamp, a series of 
concentric burners is used—the number of 
these, with a first-class light, being four. 
Gas is sometimesemployed, but all attempts 
to apply the Drummond or voltaic light 
have failed. Red is the only coloured light 
which causes a lighthouse to be recognised 
at a sufficient distance. Lighthouses are 
distinguished also by the time of revolution 
of their light. Some of them have a flash¬ 
ing light: that is, the flashes and eclipses 
succeed each other so rapidly as to give 
rise to the appearance of scintillations. An 
intermittent light is one that is suddenly 
eclipsed and as suddenly revealed, exhibit¬ 
ing an appearance very different from a re¬ 
volving light. Sometimes there are two 
lights, one over or beside the other, or one 
red and the other white. Of late years mag¬ 
neto-electricity has been employed as the 
illuminating agent, the light thus pro¬ 
duced being much more intense than any 
that can be obtained from a manageable 
number of oil-lamps or argand burners. At 
Dungeness, on the coast of Kent, there is a 
light of this kind. A small steam engine is 
employed to cause a number of soft iron 
cores, surrounded by coils of wire, to rotate 
past a series of large permanent magnets. 
The streams of electricity thus generated 
are collected and conveyed by a wire into 
the middle of the illuminatingapparutua 
in the tower of the lighthouse. It is there 
made to pass between two points of char¬ 
coal, and in the act of doing this it produces 
a continuous spark of great brilliancy. 

LI'GHTNING (from light), in Meteoro¬ 
logy, a flash of light suddenly appearing in 
EE 





























lightning] 


Cl )t Actcnttfu nntf 


418 


the atmosphere, and commonly disappear¬ 
ing in the same instant; sometimes at¬ 
tended with clouds and thunder. Lightning 
is produced by the passage of electricity 
from one body to another. Thunder is the 
explosion of clouds charged with it; and 
lightning is to thunder what the flash is . to 
the report of gunpowder. Sometimes the 
electricity passes from one cloud to an¬ 
other; sometimes from a cloud to the 
earth, or vice versd. The different forms of 
the flashes of lightning are all found in 
electric sparks ; and the ordinary electrical 
experiments have all been performed with 
electricity drawn from the clouds. 

LPGHTNING CON'DUCTORS, metallic 
points elevated above the highest parts of 
buildings, and communicating by good and 
insulated conductors with the ground, or, 
which is better, with the nearest water. 
They are intended gradually to convey to 
the ground that atmospheric electricity 
which might, if transmitted suddenly, in¬ 
jure the building and its inmates. [See 
Atmospheric Electricity.] 

LIGHTS, NORTHERN. [See Aurora 
Borealis.] 

LIG'NIN ( lignum , wood: Lat.), a hard 
secondary deposit in vegetable cells, form¬ 
ing their wood or ligneous fibre. It is con¬ 
sidered to be a modification of cellulose. It 
forms the chief part of the trunks of trees. 

LIG'NITE (same deriv.), in Geology, wood- 
coal, fossil wood carbonized. It is chiefly 
found in strata of the tertiary era, and in 
some places there are large deposits of it. 
The lignites of Bovcy Tracey, in Devonshire, 
are dug for fuel. Near Bonn, on the Rhine, 
there is a lignite deposit from which the 
pigment called umber is obtained. Lignite 
is wholly composed of land plants, and laud 
and freshwater shells are found amongst 
them. 

LIG'NUM VI'TJE (the wood of life: Lat.), 
the wood of an American tree, the Guiacum 
officinale of botanists, nat. ord. Zygophyl- 
lacece. It attains the height of forty feet, 
and measures from fifteen to eighteen 
inches in diameter; having a hard, brittle, 
brownish bark, not very thick. The wood 
is firm, solid, ponderous, very resinous, of 
a blackish-yellow colour, and a hot aromatic 
taste. It is imported into England in large 
pieces of four or five hundredweight each, 
and, from its hardness and beauty, is in 
great demand for various articles of 
turnery, and for ships’ blocks, &c. The 
wood, gum (called Guiacine 1, bark, fruit, and 
even the flowers, possess certain medicinal 

virtues.-Of Pegu, Melanorrlicea usitata. 

- Bastard, Sarcomphalus laurinus. - 

New Zealand, Metrosideros scandens. - 

White, Badiera diversifolia. 

LIG'ULA (a slip or strip : Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a membranous appendage at the apex 
of the sheathing petiole of grasses. The 
florets of some composite plants, such as 
the daisy and dandelion, are said to have 
ligulate or strap-shaped corollas. 

LIG'URITE, a mineral occurring in ob¬ 
lique rhombic prisms, of an apple-green 
colour occasionally speckled. As a gem, it 
resembles the Chrysolite. 

LI'LAO ( lilach: Turk), a well-known 


shrub with fragrant flowers, a native of 
Persia. It belongs to the genus Syringa, 
nat. ord. Oleacece. 

LILI A'CEjE (lilium, a lily : Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a nat. order of bulbous-rooted herba¬ 
ceous plants, distinguished from the 
Amaryllis order by having the ovary above 
the base of the calyx, and from the Iris 
order by having six stamens. It includes 
a great number of plants with handsome 
flowers, sucli as the true lilies, the tulips, 
day lily, squills, lily of the valley, aspho¬ 
dels, and aloes. To this order also belong 
the asparagus, onion, and garlic, as well as 
the dragon tree. 

L1I/Y (lilium: Lat.; from leirion: Gr.), 
in Botany, a genus of plants with a bulbous 
and perennial root, the flower of which is 
six-petalled and campanulate. The lily is 
reckoned by Pliny the noblest flower next 
to the rose; and, according to Dioscorides, 

it was a royal flower.- Lily of the Valley, 

a plant of the genus Convallaria, with a 
monopetalous, bell-sliaped corolla. 

LIMB ( limhe: Fr.; from limbus, a border: 
Lat.), in Astronomy, the utmost edge or 
border of the body of the sun or moon. 

-In Botany, the expanse of the leaf, as 

distinct from tho stalk. Also the broad 
upper part of a petal, as distinguished from 
the lower narrow part. 

LIME (Leivi: Ger.), in Mineralogy, a very 
useful earth, existing in great abundance 
in nature. It is usually combined with 
carbonic acid in the forms of limestone, 
marble, and chalk, which, when burnt, be¬ 
come lime. It consists of oxygen and a 
metallic base called calcium. It is the basis 
of the bones, shells, and other liardYarts of 
animals. Sprinkled with water, it heats, 
falls into powder, and becomes a hydrate; 
the same effect takes place gradually in tho 
air. It is white, very difficult to be fused, 
and highly luminous when raised to a high 
temperature. It is more soluble in cold 
than in hot water, but very little in either. 
It has an alkaline action on vegetable 
colours, and absorbs carbonic acid from 
the atmosphere; its solution in water being 
rendered milky by this gas, for which, 
therefore, it serves as an excellent test. 
Its combination with sulphuric acid is 
known by the name of gypsum, or sulphate 
of lime; combined with fluoric acid, it con¬ 
stitutes fluate of lime, or Derbyshire spar. 
Lime is much used by tanners, skinners, 
&c., in the preparation of their leather ; by 
soap-boilers, for rendering the alkaline 
carbonates caustic by removing their car¬ 
bonic acid, and thus causing their ready 
combination with oils and fats; and by 

sugar-bakers, for refining their sugar. - 

Lime-water is used for medicinal purposes, 
being given internally in spasms, diarrhoea, 
convulsions of children, &c., and is exter¬ 
nally applied to burns and ulcers.- Lime, 

the fruit of the Citrus Limonium, a tree of 
the orange order. It abounds with an acid 
juice. 

LIME TREE or LINDEN, the Tilia euro- 
paia of botanists, nat. order Tiliacece. Rus¬ 
sian mats are made from the bast or inner 
bark of this tree. 

LIM'IT ( limito, I bound: Lai.), in Mathe 


































419 


j matlcs, a determinate quantity, to which a 
variable one continually approaches. 

LIMITA'TION ( limitatio, a fixing : Lat.) 

I of Actions at Law, the time beyond which 
actions cannot be brought. When they 
are for the purpose of recovering land, 

! they must be brought within twenty years. 
Personal actions of trespass on the case, 
or debt on simple contract, or for arrears 
of rent, must be commenced within six 
years after the cause of action ; actions of 
assault, menace, imprisonment, and the 
like, are limited to four, and actions on 
the case for verbal slander to two. But 
the right of action, in the case of debt, 
may be revived by an express acknowledg¬ 
ment on the part of the debtor. 

LIMO'GES ENAM'EL, a species of enamel 
practised at Limoges, in Prance, in the fif¬ 
teenth century. In the time of Francis I., 
Leonard Limousin was the most celebra¬ 
ted practiser of the art; and John Landin, 
in the reign of Henry IV. One of the pecu¬ 
liarities of Limoges enamelling was the 
use of a transparent colour with small 
globules having the effect of gems. 

LTM'PET, the common name of molluscs 
with low,conical,univalve shells,belonging 
to the genus Patella. Three species are 
found adhering to rocks and stones on our 
coasts 

LINE {tinea: Lat.), in Geometry, a quan- 
j tity having length without breadth or 
thickness. Lines are either curves or right 

j lines. -Lines, in Fortification, whatever 

is placed on the surface of the field, as a 
trench, a row of gabions, &c. They are most 
commonly made to shut up an avenue or 
entrance to some place, and are distin¬ 
guished into lines of approach, ol defence, 
of communication, &c.- Line, in Genealo¬ 

gy, a series or succession of relations, from 

a common progenitor.-A Ship of the 

Line, in Naval affairs, any vessel of war 
1! large enough to be drawn up in the line 
of battle; that is, having not less than 

two decks.- Troops of the Line, in 

Military affairs, regular troops, in distinc¬ 
tion from the militia, volunteers, &c.- 

Meridian Line, in Geography, an imagi¬ 
nary line drawn through the two poles of 
the earth and any part of its surface, being 
part of a great circle of the sphere. 

LIN'EAR ( linearis, pertaining to a line : 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a leaf of 
the same breadth throughout, except at 

the extremities.- Linear Numbers, iu 

Mathematics, such as have relation to 
length only: thus, a number which repre¬ 
sents one side of a plane figure. If the 
plane figure be a square, the linear number 
Is called a root. 

LIN'EN {linon, lawn : Fr.), cloth made of 
flax. In common linen, the warp and 
’ woof cross each other at right angles; if 
, figures are woven in, it is called damaslc. 
The species of goods which come under the 
denomination of linen, are table-cloths, 
sheeting, cambric, lawn, shirting, towels, 
&c. The chief countries in which linens 
are manufactured are Russia, Germany, 
Switzerland, Holland, Scotland, and Ire¬ 
land. In the middle ages, linen and wool¬ 
len cloth formed the only materials for 


[lion 

dress; and fine linen was held in very high 
estimation. In more ancient times, linen 
formed the dress of the Egyptian priests, 
who wore it at all their religious cere¬ 
monies. 

LING {linglie: Put.), the Molva vulgaris 
of ichthyologists, a fish allied to the cod, 
which inhabits the northern seas. The 
ling deposits its spawn in June, and is iu 
perfection from February to May. It is 
salted in great quantities, both for expor¬ 
tation and home consumption. 

LIN'GUA FRAN'CA, the dialect spoken 
along the European and African coast of ■ 
the Mediterranean. It is a corrupt Italian, 
mingled with other languages. 

LIN'IMENT {linimentum, from linio, I 
besmear: Lat.), in Medicine, a semi-fluid 
ointment, or a saponaceous compound, 
used for rubbing on painful joints. Also, 
spirituous and other stimulating applica¬ 
tions, employed externally. 

LiNNiE'AN SYS'TEM, a scientific ar¬ 
rangement of all natural objects, as ani¬ 
mals, plants, and minerals, into three king¬ 
doms, subdivided into classes, orders, 
genera, and species, with a description of 
their generic and specific characters. It 
received this appellation from Charles 
Linne (Latinized Linnaius), the celebrated 
Swedish naturalist. [See a sketch of the 
life of LiNNiECS, in the Biographical 
Ti-easury .] 

LIN'NET (linot: Fr.; from linaria: Lat.), 
the Linota cannabina of ornithologists, a 
singing bird of the finch family. 

LIN'SEED (lein, flax : Ger.), the seed of 
the flax-plant. It yields, by pressure, a 
large quantity of oil which when purified 
forms excellent lamp-oil. 

LIN'SEY WOOL'SEY, cloth made of 
linen and wool mixed together. 

LINT {linteus, made of linen: Lat.), in 
Surgery, linen scraped into a soft -woolly 
substance, fit for applying to wounds, 
either simply, or when covered with unctu¬ 
ous substances. It was formerly made by 
hand, but it is now made by machinery. 

LIN'TEL, in Architecture, a piece of 
timber that lies horizontally over door¬ 
posts and window-jambs. 

LI'NUM {Lat.; from linon: Gr.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a genus of plants, nat. order Linacece, 
containing the flax-plant. [See Flax.] 

LI'ON {Fr.; from leo: Lat.), a quadruped 
of the genus Leo, strong, tierce, and rapa¬ 
cious ; sometimes called the king of beasts, 
from its combined activity, strength, and 
majesty of deportment. Lions are now 
found only in unfrequented parts of Asia 
and Africa. They are about eight feet 
from the nose to the rump, and have a 
tail about four feet; their colour is a palo 
brown, or tawny yellow, and the male has 
a bushy mane. The male of the species 
known as Leo Goojratensis ishowever with¬ 
out a mane. The lion of Africa is the 
finest and most ferocious of the genus. 
Their muscular strength is prodigious; 
their roar and fierceness terrible; but, 
when brought up tame, and unused to 
attack and defence, they allow their keepers 
to play with them, and are often kind to 
small animals placed in their dens. From 


Httnary Cn\xsimt. 


































lioncel] 


ETjc ^n'enttftc antf 


men of learning.-In Antiquity, those 


the earliest times this animal has been 
celebrated for grateful affection, dauntless 
courage, and merciful forbearance; but 
modern naturalists deny him all these 
excellent qualities. The lioness brings 
forth from three to four cubs at a birth; 
and suckles them for a year, at which time 
their colour is a mixture of reddish and 
grey, with a number of brown bands. The 
male attains maturity in seven, and the 
female in six years. The strength of the 
lion is such, that a single blow from his 
paw is sufficient to destroy most animals. 

LI'ONCEL (Fr.), in Heraldry, a small 
lion; the term by which lions are blazoned, 
when there are several in one escutcheon. 

LIP'OGRAM ( leipo , I omit; and gramma, 
a letter : Gr.), a writing in which some one 
letter is wholly omitted. 

LIPPITU'DO (Lat., from lippus, blear- 
eyed), in Medicine, the disease called blear- 
eyes. It consists in a puriform exudation 
from the margin of the eyelids, which often 
causes them to adhere together after sleep. 

LIQUEFAO'TION ( liquefacio, I cause to 
melt: Lat.), in Chemistry, the conversion 
of a solid into a liquid, by the sole agency 
of heat. 

LIQ UEU R'(Fr.), a name for various agree¬ 
able spirituous drinks, in which some 
aromatic infusion generally predominates 
and gives to it a name. Some are simple 
liqueurs, as noyau, anise-water, &c. Others 
have more saccharine and spirituous mat¬ 
ter, as the anisette, curagoa, &c. And a 
third kind are the creams, or superfine 
liqueurs, such.as rosoglio, maraschino, &c. 

LIQ'UID ( liquidus, liquid : Lat.). Fluids 
have been divided into two classes : elastic, 
and non-elastic— or those which do not sen¬ 
sibly diminish in bulk -when subjected to 
pressure. The first class are airs or gases, 
the second liquids : hence we may define a 
liquid to be a fluid not sensibly elastic, the 
parts of which yield to the least pressure, 
and move easily on each other.-In Gram¬ 

mar, a letter which has a smooth flowing 
sound, or which is easily pronounced after 
a mute; l, m, n, and r, are liquids. 

LIQ'UORIOEjthe inspissated juice of the 
rhizomes or underground stems of two 
leguminous plants belonging to the genus 
Glycyrrhiza, cultivated in Spain, Sicily, 
and Calabria. It is frequently called Spanish 
juice, and is much used as a demulcent 
pectoral. A large quantity is used by 
brewers and tobacco manufacturers. About 
1400 tons are annually imported into this 
country. 

LIST ( lice: Fr.), in Archteology, the en¬ 
closure within which knights held their 
jousts and tournaments. Hence, to enter 
the lists is to engage in any contest. 

LIT'ANY ( litaneia, from litaneuo, I pray: 
Gr.), a solemn form of supplication to God. 
Roman Catholic litanies are either address¬ 
ed to a number of saints, who are succes¬ 
sively invoked, as in the litany of the 
saints, or to a particular saint. 

LIT'ERATES, in Ecclesiastical affairs, a 
name given to those w'ho are admitted to 
ordination by the bishop, without having 
taken a university degree. 

LITERA'TI (Lat.), in general, denotes 


who were branded with any letters by way 
of ignominy. 

LIT'ERATURE ( literatura: Lat.), in a 
general sense, comprehends all human 
knowledge preserved in writing. In a 
more usual sense, it excludes positive 
science; in a still more limited sense, it 
comprises only what is known by the term 
Belles lettres [which see]. In some cases, it 
has a peculiar meaning : thus, the phrase, 

‘ literature of the middle ages,’ means the 
aggregate of works written during the 
middle ages ; ‘ medical literature,’ what¬ 
ever of note has been written on medicine ; 
&c. 

LITH'ARGE (lithos, a stone; and argu- 
ros, silver: Gr.—from being obtained in 
purifying silver), in Chemistry, impure 
protoxide of lead which has been fused. 

LITII'IA ( lithos, a stone : Gr.), an alkali, 
found in a mineral called petalite, of which 
the basis is a metal called lithium. 

LITHI'ASIS (Gr., from same), in Medi¬ 
cine, stone in the bladder or kidney. 

LITH'IC A'CID (same deriv.), uric acid, 
the substance which constitutes the most 
common kind of urinary calculus. 

LITH'IUM is a very sparingly distributed 
metal, obtainable from the fused chloride 
by electrolysis. It is the lightest element 
in nature, and floats upon every liquid ; its 
specific gravity being only 0\59, that is 
about half as heavy as water. It is white 
and lustrous, but rapidly oxidises on con¬ 
tact with the air. It is so soft that it may 
be squeezed between the fingers. Heated 
to redness in the air, it takes fire and burns 
with a brilliant white flame. At 324° F. it 
melts, and volatilizes at a higher tempera¬ 
ture. 

LITH'OCARP (lithos, a stone; and kar- 
pos, fruit: Gr.), petrified or fossil fruit. 

LITHOCHRO'MICS ( lithos, a stone ; and 
chroma, colour : Gr.), the art or process of 
painting in oil upon stone, and of taking 
impressions on canvas; an ingenious in¬ 
vention of a French artist. It was after¬ 
wards improved upon by Senefelder, the 
inventor of lithography. 

LITHODEN'DRON (lithos, a stone; and 
dendron, a tree: Gr.), a name for coral, I 
which is so called from its resembling a 
branch. 

LITHOG'RAPHY (lithos, a stone ; and 
grapho, I write : Gr.). [See Engraving.] 

LITHOL'OGYfftGios, a stone; logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), that branch of science which 
treats of rocks in their mineralogical 
aspect. It is sometimes termed Petrology 
(petros, a rock : Gr.). 

LITHONTRIP'TICS (lithos, a stone; and 
tribo, I wear away or consume: Gr.), medi¬ 
cines which are supposed to have the power I 
of preventing or dissolving calculi in the 
urinary passages. 

LITHOT'OMY (lithotomia: from lithos, a i 
stone ; and temno, I cut: Gr.), in Surgery, 
the operation of cutting into the bladder, 
for the purpose of removing a calculus or 
s t on 0 

LITH'OTRITE (lithos, a stone; and tribo, 

I wear away: Gr.), an instrument for break¬ 
ing calculi in the bladder, and reducing 

























421 HttetTtrn Emtfttrj). [loan 

them to small particles, so that, being 
passed with the urine, lithotomy may he 
rendered unnecessary. 

LITHOT'RITY (same dcriv .), the opera¬ 
tion by which a calculus is broken or pul¬ 
verized in the bladder. 

LIT'MUS, the blue dye obtained from 
some lichens belonging to the genus 
Roccella, which are imported from several 
islands in the North Atlantic. They are 
sometimes called turnsole, and afford a 
dye called archil. The feeblest acid will 
redden a paper tinted blue with litmus; 
and hence litmus paper is a very delicate 
test for the presence of an acid. 

Ll'TRE, a French measure of capacity, 
being a cubic decimetre—that is, a cube, 
each of whose sides is 3’937 inches. It con¬ 
tains 6F028 cubio inches, and is therefore 
rather less than our imperial quart, which 
. contains 69'3185. 

LIT'URGY ( leitourgia, from leitourgeo, I 
; perform public duties: Or.), a name given 
to those set forms of prayer which have 
been generally used in the Christian church. 
The liturgy of the church of England was 
composed in the year 1547, since which 
time it has undergone several alterations, 
the last of which was at the restoration of 
Charles II. 

LIV'ER (leber: Ger.), in Anatomy, a large 
viscus, of a deep red colour, situated under 
the diaphragm, which secretes bile, and 
transmits it to the duodenum and gall¬ 
bladder. In the human body, the liver is 
divided into two principal lobes, of which 
that at the right-hand side is by far the 
larger. The liver also secretes starch, or a 
starch-like substance, which becomes con¬ 
verted into sugar on exposure to the air. 

LIV'ERSTONE, in Mineralogy, a stone or 
species of earth of the barytic genus, of a 
grey or brown colour, which, when red-hot, 
emits the smell of an alkaline sulphuret. 

LIV'ERY ( livrer, to deliver: Fr.), a suit 
of clothes made of different colours and 
with trimmings. It serves to distinguish 
the servants of various families of rank. 
At tournaments, the cavaliers wore the 
livery of their mistresses; and persons of 
rank formerly gave liveries to persons 
not connected with their household, to en¬ 
gage them in their quarrels.- Livery op 

Seisin, in Law, signifies delivering the 
possession of lands, &c., to him who lias a 
right to them. This was formerly indis¬ 
pensable to the creation or transfer of a 
freehold estate. 

LIV'ERYMAN, a freeman of the city of 
London, admitted member of some one of 
the ninety-one city companies, by which 
he enjoys certain privileges. The common 
council, sheriff, and other superior officers of 
the city are elected from among the livery¬ 
men ; who are so called because entitled 
to wear the livery of their respective com¬ 
panies. 

LI V'ERWORT, the popular name of some 
cryptogamic plants which grow in damp 
places in all parts of the world. They 
belong to the natural order Hepaticm ; they 
have been employed in liver complaints 
(hence the name), but they are now believed 
to be inert. 

LIXIVIA'TION (from next), in Chemis¬ 
try, the process of extracting alkaline salts 
from ashes, by pouring upon them water, 
which, in passing through them, dissolves 
out the salts. 

LIXIV'IUM (a lye to wash with : Lat.), in 
Chemistry, lye; water impregnated with 
alkaline salts dissolved out from wood 
ashes. 

LIZ'ARD (lizarde: Fr.). [See Lacerta.] 

LLA'MA, in Zoology, a genus of South 
American mammals belonging to thefamily 
of camels. There are two wild species, and 
two species or varieties in a state of domes¬ 
tication. Of the former, the Guanaco (L. 
guanacus), inhabits the plains in the tem¬ 
perate part of South America; whilst the 
Vicuna ( L. vicugna) frequents the Andes. 
The former is an elegant animal, with a long 
slender neck and fine legs, living in small 
herds of from six to thirty in a herd. It is 
wild and wary, but falls a prey in large 
numbers to the Indians and the puma. 

Of the domesticated forms, the llama has 
whitish hair and long legs, whilst the alpaca 
has blackish hair and short legs The fine 
silky hair of the latter has been largely im¬ 
ported of late years and manufactured into 
a textile fabric. Living animals have been 
conveyed to Australia, where it is proposed 
to breed them. 

LLOYDS’, an association of underwriters 
(or insurers of ships), shipowners, and mer¬ 
chants, who are established at the Royal 
Exchange, London. They have agents all 
over the world, who forward to head quar¬ 
ters the earliest news of the departure, the 
arrival, the loss or damage of vessels. ! 
There are about 1900 subscribers who pay 
an entrance fee of25 girneas, and an annual 
subscription of 4 guineas. If under¬ 
writers or insurance brokers, the subscrip¬ 
tion is 10 guineas. The management is 
vested in a committee of nine members. 
The name originated in the fact of a man, 
calledLloyd, keepin g a coffee-house, at whi ch 
persons connected with shipping were in 
the habit of meeting. ‘ Lloyd’s Register of 
British and Foreign Shipping"’ is a distinct 
association, the object of which is to ascer¬ 
tain the character and condition of ships by 
the examination of competent persons. 

LOAD, a name given by traders to quan¬ 
tities of various articles: thus, a load of 
unhewn timber consists of 40 cubic feet; a 
load of squared timber 50 cubic feet; a load 
of inch boards 600 square feet; a load of 
bricks 500 ; a load of lime 32 bushels ; a load 
of sand 36 bushels. l 

LOAD'STONE ( Icedan, to lead : Sax. It is 
more correctly spelled lodestone), magnetic 
iron ore. It is usually in the state of an 
oxide. 

LO'AMY SOIL (laam, loam : Sax.), a soil 
in which alumina, called clay by the agri¬ 
culturist, prevails. It is heavy or light, as 
the alumina is in larger or smaller quantity. 
Generally speaking, loamy soils are more 
productive than sand or chalk, but in every 
case much depends on the subsoil. 

LOAN (Man: Sax.), a sum of money lent 
to another, generally on the security of a 
promissory note or bond, the guarantee of 
a third party; or the possession or assign- 


























CI)c Jbctoittfic antt 422 


lobe] 


ment of property by bill of sale. Sometimes 
it is effected by governments on the pledge 
of certain taxes set apart to pay the interest; 
this is called a public loan. The practice of 
borrowing money to defray the extraordin¬ 
ary expenses in time of war, which has been 
adopted in Great Eritian for some time past, 
has given rise to the national debt [which 
see]. Where there is a well-founded system 
of credit, statesmen think it most advanta¬ 
geous to guarantee the regular payment of 
the stipulated interest, and leave the pay¬ 
ment of the capital at the pleasure of the 
state; which is called the funding system. 

LOBE (lobus: Lat.), in Anatomy, any fleshy 
protuberant part, as the lobes of the lungs, 

lobes of the ears, &c.- Lobed or lobate, 

divided into parts distant from each other, 
with convex margins. 

LOB'STER (Sax.), a well-known crusta¬ 
cean, the Homarus vulgaris of naturalists. 
When fresh from the water, the shell is of 
a blue colour, but it turns red on being 
boiled. It is said that the lobster is in the 
habit of casting its claws, when alarmed by 
a violent thunderstorm or the firing of 
cannon. On being seized by one of its legs, 
it will throw it off and make its escape, 
leaving the limb behind. Immense quanti¬ 
ties, probably 800,000 lobsters, are annually 
brought into the London market, and as 
many as 25,000 have arrived in one day; the 
major part are taken on the coast of Nor¬ 
way. Two other crustaceans are called 
Lobster; these are the Spiny Lobster, 
(Palinurus vulgaris ), and the Norway Lob¬ 
ster (Nephrops norvegicus), but neither is so 
much esteemed as the common lobster. 

LO'CAL ( localis: Lat.), pertaining to a 

fixed or limited portion of space.- Local 

Actions, in Law, such as must be brought 
in the particular county where the cause 
arises.— Local Colours, in Painting, 
such as are natural and proper for each 

object in a picture _Local Medicines, 

those destined to act upon particular parts. 

-Local Militia, a temporary armed 

force, embodied for the defence of the 
country, and required to serve only within 
certain limits.— Local Problem, in Ma¬ 
thematics, that which admits of innumer¬ 
able solutions. 

LOCK (loc: Sax.), a piece of mechanism, 
requiring much art and nicety in contriving 
and vary ing its springs, bolts, and different 
parts, according to the uses for which it is 
intended. Locks are of various forms, but 
the principle on which they are all con¬ 
structed is the application of a lever (the 
key) to an interior bolt, by means of a com¬ 
munication from without; and the security 
of locks depends upon the impediments 
(■ wards ) which maybe interposed betwixt 
this lever and the bolt, and the impediments 
to the movement of the bolt ( tumblers, &c.), 
which are to be thrown out of action by the 
key. Locks are known to be of great anti¬ 
quity, because sculptures of what are similar 
to those now used in Egypt have been dis 
covered on the great temple of Karnac, 
whence Denon infers they were known in 
Egypt about four thousand years since. 
Abundance of ancient keys, some of them 
esembling many used in the present day, 


may be seen at the British Museum..—. 
Lock, the barrier or works of a canal, which 
confine the water where the change of level 
takes place; it is furnished with gates at 
each end, which separate the higher from 
the lower level. When a boat passes up tho 
canal, the lower gates are opened, and the 
boat passes into the lock, after which the 
gates are shut. A sluice, communicating 
with tlie upper part of the canal, is then 
opened, and the lock rapidly fills with 
water, elevating the boat on its surface. As 
soon as the lock is filled to the highest water- 
level, the upper gates are opened, and the I 
boat, being now on the level of the upper 
part of the canal, passes on its way. The 
reverse of this process is performed when 
the boat is descending the canal. The 
amount of elevation and descent made by ; 
the locks of a canal is termed the lockage. 

LOCOMOTION ( loci motio, change of 
place: Lat.), the art or power of moving \ 
from place to place. The chief obstacles 
which oppose locomotion, or change of I 
place, are gravity and friction, and the 
various kinds of mechanism which are in- 1 
tended to assist locomotion are contriv¬ 
ances for obviating the effects of these. No 
piece of inert mechanism is so favourably 
adapted as the wheel carriage, for moving 
weights over the common ground, with its 
ordinary asperities and inequalities of sub- I 
stance and structure. 

LOCOMOTIVE (same dcriv.), or LOCO- J 
MOTIVE EN'GINE, a steam-engine, which J 
moves itself, at the will of the person in 
charge of it; being either attached to a | 
wagon or carriage inseparably, or capable 
of connection with the carriage or train of 
carriages intended to be drawn by it. The 
former is the arrangement when the machine 
is designed for ordinary roads; the latter 
when for railways. The first locomotive 
was used in 1804, at Mertliyr-Tydvil, and 
was in many respects like those employed 
at present. Engineers, in the infancy of 
steam locomotion, were firmly impressed 
with the idea that an engine could not be ; 
made to progress, by mere friction, between 
the wheels and the rails; they believed 
that, in all cases, the wheels would revolve 
without causing progressive motion, as in 
practice they are found to do when the rails 
have been rendered extremely slippery by 
frost or rain. Hence they invented many \ 
most ingenious but unnecessary contriv- ! ' 
ancesto overcome a difficulty which existed 
only in their own imaginations. Locomo¬ 
tive engines consist essentially of a boiler, ! 
cylinders, excentrics, cranks, &c. The 
boiler is a cylinder about 12 feet long, placed 
on its side, having a fire-box at one end and 
a smoke-box at the other, the smoke-box 
leading into the chimney. The fire and 
smoke boxes are connected by means of 
about 300 brass tubes, of 2[ inches external 
diameter. The smoke and heated air pass 
through these, and communicate a vast 
quantity of caloric to the water in which they 
are immersed; and the heating surface; which 
is increased also by the fire-box being sur¬ 
rounded with water, may amount altogether 
to about 2000 square feet, 150 of which are 
duo to the fire-box. A straw dome, placed on 
































423 


Httfrary Qtoatfurg. 


the upper part of the hoiler, affords a space 
; in which the steam deposits the particles 
of water with which it becomes mechanically 
mixed by the violent ebullition; and thus 
the introduction of water along with the 
| steam into the cylinders, technically termed 
priming, is prevented. Priming is highly 
mischievous, and sometimes causes the 
bottom to be knocked out of a cylinder, or 
i the piston-rod to be bent. As a fly-wheel to 
regulate the motion, or carry a crank over 
the dead points, is inadmissible, two cylin¬ 
ders at least are required, and that number 
is rarely exceeded. Their pistons sometimes 
act on the driving wheels, and sometimes 
on the axle belonging to the latter. The 
driving wheels are about eight feet in 
diameter. That each piston may be capable 
either of a direct or reverse action on its 
crank—that is, that the train may be moved 
; with equal facility in either direction— 
there is a pair of excentrics for each cylin¬ 
der, each pair being so connected with its 
own slide-valve, by means of what is called 
the link motion, that either excentric can 
be made instantaneously to act on the valve, 
by means of a handle, the other excentric 
being by the same movement thrown out of 
action ; and the same handle regulates the 
l link motions of both the cylinders simul- 
; taneously, so that both engines (for a loco¬ 
motive really consists of two engines) are 
sent forward or reverse by the same act of 
j the driver. The steam is turned on or off 
by the regulator, which consists of two cir¬ 
cular plates fixed in the end of a pipe which 
is within the boiler and which forms a com¬ 
munication between the steam space of the 
boiler and the cylinders ; these plates have 
apertures which, when they are brought 
1 into correspondence—by turning a handle 
—allow the steam to pass from the boiler to 
the cylinders; but when the solid parts of 
one close the apertures in the other, the 
steam is intercepted. The boiler is supplied 
with water by two force-pumps, -worked in 
the usual way, or by injectors, a self-regula¬ 
ting contrivance now very commonly used. 
The waste steam is turned into the chim¬ 
ney, where, by the rarefaction it causes, it 
increases the draught, and just in propor¬ 
tion as it is required to be effective. The 
whole is placed on six wheels, and a tender 
with fuel and water is either attached to 
1 or drawn after it. This fuel is, in these 
| countries, coke, or a mixture of coke and 
! coal; in some parts of Europe, and most 
| parts of America, it is wood, which, not 
giving so hot a fire, does not allow such 
speed. A constant supply of oil is conveyed 
to all parts of the machinery, for the purpose 
of lubrication, by very simple contrivances. 
When the locomotive is intended to move 
a heavy load,engineers do not depend on 
the friction between only the driving wheels 
and the rails, but unite these wheels with 
I others by means of bars. A powerful en- 
t gine with its water will weigh about 36 
: tons; it will evaporate about 350 cubic feet 
! of that fluid in dn hour, and will convey a 
load of about 230 tons at a speed of 40 miles 
an hour. Attempts have been made to in¬ 
troduce locomotives on ordinary roads. 
Put, from the complication, unavoidable 


[locust 


delicacy, and therefore costliness of tho ! 
machinery—on account of the injury dona 
to it by the shaking and concussions—and 
from the serious obstacles presented by ruts 
and slight acclivities, it has not yet been 
found possible to work them to any extent 
with punctuality and economy. They are , 
found, however, to answer well, in certain 
cases, for drawing heavy loads. 

LOC'U LAMENT (loculamentum, a recep¬ 
tacle : Lat.), in Botany, the cell of a pericarp 
in which the seed is lodged. Thus we say 
of a pericarp, it is unilocular, Mlocular, &c. 

LO'CUM TE'NENS (holding a place : Lat.), 
adeputy or substitute; one who supplies the 
place of another, or executes his office. 

LO'CUS (a place: Lat.), in Geometrical 
Analysis, the line traced by a point, which 
varies its position according to some de¬ 
terminate law. When the locus was a 
straight line or a circle, the ancient geome¬ 
ters termed it plane ; but, when it was one of 
the conic sections, solid. The moderns dis¬ 
tinguish loci into orders, according to the 
dimensions of the algebraic equations by 

which they are represented.-Locus in 

quo, in Law, the place where anything is 

alleged to be done, in pleadings, &c.-■ 

Locus Partitus, a division made between 
two towns or counties, to determine where 
any land or place in question lies. 

LO'CTJST ( locusta: Lat.), a voracious in¬ 
sect, somewhat resembling the common 
grasshopper. The common European species 
is the Locusta migratoria of entomologists, 
placed by them in a family of orthopterous 
insects, belonging to the section Sanatoria 
(salto, I leap : Lat.), or those furnished with 
hind legs formed for leaping. Locusts are 
at times so numerous in Africa and the 
south of Asia, that they do immense injury 
to vegetation, literally devouring every¬ 
thing green ; and when they migrate they 
fly in clouds, darkening the air by their 
numbers. Happily for mankind, this calam¬ 
ity is not frequently repeated, for it is the 
inevitable precursor of famine and its hor¬ 
rible accompaniments. Even when dead, 
they are still productive of evil conse¬ 
quences ; since the putrefaction which 
arises from their inconceivable number is 
so great, that it is justly regarded as one of 
those desolating pestilences which almost 
depopulate whole districts of country. 
Sometimes, though not often, they appear 
in Europe, and produce the same effects. 
In the year 591, an army of unusually large 
locusts ravaged Italy; and being at last cast 
into the sea (as seems for the most part to 
be their fate), a pestilence, it is alleged, 
arose from their stench, which carried off 
vast multitudes of men and beasts. In the 
Venetian territory, likewise, in 1478, more 
than 30,000 persons are said to have perished 
in a famine chiefly occasioned by the depre- ■ 
dations of locusts. In Barrow’s Travels it 
is stated, that in Southern Africa the whole | 
surface of the ground might literally be said j 
to be covered with them for an area of 2000 
square miles. The water of a very wide 
river was scarcely visible on account of 
their dead bodies that floated on the surface. 
The larvae are much more voracious than 
the perfect insects ; and when they are on 


























iocust-tree] 


STIje <g?rtenttftc mitr 


424 


a march during the day, it is utterly impos- 
i sible to alter the direction in which they 
move, which is generally with the wind. 
Much controversy has arisen regarding the 
| * locusts and wild honey,’ which were the 
food of John the Baptist in the wilderness. 

' But wild honey is found in the clefts of the 
rocks of Judasa as abundantly as in the 
caves of Hindustan. And if we refer to the 
book of Leviticus (xi. 22), we shall find that 
locusts constituted a common food among 
! the Jews; the different kinds which they 
were permitted to eat being there specified. 

LO'CUST-TREE, the Hymencea Courbaril 
\ of Li mucus. It belongs to the Leguminosce, 
and is distinguished no less for its valuable 
i wood than for the beauty of its foliage and 
its fragrant white flowers. The leaves are 
pinnate, and the leaflets very thin and 
smooth. The wood is compact, bard, capable 
; of receiving a fine polish, and has the pro¬ 
perty of resisting decay longer than almost 
any other. It grows very i - apidly in the 
south-western states of America, sometimes 
reaching to the height of eighty feet. 

1 LODE ( Icedan , to lead: Sax.), among 
miners, a metallic vein ; or any regular 
vein or course, whether metallic or not. 
Those lodes which contain the ores of metals 
are said by the miners to be alive, but those 
which contain only stony matters are called 
dead lodes. 

LODGED ( loger, to dwell: Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, a term f or abuck, hart, &c., when lying 
on the ground; answering to coucliant, which 
is applied to a lion or other beast of prey. 

LODGEMENT ( logement: Fr.), in Military 
affairs, a work raised with earth, gabions, 
fascines, &c., to cover the besiegers from 
the enemy’s fire, and to prevent their losing 
a place which they have gained, and are re¬ 
solved, if possible, to keep. 

LOG ( lock; Ger.), in Navigation, usually a 
piece of board, forming usually the quadrant 
of a circle of five or six inches radius ; it is 
about a quarter of an inch thick, and so ba¬ 
lanced with lead nailed to the circular part, 
that it floats perpendicularly, with about 
two-thirds immersed. The log-line is a thin 
cord, one end of which is fastened to the 
log, and the other is wound round a reel 
in the gallery of the ship. The log thus 
poised keeps its place in the water, while 
the cord is unwound from the reel by the 
motion of the vessel. The velocity of the 
latter is known by the number of knots on 
the line run out Avliile the glass is running 
down [see Knot]. There are other kinds of 
log, but their principle and mode of use are 
similar.- Log-board, two boards shut¬ 

ting like a book, and divided into columns, 
for the hours of the day and night, the di¬ 
rection of the wind, the course of the ship, 
| &c., in which an account of the shin’s way 
is marked.-— Log-book, the book into 
' which the contents of the log-board are tran¬ 
scribed.- Log-reel, a reel in the gallery 

of a ship, on which the log-line is wound. 

LOGARITH'MIC, or LOGIS'TIC, an 
epithet for a peculiar curve. It is so called 
from its utility in explaining and construct¬ 
ing logarithms, on account of its ordinates 
being in geometrical progression. 

LOG'ARITHMS (logos, proportion; and 


arithmos, number: Gr.), the exponents of 
a series of powers and roots. When the 
logarithms form a series of numbers in 
arithmetical progression.the corresponding 
natural numbers form a series in geo¬ 
metrical progression. Thus, 

Arithmetical: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, G, &c. 

Geometrical: 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, &c. 

The terms of the arithmetical progression 
show what powers of the root (in this case 
2) will be equal to the corresponding terms 
in the geometrical. Thus 4 is the second 
power of 2; 32 the fifth power, &c. The 
upper line, therefore, contains the loga- 1 
rithms of the lower; and logarithmic 
tables furnish the decimals corresponding 
to the intermediate numbers in the lower 
line. A table of logarithms of all numbers, 
to a certain limit, made according to 
an assumed root, or base, is called a lo¬ 
garithmic system. The most common is 
that of Briggs, in which the base is 10; 1 
hence 1 is the logarithm of 10,2 of 100, 3 of 
1000, 4 of 10,000, &c.; and the logarithms of 
the intermediate numbers are of inter¬ 
mediate values. The use of logarithms in 
trigonometry was discovered by John j 
Napier, a Scottish baron, and made known 
by him in a work published at Edinburgh 
in 1614. Logarithmic tables are of great 
value, not only in trigonometry, astronomy, 
&c., but to all who have to make calculations 
with large numbers. For, to multiply num- 1 
bers, we add their logarithms; to divide 
them, we subtract their logarithms; to 
raise them to powers, we multiply their 
logarithms by the exponents of the powers; 
and to extract any roots, we divide their lo- j 
garithmsby the exponents of the roots. [See 
Exponent.] Logarithms belonging to any 
one system—that is, belonging to a system 
having any given base—may be changed 
into those of any other system by means of 
a constant factor. 

LO'GIC ( logikos, belonging to the reason : ! 
Gr.) has been variously defined. Whately 
says it is the science as well as the art of 
reasoning. John Mill defines it as the 
science of the operations of the under¬ 
standing, which are subservient to the es¬ 
timation of evidence; that it is both the !' 
process itself of proceeding from known 
truths to unknown, and all intellectual ope- 
rations auxiliary to this. Other writers re¬ 
strict logic within much narrower limits, 
and define it as the science of the necessary 
laws of thinking. In this last sense reason¬ 
ing is confined to what is termed ratioci¬ 
nation, a form of inference of which the ! 
syllogism is the general type. So under¬ 
stood, logic owes its first exposition to the 
master mind of Aristotle All syllogistic 
reasoning supposes two propositions, called 
premises— both expressed, or one expressed 
and the other understood—from which the 
conclusion to be arrived at is deduced. In 
many cases, it is evident that, if the pre- I 
mises be true, the conclusion drawn from 
them must be true also; but in many others 
the premises may be true, and yet the con¬ 
clusion be false. In the former there is 
but in the latter there is not, a necessary 
connection between the premises and the 









































425 Etterarj) 

conclusion. ‘Every mau is an animal; 
John is a man; therefore John is an 
animal,’ is _ correct reasoning. ‘ Every 
man is an animal; an angel is not a man; 
therefore an angel is not an animal,’ is in¬ 
correct reasoning: the conclusion may be 
true, but it does not follow from the pre¬ 
mises. This will be more evident from 
another example:—‘ Every man is an ani¬ 
mal ; a horse is not a man; therefore a 
horse is not an animal.’ Here the con¬ 
clusion is false, though it follows just as 
much from the premises as the former. 
Every proposition either affirms or denies 
something; hence propositions are either 
affirmative or negative. Every proposition 
either affirms or denies something regard¬ 
ing an entire class, or regarding some 
member or members of it; hence propo¬ 
sitions are either universal or 'particular. 
[See Exthymeme, Syllogism, &c.] 

LOGOG'RAPHY (logos, a word; and gra- 
plio, I write : Gr.), a mode of printing in 
which the types form whole words instead 
of letters. By this method, the process of 
composing would seem to proceed with 
more expedition and less liability to err. 
It has been used to a certain extent, but the 
plan never came into general use, and it 
has long since been abandoned altogether, 
from an idea that more time was lost than 
gained by it.-Also a system of report¬ 

ing, adopted during the French revolu¬ 
tion, and intended to supersede short-hand 
writing; but it was not found to answer so 
well. Twelve or fourteen reporters being 
seated round a table, the first took 
down the first three or four words, and 
touched his neighbour, who took down the 
next three or four words, and touched his 
neighbour, who did the same; and thus the 
process continued to go round until the 
speech was ended. When the slips were 
filled, and placed parallel to each other, they 
formed a page. 

LOG'OGRIPH (logos, a word ; and griphos, 
a fishing-net: Gr.), a kind of riddle, which 
consists in some elision or mutilation of 
words; being of a nature between an 
enigma and a rebus. 

LOG'WOOD, an important article of com¬ 
merce, much used in the arts, is derived 
from a low, crooked, prickly tree, found in 
great plenty at Campeacby, in the bay of 
Honduras, and denominated Hcematoxylon 
Campechianum, nat. order Leguminosce. It 
is very dense and firm in its texture, ex¬ 
ceedingly heavy, so as to sink in water, of 
a deep red colour, and capable of receiving 
a fine polish. It yields its colour both to 
spirituous and watery menstrua, but more 
readily to the former. Acids render its de¬ 
coction brighter and paler; alkalis give it 
a purplish or violet colour; the salts of 
iron make it a dark violet blue; gelatine 
forms with it a reddish precipitate. In 1857, 
39,568 tons were imported, the value of 
which was 23G.080Z. 

LOINS ( longe: Fr.), in Anatomy, the two 
lateral portions of the umbilical region of 
the abdomen; or the space on each side of 
the vertebrae, between the lowest of the 
false ribs and the upper part of the haunch- 
bone : called also the reins. 


^TrCrt^uri). [longitude 

-—— I 

LOL'LARDS ( lallen, to sing in a low 
murmuring tone; and the common affix 
hard; Ger.), a sect of early Reformers in 
Germany and England, the followers of 
Wickliffe. The name was originally given 
to a class of persons in Germany and the 
Netherlands, who, in the 14tli century, un¬ 
dertook spiritual offices in behalf of the sick 
and the dead, and were greatly beloved by 
the people, who had become alienated from 
the secular and regular clergy, on account 
of their indifference and neglect. 

LOM'BARDS, a name formerly given to 
bankers, because the people of Lombardy 
first followed this branch of commerce. 
Hence the name of Lombard Street, so long 
noted for its numerous banking houses. 

LOMENTA'CEiE, in Botany, a division of 
tho cruciferous order, formed of plants 
having seed-vessels, wdiich divide trans¬ 
versely into single seeded cells. 

LOMENT'UM (bean meal: Lat.), in Bo- ! 
tany, a legume which does not open at the 
sutures, but divides transversely into one- 
seeded portions, as in the genera Omitliopus 
and Coronilla. 

LON'DON CLAY, a member of the Lower ! 
Eocene formation, consisting of a very te- 1 
nacious clay, usually of a blueish-grey j 
colour. In the valley of the Thames it has j \ 
a maximum thickness of about 480 feet. It 
is supposed to have slowly accumulated at 
the bottom of a deep ocean, but in the ■ 
neighbourhood of land. The fossils bespeak 
a warm climate. They consist of the bones 
of elephants, reptiles, and fish, about 
150 species of shells, and many fruits and 
seeds. A large part of London, both north 
and south of the river, is built upon this 
clay. It composes the greater part of j 
Highgate Hill, and Shooters Hill. 

LONGEV'ITY ( longcevus , aged: Lat.), j 
length or duration of life ; generally de- j 
signating great length of life. Confining 
ourselves to modern times, the evidence in j 
support of statements as to extraordinary 
length of life is scanty. Henry Jenkins is 
said to have lived to the age of 169 years, 
the Countess of Desmond to 148, and Thomas 
Parr to 152. Dr. Van Oven has given seven¬ 
teen instances of lives alleged to exceed 150 
years. Physiologists have often speculated > 
upon the possibility of extending the span of 1 
human existence much beyond the present 
average.andithasbeen confidently asserted 
that one hundred years is the natural ex tent 
of the life of man. Presuming a healthy 
constitution to begin with, and the non- ! 
occurrence of injurious accidents, four 
general conditions are required to the at¬ 
tainment of long life, viz. good air, to oxy¬ 
genate the blood; a sufficient amount of 
aliment to supply waste, but not more than 
is needed; and a proper amount of exercise 
for body and mind. 

LONGIM'ETRY (longus, long: Lat. ; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), the art of measur¬ 
ing lengths or distances, both accessible 
and inaccessible. 

LON'GITUDE ( longitudo , length : Lat.), 
in Geography, the distance in degrees of 
any place from a first meridian, as that of 
Greenwich, taken east or west. These de¬ 
grees diminish in actual length as the pole 


























£ONG-PRIMEr] 


Clje Jrctcuttftc antf 


[26 


is approached , a degree of longitude at the 
equator being 69 - l miles; at latitude 10° 
but 68-1; at 20° but 65*0 ; at 40° but 53*05 ; at 
50° but 44'54 ; and at GO 0 but 34*66, &c. The 
British parliament, in 1714, offered a reward 
of 20,0001. for an accurate method of finding 
the longitude at sea, within one-half of a 
degree; but this act was repealed in 1828. 
Chronometers are now made with extraor¬ 
dinary accuracy, and have sometimes been 
used for the determination of longitude 
upon land, as well as at sea, with great suc¬ 
cess ; but, nevertheless, astronomical ob¬ 
servations furnish the most exact methods 
of obtaining it.- Longitude, in Astro¬ 

nomy, an arc of the ecliptic intercepted be¬ 
tween the beginning of Aries and the point 
of the ecliptic cut by the circle of longitude 
belonging to any star. The longitude of a 
starisfound bymeans of its right ascension 
and declination. 

LONG-PRIM'ER, the name of a printing 
type, somewhat larger than is generally 
U3ed for a newspaper, being between bour¬ 
geois and small-pica. 

LONICE'RA, in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. Caprifoliacccr., including some of 
the species of honeysuckle. The wild Eng¬ 
lish species of honeysuckle, however,belong 
to the genus Caprifolium. The Lonicera 
grata, or evergreen honeysuckle, is the 
most beautiful of that genus: it grows 
without any culture in North America ; 
and has strong branches, covered with a 
purple bark, which ai*e ornamented with 
bright green leaves embracing the stalks, 
and continuing their verdure all the year. 
The floAvers are powerfully aromatic ; they 
first appear in June, and then, in a constant 
succession, till the frost commences. 

LOOK'ING-GLASS. [See MIRROR.] 

LOOM, a frame of Avood or metal, by 
AA'hich the process of Aveaving is performed 
--The words loom (leoman, to loom, or ap¬ 
pear at sea : Sax.) and looming are also used 
to express Avhat avo understand by the term 
mirage. Thus, when a ship, seen at a dis¬ 
tance, appears larger than it really is, and 
indistinct, it is said she looms; of a moun¬ 
tain, under similar circumstances, it is said 
the land looms high. 

LOOM'-GALE, a gentle gale, in which a 
ship can carry her topsails atrip. 

LOOP'HOLES, in Fortification, small 
! holes in the walls of a castle, &c., through 

Avhich arrows Avere discharged.-In a 

ship, small apertures in the bulkhead, and 
other parts of a merchant ship, through 
which small arms are fired at an enemy. 

LORD (hlaford, a ruler : from hlaf, a loaf; 
and ford, to give : Sax.), a title of courtesy 
given to all British and Irish noblemen, 
from the baron upwards ; to the eldest sons 
of earls; to all the sons of marquises and 
dukes (see Courtesy Titles) ; and, as an 
honorary title, to certain official characters; 
as the lord mayor of London, the lord 
chamberlain of the king’s household, the 
lord chancellor, the lord chief justice, &c. 
Lord is also a general term, equivalent to 

peer . -Lord, in Law, one who possesses 

a fee or manor. This is the primitive mean¬ 
ing of the Avord; and it Avas in right of 
their fiefs that, originally, lords sat in 


parliament.-In Scripture, a name for the 

Supreme Being. When LORD, in the Old 
Testament, is printed in capitals, it is tlio 
translation of the HebreAv Avord for Jeho- 
a t aii. It is also applied to Christ, to the 
Holy Spirit, to kings, and to prophets. 

LORDS, House of, is composed of the 
peers of England, of Great Britain, and of 
the United Kingdom ; of the 16 representa¬ 
tive peers (but not the other peers) of 
Scotland; of the 28 representative peers 
(but not the other peers) of Ireland ; and 
of the lords spiritual, Avho consist of 2 
English archbishops and 24 bishops, and 4 
representative Irish bishops. Lord Redes- 
dale, Avriting of the peerage, describes that 
body first, as possessing individually titles 
of honour giving them respectively rank j 
and precedence; secondly, as being in¬ 
dividually hereditary counsellors of the 
crown; thirdly, as being collectively(toge- 
ther with the spiritual lords) Avhen not 
assembled in parliament, the permanent 
council of the croAvn ; fourthly, as being ■ 
also collectively (together Avith the spiritual . 
lords), when assembled in parliament, a ! 
court of judicature [see Appeal] ; and j 
fifthly, as having for a long time formed, 
Avith the Commons, when convened in 
parliament, the Legislative Assembly of 
the kingdom, by Avhose advice, consent, 
and authority, with the sanction of the 
CroAvn, all laws have been made. Thrco 
lords of parliament, whether spiritual or [ 
temporal, arc sufficient to constitute the 
house. 'The Lord Chancellor is ex officio 
speaker of the house, and takes his scat on 
the Avoolsack when the house is sitting. A 
peer cannot take his seat until he is 21 years : 
old, nor until he has taken certain oaths. 
In voting the peers say‘Content’or ‘Not - 
content.’ The House of Lords is the tri- i 
bunal for trying criminal charges against | 
peers, and the Lords then say ‘Guilty’or 
‘Not Guilty, on my honour.’ 

LORI'CA (a coat of mail: Lat.), in Roman 
Antiquity, a cuirass, brigandine, or coat of i 
mail, Avhich Avas made of leather, and set 
Avith plates of A'arious forms, or rings like 
a chain. 

LORICA'TION (same derive, the covering 
a glass or earthen vessel with a coat or 
crust of a matter capable of resisting the 
action of a strong fire and sustaining a 
high degree of heat. 

LOR'IMER ( lorimier: Fr.; from lorum, a 
thong : Lat.), in Archaeology, a name given 
formerly to those who made spurs, bits, 
and other articles of iron for horses. 

LO'ltY, the popular name of birds form¬ 
ing the sub-family, Loridce, of the parrot 
family. Red predominates in their plumage. 
Lories are docile and familiar; they very 
easily learn to speak, and are remarkable for 
their attachment to their owners. 

LOTION (lotio, a washing: Lat.), in 
Medicine and Pharmacy, a liquid intended 
for application to any external part of the 
body. 

LOTTERY (loos, a lot: Ger.), a scheme 
for the distribution of prizes by chance * o’* 
the distribution itself. The drawing of the 
first public lottery in England was on Jan. 
llth, 1569; and, according to StOAV, it con- 
































427 BXttcravii 

I tinued till the 6tli of May following. This 
took place at the w r est door of St. Paul’s 
| Cathedral, and the prizes consisted of a 
j large quantity of royal plate and trinkets, 

! the produce of which, it was stated, would 
he used‘for the reparation of the havens 
and strengths of the realm, and such other 
public good works ; ’ but the proceeds, it is 
believed, were notwithstanding applied to 
private purposes. Licenses for various 
kinds of lotteries were granted occasionally 
from that period, till at length * state lot¬ 
teries ’ became a source of revenue to the 
government; and by means of them, money 
was raised for the British Museum, West¬ 
minster bridge, &c. But the temptations 
thus thrown in the way of all descriptions 
of persons produced evidently demoraliz¬ 
ing eifects, and many reasons were urged 
In parliament for their discontinuance; till 
at last the evils resulting from this species 
of gambling became so palpable, that go¬ 
vernment consented to its abolition in 1826. 
Prom the very nature of a lottery, since 
those who establish it propose to make 
more or less by it, the prizes could not be 
equivalent to the cost of all the tickets. A 
person would, therefore, certainly lose who 
should buy them all; and the more he should 
buy, the greater would be his chance of loss. 
In every case, the risk must exceed the 
chance of success. 

j LOTUS (Lat.; from lotos: Gr.), a'shrub, 
! the fruit of which is a small farinaceous 
berry, of a delicious taste, which the na¬ 
tives of Africa make into a sweet cake.- 

The ancients gave the name to an herb and 
a tree, each differing from the plant to 
which we apply it. The herb is a species of 
Nelumbium; the tree lotus is supposed to 
be the Rhamnus Lotus. The former, which 
we are informed by Herodotus was a lily, 
abounding in the Nile, was that which was 
venerated by the Egyptians. It was also a sa¬ 
cred plant in India, where, from the mode of 
its vegetation, it was adopted as an emblem 
of fertility. The fruit is conjectured to be 
the bean which Pythagoras forbad his fol¬ 
lowers to eat. However, it is collected by 
the poor Egyptians, with whom it is an 
article of food. It was an ancient supersti¬ 
tion that if a stranger ate this fruit he 
straightway forgot his own country. 

LOUIS-D’OR, a French gold coin, which 
j received its name from Louis XIII., who 
| first coined it in 1641. The value of the 
old louis-d’or was 24 francs; that of the 
new louis, usually called a Napoleon, is 20 
francs 

LOUTS, St., Knigiits op, the name of a 
military order in France instituted by 
Louis XIV. in 1693. 

LOUSE, the name of certain parasitic 
insects belonging to the order Anopluha. 
They infest man and other animals. The 
species of the genus Pediculus have six legs, 
two eyes, and a suctorial mouth. 

LOUVItE, a palace at Paris measuring 576 
feet by 538 feet, enclosing a court 394 feet 
square. The oldest part was erected in the 
: time of Francis I., but the greatest portion 
of the existing edifice was built in the 
reign of Louis XIV., Perrault being the 
architect. It has been lately connected 


CreatfUtT}. [LUCIFER 


with the Tuileries, and the combined build¬ 
ings form the most splendid pile in Paris. 
In the Louvre are collections of paintings, 
and museums of Egyptian, Greek, and 
Latin antiquities. 

LOV'E-APPLE, or TOMATO, the fruit of 
the Solanum lycopersicum. It is so much 
esteemed by the Portuguese and Spaniards, 
that it is an ingredient in almost all their J 
soups and sauces, and is deemed cooling 
and nutritive. 

LOW'ER EM'PIRE, the Roman and East- ! 
ern empires, after the removal of the latter j 
to Constantinople; and the Eastern until j 
its fall. 

LOX'IA, in Ornithology, a genus of I 
conirostral passerine birds. The Locr.ia cur- 
virostra, or common cross-bill, is about the 
size of a lark. Its favourite food consists 1 
of the seeds of the pine; and pine woods 
are always its principal haunts. It has the 
habits of a parrot; and in North America it 
builds on the highest firs, attaching its 
nest to the trunk by means of the exuded 
resin. 

LOXODROM'IC CURVE ( loxos , oblique ; 
dromos, a course: Gr.). [See Rhumb.] 

LOZ'ENGE ( losancje : Fr.), in Geometry, a 
quadrilateral figure, having two opposite 
angles acute, and two opposite obtuse. 

-In Heraldry, the escutcheon which is 

used to contain the coats of arms of all 

maidens and widows.-In Pharmacy, a 

medicine made to be kept in the mouth, 
and which was originally in the form of a 
lozenge. 

LUB'BER’S HOLE ( lummel , a lubber : 
Ger.), in a ship, the vacant space between i 
the head of a lower mast and the edge of | 
the top. It is so termed from a supposi- | 
tion that a lubber (a contemptuous name 
for one who does not know a seaman’s | 
duty) will not like to trust himself up the 
futtock shrouds, but will prefer that way of 
getting into the top. 

LU'BRICATE ( lubrico , I make slippery: 
Lat.), a word often used in Medicine, signi- ; 
fying to make smooth or slippery. Th'us, j 
mucilaginous and saponaceous prepara- ; 
tions are said to lubricate the parts to 
which they are applied. It is also employed 
in engineering, to express the supplying of 
oil to machinery for the diminution of fric¬ 
tion. 

LU'CERN ( lucerne: Ger.), the Medicago 
sativa, a well-known leguminous plant, 
affording one of the artificial ‘ grasses ’ of 
the farmer. It w r as highly esteemed by the 
ancients; and is found by the moderns 
most effective in nourishing and fattening 
cattle. 

‘ LU'CIFER (lux, light; and fero, I bring: 
Lat.), the morning star; called when an 
evening star, Hesperus. These names are 
now used only in poetry. 

LU'CIFER MAT'CIIES. The matches used 
for the purpose of ignition by means of a 
flint and steel consisted of very small pieces 
of wood, the ends of which were coated with 
sulphur. As early as 1673, a bit of sulphur 
wrapped in paper, and ignited by friction, 
was sometimes used to set fire to the sul¬ 
phur match. But the earliest form of our 
present lucifers consisted in matches tipped 
































tJTTjc ‘g'rtrntt'ftc autf 428 


LTJCIFERIANS] 


j with a composition consisting of chlorate 
I of potash, sugar, gum, and a little ver¬ 
milion. When these were dipped into a 
small hottle containing sulphuric acid, they 
Instantaneously ignited. The first lucifer 
matches, properly so called, were tipped 
with a mixture containing chlorate of po¬ 
tash, sulphuret of antimony, and starch ; 
and were ignited by being drawn across 
sand-paper. Phosphorus was then substi¬ 
tuted for sulphuret of antimony, and nitre 
for chlorate of potash; which produced 
quiet ignition instead of detonation ; and 
either no sulphur, or very little, was em- 
■ ployed. The wood was split into very fine 
pieces by machinery; and wax taper, touch- 
paper, &c„ were substituted in some in¬ 
stances for wood. The manufacture is, at 
present, carried on in England and Germany 
on a very large scale. The use of phos¬ 
phorus is very injurious to the workmen, 
as it causes a most horrible disease of the 
jaws, which ends in total loss of the bone. 
This would be entirely prevented by em¬ 
ploying amorphous phosphorus, which an¬ 
swers admirably for the purpose. 

| LUCIFE'RIANS, in Ecclesiastical His- 
l tory, the followers of Lucifer, bishop of 
Cagliari, in the 4th century; a sect which 
I maintained the carnal nature of the soul, 
j and that there is no place for repentance 
I for such as fall. 

LUCIM'ETER (lux, light: Lat.; and 
I metron, a measure: Gr.), an apparatus for 
measuring the intensity of light proceeding 
from different bodies. 

LUCUL'LITE, in Mineralogy, a black 
limestone, often polished for ornamental 
purposes, and said to have been first used 
by Lucullus, the Roman consul. 

LU'DI (Lat.), in Antiquity, public exhi¬ 
bitions among the Greeks and Romans for 
the display of skill and the entertainment 
of the people. [See Games.] 

LUFF (luft, the wind : Sax.), the foremost 

edge, or leach, of a fore and aft sail.- Keep 

your Luff! in Navigation, an order to the 
helmsman to put the tiller on the lee-side, 
for the purpose of making the ship sail 
nearer to the wind. A ship is said to spring 
her luff, when she yields to the helm by sail¬ 
ing nearer to the wind.- Luff round! the 

order to throw the ship’s head up in the 

wind.- Luff-tackle, a large tackle not 

destined for any particular place in the 
ship, but moveable at pleasure. 

LUG'GER, a vessel carrying three masts, 
with a running bowsprit, upon which she 
sets lug-sails, and sometimes has topsails 

adapted to them.- Lug-sail, a square 

sail bent upon a yard that hangs obliquely 
to the mast at about one fourth of its 
length. 

LUKE, St., Gospel of, a canonical book 
of the New Testament, distinguished for 
fulness, accuracy, and traces of extensive 
information. Some think it was properly 
St. Paul’s, and that when the apostle speaks 
of his gospel, he means what is called St. 
Luke’s. Irenmus says that St. Luke digested 
into writing what St. Paul preached to the 
gentiles; and Gregory Nazianzen tells us 
that St. Luke wrote w‘tli the assistance of 
j St. Paul. 


LUMBA'GO (Lat.; from lumhus, the loin : 
Lat.), in Medicine, a rheumatic affection of 
the muscles about the loins. 

LUM'BAR RE'GION (same deriv.), in 
Anatomy, the posterior portion of the body, 
between the false ribs and the upper edge of 
the haunch-bone. 

LUM'BRICAL MUS'CLES (from next), in 
Anatomy, certain muscles of the fingers 
and toes, so named from their resembling a 
worm. 

LUM'BRICUS (lumbricus, an intestinal 
worm : Lat.), a genus of worms, of which 
the earth-worm is the type. This is some- j 
times nearly a foot in length, and is com¬ 
posed of upwards of 120 rings. The species 
is very abundant, and their castings consti¬ 
tute a rich soil. 

LUMP'-FISH, or LUMPSUCKER, the Cy- 
clopterus Lumpus, a thick fish having the ! 
back sharp and elevated; the belly flat, and 
of a crimson colour; and along the body five 
rows of sharp bony tubercles. The lump¬ 
fish swims edgewise, and is enabled to ad¬ 
here with great force to any substance to 
which it attaches itself. It is frequently j 
taken on the British coasts. 

LU'NACY (luna, the moon: Lat.), the I 
condition of an insane person who has lucid 
intervals; it was formerly supposed to de¬ 
pend on phases of the moon.-In Law, it 

includes all who are affected with any spe¬ 
cies of insanity supervening since birth ; 
those born without reason being idiots. The 
sovereign is supposed to have the custody j 
of idiots and lunatics, which he delegates to 
the keeper of the great seal, to whom appli¬ 
cations for commissions of lunacy are di- j 
rected. Lunatics are maintained by an 
allowance out of their own estate; or when 
they have none, in public asylums. If a 
criminal is acquitted of a crime, on ac- j 
count of his being insane at the time of 
its commission, he is committed to public 
custody. 

LU'NAR CAUS'TIC, in Chemistry, nitrate 
of silver fused at a low heat. 

LU'NAR DISTANCE, in Astronomy, the 
angular distance between the apparent 
centres of the moon and certain heavenly 
bodies, such as they would appear to an ob¬ 
server at the centre of the earth. 

LU'NAR MONTH, the time required by 
the moon to complete a revolution about 
the earth, and return to the same rosition 
relatively to some celestial body, or point 
in space, with which her motion is com¬ 
pared. The proper lunar month is thesame 
as the lunation, or synodic month, and is the 
time which elapses between two consecu¬ 
tive new or full moons. The periodic or 
synodic month is the revolution with re¬ 
spect to the moveable equinox, and consists 
of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2 - 84 seconds. 
The anomalistic month is the time in I 
which the moon returns to the same point 
of her moveable elliptic orbit: its length is 
27 days, 13 hours, 18 minutes, 37'4 seconds. 
The sidereal month is the interval between 
two successive conjunctions with the same 
fixed star: its length is 27 days, 7 hours, 
43 minutes, 11-54 seconds. The nodical 
month is the time in which the moon 
makes a revolution with respect to her 






















429 Ettcravy 


nodes, the line of which is moveable : its 
I length is 27 days, 5 hours, 5 minutes, 36'6 
I seconds. These mean motions are subject 
to periodic and secular variations. 

LU'NAR YEAR. [See Calendar.] 

LUNA'TION, the time in which the moon 
passes through all her phases. 

LUNE, or LUNU'LE (Luna, the moon ; or 
lunula, a little moon : Lat.), in Geometry, a 
plane in the form of a crescent or half¬ 
moon, enclosed by the circumferences of 
two circles that intersect each other. 

LUNETT'E ( Fr.), in Architecture, an 
aperture for the admission of light in a con¬ 
cave ceiling, as the upper lights of the 
naves of St. Peter’s at Rome, and St. Paul’s 
in London.-In Fortification, an enve¬ 

loped counterguard, or elevation of earth 
made beyond the second ditch ; or a covered 
place before the curtain, consisting of two 
faces that form an angle inwards. 

LUNGS ( lunge: Ger.), in Anatomy, two 
viscera situated in the chest, by means of 
which our blood is oxygenated. The sub¬ 
stance of the lungs is of four kinds, viz. 
I* vesicular, vascular, bronchial, and parenchy¬ 
matous. The vesicular substance is com¬ 
posed of the air-cells ; the vascular invests 
those cells like a network ; the bronchial is 
formed by the ramifications of the bronchia 
I throughout the lungs, having the air-cells 
i at their extremities ; and the spongy sub¬ 
stance that connects these parts is termed 
the parenchyma. To the touch they are soft 
and elastic ; and of all the organs, they have 
the least specific gravity. Their aii'-cells 
expose a very large surface for the purifica¬ 
tion of the blood, by means of the oxygen 
of the air, which is not prevented, by the 
interposition of their membranous cover¬ 
ings from uniting with the carbon of the 
blood. 

LUNIS'TICE (Luna, the moon ; and sto, I 
stand : Lat.), in Astronomy, the farthest 
point of the moon’s northing and southing, 
in her monthly revolutions. 

| LU'NULAR, or LU'NULATE (Luna, the 
moon : Lat.), in Botany, resembling a cres¬ 
cent : shaped like the new moon, 
i LU'PINE ( lupinus : Lat.), in Botany, a 
genus of leguminous plants, chiefly annuals, 
bearing digitate leaves and papilionaceous 
flowers, which are usually disposed in a 
terminal raceme. The legumes of some 
species are used as food. 

LU'PULIN (lupulus, the hop : Mod.Lat.), 
the fine yellow powder of hops. It has a 
penetrating aromatic odour, and is found 
to consist of minute resinous grains, which 
attach themselves to the fingers and render 
them rough. 

LU'PUS (a wolf: Lat.), in Astronomy, 
the Wolf, a constellation of the southern 
hemisphere. 

LURCH'ER ( lurcor, I eat voraciously: 
Lat.), a variety of the Cants familiaris, a dog 
more used by poachers than sportsmen, 
having a narrow body, stout legs, straight 
tail, and long rough hair. 

LU'SIAD, The, is the only Portuguese 
poem that has gained a European celebrity. 
It was written by Luiz de Camoens, who 
died in 1579, the first edition having ap¬ 
peared seven years previously. It was en¬ 


Crratfurg. [lutiieranism 


titled Os Lusiadas, the Lusitanians, that is, 
the Portuguese, the subject being: the con¬ 
quests of that nation in India. It is divided 
into ten cantos, containing 1102 stanzas, in 
ottavarima. The voyage of Vasco de Gama 
is described, and his proceedings in India. 
Three cantos are taken up with an account 
of Europe, Portugal, and the deeds of the 
Portuguese monarchs, supposed to be relat¬ 
ed by Be Gama to an Iudianking. The gods 
of the ancient mythology are introduced, 
aiding or opposing his designs, whilst he 
addresses his prayers to the God of the 
Christians. Nereids and syrens are intro¬ 
duced, whilst in other passages we have the 
Roman Catholic worship of the Virgin—so 
confused and unintelligible is the superna¬ 
tural element of the poem. It has been 
translated into English, and into several 
other European languages, but it has never 
been popular out of Portugal. 

LUSTRA'TION ( lustratio, from Instro, I 
purify, Lat.), in Antiquity, a ceremony of 
purification which the Romans performed 
on their fields, armies, and people, at vari¬ 
ous times, but particularly after the num¬ 
bering of the people by the census every 
lustrum, or five years. 

LUS'TltE ( Fr.), a term very generally 
used in modern works on mineralogy. The 
lustre of minerals is of five kinds: 1. splen¬ 
dent, that is, when in full daylight, it can 
be seen at a great distance ; 2. shining, when 
at a distance the reflected light is w r eak; 3. | 
glistening, when the lustre is only observa- I 
ble at no greater distance than an arm’s 
length ; 4. glimmering, when the surface 
held near the eye in full daylight presents a 
number of shining points; 5. dull, when the 
surface has no brilliancy. 

LUS'TRUM {Lat., strictly speaking, a 
purification of the people after the com¬ 
pletion of a census), in Roman Antiquity, a 
general muster and review of all the citi¬ 
zens and their goods, which was performed 
by the censors every fifth year, and followed 
by a solemn lustration. In course of time the 
lustra were not celebrated so often, for we 
find the fifth lustrum celebrated at Rome 
only in the 574th year of that city. 

LU'SUS NATUTLE (a freak of nature: 
Lat.), something out of the ordinary course 
of nature. 

LUTE {liutio: Ital.), a stringed instrument 
of music, containing at first only five 
strings, to which were afterwards added 
six more. It was formerly much used. The 
strings are struck with the right hand, and 
the stops are pressed with the left. 

LUTE, or LU'TING (lutum, clay: Lat.), 
in Chemistry, a paste, made of potters 
clay, sand, and other materials,and used for 
closing up the necks of retorts, receivers, 
&c., in chemical experiments. 

LU'THERANISM, the doctrines of Mar¬ 
tin Luther, the German reformer, which 
constitute the creed «f nearly all the Pro¬ 
testants in Germany. Luther was an Au¬ 
gustine friar, who separated from the 
church of Rome about the year 1515, and 
took the lead in the reformation. He held 
consubstantiation [which see]; usedw r afers 
in the administration of the Lord’s Supper; 
allowed images in churches*' encouraged 

























luxation] 


(53 )t ^ctrnttftc nntf 


430 


private confession of sins; insisted on jus- i 
tiflcation by faith alone; held that God, I 
foreseeing man’s actions, predestined him 
to happiness or misery according as they 
were good or bad—a doctrine which differs 
from that of Calvin, who maintained that 
God predestined man by his own mere will. 
The Lutherans of the present day consider 
themselves at liberty to dissent from these 
tenets, as they are answerable to God alone 
for their religious opinions. 

LUXATION ( luxatio , from luxo, I dislo¬ 
cate : Lat.), in Surgery, the dislocation of a 
bone from its proper cavity or articula¬ 
tion, so as to impede or destroy its motion 
or office. 

LUX'UItY ( luxuria: Lat.), an unrestrain¬ 
ed indulgence in the pleasures of the table, 
in costly dress, equipage, &c. Amongst the 
Romans, luxury prevailed to such an extent 
that several laws were made to suppress, or 
i at least to limit it. Apicius laid aside ninety 
millions of sesterces, besides an enormous 
! revenue, for no other purpose than to be 
j sacrificed to luxury ; finding himself involv- 
1 ed in debt, be looked over his accounts, and 
though he had the sum of ten millions of 
6esterc.es still left, he poisoned himself for 
fear of being starved to death. Instances 
might be adduced of great luxury amongst 
the Greeks; but the extravagance and 
luxury of both Greeks and Romans appear 
to be eclipsed by some of our own country. 
One instance of this kind will suffice. In 
the 10th year of the reign of Edward IY. 
(1-170), George Nevill, brother to the earl of 
Warwick, at his instalment into the arcliie- 
piscopal see of York, entertained most of 
the nobility and principal clergy, when his 
bill of fare was 300 quarters of wheat, 350 
tuns of ale, 104 tuns of wine, a pipe of spiced 
wine, 80 fat oxen, 6 wild bulls, 1004 wethers, 
300 hogs, 300 calves, 3000 geese,3000 capons, 
300 pigs, 100 peacocks, 200 cranes, 200 kids, 
2000 chickens, 4000 pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 
204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 200 pheasants, 500 
partridges, 2000 woodcocks, 400 plovers, 
100 curlews, 100 quails, 1000 egrets, 200 rees, 
400 bucks, does, and roebucks, 1500 hot 
venison pasties, 4000 cold ditto, 1000 dishes 
of jelly parted, 4000 dishes of jelly plain, 
4000 cold custards, 2000 hot custards, 300 
pikes, 300 breams, 8 seals, 4 porpoises, and 
400 tarts. At this feast the earl of Warwick 
was steward, the earl of Bedford treasurer, 
and Lord Hastings comptroller, with many 
more noble officers ; there were 1000 servi¬ 
tors, 62 cooks, and 515 menial apparitors in 
the kitchen. But it must not escape our 
observation, that, after his extreme prodi¬ 
gality, this man died in the most abject but 
unpitied poverty 

LYCAN'THROPY (lukos, a wolf; and an- 
thrupos, a man : Gr.). In ancient times, men 
were supposed, for certain periods, to be 
transformed by her^s into wolves. This 
superstition was continued down to a 
more recent period, but the transformation 
was attributed to sorcery. These supposed 
human wolves were called by the French 
loups-garous; by the Saxons, were-wolves; and 
by the Germans, wehrwSlfe: all the terms 
having the same meaning. The prevalence 
of such foolish ideas among the peasantry 


gave rise to the species of madness termed 
lycanthropy, in which the patient believed 
himself to be a wolf, and imitated the actions 
of that animal. This species of insanity 
seems to have vanished with the supersti¬ 
tion which gave rise to it. 

LYCEUM (Lulceion, a famous gymnasium 
at Athens: Gr.), in Grecian Antiquity, an 
academy situated upon the banks of the 
Ilissus at Athens, near the temple of Apollo 
Lyceus. It contained porticos and prome¬ 
nades, where Aristotle taught philosophy, 
From their walking there every day till the 
hour of anointing, he and his followers were 
called peripatetics. 

LY'CIUM (the box-tliorn : Lat.), in Botany, 
a genus of plants, nat.ord .Rhamnacece. The 
species are shrubs, and consist of the dif¬ 
ferent varieties of box-thorn. 

LYCOPO'DIUM (lukos, a wolf; and pous, 
a foot: Gr.—from the shape of its extreme 
branches), or Club Moss, a genus of crypto- 
gamic plants allied to the ferns, the spores 
, of which, when ignited, burn off in a flash. 
They are used in melodramatic pieces, &c., 

nt - tViP t.Vipo 1"!*pc5 

LYCOP'SIS ('bugloss : Lat.; from lukos, a 
wolf; and opsis, an appearance: Gr.— on ac- 
1 count of the flowers having the appearance 
! of a grinning mouth), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Boraginacecc. The species 
are annuals, consisting of various kinds of 
i bugloss. 

LYD'IAN MOOD, in Music, a term given 
to an effeminate kind of music, used first by 
the Lydians. 

LYD'IUS LA'PTS, or LYD'IAN STONE, in 
Mineralogy, a stone of a greyish-black 
| colour, which is found in Bohemia and 
other parts of Germany, and also in Scot- 
: land. When polished, it is used as atouch- 
! stone for determining the purity of gold 
1 and silver. It was used for that purpose 
among the ancients, from whom it received 
this name, because it was found only in 
the Tmolus, a river of Lydia. 

LYMPH ( lympha , water: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a colourless fluid, or clear limpid 
secretion from the blood, which is carried by 
the lymphatic vessels into the thoracic 
duct, where it mixes with the chyle. Its 
constituents appear to be albuminous water 
and a little salt. 

LYMPIIAT'ICS (samedmt;.), in Anatomy, 
absorbent vessels, which carry the lymph 
from all parts of the body, and terminate 
in the thoracic duct. 

LYNX ( lunx: Gr ), a cat-like animal be¬ 
longing to the tribe of Felidce. There are 
several species, besides the European one. 
They form the genus Lyncus of zoologists, 
and are recognizable by the tufts of hair at 
the tips of the ears. The caracal and chaus 
of Asia, and the wild cat of the Canadians, 
are lynxes. The last is said to be extremely 
fond of odours, particularly that of casto- 
reum, and this is frequently employed for 
its capture by the trappers. The lynx was 
said to be sacred to Bacchus, whose chariot 
was fabled to be drawn by it, but it seems 
probable that the panther was intended to 

be designated.- Lynxes, Academy of 

(Academia dei Lined), Rome, the oldest 
scientific body in Europe. The allusion of 
































431 


Etterari? 


[maceration 


the name is to the watchfulness and keen- 
Bightedness of the lynx. Galileo was one of 

the founders. 

LY'RA (Lat.), in Astronomy, a constella¬ 
tion in the northern hemisphere.-In 

Anatomy, a portion of the brain, haying 
somewhat the appearance of a lyre. 

LY'RATE, or LY'RATED (next), in Bo¬ 
tany, an epithet for a leaf that is divided 
transversely into several rounded lobes, 
the lower ones smaller and more remote 
from each other than the upper, and the last 
large and rounded. 

LYRE (lyra: Lat.; from lura: Gr.), a 
musical instrument of great antiquity, used 
by the Egyptians and Greeks. It is supposed 
to have had, at flrst, only three strings; 
afterwards it had eleven. It was played 
with a plectrum, or stick of ivory or pol¬ 


ished wood, and sometimes with the fingers. 
The lyre is attributed by poets, painters, 
and statuaries, to Apollo and the Muses. It 
is said to have been originally formed of a 
tortoise-shell, whence it is sometimes called 
testudo. 

LYR'IG ( lyricus , pertaining to the lyre : 
Lat.), an epithet originally applied to what 
was sung or recited with an accompaniment 
on the lyre, but it is now applied to odes, 
ballads, and other verses, such as may be 
set to music. Lyric poetry was originally 
employed in celebrating the praises of gods 
and heroes, and its characteristic was 
sweetness. It was much cultivated by the 
Greeks, particularly by Anacreon, Alcaeus, 
and Sappho; but, among the Romans, 
Horace was the first and principal lyric 
poet. 


M 


M, the thirteenth letter of the English 
alphabet, is a liquid and labial consonant, 
pronounced by closing the lips. It is some¬ 
times called a semi-vowel, as the compression 
of the lips is accompanied with a humming 
sound through the nose. It was used by 
the Romans as an abbreviation for Marcus, 
Manlius, Martius, &c., and to denote 1000, 
for which, also, it is employed by the 
moderns. We use it as an abbreviation for 
Magister, as A.M. Artium Magister (Master 
of Arts); Medicince, as M.D. Medicince Doctor 
(Doctor of Medicine); Mundi, as A.M. Anno 
Mundi (in the year of the world); Meridiem, 
as A.M. Ante Meridiem (before midday or 
noon), and P.M. Post Meridiem (afternoon). 
M3, stands for Manuscript, and MSS. for 
Manuscripts. In medical prescriptions, M. 
stands for Manipulus, a handful; and some¬ 
times for Misce (mix) and Mistura (a mix¬ 
ture). The French use M. for Monsieur, and 
MM. for Messieurs. 

MAB, In northern Mythology, the queen 
of the imaginary beings called fairies ; so 
fancifully described by the sportive imagi¬ 
nation of Shakspeare, in Romeo and Juliet. 

MAC, an Irish and Scotch word, signify¬ 
ing a son, frequently prefixed to the begin¬ 
ning of surnames, as Macdonald or M‘Do- 
nald. It is synonymous with theF’itzof the 
Normans, and son of the English. 

MACAD'AMIZING, a method of making 
roads, flrst generally introduced by Mr. Mac 
Adam. It consists in breaking the stones 
so small that they may form with the earth 
a solid smooth mass. 

MACARO'NI or MACCARO'NI (Ital.). In 
Commerce, it is known as Genoese paste, 
and is in a tubular or pipe form, of the 
thickness of goose-quills. It is a favourite 
article of food with the Italians, especially 

the Neapolitans.-A term of contempt for 

a fop or coxcomb. 

MACARON'IC or MACARO'NIAN (last), 
an appellation given to a burlesque kind of 


poetry, made up of a jumble of words of 
different languages, of Latin words mo¬ 
dernized, or of native words ending in 
Latin terminations. 

MACAW', the name of birds belonging to 
the sub-family, Araince, of the parrot family. 
They are distinguished by having tails 
longer than their bodies, and by their strong 
beaks being hooked at the point. 

MAC'CABEES, two apocryphal books of 
Scripture, containing the history of Judas 
and his brothers, and their wars against 
the Syrian kings in defence of their religion 
and liberties. The first book of the Macca¬ 
bees, as a history, comes nearest to the 
style of the sacred historians. The second 
begins with two epistles sent from the Jews 
of Jerusalem to the Jews of Egypt and 
Alexandria, to exhort them to observe the 
feast of the dedication of the new altar 
erected by Judas on his purifying the tem¬ 
ple. The Jews never considered either of 
these to be canonical; they are, however, 
on the canon of the Roman Catholic church. 
There are two other books of the Maccabees 
which have never been considered as ca¬ 
nonical by any church. 

MACE ( masse: Fr.; from macis: Lat.), a 
thin coat called by botanists an arillus, 
covering the nutmeg, which is the nut or 
stone of a tropical tree, the Myristica offici¬ 
nalis. It is of an oleaginous nature and a 
yellowish colour, in flakes of an inch and 
more in length, which are divided into a 
multitude of ramifications. It is extremely 
fragrant, and of an aromatic and agreeable 

flavour.- Mace {masse, a lump : Fr.), an 

ornamented staff, borne as an ensign of 
office before a magistrate. Originally the 
mace was a club or instrument of war, made 
of iron, and much used by cavalry. 

MACERA'TION {maceratio, from raacero, 
I make soft by steeping: Lat.), in Chemis¬ 
try, the process by which the constituents 
of bodies are obtained, bv soaking them 




























machiavklism] z\)t Jrctcitttffc autf 432 

in fluids. It differs from digestion only as 
the latter operation admits the application 
; of heat. 

MACH'IAVELTSM, the principles incul¬ 
cated hy Machiavelli, an Italian writer, se¬ 
cretary and historiographer to the republic 
of Florence. The term is used to denote 
political cunning and artifice, intended to 
forward arbitrary power. ‘Del Principe,’ 
the work in which he recommends rulers to 
adopt the ways both of the lion and the fox, 

! was written for the private perusal of the 
Medicis, and was not published until 1532, 
after the author’s death, 
t MACHICOLA'TION ( mache, something 
that catches fire ; and colder, to drop down : 
Fr.), in Gothic and castellated Architecture, 
a parapet projecting beyond the face of the 
walls, and supported by arches springing 
from large corbels or consoles. The aper¬ 
tures between the arches and the walls 
were used for pouring down boiling water, 
melted lead, &c., upon the assailants. 

| MAOHI'NE ( mSchane : Gr.). All machines 

1 are intended either to transmit or modify 
i pow r er : no combination of mechanical 
i elements can produce it ; on the contrary, 
the most perfect must destroy more or less 
of it by friction and inertia. The objects of 
machinery are to change mass into velocity, 
and vice versa; to change the direction of a 
force; to change its nature by transform¬ 
ing it; for example, from a reciprocating 
rectilinear into a rotatory, and viceversd; 
to distribute a vast power, such as that of 
a great steam-engine, in a multiplicity of 
channels, and render it capable of produc¬ 
ing the most delicate effects, as in the 
cotton'manufacture, &c. Among the ex¬ 
traordinary capabilities of machinery is the 
production of some effects which human 
art, unaided by machinery, could never 
achieve. For instance, the same power 
which twists the stoutest cable, and weaves 
the coarsest canvass may be employed, 
with equal advantage, in spinning the gos¬ 
samer thread of cotton, and entwining, with 
fairy fingers, the meshes of the most deli¬ 
cate fabric. 

MACK'EREL ( makrele: Ger.), inlchthyo- 
j logy, the Scomber Scomber, a well-known 
i migratory fish, esteemed as an article of 
food, and possessing, when alive, great 
symmetry of form and brilliancy of co¬ 
lours. The mackerel is easily taken by a 
variety of baits, and always most easily 
during a gentle breeze, which is hence 
termed a mackerel-breeze. 

MAC'LE, in Mineralogy, a name given to 
chiastolite, or hollow spar. It consists 
chiefly of silica and alumina, with a little 
oxide of iron. 

MACLUR'ITE, a mineral, called after 
Maciure. It is a silicate of magnesia, with 
traces of potash, oxide of iron, and fluo¬ 
rine, and is imperfectly crystalline. Its 
colour is a brilliant pale green. 

MAO'ROCOSM {makros, large ; and kos- 
mos, the world : Gr.), the universe, or the 
visible system of worlds ; opposed to mi¬ 
crocosm, or the world of man. 

MACROSCEL'IS ( makros , long ; and 
skelos, a leg : Gr.), a genus of insectivorous 
mammals, allied to the moles and urchins. 

They are natives of Africa, possess long 
noses, and long hind legs. The elephant 
shrew of Algeria is the best known species. 

MAC'ULiE ( Lat .), dark spots appearing 
on the luminous faces of the sun, moon, j 
and even some of the planets. Sir W. j 
Herschel supposed a luminous stratum to 
be sustained far above the level of the sun 
by a transparent elastic medium in which 
clouds float, and that some portions of the 
luminous stratum, and even of the clouds 
which would reflect a part of the light, are 
in certain instances removed by local agi¬ 
tations, &c., so as to produce these spots. 
The lunar spots are caused by shadows of 
its mountains, by vast caverns, and the 
unequally reflecting materials of w'hich 
portions of it are composed. The planets 
have permanent spots in the shape of belts, 
&c. The diurnal revolutions of the sun 
and planets have been discovered by means 

of their spots.- Macula, in Medicine, 

any discolorations in the surface of the 
body, or its different parts, which appear in 1 
the form of spots. 

MAD'DER Imadere: Sax.), the root of the 
Rubia tinctorum, or dyer’s madder : a most i 
important article, on account of the fine 
red colour it affords. It was undoubtedly 
known to the ancients. The madder plant 
has no pretensions to beauty ; it externally 
resembles the bed-straws, to which it is 
allied. The root is the only part generally 
used, though the East Indian munjeet con¬ 
sists entirely of stalks, but it is very in¬ 
ferior. Its dye-stuff is extracted by water. 
The dye is of a complicated character, but 
its chief ingredients are Alizarine and Par- 
purine. The infusion is of a dirty red 
colour, but it is rendered bright and per¬ 
manent by an aluminous mordant. Madder 
can be imported more profitably than it 
can be cultivated in England; it thrives 
best in a warm climate. 

MAD'NESS ( maad, distracted in mind : 
Sax.), a dreadful kind of delirium, without 
fever, in which the patient raves or is 
furious. Melancholy and madness may be 
considered as diseases nearly allied. They 
differ only in degree, and with respect to 
the time of appearing: melancholy being 
the primary disease, of which madness is 
the complement. Both these disorders in¬ 
dicate a weakness of the brain, which may 
proceed from an hereditary predisposition; 
from violent disorders of the mind, es¬ 
pecially long-continued grief, sadness, 
anxiety, dread, and terror; from close 
study, and intense application to one sub¬ 
ject ; from the use of narcotic and stupe¬ 
fying drugs : and from great excess or un¬ 
curbed indulgence in any passion or emo¬ 
tion. The treatment of madness is partly 
physical, partly mental. The leading indi¬ 
cations under the first head are:—To di¬ 
minish vascular or nervous excitement 
when excessive, as in mania ; to increase 
them when defective, as in melancholia. In 
the mental treatment, it is necessary to in¬ 
spire the unhappy victims with a certain 
degree of awe, from a conviction of su¬ 
perior power, and at the same time seek to 
gain their confidence by steadiness and hu¬ 
manity, while we endeavour to amuse them 



























483 


Ettcm-ii Ertasttm. 


[magna 


without making our design apparent. In 
former times, persons labouring under this 
fearful malady were subjected to every kind 
of inhumanity, as necessary for their cure 
or management; the enlightenment of 
modern times has put an end to this treat¬ 
ment, and the protection of the legislature 
has been specially extended to them. 

MADON'NA (my lady : Hal.), a term ap¬ 
plied in Italy to the Virgin, and hence to 
her pictures and statues. 

MAD'REPORE (madrH, spotted : Fr.; and 
poms, a pore: Lat.), the popular name of 
numerous tropical corals, none of which are 
hard enough to take a polish. The ‘ Brain 
Stone ’ is a madrepore. 

MAD'RIGAL ( Fr .), in Italian, Spanish, 
and French poetry, a short amorous 
poem, composed of a number of free and 
unequal verses, confined neither to the re- 
■ gularity of the sonnet, nor to the subtlety 
of the epigram, but containing some tender 
and delicate thought. 

MAESTO'SO, in Music, an Italian word 
signifying majestic, and used as a direction 
to play the part slowly, and with grandeur. 

MAGAZI'NE ( magasin: Fr.), in Com¬ 
merce, a warehouse for all sorts of mer¬ 
chandise.-—In Literature, a periodical 
work containing miscellaneous matter. The 
earliest publication of this kind in England 
was the Gentleman's Magazine, which first 
appeared in 1731, and still flourishes.—-—In 
Military affairs, a store-house for arms, 
ammunition, or provisions. 

| MAGELLANTC CLOUDS, in Astronomy, 
three whitish cloud-like patches in the 
heavens near the south pole. They take 
their name from Magellan (or rather Ma- 
galhaens) the Portuguese navigator. They 
consist partly of large tracts and ill-defined 
patches of irresolvable nebulm, nebulosity 
of every degree of resolvability, and per¬ 
fectly ascertained stars, and partly of regu¬ 
lar and irregular nebulae, properly so called, 
globular clusters of various degrees of re- 
solvability, and clustering groups. The 
larger one, which is four times the size of 
I the other, contains altogether 919 stars, 
nebulae, and clusters. These objects are of 
great complexity in their details. They are 
regarded as systems sui juris, and have 
nothing analagous in our hemisphere. 

MAGGIO'RE, in Music, an Italian epithet 
signifying greater. 

MAG'GOT imagtlie: Sax.), the larva of the 
I common blow-fly, hatched from the eggs in 
a few hours. On its changing to a pupa, 
the skin dries round it, and in ten days the 
fly emerges. , . 

- MAG'IC ( mageia: Gr.), properly signifies 
the doctrine of the Magi; but the latter 
being supposed to have acquired their ex¬ 
traordinary skill from familiar spirits or 
other supernatural information, the word 
magic acquired the signification it now 
bears, viz. the power of performing wonder¬ 
ful things by the aid of demons. The ma- 
i gicians of antiquity were, in most cases, 
acquainted with certain not generally 
known properties and affinities of bodies, 
and were hence enabled to produce effects 
calculated to astonish the vulgar; and 
these surprising results, which were, m 


reality, due to natural causes, procured 
them credit in their pretensions to super¬ 
natural and miraculous power. Amongst 
civilized nations the belief in magic has 
died out except in a few sequestered places. 
——Natural Magic, the application of 
natural philosophy to the production of 
surprising though natural effects. 

MAG'IC LAN'TERN, an optical machine, 
invented by Kircher, by means of which 
figures are represented on an opposite wall 
or screen in a dark room. This contrivance 
consists of a powerful lamp,within a closed 
lantern, and in the focus of a concave re¬ 
flector, which is placed behind it. In front 
of the lamp is fixed a powerful hemi 
spherical illuminating lens, and in front of 
this, in a sliding tube, a convex lens, or a 
system of lenses. Painted slides can be 
moved immediately in front of the illumi¬ 
nating lens. The strong light from the 
lamp, rendered more powerful by the illu¬ 
minating lens, is transmitted through the 
painted slides ; Jhe resulting coloured rays 
are concentrated by the lens, or system of 
lenses, to a focus on a sereen, &c., and 
greatly enlarged images of the figures on 
the slides are produced—the room being 
of course darkened ; these images may be 
seen by persons at either side of the screen, 
which is of linen, &c. As the images on 
the screen must have an increase of light 
proportioned to their increased size, a very 
strong light is necessary; and hence gas, 
the oxyliydrogen lime light, &c., are occa¬ 
sionally employed. The slides admit of 
infinite variety, and they may be very 
effectually used to illustrate astronomy, 
&c.; they may even contain thin slices of 
wood, the wings of insects, &c., and thus 
may be a source not only of amusement, but 
of the most refined and useful instruction. 

MA'GIC SQUARE, in Arithmetic, a square 
figure formed by a series of numbers, so 
disposed in parallel and equal rows, that 
the sum of those in each line, whether per¬ 
pendicular, horizontal, or diagonal, is the 
same number. Thus, 


1 

16 

11 

6 

13 

4 

7 

10 

8 

9 

14 

3 

12 

5 

2 

15 


MA'GISTRATE ( magistratus: Lat), any 
public civil officer to whom the executive 
power of the law is committed,either wholly 
or in part. 

MAG'MA (any pressed or kneaded mass: 
Gr.), the name given to any crude mixture 
of mineral or organic matters, in a thVi 
pasty state. Strictly speaking, it is what 
remains after the fluid parts have been 
expressed.-In Geology, the melted mat¬ 

ter out of which the igneous rocks of our 
globe have been formed. 

MAG'NA CHAR'TA (the great charta: 
Lat.), in English History, the Great Charta 
F F 

































magnesia] 


Cijc Jrmuttffc zm& 


43^ 


of Liberty, obtained by the English barons 
from king John, in 1215. The barons con¬ 
sisted of the whole nobility of England; 
their followers comprehended all the yeo¬ 
manry and free peasantry, and the acces¬ 
sion of the capital was a pledge of the 
adherence of the citizens and burgesses. 
John had been obliged to yield to this ge¬ 
neral union, and conferences were opened, 
on the plain called Itunnymede, on the 
banks of the Thames, near Staines, in sight 
of the forces of each. At length the preli¬ 
minaries being agreed on, the barons pre¬ 
sented heads of their grievances and means 
of l’edress ; and the king directed that the 
articles should be reduced to the form of a 
charter, in which state it issued as a royal 
grant. To secure the execution of this 
charter, John was compelled to surrender 
the City and Tower of London to be tem¬ 
porarily held by the barons, and consented 
that the latter should clioosa twenty-five 
of their number, to be guardians of the 
liberties of the kingdom, with power, in 
case of any breach of the charter, or denial 
of redress, to make war on the king, to 
seize his castles and lands, and to distress 
and annoy him in every possible way till 
justice was done. Many parts of the char- 
terwere pointed against the abuses of the 
power of the king as lord paramount; the 
tyrannical exercise of the forest laws was 
checked, and many grievances incident to 
feudal tenures were mitigated or abolished. 
But besides these provisions, it contains 
many for the benefit of the people at large, 
and a few maxims of just government ap¬ 
plicable to all places and times. 

MAGNE'SIA ( Magnesia , a city in Asia 
Minor: Gr.), in Chemistry, the oxide of Mag¬ 
nesium, a white tasteless substance,with a 
slight alkaline reaction, usually obtained by 
exposing the carbouate to a full red heat. In 
combination with other substances it is an 
abundant earth. The well-known Epsom 
Salt is a sulphate. The carbonate is the 
Magnesia alba of pharmacy. In the state of 
a silicate it is a principal ingredient in 
Steatite, Meerschaum, Serpentine, 
and Jade. Every ton of seawater is said to 
contain about two pounds weight of mag¬ 
nesia. 

MAGNE'SIAN LI'MESTONE, in Geology, 
a rock composed of the carbonates of lime 
and magnesia, and a principal member of 
the Permian group,' the uppermost mem¬ 
ber of the Palaeozoic series. The Dolomite 
of the continent is a magnesian limestone. 
In England this rock constitutes an exten¬ 
sive series of beds, lying immediately above 
the coal measures. Their imbedded organic 
remains show that they were deposited in 
the sea. The lime resulting from the calci¬ 
nation of magnesian limestone has an in¬ 
jurious action on vegetation, because, 
having less affinity than common lime for 
carbonic acid, it remains longer in a caustic 
state. 

MAGNE'SITE, in Mineralogy, Rhomb spar, 
the native carbonate of magnesia; it is 
found with serpentine and other magnesian 
rocks. 

MAGNE'SITTM, a white, lustrous, mallea¬ 
ble metal, which fuses at a red heat and 


oxidizes in hot water. When heated in the 
air it burns brilliantly with a pure white 
flame, and leaves magnesia behind. Its 
specific gravity is only 1‘75. It is therefore 
extremely light, and 12} cubic inches of it 
are required to balance one cubic inch of 
platinum. The intensity and actinic power 
of the light emitted by ignited magnesium 
wire have caused it to be employed in 
photography. The spectrum of ignited 
magnesium vapour has such points of re¬ 
semblance to that of the sun as to lead to 
the supposition that this metal exists in 
the solar atmosphere. 

MAG'NET, NAT'URAL (magnes: Gr.), the 
loadstone, one of the many combinations of 
iron and oxygen ; it consists of two oxides 
with a little quartz and alumina [see Load¬ 
stone]. Its colour depends on the relative 
proportions of its constituents, but it is 
generally dark grey, with a dull metallic 
lustre. It attracts iron in all states, except 
as oxide ; formed into a bar and suspended 
freely, it will arrange itself parallel with 
the magnetic meridian; it will magnetize 
steel permanently, and soft iron while near 
it. Being supposed by the earlier naviga¬ 
tors always to point to the north pole of the 
earth, it was termed the load-stone, or lead¬ 
ing stone. Its use has long been superseded 
by the artificial magnet, which is far more 
powerful and convenient. 

MAGNET'IC NEED'LE, a magnetized bar 
of steel moving freely on a centre, and 
showing the direction of the resultant of 
the magnetic forces, at the place where it 
is. [See Compass.] 

MAGNET'IC PYRI'TES, native black sul- 
pluiret of iron. It has magnetic properties. 

MAG'NETISM, that science which inves¬ 
tigates the phenomena exhibited by natural 
and artificial magnets, and the laws by 
which they are governed. Some of the 
properties of the magnet were known to 
the ancients, but they were not acquainted 
with its directive power, that is, its ten¬ 
dency to assume a certain position when 
at liberty to do so. If a light bar of steel be 
suspended horizontally by a silk thread, or 
balanced on a pivot, and then magnetized, 
it will, except at the magnetic equator, 
lose its horizontal position, making an angle 
with the horizon called the angle of dip, and 
will no longer rest in every position, but 
will assume one in a direction north and 
south, but making a small angle with the 
plane of the terrestrial meridian, termed 
the angle of variation. These two angles 
are subject to perpetual but slight changes. 
The magnetic equator seems to -cross the 
terrestrial at four points. The lines at 
which the angles of dip are equal are called 
magnetic parallels. There are probably no 
precise points which can be called magnetic 
poles. The earth being a great magnet, its 
poles are rather regions than points. Even 
in the ordinary artificial magnet, the poles 
are diffused over com para tively large spaces. 
The earth is most probably an electro-mag- ! 
net, magnetized by the electric currents I 
continually circulating round it, and which 
are due to evaporation, &c. Thelinesformed 
by points on the earth’s surface, at which 
the variation is equal, are called lines of 


























435 Httn*av» 


equal variation. The rapidity with which a 
needle vibrates, if drawn from its natural 
position, is a measure of the intensity of 
magnetism at that time and place; and 
this intensity is subject to constant change. 
A magnet, if placed in iron filings will at¬ 
tract them in quantities large at its poles, 
and diminishing towards the centre, to 
which none adhere. The poles of a mag¬ 
net will attract pieces of soft iron ; and 
these, as long as they are in contact with 
the magnet, will themselves be magnetic, 
and will attract other pieces of iron or 
iron filings. If soft iron be brought near 
a magnet, it will be magnetized, and, as 
long as it isnear it, will attract iron filings, 
&c. The interposition of paper, glass, &c., 
will not cause the magnetic influence to be 
intercepted; if a magnetized bar of steel be 
placed under a sheet of paper, iron filings 
scattered over the paper will arrange them¬ 
selves in curves over the poles. When soft 
iron is removed from the magnet, it in¬ 
stantly ceases to be magnetic; steel is not 
so powerfully magnetized, but, on removal, 
it retains more or less of the magnetism. 
If a magnetized bar is broken, two mag¬ 
nets will result, and the fractured ends will 
be opposite poles. Each pole of a magnet 
is attracted by one pole of another magnet, 
and repelled by the other pole. A magnet 
may be made by striking a bar of steel on 
one end while it is in the direction which 
a needle would assume if at liberty, or by 
rubbing each end continually in the same 
direction with one pole of a magnetized bar. 
Iron rods or bars acquire polarity by stand¬ 
ing long in one position; magnetism is 
destroyed by a red heat. If discs of various 
metals are put in rapid rotation, they will 
become magnetic, since they will deflect 
the needle—an effect not due to vorticity 
produced in the air, since it is more power¬ 
ful in vacuo. Magnetic attraction and re¬ 
pulsion vary inversely as the squares of the 
distance. 

MAG'NETISM, AN'IMAL, a sympathy 
supposed to exist between the magnet and 
the human body. The origin of the term 
was a fancied analogy between the action 
of the mineral magnet and that of the ani¬ 
mal energy, or vis vitce, to which these 
effects were attributed, but its results have 
been ascribed to excitement and morbid 
sensitiveness. It originated thus A Ger¬ 
man physician, named Mesmcr, in 1772, at¬ 
tempted cures with the mineral magnet, 
and excited some sensation in Vienna; but 
at length declared that the effect was pro¬ 
duced, not by the magnet, but by a mys¬ 
terious power in his own person, and that 
this power was related not only to the mag¬ 
netic power, but to the attraction dispersed 
throughout the universe. From Vienna 
he went to Paris, where he gained many 
proselytes to his pretended discovery. The 
government at length appointed a com¬ 
mittee, among whom was Dr. Franklin, to 
investigate the pretensions of Mesmer; 
and the result of their inquiries appeared 
In amemoir, by M. Bailly,which condemned 
animal magnetism. After the lapse of half 
a century.it has again revived, and numbers 
of eminent persons are among its votaries. 


[maiiogafy 


Though Mesmer is considered to be its dis¬ 
coverer, it was undoubtedly practised by 
many persons, and in various forms, long 
before him. 

MAGNE'TOGRAPH ( magnes , a magnet; 
grapho, I write, Gr.), an apparatus for regis¬ 
tering the variations of the phenomena of 
terrestrial magnetism. It can be made 
self-recording. 

MAGNETOM'ETER, an instrument or 
apparatus for determining the elements of 
terrestrial magnetism, as to direction and 
force. When adapted for determining the 
declination of the needle, it is called a decli¬ 
nometer; and when for the inclination and I 
vertical force, it becomes an inclinometer. 

MAGNIFYING POW'ER ( magnus , great; | 
and facio, I make : Lat.), in Optics, the en¬ 
largement of the angle under which an 
object is seen. It is effected in telescopes ; 
and microscopes by producing an image of 
the object, then viewing the image by an¬ 
other glass, and thus enlarging the angle, 
which becomes greater on account of the 
smaller distance of the image from the eye. 

MAGNITUDE ( magnitudo , greatness : 
Lat.), whatever is made up of parts locally , 
extended, or has dimensions; as a line, 1 
surface, solid, &c. The apparent magnitude 
of a body is that measured by the visual 
angle, formed by rays drawn from its ex¬ 
tremes to the centre of the eye; so that all 
objects seen under the same or equal angles 
appear equal, and vice versA. 

MAGNO'LIA, in Botany, a genus of trees 
and shrubs, natives of North America and 
Asia; nat. ord. Magnoliacece. The Magnolia 
grandi/lora, or the great magnolia, is the 
principal species. It is a native of Florida, 
and is remarkable for its large evergreen 
leaves and white flowers, which arc con¬ 
spicuous at a great distance. Two others 
of the species also deserve particular notice. 
One is the Magnolia macrophylla, the leaves 
of -which are between two and three feet 
long, and the flowers upwards of a foot in 
diameter. The petals are from six to nine 
in number, and the three exterior ones 
have a purple spot at the base. It grows in 
the south-western parts of the Alleghanies. 
The other is the Magnolia glauca, or beaver- 
wood, a beautiful shrub, with leaves and 
flowers much smaller than any of the rest 
of the genus. The flowers are very elegant, 
and diffuse a delightful fragrance; the 
leaves and wood have also a strong aro¬ 
matic taste. [See Tulip Tree]. 

. MAG'PIE (Mag, for Margaret, as Poll is 
used with a parrot; and pie, from pica: 
Lat.), in Ornithology, the Pica caudata, a 
well-known chattering bird, resembling in 
its habits and manners the other birds of 
the crow family, to which it belongs. It 
has a black bill, wings, and tail; but the 
two latter are variegated with white, green, 
purple, and blue, of different shades. When 
taken young, magpies readily become do¬ 
mesticated, and learn to repeat many words 
and sentences, as well as to imitate every 
noise within hearing. 

MA'HA RA'JAH, MA'HA RANEE, titles 
in the East Indies, signifying Great Rajah 
and Great Queen. 

MAHOG'ANY, the wood of a tree, the 






















Mahometans] <2TI)C Jjrtcnttfu antf 436 

Swietenia Maliogani of botanists ; nat. order 
Cedrelacece, growing in America and the 
West Indies. The trunk of this majestic 
tree is often 40 feet in length, and 6 feet in 
diameter; and it divides into so many 
massy arms, and throws the shade of its 
shining green leaves over so vast an extent 
of surface, that few more magnificent ob¬ 
jects are to be met with in the vegetable 
world. The principal importations of ma¬ 
hogany into Great Britain are made from 
Honduras and Campeacby. It was first 
brought to England in 1724. A single tree, 
cut into three logs, has been sold for 18001. 
20,000 tons per annum are imported—a 
quantity obtained from about 16,000 trees. 
There are many different sorts of mahogany, 
some of very inferior character. It answers 
well for ship-building; but it is not approved 
of at Lloyd’s, in consequence, it is said, of 
its not being always possible to ascertain 
whether or not a good kind has been em¬ 
ployed. The mahogany which was used 
in the line-of-battle ship Gibraltar was 
made into furniture after being in use 
100 years. 

MAHOM'ETANS, or MOHAM'MEDANS, 
believers in the doctrines and divine mis¬ 
sion of Mahomet, the warrior and prophet 
of Arabia, whose creed maintains that 
there is but one God, and that Mahomet is 
his prophet; and teaches the use of prayer, 
washings, &c., almsgiving, fasting, so¬ 
briety, pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. Besides 
these they have some negative precepts 
and institutions of the Koran, in which 
several things are prohibited; such as 
usury, the drinking of wine, all games that 
depend upon chance, the eating of blood and 
swine’s flesh, and whatever dies of itself, 
is.strangled, or is killed by accident or by 
another beast. These doctrines and prac¬ 
tices Mahomet established by the sword, 
by preaching, and by the Alcoran or Koran, 
which contains the principles of his reli¬ 
gion; and he and his followers met with 
such success as in a few years to convert 
half the known world. [See Alcoran.] 

MAI'DEN ( magd , a maid: Ger.), an in¬ 
strument formerly used in Scotland for be¬ 
heading criminals. It consisted of a broad 
plate of iron about a foot square, very 
sharp at the lower part, and loaded above 
j with lead. At the time of execution it 
was raised to the top of a frame about ten 
feet high, with a groove on each side for 
it to slide in. The prisoner’s neck being 
fastened to a bar undeimeath, and the sign 
given, the maiden was released, and in¬ 
stantly severed the head from the body. It 
was the prototype of the French guillotine. 

-Maiden Assize, an assize in which no 

person is condemned to death. 

MAIL ( maille; Fr.), a coat of steel net¬ 
work or scales, formerly worn for defend¬ 
ing the body against swords, lances, &c. It 
was of two sorts, chain and plate mail; the 
former consisting of iron rings, each hav¬ 
ing four others inserted into it; the latter, 
of a number of small plates of metal, laid 
over one another like the scales of a fish, 
and sewed down to a strong linen or lea¬ 
thern jacket.-In ships, a square ma¬ 

chine, composed of rings interwoven like 

net-work, used for rubbing off the loose 
hemp on lines and white cordage. 

MAILED ( maculatus , spotted: Lat.), in 
Heraldry, a term for speckled, as the fear 
thers of hawks, partridges, &c. 

MAIM, or MAY'HEM, in Old English Ju¬ 
risprudence, any injury which rendered a 
person less fit to defend himself in fight; 
and differing, therefore, from that which 
merely disfigured. Cutting and stabbing, 
‘with intent to murder,.’and ‘with intent 
to maim or disfigure,’ are now distinct 
offences. 

MAIN ( magne: Old Fr.; from magnus, 
great: Lat.), in Military and Naval affairs, 
a word prefixed to many others, and signi¬ 
fying principal; as, the mainguard, main¬ 
mast, mainsail, &c. 

MAIN'PRIZE (main, a hand ; and prise, a 
taking: Fr.), in Law', the receiving into 
friendly custody, security being given for 
his forthcoming on a day appointed, a per¬ 
son who might otherwise be committed to 
prison. The writ of mainprize is obsolete. 

MAINTENANCE (subsistence: Fr.), in 
Law, an unlawful maintaining or sup¬ 
porting a suit between others, by stirring 
up quarrels, or interfering in a cause in 
which the person has no concern. But it 
is no maintenance where a person gives a 
poor man money out of charity to carry on 

a suit.- Gap op Maintenance, a cap of 

dignity, anciently belonging to the Tank of 
duke. The name, also, of the lord-mayor’s 
fur cap. 

MAIZE, or Indian Corn, a plant of the 
genus Zea, the native corn of America. 
The root is fibrous; the stems rise to the 
height of from four to ten feet; and, like 
other grasses (for it belongs to the natural 
family Graminacece), they are furnished 
with knots at intervals. The styles are 
very numerous, six to eight inches long, 
and hang down like a silken tassel from 
the extremity of the foliaceous envelope; 
the seeds or grains are rounded externally, 
angular and compressed at the sides, and 
tapering towards the base, and are dis¬ 
posed in several longitudinal series. Maize 
is now very extensively cultivated, not 
only in America, but throughout a great 
part of Asia and Africa, as also in several 
countries in the south of Europe. In many 
of the provinces of France it forms almost 
exclusively the sustenance of the inhabit¬ 
ants. The spikes or ears are gathered by 
hand; the husks, when perfectly dry, are 
stripped off, and, together with the stalks, 
laid by for winter fodder, while the ears 
are conveyed to the granary. Next to 
wheat, it is considered the most nutritious 
grain. 

MA'JESTY ( majestas : Lat.), a title given 
commonly to kings. It was first used in 
England in the reign of Elizabeth, instead 

of ‘ highness.’ - Apostolical Majesty, a 

title bestowed on Stephen, duke of Hun¬ 
gary, a.d. 1000, by Sylvester II.; recon¬ 
ferred on the empress queen Maria Theresa, 
in 1758, and now borne by the emperors of 
Austria.- Catholic Majesty, a title con¬ 

ferred on Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 
in 1491, by Alexander VI., and now borne 
by the Spanish sovereign.-^— Most Chris 












4-37 JUterarj) 


tian Majesty, a title bestowed on Louis 

XI. of France, in 1469, by Paul II.- Most 

Faithful Majesty, a title conferred on John 
V. of Portugal, by Benedict XIV., and borne 
by the kings of that country. 

MAJOL'ICA WARE, a ceramic manufac¬ 
ture so termed, probably from having been 
first made in Majorca. It was made in 
Spain by the Moors, but Italy was the place 
of its full development. The best was made 
at Faenza. The ware was formed of red 
earth, coated with a white glaze, and then 
painted upon with bright colours. The 
specimens most prized possessed a peculiar 
metallic opalescent lustre, which cannot be 
imitated by modern manufacturers. The 
| ware made at Gubio has been termed Ila- 
I phael ware, under the erroneous notion that 
this painter had worked upon it. 

MA'JOR (greater: Lat.), the title of se¬ 
veral military officers; as, major-general, 
the officer next in rank to a lieutenant- 
I general. The major of a regiment, an of¬ 
ficer immediately inferior to a lieutenant- 
! colonel. There were no majors in regiments 
until the beginning of the 17th century; 
j and there are still none in the artillery or 

| engineers.- Major, in Logic, the first 

proposition of a regular syllogism, con- 

| taining the principal term. -In Music, an 

epithet applied to those modes in which the 
! third is four semitones above the key-note, 
and to intervals consisting of four semi¬ 
tones. Major and minor are applied to con¬ 
cords which differ from each other by a 
semitone. 

MAL'ACHITE ( malaclie, the mallow 
flower: Or.), in Mineralogy, the blue and 
green carbonate of copper, found fre¬ 
quently crystallized in long slender nee¬ 
dles. It takes a good polish, and is often 
manufactured into vases and other orna¬ 
ments. 

MALAC'OLITE ( malakos, soft; and li- 
tlios, a stone : Or.), in Mineralogy, a variety 
of Augite, of a dark green colour. 

MALACOL'OGY ( malakia, the Aristote¬ 
lian name for the molluscs, or animals in¬ 
habiting and forming shells : from malakos, 
soft; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), the natu¬ 
ral history of the molluscs, which see. 

MALACOPTERY'GIANS {.malakos, soft; 
and pterux, a wing: Or.), an order of fishes 
comprehending those that have a bDny 
skeleton and fins without spinous rays. If 
ventral fins are present they are ab¬ 
dominal. 

MALACOS'TOMOUS {malakos, soft; and 
stoma, a mouth : Gr.), an epithet for those 
fishes destitute of teeth in the jaws, vul¬ 
garly called leather-mouthed; as the tench, 
carp, bream, &c. 

MALA'RIA ( Ital .), a state of the atmo¬ 
sphere or soil, or both, which, in certain 
localities, in the warm season, produces a 
fever more or less violent, according to the 
nature of the exposure. The country of 
the mat' aria, in Italy, extends from Leg¬ 
horn to Terracina, about 200 miles, and 
from the sea to the Apennines, from 25 to 
30 miles, besides being found in other par¬ 
ticular places. The city of Rome has been 
gradually invaded by it; so that not only 
the whole of ancient Rome has been de- 


[maltha 


serted, but even the finest parts of the 
modern city, particularly those which are 
least inhabited, have become unsafe. Even 
in the time of Horace, Rome was deserted, 
two months in the year, on account of ma¬ 
laria.-It has been found from observa¬ 

tion, that although standing waters, when 
clear and free from smell, and all running 
waters, are considered perfectly salubrious, 
they may, in fact, be nearly as injurious as 
those that are putrid and stagnant; and 
that, besides marshes, fresh and salt mea¬ 
dows, and wet pasture lauds generally, all 
woods, coppices, thickets, rivers, lakes, 
ponds, ornamental waters, pools, ditches, 
plashy andlimited spots of ground generally, 
send forth more or less of this noxious va¬ 
pour ; that wherever, in short, any chemical 
compound of the vegetable elements is wet¬ 
ted, or held in solution by water, there the 
poison in question may be, or will be, pro¬ 
duced, provided the temperature be suffi¬ 
ciently high ; that the smallest surface com¬ 
ing underany of the above denominations 
is sufficient to produce malaria. 

MAL'ATES {malum, an apple: Lat.), in 
Chemistry, salts formed by the union of 
malic acid with different bases. The ma- 
lates of potash, soda, and ammonia are de¬ 
liquescent. 

MALE SCREW, in Mechanics, a screw 
that has the spiral thread on the outside of 
the cylinder. 

MAL'IC A'CID {malum, an apple: Lat.), in 
Chemistry, an acid which is present in the 
stalks of garden rhubarb, and the juice 
of many fruits, especially apples and pears. 
It may be obtained also from the Sorbus 
aueuparia, or mountain ash, and has 
therefore been called sorbic acid. 

MALLEABIL'ITY {malleus, a hammer: 
Lat.), that property of metals, on account 
of which they are capable of extension by 
the hammer, and of being worked into 
forms. It is opposed to brittleness. 

MAL'LEUS (same deriv.), in Anatomy, a 
bone of the internal ear, attached to the 
membrana tympani, and somewhat resem¬ 
bling a hammer in shape. 

MAL'LOW {malva: Lat.), plants of the 
genus Malva, of which several species are 
wild in Britain. [See Malvaceas.] 

MALM'SEY {malvoisie: Fr.; from Mal- 
vasia, a town in European Turkey, near 
which it was produced), the name of a spe¬ 
cies of grape, and also of a luscious kind of 
wine prepared from it. The most celebrated 
Malmsey was made in Madeira. 

MALT {mealt: Sax.), grain, usually barley, 
which has been induced to germinate, and 
the germination suddenly checked, the 
object being to convert the starch of the 
grain partially into sugar. The grain is 
first steeped in water and then spread out 
on floors, to the depth of three or four 
inches, when it germinates. This goes on 
for some days, the grain being frequently 
turned, and then the germination is stopped 

by being transferred to a malt kiln.- Mall 

kilns are chambers having numerous holes 
in the floor, through which the heat ascends 
from a furnace below, and dries the malted 
grain that is laid upon it, 

MAL'TIIA (a mixture of pitch and wax 













Cfjc J^rtnittftc anU 


438 


malum] 


for caulking skips: Gr.), a mineralogical 
name for a mineral pitck. A cement com¬ 
posed of tkis, with wax plaster and grease, 
was used by the Romans for coating their 
walls. Pitch, melted with lime, was em¬ 
ployed by them for covering the interior of 
their aqueducts. The pavements termed 
asphaltic, used by us, are of a similar com¬ 
position. 

MA'LUM IN SB (a thing had iu itself: 
Lat.), an offence at common law: in dis¬ 
tinction from malum prohibitum; such as 
smuggling. 

MALVA'CEiE, a natural order of exoge¬ 
nous plants, abounding in mucilage, and 
frequently having a tough fibre in the hark. 
The seeds are placed round a common axis. 
To this order belong the common mallow, 
the hollyhock, and the Cotton plant 
( Gossypium), as well as the various species 
of Hibiscus, several of which are cultivated 
for their flowers. One species yields Sun 
hemp. Abelmoschus esculentics, a plant of 
this order, which is cultivated extensively 
in Africa, on account of its seeds, called 
Ocbro and Gobbo, which are used in soups. 

MALVERSATION (Fr.), in Law, misbe¬ 
haviour in anoflice, employ, or commission: 
such as breach of trust, extortion, &c. 

MAM'ALUKES, or MAM'ELUKES (me- 
malik, a slave: Arab.), male slaves im¬ 
ported from Circassia into Egypt by the ru¬ 
lers of that country. They were instructed 
iu military exercises, but soon exhibited 
a spirit of insuboiklination ; assassinating 
the sultan Turau Shah, and, in 1258, ap¬ 
pointing Ibegh, one of their own number, 
sultan of Egypt. They were at length con¬ 
quered by Selim I., and Caii'o, their capital, 
was taken by storm, aftSr they had governed 
Egypt 263 years. During the French inva¬ 
sion of Egypt by Buonaparte, the Mame¬ 
lukes formed a fine body of cavalry, and for 
a time seriously annoyed the invaders, 
though many afterwards joined them. Mo¬ 
hammed Ali, the pacha of Egypt, anni¬ 
hilated their pow'er, by destroying 470 
of their principal leaders, in 1811, by trea¬ 
chery. 

MAM'MAL, or MAM'MIFER, (mamma, a 
teat; and fero, I-bear: Lat.), in Zoology 
aix animal the female of which has breasts 
for suckling its young. 

MAMMA'LIA (mamma, a teat: Lat.), the 
most highly organized class of vertebrate 
animals, the females of which possess mam¬ 
mary glands, and suckle their young. Their 
chief anatomical character consists in their 
having lungs, which are suspended freely 
in a thoi’acic cavity, and separated from the 
abdomen by a perfect diaphragm. Their 
heart contains four distinct cavities. Their 
brain consists of a cerebrum, cerebellum, 
and medulla oblongata. They all bring forth 
their young alive. The teeth indicate the 
kind of food : to cut flesh the molars must be 
trenchant and serrated; for bruising grains, 
they must have flattened crowns. Those 
having hoofs are termed ungulate; the 
others unguiculate. The ungulate must be 
herbivorous, and therefore have molars 
with flattened crowns, since the formation 
of their feet would not permit them to 


seize living prey. The mammalia have been 
divided into two classes, the Placentalia 
and Implacentalia. Class I. The Placenta¬ 
lia, or those having a placenta or a vascular 
chorion, by which the foetus is attached to 
the uterus, is divided into—1. The Bimana, 
or two-handed, whose posterior extremities 
are xised only to keep them in an erect 
position, and for the purpose of locomo¬ 
tion. They comprehend the different va¬ 
rieties of man. 2. The Quadrumana, or 
those having four hands; whose hinder 
extremities, in some instances, resemble 
hands more than the anterioi—the thumb 
being sometimes wanting, or incapable of 
being opposed to the other digits. They 
comprehend the ape, monkey, &c. 3. The 
Cheiroptera, or those having the anterior 
extremities so modified as to serve for 
wings, the fingei's being lengthened, and 
connected together by a thin membrane. 
They comprehend the different kinds of 
bats. 4. The Insectivora, or insect-eaters. 
They comprehend the shrew, mole, hedge¬ 
hog, &c. 5. The Carnivora, or flesh-eaters. 
Their teeth are well adapted for teai’ing, 
dividing, and bruising flesh. Those which 
tread on the sole of the foot are termed y 
plantigrades ; and those which run on the 
last joints of the toes, digitigrades. They 
comprehend the dog, cat, bear, seal, &c. 

6. The Cetacea, or whale tribe. They live 
in the sea, or large rivers. The caudal fin 
is horizontal, not vertical, as in the true 
fishes. They comprehend the whale, pox- 
poise, &c. 7. The Pachydermata, or thick- 
skinned. They are distinguished by the 
thickness of their skins, and comprehend 
the hippopotamus, elephant,horse, hog, &c. 

8. The Ruminantia, or those which chew 
the cud. They have cloven feet, want in¬ 
cisors, and have a stomach with four cavi- | 
ties. 9. Edentata, or those having imperfect i 
dental apparatus. Their digits are gene- ! 
rally sunk in large and crooked claws. They 
have no incisors, and sometimes ixo dental 
organs. They comprehend the sloth, ant- 
eater, armadillo, &c. 10. The Rodentia, or 
those animals which gnaw. They have two 
long chisel-shaped incisors in each jaw, and 
no canine teeth, but a vacant space between i 
the molars and incisors. The lower jaw has 
xio horizontal motion, except from back to 
front, and vice versa. The eminences oil 
the crowns of the molars are transverse, so 
as to be opposed during the reciprocating 
motion of the lower jaw. The posterior are 
genei'ally lai’ger than the anterior parts, 
and hence they rather leap than xvalk. The 
brain is of an inferior type; the eyes are 
lateral. Some of them use their feet to 
convey their food to the mouth. They ( 
comprehend the rat, squirrel, rabbit, j 
guinea-pig, &c. Class II. The Implacentalia, \ 
or those having no placenta or vascular 
chorion, are divided into—1. The Marsupi- 1 
ala, or pouched, which have the abdominal 
integument folded inwards, forming a de¬ 
pression containing the mamma;, or a pouch 
for the temporary shelter of their young. 
The foetus is not attached to the uterus; it 
is prematurely born—in the great kangaroo 
after a gestation of only 38 days, at the end 




































439 


Ettciari? Et’cas'urn. 


[MANATU3 


of which period it does not exceed an inch 
in length. It is then received into the 
pouch, where, adhering to the nipple, it 
remains for many months. 2. The Mono- 
tremata, or those having hut one outlet for 
the excremeutal and generative products. 
They are ovo-viviparous; that is, extrude 
the living foetus, more or less extricated 
from the egg coverings which had been 
developed within the body of the parent. 
They include only two genera, both found 
in Australia, the Ornitliorhynchus and the 
Echidna. Another arrangement of the 
class is by a division into live orders. 
Order I. Primates, including man, the 
monkies, lemurs, and bats. Order II. Perm, 
the rapacious beasts, including the feline 
family, with bears, moles, kangaroos, and 
seals. Order III. Cetacea, the whales, inclu¬ 
ding dolphins and manatees. Order IV. 
<31 ires or rodents, including hares, mice, 
porcupines &c.. Order V. Ungulata or 
hoofed beasts, including ruminating ani¬ 
mals, horses, elephants, armadillos, and 
sloths. 

MAM'MEE-TREE, in Botany, the Mam- 
mea Americana, a large and beautiful tree, 
belonging to the nat. ord. Guttiferce: some¬ 
times called the 'West Indian apricot, the 
fruit of which is highly esteemed for its 
sweet and very agreeable taste, accompa¬ 
nied with an aromatic, pleasant odour. The 
leaves are oval, six or eight inches in length; 
the flowers white, an inch and a half in dia¬ 
meter, and emit a delightful perfume ; and 
the tree attains the height of sixty or se¬ 
ven ty feet. 

MAM'MILLARY (mammilla, a little teat: 
Lat.), pertaining to the breasts. Also, an 
epithet applied to two small protuberances, 
like nipples, found under the fore ventri¬ 
cles of the brain, and to a process of the 
temporal bone. 

MAM'MOTH (Tart.), an extinct species of 
elephant entirely distinct from the existing 
species of Asia and Africa. It is found iu 
all parts of Europe, Asia, and America, but 
only in the fossil state; and its remains 
have given rise to stories of giants. A 
mammoth, in complete preservation, was 
seen by Adams, a traveller in Siberia. The 
skeleton was 9 feet 4 inches high, and 16 
feet 4 inches long; the tusks were 9 feet 
long. It is very different from the masto¬ 
don, a gigantic fossil animal of North 
America. 

MAN, the Homo sapiens of zoologists, is 
placed as an animal iu the family Bimana 
of the mammalian order Primates. He pos¬ 
sesses two prehensive hands, with fingers 
protected by flat nails; two feet with single 
soles, a single stomach, and three kinds of 
teeth—incisive, canine, and molar. His 
position is upright; his food both vegetable 
and animal; his body without natural 
covering. Bluiuenbach divides mankind 
into five varieties. 1. The first occupies 
the central parts of the old continent, 
namely. Western Asia, Eastern and North¬ 
ern Africa, Hindostan, and Europe. Its 
characters are the colour of the skin, more 
or less white or brown ; the cheeks tinged 
with red ; long hair, either brown or fair; 
the head almost spherical; the face oval 


and narrow; the features moderately 
marked ; the nose slightly arched; tha 
mouth small; the front teeth placed per¬ 
pendicularly in the jaws ; the chin full and 
round. This is called the Caucasian, from 
its supposed origin in the Caucasus. 2. The 
second variety has been termed the (Eastern. 
The colour in this race is yellow; the hair 
black, stiff, straight, and rather thin ; the 
head almost square; the face large, flat, 
and depressed; the features indistinctly 
marked; the nose small and flat; the 
cheeks round and prominent; the chin 
pointed, the eyes small. This variety com¬ 
prises the Asiatics to the east of the Ganges 
and of Mount Beloor, except the Malays: it 
includes the Turks, Egyptians, Persians, 
Hindoos, the Tartars, Chinese, &c. 3. The 
American variety resembles the last de¬ 
scribed, in several points. Its principal 
characters are a copper colour; stiff, thin, 
straight, black hair; low forehead; eyes 
sunk; the nose somewhat projecting; cheek¬ 
bones prominent; face large. This variety 
comprises all the Americans except the 
Esquimaux. 4. The fourth variety is called 
by Blumenbach the Malay, and described 
as of a tawny colour; the hair black, soft, 
thick, and curled ; the forehead a little pro¬ 
jecting ; the nose thick, wide, and flattened ; 
the mouth large ; the upper jaw projecting. 
This variety comprehends the Islanders of 
the Pacific ocean. 5. The remaining variety 
is the Negro. Its characters are, colour 
black; hair black and woolly; head nar¬ 
row ; forehead convex and arched; cheek¬ 
bones projecting; nose large, and almost 
confounded with the upper jaw ; the upper 
front teeth obliquely placed ; the lips thick; 
the chin drawn in; the legs crooked. This 
race is found in Western and Southern 
Africa, and the great islands of the Pacific, 
generally in the interior. There are very 
great differences in the tribes included in 
this variety; witness the Negro, with the 
complexion of jet, and woolly hair; the 
Caffre, with a copper complexion and long 
hair; the sooty Papous, or New Guineaman; 
the native of Van Diemen’s Land; and the 
Hottentot.-—Man is the only animal which 
really possesses the powers of speech, by 
which he is enabled to communicate his 
thoughts; and this has led, in different 
tribes, to the invention of several liundTed 
languages. He is also the only animal 
which possesses the muscles of laughter. 

.-Man, a word variously used in nautical 

affairs: thus, man-of-war, a merchantman, 
&c. Also, ‘ man a prize;’ ‘ man the topsail 
sheets ;’ ‘ man the yards,’ &c., signifying to 
supply either of these with the men neces¬ 
sary for the required purpose. 

MAN'AKIN, the popular name of some 
small South American birds, forming the 
sub-family Piprince. They belong to the 
chatterers in the dentirostral section of the 
Passeres. Pipra militaris, a member of 
the typical genus, bears a crest of red fea¬ 
thers on its head. 

MANA'TUS, or MANA'TEE ( manus , a 
liaud: Lat.), the Cow-fish, a genus of mam¬ 
mals, dwelling in water, and belonging to 
the order of Cetacea. The thick skin has a 
dark colour, and usually bears a few bristle- 






















m\)t Jrctcnttfic autr 


440 


makchineel] 


like hairs. The skull is large and strong, 
without front teeth ; the lips thick, fleshy, 
and bristly. The fore limbs or paddles are 
highly developed, with bones exactly an¬ 
swering to those of the human arm, the five 
fingers being present, but covered with in¬ 
flexible skin. There are no rudiments of 
hind limbs. The body is terminated pos¬ 
teriorly by a horizontal semi-circular flat 
tail, but without a fin. The ears are small 
| orifices ; the eyes are also small. White 
( milk flows from the breasts of the female 
' when pressed. This harmless animal feeds 
on grass and aquatic plants. It is a rapid 
swimmer, and so cautious that it is not 
easily captured. Beneath the skin there is 
a thick layer of fat which yields abundance 
i of oil. The flesh is said to be palatable, 
having a flavour between that of beef and 
pork. There appears to be several species. 
One, the Bugong, inhabits the rivers of 
Western Africa. Another is found in the 
West Indies and along the coast of Guiana. 
This is said to be from 12 to 20 feet long, 
and to possess nails at the extremities of 
! the fore limbs. In the river Amazon 
there is a third species, which does not 
exceed 7 or 8 feet in length, and has no 
nails. 

MANCHINEEL' (mandnella: Span.), the 
Hippomane mandnella of botanists, nat. 
ord. Euphorbiacece, a tree which grows in 
the West Indies to the size of a large oak. 
It is said to be death to sleep beneath its 
shade. A drop of the juice falling on the 
skin is known to form an ulcer. The 
tempting fruit, which looks like an apple, 
causes a burning sensation when applied to 
the lips. 

MANDA'MUS (we command: Lat.), in 
Law, a writ issued from the Court of 
King’s Bench, and directed to any person, 
corporation, or inferior court, commanding 
the performance of some special thing. 
It will not be granted unless there has 
been a distinct refusal to do that which is 
! its object. 

MANDARIN', a Portuguese term for the 
official order in China. There are nine 
classes of civil, and live of military man¬ 
darins, distinguished by buttons on their 
caps. The Chinese name for mandarin is 
Kouon (a public character!. They are sup¬ 
posed to owe their offices entirely to merit. 

MAN'DIBLE ( mandibula , a jaw: Lat.), in 
Ornithology, the upper and under bill of 

; birds.-Also, in Anatomy, a name for the 

jaw. [See Maxilla.] 

MAN'DOLINE, amusical instrument with 
four strings, something like a lute. It is 
i still in use in Italy. 

MAN'DRAKE (mandragoras: Gr.), the 
Mandragora officinalis of botanists, nat. ord. 
Solanacece. The forked root of this plant 
was thought to resemble the human form, 
and many superstitions w r ere connected 
with it, such as the opinion that it uttered 
a shriek when torn out of the ground. It 
was used in love incantations. An acro- 
narcotic poison resides in the juice, which 
was once employed in medicine, being reck¬ 
oned amongst ‘drowsy syrups.’ 

MAN'DREL, or MAN'DRIL (rnandrin: 
Ft.), in Machinery, a revolving spindle. 


to which the turner fixes his work in the 
lathe. 

MAN'DRILL, a baboon, the Papio 
maimon of naturalists, a native of Guinea, 
the largest, most brutal and ferocious of 
the class. It is blue-faced, and has very 
protuberant cheeks. The nose of the adult 
becomes red, and even scarlet, at the end. 
Its colour is a greyish brown. The male is 
as large as a man. 

MANE'GE (a riding-school : Fr.), the art 
of breaking in and riding horses, or the 
place set apart for equestrian exercises. 
[See Horse and Horsemanship.] 

MA'NES (Lat.), in the pagan system of 
theology, a general name for the infernal 
deities. The ancients comprehended under 
the term manes not only Pluto, Proserpine, 
and Minos, but the souls of the deceased 
also. It was usual to erect altars and offer 
libations to the manes of deceased friends 
and relations ; for the superstitious notion 
that the spirits of the departed had an im¬ 
portant influence on the good or bad for¬ 
tune of the living made people very cau¬ 
tious of offending them. When it was not 
known whether a corpse had been buried 
or not, a cenotaph was erected, and the 
manes were solemnly invited to rest there, 
from fear that otherwise they would wan¬ 
der about the world, terrifying the living, 
and seeking the body which they had once 
inhabited. 

MAN'GANESE, of a greyish-white colour, 
and of considerable brilliancy; it has nei¬ 
ther taste nor smell, is of the hardness of 
iron, very brittle, and, when reduced to 
powder, is attracted by the magnet. Its 
spec. grav. is about 80. Being very difficult 
of fusion, it does not combine readily with 
many metals; but it shows considerable 
affinity to iron, occurring frequently com¬ 
bined with it in nature, and it is supposed 
to improve the quality of steel. Manganese 
is applied to no use in its metallic form. Its 
attraction of oxygen is so great, that ex¬ 
posure to the air is sufficient to render it 
red, brown, black, and ultimately friable, 
in a very short time. The black oxide (the 
binoxide) i3 used largely as a source of 
oxygen; mixed with oil, it takes fire of 
itself. It frees from colour glasses tinged 
with iron, and is therefore used in glass¬ 
making ; it changes the iron into peroxide, 
and becomes itself protoxide, neither of 
which compounds imparts a colour; but, if 
added in excess, it produces an amber co¬ 
lour. It is also used to give a black colour 
to earthenware. Two of its compounds 
with oxygen possess acid properties, and 
are termed manganic and permanganic 
ncids 

MAN'GEL-WUR'ZEL (mangel, defect; and 
wiirzel, root: Ger.), a species of beet much 
used as food for cattle, and valuable from 
its large size and hardy nature. 

MAN'GO, the fruit of a tree, the Mangi 
fera indica of botanists, nat. ord. Anacardi- 
acece, which is a native of the East Indies, 
but now grows in most of the tropical re¬ 
gions. It is allied to the sumach, attains 
the height of 30 or 40 feet, and is highly 
productive. The fruit is kidney-shaped, of 
a most delicious flavour, and contains a 




















Htterarj) Crcasurn. [manslaughter 


441 


1 flattened kernel enveloped in a stringy case. 
More than eighty varieties of mango are 
cultivated. 

M ANGOSTEEN', the Garcinia Mangostana 
of botanists, nat. ord. Clusiacece, a tree 
which grows iathe Straits of Malacca. The 
fruit is something like a small orange ; it is 
of exquisite flavour, and particularly whole¬ 
some. The tree is elegant in its appearance, 
and grows to the height of about eighteen 
feet. 

MAN'GROVE, a tree of the genus Iiliizo- 
phora, which grows in tropical countries 
along the borders of the sea. Its branches 
are long, hang down towards the earth, 
and, when they have reached it, take root 
and produce new trunks. In this manner, 
immense and almost impenetrable thickets 
are formed, which are filled with vast num¬ 
bers of crabs, aquatic birds, mosquitos, &c. 
The seeds are remarkable for throwing out 
roots, which vegetate among the branches 
of the trees while yet adhering to the foot¬ 
stalk. The soft part of the white mangrove 
is formed into ropes ; the wood of the red 
mangrove is compact and heavy. 

MA'NIA ( mainomai , 1 rage : Gr.), in Me¬ 
dicine, a delirium unattended by fever, in 
which judgment and memory are impaired, 
and there is a particular dislike to restraint. 
It is either melancholy or furious. Melan¬ 
choly mania is marked by dejection of spi¬ 
rits ; furious mania, by violence, a dislike 
to individuals, and a repugnance to scenes 
before agreeable. An excess or deficiency 
of phosphorus in the composition of the 
brain has been showm to accompany mad¬ 
ness and idiocy. 

MANICHdE'ANS, in Church History, a 
sect of heretics in the third century, the 
followers of a Persian named Manicliseus, 
or Manes, who had been one of the Magi 
, before he became a Christian. He attempted 
to combine the principles of the Magi with 
Christianity, and gave out that he was the 
Paraclete whom Christ had promised to 
send to his disciples. He was put to deatli 
by a king of Persia as a perverter of the 
true religion, i.e. that of the Magi. He 
taught that there are two principles, or 
gods, coeternal and independent of each 
other: the first light, the author of all 
good ; the second, darkness, the author of 
all evil. 

MANIFESTO ( manifestum est, it is evi¬ 
dent : £af.—from words with which the 
document usually commenced in former 
times), in Politics, a declaration of motives 
by a belligerent state, or by a general 
having full powers, previously to the com¬ 
mencement of hostilities. It is addressed 
to the public, and signed by the sovereign, 
&c., who sends it. 

MA'NIOC, or MA'NIHOT, the Indian 
name of the Jatroplia Manihot, a shrub be¬ 
longing to the nat. order Eupliorbiacece. 
The roots contain a nutritious starch, but 
combined with hydrocyanic acid, which, 
however, is easily dissipated by heat, or got 
rid of by washing. The crude flour or meal 
obtained from the root is called cassava. 
Tapioca is a preparation of the starch. The 
plant is indigenous in tropical America, 
gnd cultivated also in many parts of Asia 


and Africa. It grows rapidly, produces 
abundantly, and accommodates itself to al¬ 
most any kind of soil. 

MANIPULATION ( manus , a hand: Lat.), 
a word signifying work done with the 
hands. It expresses, in pharmacy, the pre¬ 
paration of drugs ; in chemistry, the prepa¬ 
ration of substances for experiments; and 
in animal magnetism, the motion of the 
hands, by which the operator magnetizes 
those on whom he operates. 

MANIP'ULUS (a handful; from manus, 
a hand : Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, a body 
of infantry, consisting of two hundred 
men, and constituting the third part of a 
cohort. It was so called from the handful 
of straw which was used originally as its 

standard.-Among physicians, the term 

manipulus signifies a handful of herbs or 
leaves, or so much as a man can grasp in 
his hand at once; which quantity is fre¬ 
quently denoted by the abbreviation M. 
or to. 

MAN'NA (memo, a gift: Syr.), a sweet 
juice or gum, which flows from many trees 
and plants in Syria, and also in Calabria, 
where it exudes from two species of the 1 
ash. Its smell is strong, and its taste rather 
nauseously sweet. It is incapable of pro- j 
duciug alcohol by fermentation, is dis¬ 
solved by water, and affords by distillation 
water, acid, oil, and ammonia. It is fre¬ 
quently employed in the materia medica, 
and forms a considerable article of com¬ 
merce. A principle called mannite, a com¬ 
bination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
crystallizing in tufts of slender colourless 
needles, is obtainable from manna. 

MANOM'ETER, or MAN'OSCOPE ( manos , 
rare; and matron, a measure, or skopeo, I 
examine: Gr.), an instrument used to show 
or measure the alterations in the rarity or 
density of the air. The manometer differs 
from the barometer in this, that the latter 
only serves to measure the weight of the 
atmosphere, or of the column of air over 
it; but the former indicates the density, or 
rather the elastic force which is considered 
proportional to the density. 

MAN'OR ( nianeo, I abide: Lat.), a district 
subject to the jurisdiction of a court baron. 
In the feudal times, a grant of lands from 
the king carried with it a power of making 
laws, and holding a court of justice for the 
dependants of the territory. The baron 
might parcel out new manors, and these i 
again might be subdivided into other ma¬ 
nors. To put an end to this, in the re’gn ] 
of Edward I. it was enacted that buyers of 
lands should hold them by the same ser¬ 
vices, and of the same lord, as when in the 
hands of the seller. Hence every manor 
now in being must have existed at least 
in the time of Edward I. The union of 
several manors underone great baron or lord 
paramount, was termed an honour. There 
are said to be eighty honours in England. 

MAN'SLAUGIITER, in Law, the unlaw¬ 
ful killing a man without malice, either 
expressed or implied. It differs from mur¬ 
der, in not being malicious or deliberate ; 
and from excusable homicide, in being done 
in some unlawful act. Manslaughter may 
be either voluntary or involuntary . 






























CTje J)dcnttuc antt 


442 


mantelet] 


MAN'TELET ( Fr .), In Fortification, a kind 
of moveable parapet, or wooden penthouse, 
used in a siege. Mantelets are cased with 
iron, and set on wheels, so as to be driven 
before the miners, when carrying a sap or 
trench towards a besieged place, to protect 
them from the enemy’s small shot. 

MAN'TIS ( mantis , a diviner : Gr.), in En¬ 
tomology, a genus of orthopterous insects, 
of which there are numerous species, dis¬ 
tinguished by the singularity of their shape. 
The chief species in Europe is the Mantis 
religiosa, or praying mantis, so called be¬ 
cause when sitting it holds up its two fore¬ 
legs as if in the attitude of prayer; whence 
vulgar superstition has held it as a sacred 
insect; and a popular notion has prevailed, 
that a child or a traveller who loses his 
way will be safely directed by observing the 
quarter to which the animal pointed, when 
taken into the hand. The mantis is of a 
predaceous disposition, living on smaller 
insects, which it watches for with great 
anxiety. It is also quarrelsome; and when 
several are kept with others of its own 
species in a state of captivity, they will at¬ 
tack each other with the utmost violence, 
till all but one are destroyed. 

MANT'LING (manteau, a mantle : Fr.), in 
Heraldry, that appearance of flourishing, 
or drapery, that is represented about a coat 
of arms. It is supposed originally to have 
been the representation of a mantle, or 
military habit, worn by the cavaliers over 
their armour, to preserve it from rust. 

MAN'UAL EX'ERCISE ( manualis , be¬ 
longing to the hand : Lat.), in the Military 
art, the exercise by which soldiers are 
taught the use of their muskets and other 
arms. 

MANUFACTURE (inanus, a hand ; and 
factura, a making: Lat.), the operation of 
reducing raw materials of any kind into a 
form suitable for U3e, either by the hand 
or by machinery. Also any commodity made 
by the hand, or anything formed from the 
raw materials or natural productions of a 
country, as cloths from wool, and cotton 
or silk good3 from cotton and silk, &c. 
Manufactures cannot thrive except where 
there is security for property, and where 
there is no danger of interference on the 
part of the government in the way of undue 
protection or vexations restrictions. An 
abundant supply of the raw material is a 
great advantage to manufacture, particu¬ 
larly where it is of a bulky and ponderous 
nature. We should never have been distin¬ 
guished for our manufactures in metals, 
unless we had possessed not only these, but 
an abundant supply of coal also. The fa¬ 
vourable situation of a country and its cli¬ 
mate have a great influence on its success 
in manufactures: when the heat or the cold 
is too great, men lose much of their energy. 

MANUMIS'SION ( manumissio , from ma- 
numitto, I let go from the hand: Lat.), 
among the Romans, the solemn ceremony 
by which a slave was emancipated, or libe¬ 
rated from personal bondage. 

MANU'RE (manceuvrer, to work with the 
hand : Fr. ; and hence to enrich the land), 
any substance, whether vegetable, animal, 
or mineral, mixed up with the soil, to ac¬ 


celerate vegetation, and increase the pro¬ 
duce of crops; as the contents of stables 
and farm-yards, marl, ashes, lime, flsli, salt, 

&c. It is intended to supply some element 
of vegetables which is wanting in the soil. 

MAN'USCRIPTS (manu scriptum, written 
with the hand : Lat.), writings of any kind, 
on paper, parchment, or any other material. 
The study of ancient modes of writing is 
styled Palaeography (palaios, old, graphe, 
writing: Gr.). There are many modes by 
which antiquarians arc enabled to discover 
the probable date of a manuscript; and 
there are many manuscripts which have at 
the end a statement when and by whom I 
they were written, though this is not 
always to be relied on. Since we have had 
the evidence of the manuscripts found at 
Herculaneum, we can decide with cer¬ 
tainty that none of our manuscripts are i 
older than the Christian era. It was the 
custom, in the middle ages, wholly to 
obli terate and erase writings on parchment, 
for the purpose of writing on the ma- ; 
terialsanew. These rewritten manuscripts [ 
were called codices rescripti, rasi, and pa¬ 
limpsests [which see]. The costliness of 
writing materials gave rise also to abund¬ 
ant abbreviation. The invention of printing 
put an end to the destruction of manu¬ 
scripts, but not to the use of abbreviation, 
which continued long after, being common 
in Greek until within the last fifty years. ! 
Latin manuscripts prior to the age of Char¬ 
lemagne (a.d. 800) are considered ancient. 

The illumination of manuscripts was com¬ 
mon among the Romans, and flourished in i 
these countries from the 5th to the 10th 
century. An attempt was made to intro¬ 
duce it again, at the revival of the arts, 
but the effort was unsuccessful. Some of 
the portraits and other paintings in illumi¬ 
nated manuscripts of great antiquity are 
very beautiful. 

IMAP (mappa: Lat.), a delineation of a 
country, according to a scale, in which the 
proportion, shape, and position of places 
are exactly preserved. The top is usually 
the north, the right hand the east, the left 
hand the west, and the bottom the south. 
When the cardinal points are otherwise ar¬ 
ranged, a fleur-de-lis points to the north. A 
terrestrial map is either geographic, that is, 
relates to land, or hydrographic, that is, re¬ 
lates to the sea—in which case it is usually 
called a chart. A map representing a small 
extent of country is called a topographical 
map. In maps three things are essentially 
requisite. 1 . All places must have the same 
situation and distance from its great circles, 
as on the globe, that their parallels, longi¬ 
tudes, &c., may be distinctly seen. 2. Their \ 
magnitudes must be proportional to their j I 
real magnitudes on the globe. 3. All places I \ 
must have the same situation, bearing, and ! I 
distance, as on the earth itself. The de- ; 
grees of longitude are numbered at top and i 
bottom, and the degrees of latitude on the 
right and left sides. 

MA'PLE, the name of several trees be¬ 
longing to the genus Acer. The common 
maple is Acer campestre ; the sycamore is 
Acer pseudoplatanus. The Acer sacchari- 
num, or sugar-maple, in North America, is 






























443 ilttcravn 

one of the most remarkable species. By 
tapping this tree early in the spring, the 
Americans procure a large quantity of 
sugar; one of an ordinary size yielding in 
a good season from twenty to thirty gallons 
of sap. It is this tree that yields the orna¬ 
mental wood known as bird’s eye or mottled 
maple. The wood of the common European 
maple is much used by turners ; and on ac¬ 
count of its lightness is frequently em¬ 
ployed for musical instruments, particu¬ 
larly for violins. 

MAR'ABOUT CRANE, the Leptoptilos 
Marabou of ornithologists,inhabits Senegal, 
in Africa. The head and neck are nearly 
naked, and there is an external pouch in 
front of the neck. The beautiful marabout 
plumes are obtained from this bird. 

MARANATH'A (Syr.), amongst the Jews, 
was a form of threatening, cursing, or ana¬ 
thematizing, and was looked upon as the 
most severe denunciation they had. The 
word is said to signify the Lord will come ; 
that is, to take vengeance. 

MARAN'TA, in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. order Marantacece. Tho species are 
perennials,and'among them is the Maranta 
arundinacea, or Indian arrow-root, the root 
of which contains the starch known by this 
name. 

MARAS'MUS ( maraino , I make to waste 
away : Or.), in Medicine, an atrophy or con¬ 
sumption ; a wasting of flesh without fever 
or apparent disease. 

MAIt'BLE ( marbre: Fr.), in Mineralogy 
and Geology, the several varieties of carbo¬ 
nate of lime, which have more or less of a 
granular and crystalline texture, and capa¬ 
ble of taking a polish.-In Sculpture, 

•several compact or granular kinds of stone, 
susceptible of a fine polish. The Pentelic 
and Parian were the white marbles most 
valued by the ancients. The marble of 
Luna, in Etruria, was whiter than even tho 
Parian. The quarries of Carrara, in Italy, 
almost supply the world with white marble. 

MAIt'CASITE, in Mineralogy, white iron 
pyrites ; a sulphuret of iron. 

MARCH ( Martins , literally belonging to 
Mare, the god of war: Lot.), the third month 
of the year, according to the calendar of 
Kuma and Julius Caesar ; but in the calen¬ 
dar of Romulus it stood first, as it did 
among ourselves until the change in the 
style in 1752. It is said to have been named 
by Romulus, in honour of his supposed 

father Mars.- Maiich, in Military affairs, 

the movement of a body of troops from one 
place to another; or the measured and 
regular pace of a soldier, according to a 

certain form and time.-In Music, any 

piece adapted to a soldier’s march. 

MAlt'CHES C mearc , a border or limit: 
Sax.), borders or confines, particularly the 
boundaries between England and Wales, 
and between England aud Scotland. The 
office of the ‘lords-marchers ’ was origi¬ 
nally to guard the frontiers. Several titles 
of honour, in this and other countries, are 
derived from their original possessors hav¬ 
ing been appointed governors of marches or 
frontiers. 

MARCO'SIANS, a sect of heretics in the 
second century, so called from their leader 


[mari 

Marcus, who represented the Deity as con¬ 
sisting not of a trinity but a quarternity, 
viz., the Ineffable, Silence, the Father, and 
Truth. 

MAR'GARATE (next), in Chemistry, a 
compound of margaric acid with a base. 

MARGAR'IC A'CID ( margarites , a pearl: 
Or.), in Chemistry, one of the solid proxi¬ 
mate principles of fats. It has a pearly 
lustre, is insoluble in water, but dissolves 
in hot alcohol, and is deposited from it by 
cooling. It resembles stearic acid, but is 
more fusible, inciting at 140° Fahr. 

MARGRA'VTATE (mark, a frontier; and 
gruf, a count: Ger.), the territory or juris¬ 
diction of a margrave, who was originally 
' a lord or keeper of the marches or borders. 
It is now a title of nobility in Germany, &c. 

MAR'IGOLD, a plant of the genus Calen¬ 
dula, bearing a yellow flower. There are 
also several plants of other genera bearing 
this name; as the African marigold, of the 
genus Tagetes; corn marigold, of the genus 
Chrysanthemum; marsh marigold, of the 
genus Caltha, &c. 

MARI'NE (marinus: Lat.), pertaining to 
the sea ; as marine productions, &c. Also 
a general name for the navy of a kingdom 
or state ; comprehending likewise all that 
relates to naval affairs, as the building, 
rigging, arming equipping, navigating, and 
employing ships. 

MARI'NES (same deriv.), soldiers raised 
for naval service, and trained to fight both 
on shipboard aud on land. They are clothed 
and armed in the same way as infantry of 
the line. No commissions in the corps are 
obtained by purchase, and the officers rise 
by seniority, the highest grade being colo¬ 
nel-commandant. They are commanded by 
a lieutenant-general and a major-general, 
who are naval officers, holding these addi¬ 
tional titles. 

MA'RIOTTE’S LAW, in Pneumatics, the 
law discovered by Boyle, but commonly 
attributed to Mariotte, that, ‘the elasticity 
or pressure of gases is directly proportional 
to their density, and therefore inversely 
proportional to the space they occupy.’ 

MARK, St., the Gospel of, a canonical 
book of the New Testament, the second in 
order. It is said that St. Mark wrote his 
gospel at Rome, whither lie accompanied St. 
Peter, in the year of Christ 44. Tertullian, 
and others, pretend that St. Mark was no 
more than an amanuensis to St. Peter, 
who dictated this gospel to him; others 
assert that he wrote it after St. Peter’s 
death. Nor are the learned less divided as 
to the language in which it was ■written ; 
some affirming it to have been Greek, aud 
others Latin. It however seems plainly 
intended for Christian converts from pa- ! 
ganism, and is distinguished from the other 
evangelical writings by its brevity, passing 
over much that relates to the character of 

Christ as Messiah.- Mark, a money of ' 

account, or a coin. The English mark is 
two-thirds of a pound sterling, or 13s. id. 
The Hamburg mark is Is. id. 

MARL (m erg el: Ger.), a species of calca¬ 
reous earth, being a mixture of carbonate 
of lime and clay, used in agriculture for j 
enriching barren land. When it consists 





























marlines] Jjctcnttfic anti 444 

chiefly of lime, it acts like that substance ; 
when its principal ingredient is alumina or 
clay, it acts partly as lime, but chiefly by 
altering the texture of the soil. All sandy 
soils are improved by it. All solid marls 
crumble by exposui-e to the atmosphere, 
usually in the course of a year. Beds of 
marl frequently contain organic remains. 

MAR'LINES ( marling: Belg.), a sea term 
for lines of untwisted hemp, well tarred, 
to keep the ends of the ropes, &c., from 

! unravelling.- Marline-spike, a small 

; iron spike, used to open a rope when a sail 
, is to be sewed to it, &c. 

MAR'MALADE (Fr.; from marmelo, a 
quince: Portng.), the pulp of quinces boiled 
into a consistence with sugar; or a confec¬ 
tion of plums, apricots, quinces, and other 
fruits, boiled with sugar. 

MAR'MOSETS, a family of small monkeys 
peculiar to tropical America. In their inan- 
i nerof climbing they are more like squirrels 

1 than monkeys. [‘The nails, except those of 
the hind thumbs, are long and claw-shaped, 
like those of squirrels, and the thumbs of 
the fore extremities are not opposable to the 
i other Angers. They have two molar teeth 
less in each jaw than the Cebidce, the other 
i family of American monkeys. The body is 
i long and slender, clothed with soft hairs ; 
and the tail, which is nearly twice the 
length of the trunk, is not prehensile.’—H. 
W. Bates.] The countenance is mobile, ex¬ 
pressive, and intelligent. In captivity the 
eyes are full of curiosity and mistrust, and 
observe every movement of those near 
them. They are fed both on fruits and in¬ 
sects. In some species the fur is marked 
with bars; others carry manes. The 
marmosets are great favourites with the 
ladies of Brazil. Of one, a timid sensitive 
thing, seven inches long, we are told that 
its owner constantly carried it in her 
bosom, and fed it from her mouth. Al¬ 
though it allowed its mistress to fondle it 
freely, it shrank back nervously on the 
approach of a stranger, the whole body 
trembling with fear, whilst through chat¬ 
tering teeth it uttered its twittering notes 
of alarm. 

MAR'MOT ( marmotte: Fr.), the Arctomys 
alpinus of zoologists, a rodent animal, 
about the size of a rabbit, inhabiting the 
higher region of the Alps and Pyrenees. 
When these animals (which live in socie¬ 
ties) are eating, they post a sentinel, who 
gives a shrill whistle on the approach of 
any danger, and they all retire into their 
burrows, which are well lined with moss 
and hay. In these retreats they remain, in 
a torpid state, from the autumn till April. 
The prairie dog of North America belongs 
to the same genus. 

MA'RONITES, a sect of Christians dwell¬ 
ing in the neighbourhood of MountLebanon, 
and so called from Maro, their flrst bishop, 
in the seventh century. They embraced 
the doctrine of Monotlieletism (that al¬ 
though there were two natures, there was 
but one will in Christ), but they became 
reconciled to the church of Rome in the 
twelfth century. They are nominally under 
the Pope’s supremacy, but the priests 
elect their own spiritual chiefs, and they are 

at liberty to marry. There is a college at 
Rome for the gratuitous education of young 
Maronites. 

MAROO'NS (hog-hunters : Span. Amer.), 
the name given to revolted negroes in the 
West Indies and in some parts of South 
America. In many cases, by taking to the 
forests and mountains, they have rendered 
themselves formidable to the colonies, and 
sustained a long and brave resistance 
against the white population. 

MARQUE, LETTER OF, a power granted 
by a state to its subjects, to make reprisals 
on the subjects of a state with which it is 
at war. 

MAIt'QUIS.or MAR'QUESS (marie, a fron- 1 
tier : Ger.), a title of honour, next in dignity 
to that of duke, flrst given to those who 
commanded the marches, or borders and 
frontiers of a kingdom. Marquises ivere 
not known in England till Richard II., in 
the year 1387, created Robert De Vere mar¬ 
quis of Dublin. The wife of a marquis is 
styled a marchioness. The marquis’s co¬ 
ronet is a circle of gold set round with 
four strawberry leaves, alternating with as 
many pearls on pyramidal points of equal 
height. 

MAR'RIAGE ( manage: Fr.). With the 
most ancient inhabitants of the East the 
bride was obtained by presents made, or 
services rendered, to her parents ; and to 
this day the same practice prevails among 
the Circassians and the poorer Turks and 
Chinese. Both men and women, among the 
Athenians, cut oil their hair before mar¬ 
riage, and consecrated it to some god or god¬ 
dess, under whose protection they had more 
immediately placed themselves; and all 
virgins, before they could enter upon that 
state, were consecrated to Diana. Previous 
to the actual marriage of the parties con¬ 
tracted, sacrifices were offered up, and the 
gall of the victim was always thrown be¬ 
hind the altar, intimating that anger and 
malice should have no admission. Among 
the Romans there was no particular age 
determined for marriage, but all espousals 
were to be consummated by the nuptials 
within two years. The man always, at the 
time of entering into contract, sent a plain 
iron ring to the woman as a pledge of affec¬ 
tion.- Law of Marriage. Parties may, 

as they please, be married either by the 
superintendent-registrar or in a place of 
worship licensed for the purpose. They 
may be married after the publication of 
banns, or without them by special or ordi¬ 
nary license, or by the superintendent- 
registrar’s certificate with or without 
license. If the marriage is solemnized at 
the office of the superintendent-registrar it 
must take place in his presence and that of 
some registrar of the district, and tveo 
other witnesses, with open doors, between 
the hours of eight and twelve in the fore¬ 
noon. Marriages in Ireland and Scotland 
are valid if made in the form required in 
those countries. Marriages are void if 
contracted within the prohibited degrees, 
or where there is a prior existing marriage, 
and in cases of lunacy or incapacity. It is 
dissolved by the divorce court on proof of 
adultery. [See Adultery.] Bigamy or 

































445 


Eftcrart) Ercatfuru. 


polygamy is a felonious offence. A wife 
committing any felony, except murder or 
manslaughter, in company with her hus¬ 
band, is not responsible for it; but she is, 
in such circumstances, indictable for high 
treason. In neither civil nor criminal 
cases, with the exception of treason, are 
husband and wife allowed, in ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances, to give evidence against each 
other. Should the husband die intestate, 
the wife is entitled to half his personal pro- 

I perty if there is no issue; if there is, to one- 
third. The husband is liable for all debts 
contracted by the wife before marriage, 
except those incurred during a former 
marriage; but his responsibility is ended 
by his or her death. He is not liable for 
debts incurred by her during marriage, un¬ 
less they are contracted with his consent, 
either expressed or implied. He is not 
liable for his wife’s debts, even for neces¬ 
saries, if he turn her away for adultery, if 
she abandon him, or if they separate by mu¬ 
tual agreement. The will of a bachelor, or 
a widower not having children, is revoked 
by subsequent marriage and birth of issue. 
The warrant of attorney, given to an un¬ 
married woman, is revoked by her mar¬ 
riage ; also her will. 

MARS (in Mythology, the god of war), in 
Astronomy, one of the superior planets, 
moving round the sun in an orbit between 
those of the earth and Jupiter. His mean 
distance from the sun is about 142,000,000 
miles. He performs his mean sidereal re¬ 
volution in very nearly 687 days. At the 
beginning of this century his orbit was in¬ 
clined to the ecliptic at an angle of 1° 51' 6". 
His diameter is about 4100 miles. He re¬ 
volves on his axis in 24h. 39m. 21s. The 
outlines of continents and seas may be dis¬ 
tinctly discerned on his surface. His 

. | reddish colour is most probably due to an 
ochreous soil, and his seas, by contrast, ap- 

! pear green. [See Colours, Accidental.] 
His poles seem very white, no doubt from 
snow, as the whiteness is greatest after the 
long polar winter, and it disappears after 
long exposure to the sun. 

MARSH (marecage: Fr.), a tract of low 
land, usually or occasionally covered with 
water; or very wet and miry, and over¬ 
grown with coarse grass and sedges. Land 
occasionally overflowed by the tides is 
called a salt marsh. 

MARSH-MAL'LOW. [See Althaea.] 

I I MAR'SHAL (martchal: Fr.), in its pri¬ 

mary signification, means an officer who has 
the charge of horses ; but it is now applied 
to officers who have very different employ¬ 
ments.- Marshal op the Queen’s 

Bench, an officer who had the charge of the 
prison formerly in Southwark; but his 
office has been abolished, that of Keeper of 
the Queen's Prison having been substituted 
f 0r it.- Earl-Marshal, the eighth officer 

i of state; an honorary title, and personal 
until made hereditary by Charles II. in the 
family of Howard. He is at the head of the 

college of Heralds.- Field-marshal, a 

military officer of the highest rank.-In 

the United States of America, a marshal is 
a civil officer, appointed by the president 

j and senate, in each judicial district ; an- 


[mARTINGAI E 


swering to the sheriff of a county in Eng- ! 
land.— Marshal op France, the highest 
military rank in the French army. It first 
appears in the reign of Philip Augustus : it 
ceased after the deposition of Louis XVI., 
and was revived by Napoleon. 

MAR'SHALLING (last), in Heraldry, the I 
arranging of several coats of arms belong¬ 
ing to distinct families in one escutcheon ! 
or shield, together with their ornaments. 

MAR'SHALSEA (marSchaussee: Fr.), for- ! 
merly a prison in Southwark. The Queen’s 
Bench, Fleet,-and Marslialsea prisons, used 
for the confinement of debtors and crimi¬ 
nals, by authority of the superior courts 
at Westminster, the High Court of Admi¬ 
ralty, &c., are now consolidated into one. 

- Marshalsea, a court instituted to 

hear causes between the king’s household 
and others, and having jurisdiction twelve 
miles round Whitehall; but now abolished. 

MARSU'PIALS ( marsupion, a purse: 
Gr.), an order of mammals, including the 
Kangaroos of Australia and the Opos¬ 
sums of America. They must be placed 
near the base of the mammalian scale, and 
show in their structure various points of 
connection with reptiles. One of the most 
remarkable parts of their structure is the 
possession of an external pouch, which 
serves as a lodgment for the young, that are 
always prematurely born. They vary greatly 
in their habits and food. 

MARTEL'LO TOW'ERS, a number of 
towers erected along different parts of the 
coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, as a 
defence against the threatened invasion of 
France by Napoleon Buonaparte. They are 
circular, with very thick walls, and bomb¬ 
proof roofs. One traversing gun was 
mounted on each, in working which the 
men were protected by a lofty parapet. 
They derived their name from the fact that 
the Italians, in past ages, built towers on 
their coasts, where they gave warning of 
the approach of pirates by striking a bell 
with a hammer, whence such towers were 
styled Torri cle Martello. They have for 
some time served as stations for the use of 
the coast-blockade force. 

MAR'TEN ( martes: Lat.), the Martes \ 
Foina, an animal of the weasel tribe; one 
of the prettiest of the beasts of prey which 
are found in Great Britain. It has a small , 
head, an agile body, and lively eyes. These | 
animals are very destructive to poultry, 
eggs, &c.; they also feed on rats, mice, 
moles, and sonTetimes on grain. The pine 
marten ( Martes dbietum) inhabits the woods 
of North America and Europe, and is much 
esteemed for its fur, wffiich is used for 
trimmings. About 100,000 skins of this 
animal are said to be annually collected in 
the fur countries. 

MAR'TIN. [See Hirundo.] 

MAR'TINETS (Fr.), in a ship, small lines 
fastened to the leech of a sail, reeved 
through a block on the topmast head, and 
coming down by the mast to the deck. 
Their use is to bring the leech of the sail 
close to the yard for the purpose of being 

furled.-In Military language, a martinet 

signifies a strict disciplinarian. 

MAR'TINGALE (Fr.), in the manege, a 





































martlets] 

thong of leather fastened at one end of the 
girths under the belly of the horse, and at 
the other end to the nmsrol, passing be¬ 
tween the fore legs : it is intended to keep 

him from rearing.-Also, a sea term for a 

rope extending from the jib-boom to the 
end of the bumpkin. 

MAltT'LETS, in Heraldry, little birds, 
like swallows, but with short tufts of fea¬ 
thers instead of legs. It is the difference 
| or distinction of a fourth son. 

MAR'TYR ( martus , literally a witness: 
Gr.), any innocent person who suffers death 
in defence of a cause rather than abandon 
| it. In the Christian sense of the word, it is 
one who lays down his life for the Gospel, 

! or suffers death for the sake of his religion. 

| Those who boldly asserted their belief, but 
i were not visited with the extreme punish¬ 
ment of death, were termed confessors. 

M ARTYROL'OGY ( martus , a martyr; and 
logos, a description: Gr.), a catalogue or 
list of martyrs, including the history of 
their lives and sufferings. Many of the 
ancient martyrologies, like those used at 
present in conventual establishments, were 
filled with fictions. 

MAR'VEL of PERU, the popular name of 
a Mexican plant, the Mirabilis dichotonia of 
botanists, nat. ord. Nyctaginacece. It has 
handsome flowers which show a great ten¬ 
dency to sport as to colour. 

MA'SONRY ( magonnerie: Fr.), that branch 
of the building art which consists in hew- 
i ing or squaring stones, &c.,and in properly 
laying them. Several kinds of masonry 
were in use among the ancients:—the re- 
ticulatum (rete, a net: Lat.), arranged in 
diagonal courses like the meshes of a net; 
the incertum (incertus, irregular), in which 
the stones of the same course were not re¬ 
quired to be of the same height, nor the 
joints, though flat, perpendicular; the 
isodomus (isos, equal; and domos, a collec¬ 
tion of building materials: Gr.), in which 
the courses w T ere equal in height; the pseu- 
disodomus (pseudes, false: Gr.), in which 
the courses were of unequal height; the 
emplectum ( empleko, I interweave: Gr.), in 
which the faces were wrought, the centre 
j being filled up with rubble ; diatoni (dia, 
through; and teino, I stretch : Gr.), or bond 
| stones, being used by the Greeks with this 
kind of work. It is highly important, in 
every kind of masonry, that the vertical 
[ joint of one course should not fall on or very 
near that of the course under it. 

MA'SONS (masons: Fr.), or Pule and 
Accepted Masons, a term applied to a 
fraternity of great antiquity, and so called 
probably because the first founders of it 
were persons of that occupation. It is ge¬ 
nerally understood that they are bound by 
an oath of secrecy not to reveal anything 
that passes within the society, and the 
members throughout the w r orld are known 
to each other by certain secret signs. It 
professes to be founded on the practice of 
social and moral virtue, and inculcates 
‘brotherly love, relief, and truth.’ [See 
Freemasonry.] 

MASQUE, a theatrical drama, or gorgeous 
histrionic spectacle, much admired at the 
courts of princes during the 16th and 17th 


4 id I 


centuries. According to Holinshed’s Chro- | 
nicle, the first masque performed in Eng¬ 
land was at Greenwich, in 1512. Shakspeare, 
as well as Beaumont and Fletcher, have ' 
frequently introduced masques into their j 
plays. James I. carried the glory of the ! 
masque to its height. It had before con- | 
sisted of music, dancing, gaming, a ban¬ 
quet, and a display of grotesque personages 
and fantastic dresses; but it now assumed 
a higher character.-In Architecture, cer¬ 

tain pieces of sculpture representing hi¬ 
deous forms, which serve to fill up vacant 
spaces. 

MASQUER A'DE (mascherata: Ital.), an 
exhibition, in which persons wearing masks 
meet together and represent different cha¬ 
racters. 

MASS, in the Church of Rome, the prayers 
and ceremonies used at the celebration of 
the eucliarist; or, in other words, at the 
supposed consecrating of the bread and 
wine into the body and blood of Christ, and 
offering them, so transubstantiated, as an 
expiatory sacrifice for the living and the 
dead. It derives its name from the words 
‘ ite, missa est condo' (go, the assembly is 
dismissed : Lat.), of which the words ‘ite, 
missa est’ are still retained, being pro¬ 
nounced at its close. It was arranged in 
its present forun by Gregory I., in tlie 6th 
century. Low masses are those in which 
only one person officiates. In high masses, 
the officiating priest is assisted by the dea¬ 
con, subdeacon, &c.; the ceremonies are 
more numerous, and it is accompanied with 
music. The masses of the religious orders 
usually differ more or less from those of 
the secular clergy. Masses said in certain 
places, or by certain persons, have indul¬ 
gences attached to them by grant from the 
pope, and are therefore deemed more effi¬ 
cacious ; they are applicable, generally 
speaking, to both the living and the dead. 
——Mass (masse: Ger.), the quantity of 
matter in any body; its amount is obtained 
by multiplying the volume into the density. 
The mass multiplied by the constant force 

of gravity constitutes weight. -In the Fine 

Arts, a large quantity of light or shade. 

MASSE'TER ( masseter, from masaomai, 

I chew : Gr.), a short thick muscle, which 
raises the lower jaw, and aids in moving it 
backwards and forwards, in the act of 
chewing. 

MAS'SICOT, the yellow oxide of lead. It 1 
is prepared by calcination of white lead, 
the carbonate of the metal; by further cal¬ 
cination, it becomes minium, or red lead. I 

MAS'SIVE (massif: Fr.), in Mineralogy, ! 
having a crystalline structure, but not’a 
regular form.-Among builders, an epi¬ 

thet given to whatever is particularly heavy 
and solid : thus a massive column is one too 
short and thick for the order whose capital 
it bears, &c. 

MASSO'RA, or MASO'RA (tradition: 
Ileb.), a critical work amongst the Jews, 
containing remarks on the verses, words, 
letters, and vowel-points of the Hebrew 
text of the Bible. The Jewish Rabins or 
doctors who drew it up were called Masso- 
rites. Before their time, the sacred books 
had no breaks or divisions into chapters or 


Oje nntr 


i 

































447 Ettfrary 


1 verses; and in consequence of the errors 
which had crept in during the Babylonish 
captivity, >t was found necessary to ascer¬ 
tain and fix the reading of the Hebrew 
text; which they did, and also divided the 
canonical books into twenty-two, and these 
twenty-two books into chapters, and the 
chapters into verses. 

MAST (Ger.), a long, upright piece of 
timber, raised from the keel, through the 
deck of a vessel, to which the yards, sails, 
&c., are fixed; the whole being supported 
by an ingenious combination of ropes, 
adapted to be used as a means of ascent for 
the purpose of adjusting the sails. The 
mainmast is the largest mast in the ship, 
and in large ships is divided into lower, 
top, top-gallant, and royal; the foremast is 
the next in size, standing near the stem of 
the ship; the mizenmast, the smallest of 
the three, stands between the mainmast 

and the stern.- Mast, the fruit of the oak 

and beech. 

MASTER (maitrc: Fr.; from magister: 
Lat.), in Law, the name of several officers 
who preside in their various departments. 

-Master-at-arms, in a ship of war, he 

who has charge of the small arms, and exer¬ 
cises the pefrty officers, &c.- Master of 

Arts, the second degree taken at Cam¬ 
bridge and Oxford, to which candidates arc 
not admitted until they are of seven years’ 
standing. In the foreign and Scotch univer¬ 
sities it is the first degree. - Master of 

the Ceremonies, an officer attached to all 
European courts, whose duty is to regulate 
matters of state ceremony and etiquette. 

-Masters in Chancery, assistants to 

the lord chancellor and master of the rolls. 
There were, including the master of the 
rolls and accountant-general, twelve mas¬ 
ters in ordinary, of whom the master of the 
rolls was chief. They are now abolished, 
with a reservation of the rights, duties, and 
privileges of the accountant-general as one 
of them. Masters extraordinary were ap- 
pointed to act in the country, beyond 

twenty miles from London.- Master of 

the Horse, an officer of the crown, who 
has the charge of the royal stud, and is 
| over the equerries and other officers at¬ 
tached to that part of the regal establish¬ 
ment.- Master of the Rolls, a patent 

officer, who has the custody of the rolls of 
parliament, patents which pass the great 
seal, the records of chancery, commissions, 
deeds, &c. He hears causes in the Rolls- 

chapel.- Master, in a merchant-vessel, 

the same as captain ; but in a ship of war 
I an officer who inspects the provisions and 
! stores, takes care of the rigging and ballast, 
and navigates the ship under the directions 

of his superior officer.- Master of 

the Wardrobe, an officer under the lord 
chamberlain, who has the care of the royal 
robe3. 

MAS'TIO, or MAS'TICH (mastike: Gr.), a 
solid and transparent resin, of a pale yellow 
or whitish colour, principally brought from 
’ the island of Chios, in drops or tears, the 
form in which it naturally exudes from the 
Pistacia atlantica and P. lentiscus, two trees 
belonging to the nat. ord. Anacardiacece. 
U is used for strengthening the gums and 


Ct'casuty. [mathematics 


sweetening the breath.-In Architecture, 

a species of cement used for plastering j 
walls. It contains a large quantity of lin- ; 
seed-oil, and becomes hard in a few days. 

MASTIFF ( nicest , greatness; and tceve, a 
dog: Goth.), in Zoology, the Ganis Molossns, 
having a large head, with pendent lips and 
ears, and distinguished by vigilance, 
strength, and courage. English mastiffs 
were held in such high estimation at an¬ 
cient Rome, that an officer was appointed 
for the purpose of breeding them, and 
sending to the imperial city such as he 
thought capable of sustaining the combats 
in the amphitheatre. 

MASTODON ( mastos , the breast; and 
odous, a tooth : Gr.), in Natural History, a 
genus of mammiferous animals resembling 
the elephant and mammoth, but found only 
in a fossil state. There are no traces, 
within the period of tradition or history, of 
their existence. They derive their name 
from the conical projections on the surfaces 
of their molar teeth. 

MASTOID ( mastos , a breast; and eidos, 
form: Gr.), in Anatomy, an epithet for 
those processes of bone which resemble the 
nipple of a breast. 

MASTOL'OGY ( mastos , abreast; and logos, 
a description : Gr.), that branch of zoology j 
which treats of mammiferous animals. 

MATE ( maet: Put.), an officer who is as¬ 
sistant to the captain of a merchant-vessel 
on shipboard. Large ships have a first, 
second, and third mate. In ships of war, 
the master has mates selected from the mid¬ 
shipmen ; the boatswain, carpenter, gunner, 
&c., have each their mates. 

MATE'RIALISM ( materia, matter: Lat.), 
the doctrine held by those who maintain 
that man does not possess a spiritual part 
distinct from his body, and hold that what 
others call soul or spirit is only the result 
or effect of the organization of matter in 
the body. 

MATE'RTA MED'ICA (medical stuff: 
Lat.), a term used to denote all those sub¬ 
stances which are employed in the preven- 1 
tion of diseases and the restoi’ation of 
health. 

MATHEMATICS (mathematike, from via- 
thein, to learn : Gr.), the science which has 
for its object the indirect measurement of 
magnitudes. It proposes to determine mag- 1 
nitudes by each other according to the 
precise relations that exist between them. 
Mathematics are to be regarded less as a 
constituent part of natural philosophy than 
as having become the true basis of the j 
whole of natural philosophy; though, 
strictly speaking, they are both. The science 
is of less value for the knowledge of which 
it consists, important as that knowledge is, 
than as being the most potent instrument 
that the human mind can employ for investi¬ 
gating the laws of natural phenomena. It is ! 
divisible into two great sciences: Abstract 
mathematics, or the calculus in its most ex¬ 
tensive sense; and Concrete mathematics, 
which are composed of general geometry 
and rational mechanics. The concrete part 
is founded upon the abstract, which, in its 
turn, becomes the basis of all natural phi¬ 
losophy. It Is the business of concrete 































CTjc Jrrtcntttfc antf 


448 


MATINS'*. 

mathematics to discover the equations of' 
phenomena. Hence it depends on the cha¬ 
racter of the objects examined, and varies 
with the phenomena. The process is there¬ 
fore special, and its character experimental, 
physical, phenomenal. Abstract mathema¬ 
tics, on the other hand, are entirely inde- 
| pendent of the nature of the objects, and 
i are concerned only with their numerical 
| relations. Their process is general; their 
character purely logical and rational. They 
are an immense extension of logic to a cer- 
! tain order of deductions; and it reaches 
j from the simplest numerical operations to 
the highest combinations of transcendental 
analysis. The object is to discover un¬ 
known quantities by the known, using, as 
its starting point, that which is the limit of 
concrete mathematics; the knowledge of 
the precise relations, that is, the equations 
between different magnitudes which are 
considered simultaneously. If all pheno- 
j mena were capable of being reduced to 
questions of numbers, the whole domain 
of natural science would be brought within 
the reach of mathematics; but such is the in- 
[ creasing complexity of phenomena, as they 
become special, and such the narrowness 
of human capacity, that the difficulty of dis¬ 
covering suitable equations, except in the 
case of the simplest and most general phe¬ 
nomena, is insurmountable. [See Algebra] 

MAT'INS (.matin, the morning : Fr.), the 
first part of the daily service, particularly 
I in the Roman Catholic church, in which it, 
as well as lauds, may be said the afternoon 
i preceding the day to which it belongs. 

MAT'RASS ( matras: Fr.), or Cucurbit, 
a long straight-necked chemical glass ves¬ 
sel used for digestion and distillation; 
being sometimes bellied, and sometimes 
gradually tapering into a conical figure. 
The matrass is superseded in a modern che¬ 
mistry by the flask. Florence flasks, in 
which sweet oil is imported, are, on ac¬ 
count of their thinness (which renders them 
not likely to break when heated) and their 
cheapness, extremely convenient in che¬ 
mical processes on a small scale. 

MATRICULA'TION (matricula, the dim. 
of matrix, a public register : Lat.), the act 
of admitting any person to be a member of 
i an English university. 

I MA'TRIX (the womb: Lat.), in Metal- 
J lurgy, the bed or mould of earth, &c., in 
i which any mineral substance is found. It 
is called also a gangue. A mould, or 
whatever gives form to anything; as, in 
Printing, the mould or form in which the 

type or letter is cast.-In Coining, the 

steel die, on which are engraved the 
figures, arms, &c., with which the coin is 
to be stamped. 

MATROSS', one of those who, in a train 
of artillery, were next to the gunners, and 
assisted them in loading, firing, and spong¬ 
ing the guns. They carried firelocks, and 
marched with the store waggons as guards 
and assistants. 

MAT'TER ( materies: Lat.), that which is 
the object of our senses; we can never 
know more than its sensible properties. It 
does not necessarily come under the cogni¬ 
zance of all our senses : thus we cannot see 


the colourless gases. Its essential proper ; 
ties are, divisibility, or the capability of 
being separated into parts ; impenetrability, 
the impossibility of two different quanti¬ 
ties of matter occupying the same place at 
the same time; porosity, the separation of 
its particles by small pores or empty spaces; 
compressibility, a capability of being made 
to occupy a smaller space—the consequence 
of porosity ; extension, the occupation of 
some definite portion of space; mobility, 
the capability of being moved from one | 
place to another; and weight, or the mutual 
attraction existing between every one 
of its particles and the earth—a conse¬ 
quence of that great law by which every 
portion of matter attracts every other, at 
least within certain very great distances, 
that attraction being inversely as the 
square of the distance. Matter is usually 
divided by philosophical writers into three 
kinds or classes—solid, liquid, and aeriform. 
Solid substances are those whose parts 
firmly cohere or resist compression, as 
wood or stone. Liquids are those which 
have free motion among their parts, and 
yield.to any force, as water, wine, &c. 
Aeriform substances are elastic fluids, called 
vapours and gases, as air, oxygen, &c. 

MATTH'EW, St., Gospel of, a canonical 
book of the New Testament. St. Matthew 
is generally thought to have composed his 
gospel in Judaea, at the request of those he 
had converted ; and it is thought he began 
it in the year 41, eight years after Christ’s 
resurrection. It was written, according to 
the testimony of all the ancients, in the 
Hebrew or Syriac language, which was then 
common in Judasa; but the Greek version 
of it, which now passes for the original, is 
as old as the apostolical times. 

MAT'URANT ( maturo , I ripen : Lat.), in 
Pharmacy, a medicine or application which 
promotes suppuration. 

MAUL'STIOK (mahlstock, from mahlen, 
to paint: Ger.), a painter’s stick, on which 
he rests his liaud when he paints. 

MAUN'DAY THURS'DAY, the Thursday 
in Passion week, or that which is next 
before Good Friday. The w T ord is supposed 
by some to be derived from the Saxon 
maund, a basket, because on that dayprinces 
used to give alms to the poor from baskets. 
Others think it was called Maunday or 
Mandate Thursday, from mandatum (a com¬ 
mand : Lat.), on account of the command 
which Christ gave his disciples to comme¬ 
morate him in the Lord’s supper, which he 
this day instituted ; or from the new com¬ 
mandment that he gave them to love one 
another, after he had washed their feet as a 
token of his love towards them. 

M AJTSOLE'IJM, a general designation 
for any superb and magnificent monument 
of the dead, adorned with rich sculpture, 
and inscribed with an epitaph. In a more 
confined acceptation, it expresses a pomp- : > 
ous monument in honour of some emperor, 
prince, or very illustrious personage; but 
it properly and literally signifies that par¬ 
ticular monument constructed out of the 
native rock by Artemisia to the memory of 
her husband Mausolus, king of Caria, 
whence it derives Its name. This monu- 






































44‘J 


Ettcrary (fcatfttrg. 


ment was so superb that it was reckoned 
one of the wonders of the world. It was 
formed, B.c. 353, at Halicarnassus, in Asia 
Minor. Its pyramid of 24 steps was crowned 
by a marble chariot, and 36 columns were 
placed around it. The base formed a paral¬ 
lelogram that measured 472 feet. Five 
sculptors of the highest eminence were 
employed to enrich it with statuai'y and 
carvings. Some of the sculptures are now 
in the British Museum. 

MAX'ILLARY BONES (maxilla a jaw¬ 
bone, Lat.), in human anatomy, the bones in 
which the teeth are lodged. In the adult 
the upper jaw is formed of one bone, but it 
consists of several elements in children; 
and in monkeys and other quadrupeds one 
of these elements remains permanently dis¬ 
tinct. The lower jaw in the infant consists 
of two branches joined at the middle, but 
in the adult it is composed of a single bone. 
The animal visage is distinguished from 
man’s by the elongation of the jaw-bones. 
[See Facial Angle.] In Ashes the upper 
jaw is sometimes wanting, as in the eels; 
it is occasionally formed by a single pair of 
bones, but often by two pairs of bones, 
called the maxillary and premaxillary bones. 
The lower jaw is called the mandible. 
Amongst insects, the term maxilloe is 
applied to the hinder or inferior pair of 
jaws; each carries a jointed organ called 
a palpus. 

MAX'IM ( maxime: Fr.), an established 
proposition or principle; in which sense, 
according to popular usage, it denotes 
nearly the same as axiom in philosophy and 
mathematics. Maxims are self-evident 
propositions, and the principles of all sci¬ 
ence ; for on these, and deAnitions, all de¬ 
monstrative knowledge depends. 

MAX'IM A and MIN'IMA (the largest and 
smallest quantities: Lat.), terms used in 
analysis to signify, not the greatest and i 
least values of a variable quantity, but the 
values it has at the instant when it ceases 
to increase and begins to decrease, and 
vice versd.. A variable, therefore, may have 
several maxima and minima. 

MAY, the Afth month in the year, reck¬ 
oning from January; and the third, begin¬ 
ning with March, as was the practice of 
the ancient Romans, &c. This month de¬ 
rives its name from Maia, the mother of 
Mercury, to whom sacriAce was offered on 
the Arst day of it. The month of May is, 
in the Roman Catholic church, specially de¬ 
voted to the Virgin; and many Roman 
Catholics even term it, in the ordinary bu¬ 
siness of life, the month of-Mary. 

MAY'-FLY, a name given to several in¬ 
sects, but most correctly to the Ephemera 
vulgata, a neuropterous insect, plentiful in 
the beginning of summer, and used as a 
bait in Ashing, especially for trout. 

MAY'OR (major, greater: Lat.), the chief 
magistrate of a city or municipal borough, 
who, in London, Dublin, and York, is called 
lord mayor. [See Common Council.] 

MEAD (meth: Ger.), an agreeable sweet 
kind of wine, made of honey and water, 
boiled and fermented. 

MEAD'OW, in its general signiAcation, 
means pasture or grass-land, annually 


[measure 


mown for hay; but the term is more parti¬ 
cularly applied to lands that are too moist j 
for cattle to graze upon in winter without j 
spoiling the sward. In America, the word 
meadow is applied particularly to the low I 
ground on the banks of rivers, consisting 
of a rich mould or an alluvial soil, whether 
grass-land, pasture, tillage, or woodland. 

MEAD'OW-ORE, in Mineralogy, con- 
clioidal bog-iron-ore. 

MEAD'OW-SWEET, in Botany, a plant 
of the nat. ord. Rosacece, and genus Spircea, 
with crumpled leaves, something like those 
of the elm, growing in meadows. Its 

Aowers are whiteandfragrant.- Meadow- 

rue, a plant of the nat. ord. Ranuncidacece, 
and genus Thalictrum. - Meadow-saf¬ 

fron, a plant of the nat. ord. Melanthacece 
and genus Colchicum. - Meadow-saxif¬ 

rage, a plant of the nat. ord. Umbelliferce, 
and genus Peucedanum. 

MEAN (medianus, middle: Lat.), a mid¬ 
dle state; called arithmetical when it is 
half the sum of two extremes ; geometrical, 
when it is the square root of the product 
of two extremes; and harmonical, when it 
is equal to twice the product of the ex¬ 
tremes divided by their sum.- Mean dis¬ 

tance of a planet from the sun, in Astronomy, 
a right line drawn from the sun to the ex¬ 
tremity of the conjugate axis of the ellipsis 
in which the planet moves; and this is 
equal to the semi-transverse axis. It is so 
called because it is a mean between the 
planet’s greatest and least distance from 

the sun.-- Mean motion, that by which a 

planet is supposed to uniformly traverse its 
orbit, and which is always proportional to 

the time.- Mean time, or equal time, that 

which is measured by an equable motion, 
as that of a clock. 

ME'ASLES (maselen : Tent.), in Medicine, 
Rubeola, a well-known disease. Persons 
I of all ages are liable to its attacks ; but It 
is more common in young children, and 
rarely affects an individual a second time. 
The symptoms are a swelling and inAam- 
mation of the eyes, hoarseness, cough, 
drowsiness, and, about the fourth day, an | 
eruption of small red spots. Even when 
violent, the measles are not necessarily of 
a putrid tendency, although such a disposi¬ 
tion sometimes prevails. 

MEAS'URE (mesure: Fr.; from “men- 
sura: Lat.), any given quantity, by which, 
as a unit, the length, breadth, thickness, 
and capacity of other things may be esti¬ 
mated, or proportioned, for the conve¬ 
nience and regulation of trade and com¬ 
merce. Formerly, every province, and al¬ 
most every place of importance, had its 
own measures, which proved a most per¬ 
plexing hindrance to commercial inter¬ 
course. In modern times many attempts 
at uniformity were made in the United 
Kingdom ; and at length, by au act of 
parliament, which came into operation 
Jan. 1, 1826, the London measures and 
weights were declared to be the standards 
for measures and weights throughout the 
realm. They are founded on the standard 
yard, which was declared by law to bear 
the same proportion to the length of a 
pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time, 

G G 



















CTIje ^rienttffc antr 


450 


MECHANICS] 


in tlie latitude of London, in a vacuum 
at the level of the sea, as 3G inches hear to 
391393 inches ; so that, if lost or injured, 
it might he easily replaced. This standard 
has since been lost, having been destroyed 
by the tire which consumed the two houses 
of parliament, in 1834. It is highly de¬ 
sirable that a decimal system of measures, 
as well as weights, should be adopted 
amongst us, on account of the facility with 
which calculations are made under that 

system.- Measure, in Arithmetic, &c., a 

quantity contained in another some num¬ 
ber of times, without a remainder: thus, 

7 is a measure of 21.- Measure, in Music, 

the interval which the person who beats 
time takes between the rising and falling 
of his hand, in order to render the move¬ 
ment quicker or slower, according to the 

nature of the subject.- Measure, in 

Poetry, a certain number of syllables me¬ 
trically arranged. 

MECIIAN'ICS ( mZchan?, a machine; from 
mlchos, an expedient: Or.), that branch of 
practical science which treats of the effects 
of powers or motive forces, and their ac¬ 
tion on bodies, either directly or by means 
of machines and engines. The term me¬ 
chanics includes statics, or the laws which 
relate to bodies in equilibrium; and dy¬ 
namics, or those which relate to bodies in 
motion. When the bddies under conside¬ 
ration are in the fluid state, the term hydro¬ 
mechanics might be employed, which would 
include hydrostatics, or the laws relating 
to fluids at rest; and hydrodynamics, or 
the laws relating to fluids in motion ; with 
hydraulics, or the laws which govern ma¬ 
chinery moved by water. The terms aero¬ 
statics and aerodynamics have been used to 
indicate those branches of science which 
relate to elastic fluids at rest,and in motion ; 
and they likewise ought to be included 

under the general term aeromechanics. - 

The mechanical powers arc six simple ma¬ 
chines, to which all others, how complex 
soever, may be reduced, and of which, or 
their combinations, all others are com¬ 
posed. These are the lever, the pulley, and 
the wheel and axle, all reducible to the le¬ 
ver ; the inclined plane, the wedge, and the 
screw, all reducible to the inclined, plane. 
The forces which may be employed to give 
motion to machines are called mechanical 
agents, or prime movers. They are water, 
wind, steam, gunpowder, the strength of 
man and other animals, &c. Water acts by 
its weight, and by the velocity which it ac¬ 
quires from falling in consequence of its 
weight. Wind acts by its volume or mass 
and its velocity. Both these agents are 
variable, and both act in a straight line. 
Heat, as given out by combustible mate¬ 
rials, produces steam, or gives motion to 
air by making it lighter, and causing it to 
expand. Steam, as usually employed, gene¬ 
rates a motion, which is alternately in one 
direction and the opposite. The strength 
of animals is commonly made to act upon 
some point of resistance, by drawing, push¬ 
ing, or pressing; and produces variable 
motions, naturally in a straight line, but 
sometimes in a curve. 

MECIIO'ACAN (from that province of 


Mexico whence it is brought), white jalap, 
the root of the Convolvulus Mechoacauna. 
It is a purgative, and was formerly used for 

jalap. 

MKCON'IC A'CID ( melcOn, the porpy: 
Gr.), the acid with which morphia is com¬ 
bined in opinion. When pure, it is in small 
white crystals. Its salts are termed me- 

conates. 

MED'AL ( mMaille: Fr.), a piece of metal 
in the form of a coin, intended to convey 
to posterity the portrait of some great per¬ 
sonage, or the memory of some illustrious 
action. Ancient coins, though, strictly 
speaking, not medals, are included under 
the term. The parts of a medal are the 
two sides, one of which is called the face, 
or obverse, containing the head, and the 
other the reverse. On each side is the area, 
or Held, which f*rms the middle of the 
medal; the rim, or border; and the exergue, 
or plain circular space just within the 
edge; and on the two sides are the type, or 
the figure represented, and the legend, or 
inscription. Egyptian medals are the most 
ancient; but the Grecian far excel all others 
in design, force, and delicacy. Those of 
the Romans are ’beautiful, the engraving 
fine, the invention simple, and the taste 
exquisite. They are distinguished into 
consular and imperial: the consular medals 
are the most ancient, but those of copper . 
and silver do not go farther back than the 
485th year of Rome, and those of gold { 
no farther back than the year 546. [See 
Money.] Among the imperial medals, a 
distinction is made between those of the 
upper and lower empire. The first com¬ 
menced under Julius Caesar, and continued 
till a.d. 260; the lower empire includes a 
space of nearly 1200 years, and ends with 
the taking of Constantinople. The use of 
medals is very considerable; they often 
throw great light on history, in confirming 
such passages as are true in old authors, in 
reconciling such as are discrepant, and in 
recording such as have been omitted. In 
this case, a cabinet of medals may be said 
to be a body of history. It was, indeed, an 
excellent way to perpetuate the memory of 
great actions, thus to coin out the life of 
an emperor, and to put every exploit into 
the mint—a kind of printing before the art 
was invented. Nor are medals of less use 
in architecture, painting, poetry, &c. ;for a 
cabinet of medals is a collection of pic¬ 
tures in miniature, and by them the plans 
of many of the most important buildings of 

antiquity are preserved_ Impressions of 

medals. The following is a very easy method 
of taking the impressions of medals and 
coins. Melt a little isinglass-glue with 
brandy, and pour it thinly over the medal, 
&c., so as to cover its whole surface; let it 
remain on for a day or two till it is 
thoroughly dry and hardened, when it may 
be easily removed, and will afford an ex¬ 
cellent impression. 

MEDAL'LION (Fr.), a medal of an unu¬ 
sual size, supposed,in ancienttimes, to have 
been struck by the emperors for their 
friends, and for foreign princes and ambas¬ 
sadors. 

MED'TCINE ( mtdecine: Fr.; from medi- 
























451 iCtterary Crcn^ury. [megatherium 


eina: Lat.), the art •which treats of the 
means of preserving or restoring health. 
It is founded on the study of man’s physical 
and moral nature, in health and in disease. 
It has struggled at all times, and continues 
to struggle, with favourite theories; and 
has, with the slowness which marks all im¬ 
portant advances in human knowledge, but 
lately emerged from some of the prejudices 
of many ages, and will doubtless long con¬ 
tinue subject to others. Hippocrates, who 
lived about the middle of the fifth century 
before the Christian era, is the earliest 
author on medicine whose writings have 
been preserved. He was a man of very 
superior medical acquirements, and, by the 
consent of posterity, he has been styled the 
Father of Medicine. Two other lights of 
ancient medicine were Celsus, who wrote in 
Latin in the first century after Christ, and 
Galen, who practised at Rome, but wrote 
in Greek, his native language, in the second 
century of our era. 

I MBDI'ETAS LIN'GUiE (a moiety of the 
stranger’s tongue: Lat.), in Law, a jury 
consisting of half natives and half foreign¬ 
ers, which isempannelled in cases of felony 
or misdemeanour, where the party to be 
| tried is a foreigner. 

ME'DIUM (Lat.), in Fliilosopliy, the space 
! or region through which a body in motion 
, passes to any point. Thus, air is the 
medium in which bodies move near our 
earth; water, that in which fishes live and 
move; and we likewise speak of a resisting 
medium, a refracting medium, &c.- Me¬ 

dium also denotes the means or instrument 
by which anything is accomplished, con¬ 
veyed, or carried on. Thus money is the 
medium of commerce; bills of credit or 
bank-notes are often used as media of 
trade in the place of gold and silver; and 
intelligence is communicated through the 
medium of the press. 

MED'LAR {meed, mead: Sax— from its 
fruit being used in that liquor), the fruit 
of the Mcspilus Germanica, a plant culti¬ 
vated in our gardens for its fruit, which, 
before it is perfectly ripe, has an extremely 
sharp and astringent taste. Medlars do not 
ripen on the tree, but are gathered in 
autumn, and kept till they approach a state 
of decomposition, before they are con- 
I sidcred fit to be eaten. 

MEDUL'LA (Lat.), in Anatomy, the mar¬ 
row, a soft Oleaginous substance contained 
j in the cavity of the bones. Anatomists, 
for many ages, took it to be a mere shapeless 
1 and irregular mass of matter; but it is 
found in reality to consist of a number of 
fatty substances, contained in minute vesi¬ 
cles of a membranaceous structure, in which 
it is secreted from the arterial blood, in the 
same manner as the fat of the rest of the 

body.- Medulla Cerebri, or medullary 

substance, the interior white portion of the 

brain.- Medulla oblongata, the lower 

and medullary part of the cerebrum and 
cerebellum; it extends to the great foramen 
or hole in the occipital bone of the cranium, 
where it gives origin to the spinal marrow 

and to the nerves of the brain.- Medulla 

spin alls, the spinal marrow, a continuation 
of the medulla oblongata of the brain It 


is enclosed in a kind of bony canal, formed 
by the vertebra, and in this is continued 
from the head to the extremity of the os 
sacrum.- Medulla, in Botany, the pith. 

MEDUL'LARY RAYS (same deriv.), in 
Botany, the vertical plates of cellular tissue, 
which radiate from the centre of the stem 
of exogenous plants through the wood to 
the bark ; they cause the appearance called 

silver grain. - Medullary Sheath, a thin 

layer of vessels which surround the pith 
of exogenous plants. It serves to connect 
the middle part of the stern and the leaves 
by means of its spiral vessels. 

MEDU'SA, one of the three sister Gor- 
gons, who incurred the displeasure of 
Minerva, and had her beautiful hair 
changed by the goddess into serpents. It 
was fabled that Perseus succeeded in be¬ 
heading Medusa, and that the serpents 
which infest Africa sprang from her blood. 
He had protected himself during the exploit 
with Minerva’s asgis, and the head was 
placed in the centre of the shield, where 
it retained the power it had, when living, 

of turning the beholder to stone.- 

Medusa, in Zoology, a genus of marine 
animals belonging to the class Acalephec .— 
popularly known as sea-blubbers and jelly¬ 
fish. The members of the family Medusadai 
are shaped something like an umbrella, 
and have various appendages hanging from 
the upper side. Ships at sea frequently 
pass amongst vast numbers of them. They 
have a stomach or digestive cavity ex¬ 
cavated in the centre of the disc. They 
swim by muscular contraction of the margin 
of the disc. A very large portion of them 
consists of water, which drains away if they j 
are placed on a filter; the solid parts of I 
one weighing ten pounds do not exceed 
two drachms. Many of them are phos¬ 
phorescent, but the organs which emit the 
light have not been discovered. Most of 
them sting and inflame the hand, and the 
cause of this property is equally unknown. 

MEER'SCnAUM (foam of the sea: Ger.), 
a fine sort of Turkish clay, consisting of 
hydrate of magnesia combined with silex, 
which, when first dug, is soft, and makes a 
lather like soap. From this clay, pipes are 
made in Germany, of various forms. It 
assumes a beautiful brown colour after it 
has been used by the smoker for some 
time. 

MEGALOSAU'RUS ( megas , great; and 
sauros, a lizard : Gr.), the name given to an 
extinct genus of giganticlizards. Remains 
have been found in the Stonesfleld slate, 
near Woodstock, a member of the lower 
oolite. 

MEGAPO'DIDiE, the family of Mound 
Birds, which see. 

MEG'ASCOPE {megas, great; and skopeo, 

T examine : Gr.), an optical instrument for 
the examination of bodies of large dimen¬ 
sions. 

MEGATHE'RIUM {megas, great; and 
tlierion, a beast: Gr.), a genus of extinct 
animals allied to the sloths, of which re¬ 
mains have been found in the post-tertiary 
beds of both North and South America. 
The South American species was 12 feet 
long, 8 feet high, and had feet a yard in 

























Melanite] 


Jrctcuttftc antf 


452 


length. It was a ponderous animal, that 
probably fed on the roots of plants, which 
its great strength enabled it to tear out of 
the ground. 

MEL'ANITE (melas, black: Gr.), the 
Black Garnet, a mineral of a velvet-black 
colour, found in the basalt of Bohemia, 
and in a rock at Frescati, near Rome. 

MELIS'SA (a bee : Gr— because abound¬ 
ing in honey;, in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. Ldbiatce, including the different 
species of balm. 

MEL'LITE (meli, honey ; and lithos, a 
stone: Gr.), the Honey stone, a mineral found 
first in Thuringia. It is yellow and crystal¬ 
lized, and consists of xnellitic acid and alu¬ 
mina. The name has been given also to a 
yellow mineral which occurs in very minute 
crystals in the fissures and cavities of lava, 
and the composition of which is not yet 

known.- Mellitio Acid, procured from 

mellite, is a compound of carbon and oxy¬ 
gen with water. 

MEL'ODRAMA ( melos, a song ; and dra¬ 
ma, a drama : Gr.), a dramatic performance 
in which music is intermixed; or that spe¬ 
cies of drama in which the declamation of 
certain passages is interrupted by music. 
If only one person acts, it is a monodrama ; 
if two, a duodrama. It differs from the 
opera and operetta in this, that the per¬ 
formers do not sing, but declaim, and the 
music only fills the pauses, either preparing 
or continuing the feelings expressed by the 
I actors. Melodramas are generally roman- 
] j tic and extravagant. 

MEL'ODY (melddia: from melos, a song; 

! and ode, an ode : Gr.), in Music, the agree- 
j able effect of different sounds, ranged and 
] disposed in succession; so that melody is 
the effect of a single voice or instrument, 
by which it is distinguished from harmony. 

MEL/ON (Fr.; from melo: Lat.), the fruit 
of a plant, the Cucumis melo, belonging to 
the nat. ord. Cucurbitacecc. There are many 
varieties in cultivation. Its native country 
is Asia. The Water melon is the fruit of the 
Cucurbita citrullus, another plant of the 
same nat. ord. As the fruit is cool and 
refreshing, it is cultivated extensively in 
warm countries. 

MEM'BRANE (membrana: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a broad nervous and fibrous sub¬ 
stance, which serves as a covering for dif¬ 
ferent parts of the body, particularly the 
brain and the viscera. The membranes 
differ in thickness, according to the small¬ 
ness of their fibres, or the number of their 
planes. These latter are termed laminae, 
and are distinguished into internal, ex¬ 
ternal, and medial. Small portions of 
membranes, especially when they are very 
thin, are called pellicles; and some mem¬ 
branaceous laminae are united together by 
I the intervention of a particular substance, 
composed of these pellicles, and called the 
cellular or spongy substance. 

MEMBRANOL'OGY (.membrana, a mem¬ 
brane: Lat.; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), 
that branch of anatomy which treats of the 
membranes of the body. 

MEM'OIRS ( m&moires: Fr.), a species of 
history, written by persons who had some 
share in the transactions they relate ; an¬ 


swering to what the Romans called com - 
mentarii (commentaries). They furnish the 
reader with interesting individual anec¬ 
dotes, and often expose the most secret 
motives, or disclose the whole character of 
events, which may be barely hinted at in 

books of general history.-Also, short 

essays on particular subjects. 

MEM'ORY ( memoria: Lat.), that faculty 
of the mind by which it retains the know¬ 
ledge of past impressions, a faculty which 
differs greatly in different individuals, and 
in the same individual at different ages, 
but in all it may be much improved by 
cultivation.- Local memory, among ora¬ 

tors, is but the associating the different 
heads to be treated of with the objects 
before the speaker’s eyes ; so that, by only 
looking around him, lie is put in mind of 

what he is to say.- Artificial memory 

(memoria technica) signifies a method of 
assisting the memory by some artificial 
contrivance, as that of forming certain 
words the letters of which shall signify 
the date or era to be remembered. [See 
Mnemonics.] 

MENACH'ANITE, in Mineralogy, ferru¬ 
ginous oxide of titanium ; so called from 
having been found in the vale of Menachan, 
in Cornwall. 

MEN'DICANTS (mendico, I beg : Lat.), a 
term applied to several orders of monks 
who live on alms, or beg from door to door. 

MENDO'SA SUTU'RA (a false joining: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, a scaly joining together 
of bones, as in those of the temple. 

MENIS'CUS (meniskos, a half-moon: Gr.), 
in Optics, a lens, convex on one side, and 
concave on the other, and on which the 
two surfaces would meet if continued, 
wherein it differs from a concavo-convex 
lens, in which the two surfaces would not 
meet if continued. 

MEN'IVER ( menu vair: Fr.), the old 
name of the ermine. 

MENOL'OGY (men, a month; and logos, 
a discourse : Gr.), in the Greek church, a 
brief calendar of the lives of the saints, or 
list of those whose lives are not written. It 
is the same as martyrology in the Roman 
Catholic church. 

MEN'SA (a table: Lat.), in Arclimology, 
denotes all patrimony or goods necessary 
for a livelihood. 

MENSA'LIA (pertaining to the table: 
Lat.), such parsonages or spiritual livings 
as were intended to provide for the tables 
of religious houses : they were called by 
the canonists mensal benefices. 

MEN'STRUUM ( mensis, a month : Lat.), 
in Chemistry, any fluid which dissolves a 
solid body. In the language of the older 
chemists, it meant some preparation which 
could operate effectually only at some par¬ 
ticular period of the moon or month. 

MENSURA'TION (mensuratio, from men- 
suro, I measure: Lat.), the art or process 
of ascertaining the lengths or contents 
of lines, surfaces, or solids; it is also 
applied to determine the heights, depths, 
or distances of bodies and objects. It 
therefore includes longimetry, or the art of 
measuringlines; planimetry, or the method 
of measuring surfaces; and stereometry, or 





























453 


Httuvrcg Cmtfttry. 


the art of measuring solids. The mensura¬ 
tion of a plane superficies, or surface, lying 
level between its several boundaries, is 
easy. The surface of any parallelogram 
is the product of one side and its perpen¬ 
dicular distance from the opposite side. 
The surface of a triangle is its base multi¬ 
plied by half its height, or its height by 
half its base: the height of a triangle is 
taken by means of a perpendicular to the 
base, let fall from the apex or summit. 
The surface of a sphere is equal to the peri¬ 
meter of its great circle multiplied by its 
diameter. The surface of a trapezoid is 
half the sum of its parallel sides, multi¬ 
plied by their perpendicular distance. The 
surface of any irregular figure may be found 
by dividing it into triangles, measuring 
them separately, and adding the resulting 
areas together. The solid contents of a 
cube are found by cubing one of its dimen¬ 
sions. The solid contents of any prism are 
obtained by multiplying the surface of one 
base by its perpendicular distance from the 
other. The solid contents of a pyramid arc 
found by multiplying the base by one- 
third of the altitude. The solid contents 
of the frustum of a pyramid are found by 
multiplying half the sum of the surfaces 
of the upper and lower bases by the per¬ 
pendicular distance between them, or the 
solid contents of the original pyramid, 
minus that of the part cut off. The solid 
contents of a sphere are found by multi¬ 
plying the surface by one-third of the 
radius. 

MEN'THA (Lot.; from mintha: Gr.), in 
Botany, a genus of plants, nat. ord .Labiates 
or Lamiacece, including the species of mint. 

MEPHIT'IO {mephitis,a bad smell: Lat.), 
a term equivalent to noxious, pestilential, or 
poisonous, and applied generally to vapours 
of that description. Carbonic acid and sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogen maybe considered as 
mephitic gases. These are emitted from 
the ground in some places in such quanti¬ 
ties that living beings are killed in a few 
minutes. The celebrated Grotto del Cane, 
near Naples, is one of these places; and 
another is a small valley called GuevoUpas, 
or the Valley of Poison, in the interior of 
Tava. This place is thus described by a 
traveller:—On arriving at the foot of the 
mountain we left our horses, and scrambled 
up the side. When within a few yards of 
the valley we experienced a strong, nau¬ 
seous, sickening, and suffocating smell; 
but on coming close to the edge, this smell 
ceased. We were now lost in astonishment 
at the awful scene below us. The valley 
was about half a mile in circumference, 
oval, the depth from thirty to thirty-five 
feet, the bottom quite fiat and without vege¬ 
tation, the whole covered with the skele¬ 
tons of human beings, tigers, deer, and 
many other beasts and birds. We could 
not perceive any vapour or opening in the 
ground, which appeared to be of a hard 
sandy substance. We descended to within 
eighteen feet of the bottom ; here we did 
not experience any difficulty in breathing, 
but a sickening, nauseous smell. A dog 
was fastened to the end of a bamboo, and 
sent in ; in 14 seconds he fell on his back; 


[mercury 


he did not move his limbs, but continued 
to breathe 18 minutes. Another dog walked 
in to where the other dog was lying; in 10 
seconds he fell on his face, and never moved 
his limbs afterwards, though he continued 
to breathe for 7 minutes. A fowl died in a 
minute and a-lialf. 

MERCA'TOR’S CHART or PRO JEC'TION, 
a chart, in which the parallels of latitude 
and the meridians are represented by 
straight lines perpendicular to each other. 
The sphere is thus represented, not as it 
can be seen from any one point, but as an 
eye would see it if carried successively over 
every part of it. The form of every small 
piece of land is truly represented, but the 
scale of representation varies greatly in 
different regions, the polar parts being 
much enlarged. It was invented by George 
Kaufmann, usually called Meftator (Kauf¬ 
man n, Ger., and mercator, Lat., signifying 
the same thing—amerchant), who was born 
in 1512. This projection is universally 
adopted in nautical charts ; and its advan¬ 
tage is, that the rhumb, or sailing course 
between two points, is a straight line. The 
degrees of longitude are all equal; but the 
degrees of latitude marked on the meridian 
form a scale of which the distances go on 
increasing from the equator towards the 
poles. This is done for the purpose of 
maintaining the proper proportion between 
the degrees of latitude and the degrees of 
longitude, which are rendered greater than 
they should be. Such a compensation causes 
the rhumb, or line representing the ship’s 
course, to make the same angles with the 
different lines of the chart that it docs in 
reality with the different lines of the 
sphere; while, at the same time, it is a right 
line. And since, by keeping the lines 
which represent meridians parallel, the de¬ 
grees of longitude have been rendered too 
large, in the ratio of the radius to the 
secant of the latitude, the degrees of the 
meridian are made also to increase towards 
the poles, as the secant of latitude in¬ 
creases. Hence, though the distances are 
distorted, the latitude, longitude, and bear¬ 
ings of places, are represented truly on 
Mercator’s chart. 

MER'CURY (in Latin, hydrargyrum; 
from hudor, water; and arguros, silver: 
Gr.), a metal found chiefly as a sulpliuret, 
and sometimes native. It is white, and 
very brilliant; becomes solid at 38° below 
zero, and boils at 062°. It is not affected 
by the atmosphere at common temperatures, 
but is changed into red oxide by heating it 
to near its boiling point. Its spec. grav. is 
13‘5. It forms two oxides—the black prot¬ 
oxide, and the red peroxide ; two chlorides 
—the protochloride or calomel, and the per- 
chloride or corrosive sublimate; and two 
sulphurets—the black protosulphuret, and 
the bisulpliuret, cinnabar or Vermillion. It 

combines also with iodine, &c.-MEncuny, 

in Astronomy, a small planet that emits a 
bright light; though, on account of its prox¬ 
imity to the sun, it is seldom seen by the 
inhabitants of the earth. Its mean distance 
from that luminary is about 36,000,000 miles, 
or a little more than one-tliird of the earth’s 
distance. Its mean sidereal revolution is 


















mercy-seat] 


QLfye <£>ctmttft'c autf 


451 


performed in' about 88 mean solar days. 
Its diameter Is about 3140 miles. Its orbit 
is inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of 
7° 0' 9''. On account of its being so small, 
and so near the sun, its surface cannot be 
clearly distinguished. Sometimes, in the 
evening, it may be seen crossing the sun’s 
disc, under the form of a black spot—which 
passage is called the transit of Mercury, 
and is in reality an annular eclipse of the 
sun. On account of its rapid motion, the 
Greeks called this planet after the name of 
the swift messenger of the gods, and re¬ 
presented it by the figure of a youth with 
wings at his head and feet. 

MER'CY-SEAT, in Scriptural Antiquities, 
a table, or cover, lined on both sides with 
plates of gold, and set over the ark of the 
covenant; on each side of which was a 
cherub of gold, with wings spread over the 
mercy-seat. 

MERID'IAN ( [meridies , midday: Lat. —be¬ 
cause it is noon at any place when the sun 
is on its meridian), in Astronomy, a great 
circle of the celestial sphere, passing 
through the poles of the earth, and also the 
zenith and nadir, crossing the equinoctial 
at rigli tangles, and dividing the sphere into 
two equal parts, or hemispheres, the one 
eastern and the other western.-In Geo¬ 

graphy, the meridian is a great circle, pass¬ 
ing through the poles of the earth, and any 
given place whose meridian it is; and it lies 
exactly under, or in the plane of, the celes¬ 
tial meridian. Meridians are various, and 
change according to the longitude of places, 
so that their number may be said to be in¬ 
finite, for all places from east to west have 
their meridians. The first meridian is that 
from which all the others are reckoned, and 
which, being totally arbitrary, has been 
variously chosen by different geographers; 
but most nations now assume the meridian 
of the place where they live, the capital of 
their country, or its chief observatory, for 
a first meridian; and from thence reckon 
the longitude of places, east and west. 
Thus, the British reckon from the meridian 
of Greenwich; the French from that of 
Paris ; the Spanish from that of Madrid,&c. 

-Meridian of a globe, the brazen circle 

on which it turns, and by which it is sup¬ 
ported. It is divided into 360 equal parts, 
called degrees. On the upper semicircle of 
the brass meridian, these degrees are num- 
berd from 0 to 90, or from the equator to¬ 
wards the poles, and are used for finding 
the latitudes of places. On its lower semi 
circle they are numbered from 0 to 90, or 
from the poles towards the equator, and are 
used in the elevation of the poles.- Meri¬ 

dian Line, an arc, or part of the meridian 
of a place terminated each way by the hori¬ 
zon. The exact determination of this line 
is of the greatest importance in all cases re 
lating to astronomy, geography, dialling, 

<fec. -Magnetic Meridian, a great circle 

which passes through the assumed magnetic 
poles, and in the plane of which the needle 
of the mariner’s compass arranges itself. 

-Meridian Altitude of the sun or 

stars, their altitude when in the meridian 
of the place where they are observed. Or 
It may be defined, an arc of a great circle 


perpendicular to the horizon, and compre¬ 
hended between the horizon and the sun or 

star then in the meridian of the place.- 

Meridional Distance, in Navigation, the 
difference of longitude between the meri¬ 
dian under which the ship is at present, and 
any other she was under before. 

MElt'LIN ( meerlin: Belg.), the Falco a’sa¬ 
lon of ornithologists. ‘ So bold as well as 
powerful,’ says Yarrell, * in proportion to his 
size is this little bird, that a male Merlin, not 
weighing more than six ounces, has been 
seen to strike and kill a partridge that was 
certainly more than twice his own weight.’ 

MER'LON, in Fortification, that part of 
a parapet which is terminated by two em¬ 
brasures of a battery. 

MER'MAID {inter, the sea; and magd, a 
maid : Ger.), an imaginary or fabulous crea 
ture, ■which seamen have described as hav¬ 
ing the head and body of a woman, with 
the tail of a fish. Mermen also have been 
supposed to exist. The dugong and manatee, 
when seen at a distance, may have given 
rise to the idea of mermen and mermaids, 
&c. 

ME'ROPS {merdps: Gr.), in Ornithology, 
the Bee-eater, one of the iusessorial birds. 

MER'ULA {Lat.'), in Ornithology, the 
Blackbird, one of the dentirostral perchers. 

MESEMBRYAN'THEMUM {mesembria, 
midday; and anthos, a flower : Gr.—because 
it expands its flowers at noon), in Botany, a 
large genus of plants, nat. ord. Ficoidece or 
Mesembryacece. The species are perennials, 
and consist of the different Fig-marigolds, 
all natives of the Cape of Good Hope. The 
ice-plant belongs to this genus. All the 
species have fleshy leaves. 

MES'ENTERY {mesenteron: from mesos, 
middle: and enleron, an intestine: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, a thick membrane, placed in the 
middle of the intestines. Its substance is 
composed of membranes, fat, vessels of all 
kinds, and a number of glands. In the up¬ 
per part, it is connected with the three 
superior vertebra of the loins ; and in the 
lower, with the intestines, and particularly 
with the jejunum and ileum, to which it 
also gives their outer coat. The uses of the 
mesentery are, to support, connect, and re¬ 
tain in their place, all the intestines; and 
to sustain their sanguiferous and lacteal 
vessels 

MES'MERISM. [See Magnetism, Ani¬ 
mal.] 

MESNE (middle : Fr.), in Law, a lord of 
a manor, who has tenants holding under 
him, though he holds the manor of a supe¬ 
rior.- Mesne Process, an intermediate 

process which issues pending a suit, upon 
some collateral interlocutory matter. Some¬ 
times the term is used in contradistinction 
from final process, or process of execution, 
and then it signifies all such processes as 
intervene between the beginning and end 
of a suit. 

MESOCO'LON ( mesolcolon: from mesos, 
middle; and lalon, the colon : Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, that part of the mesentery, which, 
having reached the extremity of the ileum, 
contracts and changes its name; or the 
portion of the mesentery to which the 
colon is attached. 













Ettararj) Crea^ttrw. 


MES'OLYTE (jnesos, middle: and lithos, 
a, stone: <?r.), in Mineralogy, a hydrated 
silicate of alumina, lime, and soda; called 
also Needlestone. 

MES'OTYPE (mesos, middle ; and tupos, 
a form : Gr.), in Mineralogy, hydrated sili¬ 
cate of alumina and soda, called also Ka- 
trolite. 

MESOZO'IC (mesos, middle; zoe, life: Gr.), 
a term applied by some geologists to that 
great division of strata containing the 
remains of the middle forms of life, which 
others denominate secondary. 

MESS (mese: Sax.), in Military language, 
a sort of ordinary or public dinner, for the 
maintenance of which every officer who 
takes his meals there gives a certain pro¬ 
portion of his pay.-In Naval language, a 

particular company of the officers or crew 
of a ship, who eat, drink, and associate 
together; and the term messmate is ap¬ 
plied to any one of the number thus asso¬ 
ciated. 

MESSI'AH, a Hebrew word, signifying 
the anointed, and translated into Greek by 
the word Christos, whence Christ: a title 
which the Jews gave to their great deli¬ 
verer, for whose coming they still wait; 
and a name which Christ ians apply to Jesus 
Christ,as the person inwhom the prophecies 
relating to the Messiah were accomplished. 
Among the Jews, anointing was the cere¬ 
mony of consecrating persons to the high¬ 
est offices and dignities; kings, priests, 
and sometimes prophets were anointed; 
thus, Aaron and his son received the sa¬ 
cerdotal, Elisha the prophetic, and David, 
Solomon, and others, the royal unction. 

METAB'ASIS (Gr., from metabaino, I go 
from one place to another), in Rhetoric, 
transition; a passing from one thing to 
another. 

METACAR'PUS (meta, after; and kar- 
pos, the wrist: Gr.), in Anatomy, that part 
of the hand between the wrist and the fin¬ 
gers. It consists of five bones placed side 
by side. The inner part of the metacarpus 
is called the palm, and theouter the back of 
the hand. 

METACH'RONISM (meta, after; and 
chronos, time: Gr.), an error in chrono¬ 
logy, which places an event after its real 
time. 

METAL (metallon: Gr.), a simple, fixed, 
opaque substance, possessing a peculiar 
lustre. The metals are all electro-positive; 
they differ much in their tenacity, mallea¬ 
bility, ductility, hardness, volatility, and 
density, and in the facility with which they 
combine with non-metallic elements. There 
is a distinction to be made between mallea¬ 
bility and ductility, since the metals which 
afford the finest wire do not always give the 
thinnest leaves. Some metala are found 
native, that is, uncombined. Some of their 
ores are reduced by heat alone: others re¬ 
quire heat and a combustible. Some are 
reduced by deoxidizing agents, or by other 
metals which take their places in combina¬ 
tion. Metals, in the state of oxides, are 
capable of uniting with acids. All earths, 
with perhaps one exception, are combina¬ 
tions of some metal with oxygen, When 
exposed to the action of oxygen, chlorine. 


[metallio 


or iodine, at an elevated temperature, the 
metals generally take fire, and, combining 
with one or other of these three elementary 
bodies in definite proportions, are convert¬ 
ed into earthy or saline-looking substances, 
devoid of metallic lustre or ductility, and 
called oxides, chlorides, or iodides. Former¬ 
ly only seven metals were known, or had 
been separated from the materials with 
which they were combined. And even these 
were discovered only on account of their 
being sometimes found native, or in a state 
of combination from which they were li¬ 
berated without very great difficulty. Their 
names are copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, 
silver, tin. Chemical research has added 
forty-four othersAluminium, antimony, 
arsenic, barium, bismuth, cadmium, cte- 
sium, calcium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, 
columbium or tantalum, erbium, glucinum, 
indium, iridium, lanthanum, lithium, mag¬ 
nesium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, 
niobium, norium, osmium, palladium, pelo- 
pium, platinum, potassium, rhodium, rubi¬ 
dium, sodium, strontium, tellurium, ter¬ 
bium, thallium, thorium, titanium, tung¬ 
sten, uranium, vanadium, yttrium, zinc, 
and zirconium. [See these in their proper 
places, and Chemistry.] The metals are 
all conductors of heat, and, at least in the 
solid form, of electricity. 

METALEP'SIS (Gr., from metalambano, I 
participate: Gr.), in Rhetoric, the continua¬ 
tion of a trope in one word, through a 
succession of significations ; or the union of 
two or more tropes of a different kind in 
one word, so that several gradations or 
intervening senses come between the 
word expressed and the thing intended 
by it. 

METAL'LIC VEINS, in Mineralogy, fis¬ 
sures across the solid strata of the earth, 
in which metallicores are found. These were 
probably deposited in them from a state 
of vapour. Veins differ in their magnitude 
and position ; some vary from sixty to one 
hundred feet wide in certain parts, and are 
not more than ten or twenty in others; 
they are commonly filled with what is 
called vein stuff, mixed with the metal; 
others are only a few inches wide. Those 
which are fissures or rents, are not perpen¬ 
dicular, but incline more or less, and are 
open from the surface of the earth to the 
depth of 20 to 30 fathoms. They are not 
the only repositories for metals; there are 
other deposits which are called flat or pipe 
veins, the solid rock forming the roof and 
bottom of the mine. These are irregular 
in their direction and magnitude, and 
appear like a series of small caverns, con¬ 
nected with each other. The top, bottom, 
and boundaries are lined, and sometimes 
filled, with spar, lead ore, &c.,and the latter 
are found in nests, filling cavities in solid 
limestone, and even penetrating fossil 
shells. The rocks in which metallic veins 
are situated do not contain a particle of 
the metal which they enclose. Inconsi¬ 
derable veins, which diverge from the 
principal, are called slips ; and such masses 
of ore as are of considerable magnitude, 
but no great length, are called bellies of 
stock-aoorks. 

























metallography] 


QLi)t ^tfenttfu aiift 


456 


METALLOG'RAPHY ( metallon, a metal; 
and grapho, I write: Gr.), a treatise on 
metallic substances. 

MET'ALLOIDS, in Chemistry, a collective 
name sometimes given to those elementary 
bodies which are either transparent ornon- 
lustrous, and bad conductors of electricity 
and heat, in contradistinction to the true 
metals, which are opaque, lustrous in a 
high degree, and good conductors of elec¬ 
tricity and heat. Metalloids include not 
only the four elementary gases, but 
sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, and other 
bodies. 

METALLURGY ( metallon , a metal; and 
ergon, a work: Gr .), the art of obtaining 
metals from their ores, and preparing them 
for the various uses to which they are ap¬ 
plied. It comprises the processes of assay¬ 
ing, refining, and smelting. 

METAMOR'PIIIC ( meta, indicating 


change; and morphe, form: Gr.), a term 1 134 years. 


METATH'ESIS (Gr., from metatithemi, I 
place differently), a figure by which the 
letters or syllables of a word are trans¬ 
posed.-In Bledicine, a change or removal 

of a morbid cause, without expulsion. 

METEMPSYCHO'SIS (Gr, from metem- 
psuchoo, I make the soul pass from one 
body into another), the doctrine of trans¬ 
migration, which supposes that the soul 
of man, upon leaving the body, becomes 
the soul of some other animal. This was 
the doctrine of Pythagoras and his follow¬ 
ers ; and is still the prevailing doctrine in 
some parts of Asia, particularly in India and 
China. 

METEMP'TOSIS (meta, after; and empipto, 
I fall in with: Gr.), a term in Chronology, 
expressing the solar equation, or subtraction 
of a day, necessary to prevent the new 
moon from happening a day too late; or 
the suppression of the bissextile once in 


applied to crystalline rocks which occur 
especially in the central ridges of mountain 
chains. It denotes that their structure has 
been changed since the time of their first 
deposition as sedimentary beds, by plutonic 
action. 

METAMOR'PHOSIS(«ietamo? - p7iosis,from 
same : Gr.), the changing of something into 
adifferentform : in which sense it includes 
the transformation of insects, aswellasthe 
mythological changes related by the poets 

of antiquity.-By the metamorphoses of 

insects are meant the successive transfor¬ 
mations through which they pass, which, 
when the metamorphosis is complete, are 
from the egg to the caterpillar or larva 
state; to the chrysalis, pupa, or aurelia 
state; and lastly to the moth or butterfly 
form, when, having laid their eggs, they 
die. | 

BIET APHOR ( metapliora, from metaphero, 

I transfer: Gr.), in Rhetoric, the application 
of a word in some other than its ordinary- 
sense, on account of some real or imaginary 
resemblance between two objects: thus, if 
we call a hero a lion, a shrewd crafty fellow 
a fox, and a minister a pillar of the state,we 
speak metaphorically. 

METAPH'RASIS (Gr., from metaphrazo, 

I translate), a bare or literal translation 
from one language into another. 

METAPHYS'ICS (meta, after; and phusis, 
nature, Gr.), the science of the absolute, 
concerning itself only with essences and 
causes. It endeavours to treat of things as 
they are in themselves as distinct from 
their appearances to the senses. 

METAPLASM (metaplasmos, from meta- 
plasso, I transform: Gr.), in Grammar, a 
transmutation or change made in a word 
by adding, transposing, or retrenching a 
syllable or letter. 

METAS'TASIS (Gr., from methistamai, I 
change my position), in Bledicine, a trans¬ 
lation or removal of a disease from one part 
to another. 

METATAR'SUS (meta, after; and tarsos, 
the instep : Gr.), in Anatomy, the middle of 
the foot, or the part between the ankle and 
the toes: the instep. The metatarsal bones 
are the five longitudinal bones between the 
tarsus and the toes. 


BIE'TEOR (meteoros, aloft: Gr.), in Natural 
History, a phenomenon which occurs in the 
atmosphere. Bleteors, in the most general 
sense of the word, may be reduced to four 
classes— igneous or fiery meteors, including 
fire-balls, falling stars, lightning, and St. 
Elmo’s fire; luminous meteors, as the 
aurora borealis, zodiacal light, parphelia or 
mock-suns, haloes, &c.; aqueous meteors, 
as clouds, rain, hail, snow, &c.; and aerial 
meteors, as wind and water-spouts. It will 
be seen that these phenomena are of very 
different natures, and owing to different 
causes. The only connection between them 
is that of a common medium ; and we there¬ 
fore refer to the separate articles for infor¬ 
mation concerning them; also to Elec¬ 
tricity, Meteoric Stones, Falling 
Stars, &c. 

BIETEOR'OLITES ( meteoros , aerial; and 


lithos, a stone: Gr.), meteoric stones. [See 
Aerolites, and Falling Stars.] 
BIETEOROL'OGY (meteoros, a heavenly 
body: and logos, a discourse: Gr.), the 
science which treats of the phenomena of 
the atmosphere. These may be classed 
under distinct heads, viz. the alterations 
that occur in the weight of the atmosphere; 
those that take place in its temperature ; its 
changes as regards moisture; and those 
which arise from electric and other causes. 

-From chemistry, meteorology borrows 

analysis, to determine the composition 
of the air itself, and of the substances 
which it contains, or by which it is acted 
upon. From the laws of heat it ascertains 
the manner in which the different processes 
of evaporation, freezing, thawing, &c., go 
on, aud how they affect the state of the 
atmosphere; the action of those invisible 
agents, light, heat, electricity, &c.., and 
their extraordinary effects. From physics, 
meteorology takes the mechanical action of 
these and similar powers and substances ; 
the weight and velocity of the air; the 
laws of the reflection, refraction, and mo¬ 
tion of light, &c. By these aids this 
science explains the formation, fall, or de¬ 
position of hail, snow, rain, dew, and frost • 
the action of thunder and lightning; the 
prevalence and properties of certain winds' 
the nature and causes of meteors, &c. All 














457 


Etterary CTrtatfury 


this, and more, is to be carefully studied by 
every one who would keep a meteorological 
register, from which, if carefully attended 
to, a body of principles may be derived 
that would go far to dispel a host of popular 
errors and delusions, and make the value of 
true meteorological science manifest to 
the most common observer. 

METEOROS'COPY ( meteoros, a heavenly 
body ; and slcopeo, I examine: Gr.), among 
the older astronomers, that part of science 
which treats of the distance of the stars 
and other celestial bodies ; but now very 
properly restricted to what relates to the 
nature of meteors. 

METHEG'LIN ( meth , mead: Gcr.), a 
liquor made of honey and water, boiled and 
fermented, often flavoured with spices. 

METH'OD ( methodos , literally a journey 
taken in search of anything: Gr.), a suitable 
and convenient arrangement of things or 
ideas. In Logic and Rhetoric, the art of 
disposing ideas in such a manner that they 
may be easily comprehended, in order 
either to discover the truth, or to demon¬ 
strate it to others. Method is essential to 
science, and without it business of any 
kind will fall into confusion. In studying 
a science, we generally mean by method a 
system of classification or arrangement of 
natural bodies according to their common 
characteristics ; as the method of Ray, the 
Linncean method, &c. The difference be¬ 
tween method and system is this: system is 
an arrangement founded, throughout all 
its parts, on some one principle; method 
is an arrangement less fixed and deter¬ 
minate, and founded on more general re¬ 
lations. 

METHOD'IC SECT ( metliodos , method : 
Gr.), a name given to certain ancient 
physicians, who conducted their practice 
by rules after the manner of Galen and 
his followers, in opposition to the empiric 
sect. 

METH'ODIST (same deriv.), a term origi¬ 
nally applied to a sect of physicians at 
Rome, who, under the name of methodici, 
practised only by theory. It is now used 
to designate the followers of Wesley and 
Whitfield, the former professing the doc¬ 
trines of Arminius, and the latter of Calvin; 
and also several sects of Christians who 
have seceded from the Wesleyan denomi- 
,nation. In 1729, after the revolution, the ; 
brothers John and Charles Wesley, believ- j 
ing they perceived great lukewarmness 1 
in matters of religion, formed an associa¬ 
tion for the observance of more strict and 
rigid rules regarding tlieregulation of their 
time and studies and the practice of re¬ 
ligious exercises. John Wesley, who took 
the most active part in this religious move¬ 
ment, having been ordained, officiated for 
some time in England ; then visited North 
America. But, on his return, giving offence 
to some of the higher ranks of the clergy 
by his enthusiastic and declamatory mode 
of preaching, the churches were generally 
shut against him, which led him to become 
the founder of a new class of dissenters, 
without having at first intended it. He 
preached in dissenting chapels in London 
and elsewhere, and great success attended 


[metonic 


his exertions ; having had recourse to lay 
preachers, who proved most efficient iii 
forwarding his views, he was enabled 
to exercise superintendence over all his 
congregations. He required his followers 
to attend the established church, when 
they had no opportunity of hearing his 
preachers; but he differed in many points 
from what is generally considered to be the 
doctrines of the thirty-nine articles. Ac¬ 
cording to his system of church govern¬ 
ment, each society is divided into classes of 
from twelve to twenty persons, one of 
whom is termed a leader. Each society has 
stewards, whose office is somewhat similar 
to that of deacons in the established church. 
The leaders, stewards, and minister hold 
once a week what is called the leaders’ 
meeting. A number of these societies con¬ 
stitute a circuit, of which one of the minis¬ 
ters of the district is superintendent. The 
ministers, leaders, and stewards in the cir¬ 
cuit hold a quarterly meeting, on which occa¬ 
sion the stewards deliver their collections 
to a civil steward. From five to fifteen cir¬ 
cuits form a district, the ministers of which 
hold an annual district meeting: this assem¬ 
bly tries ministers, and suspends those 
whose conduct is proved to be immoral, 
whose doctrine is erroneous, or who are de¬ 
ficient in ability ; and performs a number of 
other important duties. The conference, 
whose decisions are final, should consist, 
strictly speaking, of a hundred of the senior 
itinerant preachers; butit isgenerally com¬ 
posed of preachers elected at the previous 
district meetings, and of all the ministers 
who choose to attend, every one present at 
it having a right to vote. All regulations 
are framed by this body ; funds are levied 
in its name; it appoints ministers to the 
stations they are to occupy; it appoints 
superintendents, &c. In 1850, the Wesleyan 
methodists, at home and abroad, amounted 
to upwards of two millions, and the total 
number of preachers was 6000. Various 
offshoots have taken place among them at 
various times ; the earliest of which com¬ 
prised the followers of Whitfield—at first 
the coadjutor, but afterwards the eloquent 
opponent, of Wesley. 

METH'YL (methu, wine; ule, wood: Gr.), 
a hypothetical compound radical, the con¬ 
stituents of which are two atoms of carbon 
and three of hydrogen. It is the base of a 
large number of spirits and ethers, of which 
the best known is the hydrated oxide, wood 
naphtha or pyroxilic spirit. This wa§ first 
obtained by the destructive distillation of 
wood. It is a volatile inflammable liquid, 

resembling spirit of wine.- Methylated 

Spirit is pure spirit of wine to which one- 
tenth of its volume of wood naphtha, other¬ 
wise pyroxilic spirit, has been added. (See 
the last article.) This, on account of its | 
offensive odour and taste, prevents the 
compound being drunk, whilst it can still 
be employed in many of the useful arts, 
and it is therefore exempt from duty. 

METOCHE' ( metoche, a sharing: Gr.), 
in Architecture, the space between two 
dentils. 

METONTC CY'CLE, in Chronology, the 
period of nineteen years, or rather of 6940 




























metontmia] CI)£ ^cteuttffc nnli 458 


days, in which the lunations of the moon 
return to the same days of the month ; so 
called from its discoverer Meton, an Athe¬ 
nian, who lived about 400 B.o. On account 
of its great use in the calendar, the number 
of the year in this cycle is called the golden 
Tiuvibcv. 

METONY'MIA or METON'YMY ( metdnu- 
mia: from meta, indicating change; and 
onoma, a name : Gr.), in Rhetoric, a figure 
of speech by which one thing is put for an¬ 
other : as the cause for the effect, the part 
for the whole, and the like. Thus, * my 
friend keeps a good table,’ instead of good 
provisions; ‘ that boy has a clear liead,’ 
meaning intellect. 

MET'OPE ( metope: from meta, between; 
and ope, the hole in which a beam of the 
roof is inserted: Gr.), in Architecture, the 
interval, or space, between the triglyphs 
of the Doric frieze, which among the an¬ 
cients were usually painted or adorned with 
carved work, representing the heads of 
oxen, &c. 

METOPOS'COPY ( metopon, the forehead ; 
and skopeo, I examine: Gr.), the study of 
physiognomy. 

ME'TRE (metron, a measure: Gr.), in 
Poetry, a system of feet composing a verse: 
as pentameter, a verse of five feet; hexa¬ 
meter, a verse of six feet, &c. When the 
last syllable of the last foot is wanting, the 
line is acatalectic; when its two last sylla¬ 
bles are cut off, it is brachycatalectic; when 
it has one superfluous syllableatthe end, it 
is hypercatalectic. - Metre, a French mea¬ 

sure equal to 39'37079 inches. It is the 
French standard of lineal measure; being 
the ten-millionth part of the distance from 
the equator to the north pole, as ascer¬ 
tained by actual measurement of an arc of 
the meridian. 

METROCELTDES (meter, a mother; and 
Jcelis, a stain: Gr.), in Medicine, marks or 
blemishes, supposed by some to be im¬ 
pressed upon the child by the mother’s 
imagination. 

METROP'OLIS (Gr.: from meter, a mo¬ 
ther ; aud polis, a city), a word used by 
Greek writers to indicate the parent state 
whence colonies have sprung. Also, the 
chief city of a province, in the latter ages, 
of the Roman empire. The church having 
adopted the secular division of the Roman 
empire into provinces, an episcopal see was 
established in every such city, and its 

bishop was termed a metropolitan. -In 

modern use it means the capital or principal 
city of a country or province, as London or 
Paris. 

MEZ'ZANINE (mezzano, middle : Ital.), in 
Architecture, a low story introduced be¬ 
tween two higher ones. 

MEZ'ZO, in Music, an Italian word signi¬ 
fying half. Thus mezzo forte, mezzo piano, 
mezzo voce, imply a middle degree of piano 
or soft, &c. By mezzo soprano is understood 
a compass of voice between the soprano or 
treble and counter-tenor. 

MEZZOTIN'TO (half tinted: Ital.), a par¬ 
ticular manner of engraving. [See En¬ 
graving.] By an artificial disposition of 
the shades, and different parts of a figure, 
on different plates, mezzotintos are printed 


in colours, so as to represent actual paint¬ 
ings. 

MIAS'MA (Gr., from miaino, I taint), the 
contagious eflluviaof any putrefying bodies, 
rising and floating in the atmosphere, and 
considered to be noxious to health. The 
term is specially applied to marsh miasma, 
the malaria of the Italians. One of the 
most powerful correctors of miasmatic 
effluvia is chloride of lime. 

MI'OA (mico, I glitter: Lat.), called also 
talc, glimmer, and Muscovy glass, is a mine¬ 
ral of a foliated structure. It consists of a 
number of thin laminae adhering to each 
other; and has long been used as a substi¬ 
tute for glass, particularly in Russia. Its 
chief constituents are silica, alumina, pot¬ 
ash, and oxide of iron. It is one of the 
substances which constitute granite. 

MI'CAD, a canonical book of the Old 
Testament, written by the prophet Micah ; 
in which the writer censures the reigning 
vices of Jerusalem and Samaria, and de¬ 
nounces the judgments of God against both 
kingdoms. 

MICH'AELMAS, or Feast of St. Mi¬ 
chael, a festival observed on the 29th of 
September. One of the quarterly days for 
paying rent. 

MI'CROCOSM (milcros, small; and kosmos, 
world : Gr.), a name given by some writers 
to man, on account of a supposed corre¬ 
spondence between the qualities of his na¬ 
ture and those of the universe. 

MICROG'RAPH Y ( mikros, small; and gra- 
plio, I write: Gr.), the description of objects 
which are too minute to be seen without 
the help of a microscope. 

MICROM'ETER (mikros, small; and me¬ 
tron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument fitted 
to telescopes or microscopes for the pur¬ 
pose of measuring small angles with preci¬ 
sion. 

MI'CROSCOPE (mikros, small; and skopeo, 

I examine : Gr.), an optical instrument con¬ 
sisting of an arrangement of lenses which 
enables the observer to see an object, or its 
true image, nearer than with the naked eye, 
and magnified accordingly. Microscopes 
are either simple or compound. By the 
former we look directly at the object; by 
the latter at its magnified image. The in¬ 
crease of apparent magnitude obtained by 
the employment of lenses is proportional 
to the difference of the distance of an object 
from the lens and the distance at which it 
can be seen without such assistance. This 
latter distance (the distance of distinct 
vision of minute objects with the naked 
eye) varies in different persons, and at dif¬ 
ferent periods of life. Some authors adopt 
ten inches as the standard, under ordinary 
circumstances, and its decimal character 
makes it a convenient multiplier or divisor. 
The microscope has been greatly improved 
of late years, and it is extensively employed 
by medical men in the investigation of 
healthy and diseased structure, and by 
naturalists in the examination of the 
minute structure of animals, vegetables, 
and minerals. So many and so important 
are the discoveries that have been made by 
its means, that several branches of science 
have been entirely changed.-The solar 

















459 Utter an? ®mstonj. [milk 

microscope consists of a common micro¬ 
scope connected with a reflector and con¬ 
denser, the former being used to throw tho 
sun’s light on the latter, by which it is con¬ 
densed so as to illuminate the object placed 
in its focus. This object is also in the focus 
of the microscopic lens, which transmits a 
magnified image of it to a wall or screen. 
The principle of the luccrnal microscope is 
the same, except that a lamp giving a very 
strong light—generally that obtained from 
the flame of oxygen and hydrogen thrown 
on lime—is used, instead of the sun, to il¬ 
luminate the object. 

MID'DLE A'GES, a term used by histo¬ 
rians to denote that period which begins 
with the final destruction of tho Roman 
empire, and ends with the revival of letters 
in Europe, or, according to some writers, 
with the discovery of America; i. e. from 
the eighth to the fifteenth century. They 
ought rather to be considered to terminate 
with the invention of printing. In general, 
it may be said, the middle ages embrace 
that period of history in which the feudal 
system was established and developed, down 
to the most prominent events which neces¬ 
sarily led to its overthrow. 

MID'SHIPMAN, in the British navy, a 
sort of cadet, whose duty it is to second the 
orders of the superior officers, and assist in 
the necessary business of the vessel, whe¬ 
ther aboard or ashore. No person caR re¬ 
ceive a commission, without having served 
a certain number of years in the royal navy 
in this capacity, unless he has been mate of 
a merchantman, and passed some years of 
actual service either in the navy or in the 
merchant service. 

MID'SUMMER, the summer solstice. The 

I 24th of June is Midsummer-day, which is 

I also a quarter-day. 

MIGRATION OF BIRDS ( migratio , from 
mi'jro, I change my abode: Lot.), the an¬ 
nual passage of birds from one country to 
another in quest of food and a mild climate. 
Thus, the swallow and many other species 
; migrate into southern climates during our 
winter, and return in the spring; whilst 
other species, like the Snow Bunting and the 
BohemianWaxwing, come to us for the win¬ 
ter and fly northwards in the spring. Orni¬ 
thologists have observed that, on the old 
continent, birds migrate in autumn to the 
south-west, and in spring towards the north¬ 
east ; yet the courses of rivers and chains 
of mountains exercise considerable influ¬ 
ence on the direction of their flight. On the 
new continent the points of direction are 
not the same. Captain SirE. Parry has satis¬ 
fied himself that the birds of Greenland go to 
the south-east. It is remarkable, also, that 
the young of certain species do not make 
the same journey as the old birds; they go 
more to the south, so that it is very common 
to find, in the south of Europe, only the 
young birds of a certain species, whilst the 
older ones remain more to the north. In 
other species the females go farther south. 
Mr. White, in his Natural History of S'el- 
borne, says, * It does not appear to me that 
much stress may be laid on the difficulty 
and hazard that birds must run in their 
migrations, by reason of vast ocean?, cross- 

winds, &c.; because, if we reflect, a bird 
may travel from England to the equator 
without launching out or exposing itself to 
boundless seas—and that by crossing the 
water at Dover, and again at Gibraltar.’ 
Birds come to these countries, from those 
which are still colder, during the winter; 
thus many species of wild duck. Migration 
is not confined to birds: the musk ox, the 
reindeer, the Arctic fox, &c., are driven 
southward, by the rigours of a polar win¬ 
ter - . But the animal most remarkable for 
emigrating is the Scandinavian lemming. 
[See Lemming.] 

MILE (mille passuum, ft thousand paces: 
Lat.), a measure of length or distance, 
which, in England, contains 8 furlongs, or 
1760 yards, or 6280 feet. Of such miles 
there are 69121 in a geographical degree. 
But the nautical or geographical mile is the 

60tli of a degree.-The Roman mile was a 

thousand paces and equal to 1614 yards 
English measure, or about ll-12ths of our 
statute mile. 

MIL'IARY GLANDS ( milium, millet-seed: 
Lat.),in Anatomy, the small and extremely 
numerous glands which secrete the perspi¬ 
ration- Miliary Fever, a malignant 

fever, so called from the eruption of certain 
pustules resembling millet-seeds. 

MILITIA (military service : Lat.), a body 
of soldiers, regularly enrolled and trained, 
though not in constant service in time of 
peace, and thus distinguished from standing 
armies. In England the origin of this 
national force is generally traced back to 
Alfred. The most characteristic features 
of the English militia at present are, that a 
number of persons in each county may 
voluntarily enlist for five years, and are 
officered by the lord-lieutenants, and other 
gentlemen, under commission from the 
crown. The period for training and exer¬ 
cise is fixed, generally speaking, at twenty- 
one days annually. Where men cannot be 
raised by voluntary enlistment, recourse 
may be had to the ballot, from which all 
persons above thirty-five are exempt. 

MILK ( milch: Ger.), an animal fluid pecu¬ 
liar to females of the class Mammalia, se¬ 
creted by appropriate glands, and designed 
to nourish their offspring in the early part of 
theirlife. This fluid, which is only produced 
from the body on occasion of suckling, is, 
notwithstanding, constantly formed. It is 
the proper sustenance of the animal itself : 
all the nutritive parts of food being formed 
into chyle, and chyle into milk.' It is of an 
opaque white colour, a mild saccharine 
taste, and a slightly aromatic smell. When 
allowed to staud for some time, it under¬ 
goes spontaneous changes, and is resolved 
into its component parts, throwing up a 
white, thick, unctuous 'cream to its sur¬ 
face: the fluid beneath becoming thinner 
than before, and of a pale bluish colour. 
The proximate elements of milk are,— 

1. the aroma, or odorous volatile principle, 
called butyrin, which passes off, when it is 
fresh milked, in the form of visible vapour; 

2. water, which constitutes the greatest 
part; 3. fatty matters, fromwhich the cream 
is formed; 4. curd, which is the caseous 
matter that coagulates; 5. sugar, which. 


























milky] i&\)z <t>mntt(tc attir 460 

with the water, &c., forms the serum of 
milk ; 6. some neutral salts, such as phos¬ 
phate of lime, iodide of potassium, chloride 
of calcium, &c,, which are accidental, not 
being found at all times, nor in all milk. 
Human milk is very sweet and thin ; the 
nearest in resemblance to this is the milk 
of asses, next that of mares, then that of 
goats, and lastly that of cows. Rennet, pre¬ 
pared of the juices of such animals as chew 
the cud, being mixed with milk, coagulates 
it into a uniform mass, which may be cut 
with a knife, and which spontaneously 
separates into wlley and curds. When milk 
contained in wire-corked bottles is cau¬ 
tiously heated to the boiling point in a 
water-bath, the oxygen of the included 
small portion of air under the cork seems to 
be combined, and the milk will afterwards 
keep fresh for a considerable time: as 
green gooseberries and peas do by the same 
treatment. Butter and cheese are made of 
milk, by processes not necessary to describe 
in this place. 

MILKY WAY, in Astronomy. [See 
Galaxy.] 

MILL (mule: Gr.), a complicated engine, 
or combination of machinery, to effect pur¬ 
poses which require great force. The power 
employed is sometimes water, sometimes 
wind, and at others steam or horses. The 
principle is always the same ; a main shaft 
enters the works, to which wheels with 
cogs, or drums and bands, are affixed; 
other wheels are then connected with these 
in various directions, and the resulting 
force applied to any intended purpose. 
When corn is to be ground, large stones, 
cut in grooves, are made to work one 
against the ether in such a matter as to 
break or pulverize the grain. There are 
also bark mills, paper mills, oil mills, silk, 
cotton, and flax mills, saw mills, &c. 

MILLENA'RIANS, or Chiliastr ( mille 
anni, a thousand years: Lat; chilias, a 
thousand : Gr.), a name given to those who, 
in the primitive ages, believed that the 
saints will one day reign on earth with 
Jesus Christ a thousand years—an idea de¬ 
rived from Rev. xx. 6. The Millenarians 
held, that after the coming of Antichrist, 
and the destruction of all nations which 
will follow, there shall be a resurrection of 
the just alone; that all who shall be found 
upon earth, both good and bad, shall con¬ 
tinue alive—the good, to obey the just who 
are risen as their pi'inces—the bad, to be 
conquered by the just, and to be subject to 
them ; that Jesus Christ will then descend 
from heaven in his glory ; that the city of 
Jerusalem will be rebuilt, enlarged, embel¬ 
lished, and its gates stand open night and 
day. The Millenarians founded their belief 
on the Mosaic history of the creation. 
Considering this history as a prototype of 
the fate of the world, and concluding from 
Psalm xc. that 1000 years make with God 
one day, they beheld in the six days of 
creation 6000 years of terrestrial labours 
and sufferings, and in the seventh the day 
of rest, a period of 1000 years, in which 
the reign of Christ (should be established. 
This reign of 1000 years is usually styled 
the millennium. It has been expected by 

some in all ages of the church, from the 
second century, and it is the doctrine of 
many in modern times. 

MIL'LEPEDE (mille, a thousand: andpes, 
a foot: Lat.), an articulated animal, having 
many feet. There are several species, some 
of considerable size. 

MIL'LEPORE (mille, a thousand : and 
poms, a passage : Lat.), in Zoology, a genus 
of corals which have a surface perforated 
with small holes or pores. When in a fossil 
state, they are termed milleporites. 

MIL'LET (Fr.; from .millium: Lat.), a 
plant classed among the grasses, though 
some of its species attain a height of about 
20 feet. The most common kinds are the 
Polish, the common German, and the In¬ 
dian. In some parts of Europe, millet is 
used instead of rice or sago by the poorer 
classes; but it is more usually employed 
for feeding chickens. This climate is 
neither dry enough nor warm enough for 
its cultivation. 

MIL'LING (mule, a mill: Gr.), a process 
in coining, which consists in stamping the 
coin by means of a machine called a mill, 
in place of striking it with a hammer, the 
method formerly employed. This engine 
will coin 20,000 blanks in one day. The 
blanks are circular pieces of metal, of a 
proper size, thickness, and weight, and with 
flat smooth surfaces, suited to receive the 
impressions of the dies, which are of steel, 
and have engraved upon them the figures, 
&c. to be stamped on the coins. The blank 
is fixed between the dies, and an impres¬ 
sion is taken from both at once.—-The 
word milling is applied also to the produc¬ 
tion of small transverse corrugations on 
the edges of the heads of screws, intended 
to make it more easy to turn them round by 
the Angers, and also to those on the edges 
of coins to prevent the fraudulent removal 
of the metal at the edge. 

MILL'-STOhfE, or Buhr-stoxe, in Mi¬ 
neralogy, a siliceous stone, occurring in 
large masses, with a straight fracture, but 
not so brittle as flint, though of the same 
hardness. It is feebly translucent, and of 
a greyish hue. Buhr-stone is found in 
abundance only in the mineral basin of 
Paris and a few adjoining districts. It 
forms a part of a fresh-water formation. 

MILT (Sax.), in Anatomy, the Spleen, a 
viscus situated in the left liypochondrium 
under the diaphragm. Also, the soft roe 
of fishes, or the spermatic part of the 
males 

MIME (mimos, an« imitator: Gr.), in 
ancient comedy, a person who acted any 
character by mere gestures, &c. When 
the acting consisted entirely in gestures, 
it was termed pantomime. 

MIME'SIS (Gr., from same), in Rhetoric, 
imitation of the voice and gestures of an¬ 
other person. 

MIMO'SA, in Botany, a genus of legu¬ 
minous shrubs, inhabiting the tropics, so 
called from the remarkable property pos¬ 
sessed by several species, especially the 
M. pudica, of shrinking from the touch and 
giving signs, as it were, of animal life and 
sensation. This motion it performs by 
means of three distinct articulations, viz. 


















461 


that of a single leaf to its pedicle, of the 
pedicle to its branch, and of the branch to 
the trunk or main stem. 

MI'NA ( mnd: Gr.), a Grecian coin, of 
different values in different places. The 
4tticminawas valued at 100 drachm®, or 
41. 13s. 4 d. Sixty of them were equivalent 

to a talent.- Mina, a Grecian weight, also 

equal to 100 drachm®, or 15 oz. 83f grs. 

MIN'ARET ( menarah , a lantern : Arab.), 
a round tower or column, generally sur¬ 
rounded with balconies, and erected near 
the mosques in Mohammedan countries. 
The people are summoned to prayers by a 
crier stationed at the top, the use of bells 
not being permitted. 

MIND ( gemind: Sax.), the intellectual 
power in man. ‘When the mind, says 
Locke, ‘ turns its view inwards upon it¬ 
self, thinking is the first idea that occurs ; 
wherein it observes a great variety of modi¬ 
fications, whence it frames to itself distinct 
ideas. Thus, the perception annexed to any 
impression on the body by an external 
object is called sensation; when an idea 
recurs without the presence of the object, 
it is called remembrance; when sought 
after by the mind, and again brought into 
view, it is recollection; when the ideas 
are taken notice of, and, as it were, re¬ 
gistered in the memory, it is attention; 
when the mind fixes its view on any one 
idea, and considers it on all sides, it is called 
study.’ 

MINE ( Teut.), a cavity under ground, 
formed for the purpose of obtaining mine¬ 
rals, and often very deep and extensive. 
The descent into it is by a pit, called a 
shaft, and the excavations which follow the 
minerals sought are called the loorkings. 
The art of mining includes the scientific 
knowledge requisite for opening and work¬ 
ing mines, as well as preparing ores for use. 
The latter consists, in the first place, in 
breaking in pieces the larger masses, and 
then freeing them, by means of water, from 
the earth which adheres to them ; in the 
separation of the coarser substances from 
the finer, by means of a sieve that moves 
up and down in water; in the breaking of 
the ore in stamping mills, and in the sepa¬ 
ration of the finely interspersed metal from 
the stone or earth with which it is sur¬ 
rounded, &c. It also includes the final pu¬ 
rification of the ore, by means of acids, by 
amalgamation, by fusion, &c. The annual 
t produce of the mines of Great Britain has 
been estimated, from an average of years 
and prices, at— 

£ 


Silver 

. 10,000 

lbs. troy 

. 30,000 

Copper 

. 13,000 

tons . 

1,300,000 

Tin 

. 5,500 


550,000 

Lead 

46,000 


. 950,000 

Iron 

1,250,000 


. 10,000,000 

Coal 

32,000,000 


. 12,000,000 

Salt, &c. 

• 

• • 

. 1,000,000 


Total 


£25,830,000 


All minerals are part of the freehold of 
the soil, except gold and silver, which are 
said to belong to the crown ; but no mine 
of copper or lead is a royal mine, even 


[MINERAL 


though silver is extracted from it. Mines, 
except those of coal, are not rateable for 
the relief of the poor; a quarry is. The 
difference between a mine and a quarry is 
supposed to consist chiefly in the way of 
working.- Mine, in the Military art, de¬ 

notes a subterraneous passage under a wall 
or fortification, for the purpose of blowing 
it up. The gunpowder in the mine was 
ignited by means of a pipe or hose, made of 
coarse cloth, called a saucisson, extending 
from the chamber to the entrance of the 
gallery : to the end of it was fixed a match, 
that the miner who set fire to it might havo 
time to retire before the fire reached the 
chamber, or place where the powder was 
lodged. But galvanism affords a safe and 
certain means of exploding mines at any 
moment, however distant they may be. The 
conducting wire from a galvanic battery is 
made to pass through the powder, within 
which is a portion of wire so thin as to be¬ 
come red-hot, or even to ignite when the 
electric current is transmitted through it. 
This explodes the mine. The mines of a 
fortress are called countermines, the gallery 
of which runs under the covered way along 
the outer margin of the fosse. 

MINERAL'OGY (mineral, a mineral: TV.; 
and logos, a description : Gr.), that branch 
of natural history which makes us acquaint¬ 
ed with the properties and relations of 
minerals, and teaches us to characterize, 
distinguish, and class them, according to 
these properties. 

MIN'ERALS (. Fr.), the general name for 
all inorganic substances found in the earth, 
including metals, metallic ores, salts, 
earths, and bituminous substances. Of 
these various substances, many are com¬ 
posed of such elements, and exhibit such 
peculiarities of constitution, that it is diffi¬ 
cult to distinguish them without having 
recourse to analysis. 

MIN'ERAL WA'TERS are of various 
kinds, but generally so far impregnated 
with foreign matter as to give them a sen¬ 
sible flavour and a specific action upon the 
animal economy. They are usually divided 
into four classes: acidulous or carbonated, 
saline, chalybeate or ferruginous, and sul¬ 
phurous. The saline springs consist, in 
general, of salts of soda and lime, or of 
magnesia and lime, with carbonic acid and 
oxide of iron ; such are those of Pyrmont, 
Seidlitz, Epsom, &c. The ferruginous 
waters have a decidedly styptic taste, and 
are turned black by an infusion of gall- 
nuts; their iron is sometimes in the state 
of an oxide held in solution by carbonic 
acid; it sometimes exists as a sulphate, and 
sometimes both as a sulphate and carbo¬ 
nate : among them are the waters of Spa, 
Vichy, Cheltenham, Tunbridge, &c. The 
acidulous waters are characterized by an 
acid taste, and by the disengagement of 
carbonic acid : of this kind are the waters 
of Bath, Buxton, Bristol, &c. The sulphu¬ 
rous waters are easily recognized by their 
disagreeable smell, and their property of 
tarnishing silver and copper, which is a 
consequence of their containing sulphuret¬ 
ted hydrogen : of this class are the waters 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, Harrogate and nu- 


Ettcrarj) 















<£!)t ^ricutffic antr 


4G2 


minim] 

inerons others. Some mineral springs are 
hot or thermal—Artificial mineral waters 
are produced in the laboratory of the che¬ 
mist, and are either merely imitations of 
the natural waters, or composed of different 
Ingredients so as to form compounds valu¬ 
able for medicinal purposes, but not known 
to exist in nature. 

MIN'D! (minimus, the least: Lat.), in 
Music,a note e<iual to two crochets, or half 

a semibreve.-MINIM, the smallest liquid 

measure; generally considered as a drop. 
A fluid drachm contains CO minims. 

MIN'IMS (same deriv., on the supposition 
that humility was to be their distinguishing 
characteristic), a religious order in the 
church of Rome, founded by Francis de 
Paula, towards the end of the 15th century. 

MIN'IMUM (the least: Lat.), the least 
quantity assignable in a given case; opposed 
to maximum, which see. 

MIN'ION ( mignon, a favourite : Fr.), the 
name given to a small kind of printing type 
(two sizes larger than the type used for this 
volume). 

MIN'ISTER (Lat.), the pastor of a church 
duly authorized to perform religious wor¬ 
ship in public, to administer the sacra¬ 
ments, &c.-In Politics, one to whom a 

sovereign prince entrusts the administra¬ 
tion of affairs ; as, a minister of state, the 
prime minister, or a foreign minister. In 
Great Britain, the words ministers and mi¬ 
nistry are used as collective names for the 
heads of departments in the state, but the 
subordinate members are not so designated. 
In their separate offices the cabinet minis¬ 
ters stand thus:—1. first lord of the trea¬ 
sury ; 2. lord high chancellor; 3. chancellor 
of the exchequer ; 4. lord president of the 
I council; 5. lord privy seal; 6. secretary for 
the home department; 7. secretary for 
; foreign affairs; 8. secretary for the colo¬ 
nies ; 9. secretary for war; 10. secretary 
for India; 11. first lord of the admiralty; 
12. president of the board of trade; 13. 
postmaster-general; 14. chancellor of the 
duchy of Lancaster; 15. chief secretary for 
Ireland; 16. president of the poor-law 
board. It is the prime minister (who is 
generally the first lord of the treasury) 
that receives the sovereign’s order to form 
a ministry, or in other words to appoint 
men of his own sentiments to fill the chief 
offices. Those of the ministry who are peers 
sit in the house of lords; the others sit in 
the house of commons, in virtue of being 
elected members, which is considered in¬ 
dispensable, unlike those in the United 
States, who cannot be either representa¬ 
tives or senators. The English ministers 
are always supposed to be ready, particular¬ 
ly on receiving due notice, to answer ques¬ 
tions in parliament, on matters relating to 

their respective departments.- Foreign 

Minister, a person sent from one govern¬ 
ment to another, and accredited to the lat¬ 
ter, in order to transact public business in 
the name of his government. The term is 
usually employed, instead of ambassador, to 
indicate the representative of minor sove¬ 
reigns. [See Ambassador and Diplomacy.] 

MIN'IUM (Lat.), the red oxide of lead, 
obtained by exposing the protoxide of that 


metal to a great heat with free access of 
air. 

MIN'NESANGERS (Ger.; from minne, 
love, and stinger, a singer), a name given 
to the German lyric poets of the middle 
ages, on account of love being the chief 
subject of their poems, the ancient German 
word mimic being used to denote a pure 
and faithful love. After the fashion of the 
Provcnqal troubadours, the ininnesangers 
engaged in poetical contests for the gratifi¬ 
cation of princes and ladies of the court, 1 
Some among them were poor, and earned 
their living by reciting their songs from j ! 
court to court; but most of them sang ! 
m ercly for pleasure, when their swords were 
unemployed. 

MIN'NO W, the name of a small fresh-water 
fish, t h eljcuciscus p h oxinus of ichthyologists, 
one of the Cyprinidce. 

MI'NOR (less : Lat.), in Law, one who is 

under the age of twenty-one.- Minor, in 

Logic, the second proposition of a regular 
syllogism- Minor, in Music, a term ap¬ 

plied to those modes in which the third is 
three semitones above the key-note, and to 
intervals consisting of three semitones. 

MINOR'ITY (last), in Law, a state of be¬ 
ing under the age of twenty-one. Also the 
smaller number of persons who give their 
votes on any questions, particularly iu par¬ 
liament ; opposed to majority. 

MIN'STER (Ger.; from monasterium, a 
monastery: Lat.), a term anciently ap¬ 
plied to the church of a convent. It is fre¬ 
quently found as a termination; thus 
Westminster, Leominster, &c. 

MINT (mynet, money ; Sax), a place where 
the national coinage is stamped. The royal 
mint received its constitution of superior 
officers in the 18th year of Edward II. 1 
The contrivances used in it were long I 
of a rude description, and it continued 
to carry on its operations within the Tower 
of London, until new buildings wereerected 
for it on Tower Hill, in the early part of this 
century. The chief officers of the mint are, 
the master, deputy master, comptroller, 
king’s assay-master, clerk of the papers, 
clerk of the irons, and superintendent of 
machinery, who constitute the mint board. 

The precious metal to be coined is first 
alloyed and then cast into small bars, which 
are passed through rollers in order to be 
reduced to the exact thickness required. 

The sheets are then subjected to the action 
of the punching machines, which cut out 
circular discs called blanks. These are se¬ 
parately tested for weight and soundness. 
After the rim has been raised theyare taken 
to the coining presses, which mill the edges 
and stamp both sides at the same stroke, all S 
the time feeding itself with blanks. One 
press will coin from 4000 to 5000 pieces in an 
hour. In forming the dies that impress the 
figures on the coin, a matrix is cut by the 
engraver on soft steel, and after this has 
been hardened it will strike many dies. The 
machines employed are of highly ingenious 

construction. [See Coining.]-Mint (men- 

tha: Lat.), in Botany, a genus of herbaceous ■ 
Plants, whose roots are perennial. There are 
many species, all of which contain much 
essential oil, and have an agreeable odour. 1 
























463 


Htterarj? Cmgurg* 


[misprision 


To the taste they are hitter, aromatic, and 
pungent. The Mentha piperita, or pepper¬ 
mint, is the most powerful, and, on this 
account, is most generally used in medicine. 
The Mentha viridis, or spearmint, is milder, 
and more commonly employed for culinary 
purposes. 

MIN'UET (Fr.), a dance in slow time and 
with short measured steps, which requires 
great dignity and grace of carriage; it is 
now seldom used. 

MIN'LITE ( minutus , small: Lat.), the 
.sixtieth part of the degree of a circle, and 
denoted thus ('), as a second or sixtieth 
part of a minute is by ("). Also, the sixtieth 
part of an hour. 'We often speak both of 
minutes and moments in order to convey a 

I meaning of time indefinitely short.- 

Minute, in Architecture, usually denotes 
the sixtieth part of the diameter of a 
column, and is the subdivision by which 
the smaller parts of the order are measured. 

-Minute is also used for a short memoir 

or sketch of a subject, taken in writing; 
a note to preserve the memory of some¬ 
thing. 

MlNU'TIiE (Lat.), the smaller particulars, 
or minute details of anything. 

MINX, the Putorms Lutreola of zoologists, 
an animal allied to the weasel, inhabiting 
the northern parts of Europe and America. 
It can swim and dive well, and is generally 
to be found on the banks of rivers, where 
it preys upon small fish, frogs, rats, mice, 
&c. Its fur is fine, but not very valuable. 
When irritated, the minx exhales a foetid 
musky smell. 

MI'OCENE (melon, less; kainos, new: Or.), 
in Geology, a division of the tertiary series 
of strata, more modern than the Eocene, 
and less modern than the Pliocene. It has 
been subdivided into the upper series, 
which are wanting in our islands, and the 
lower series, which include the Hempstead 
beds of the Isle of Wight. The latter are 
170 feet thick, aud comprehend marine, 
testuary, and fresh-water deposits, abound¬ 
ing in shells and other fossils. 

MI'RAGE (Fr.), an optical phenomenon, 
produced by refraction, and which consists 
in the unusual elevation or apparent ap¬ 
proximation of coasts, mountains, ships, 
or other objects, accompanied by inverted 
imager of the same. The appearance com¬ 
monly presented is that of a double image 
of the object in the air; one being in the 
natural position, the other inverted, so as to 
resemble an object and its inverted image 
in the water. Mirage arises from the unequal 
refracting power of the lower strata of the 
atmosphere; and may be produced when¬ 
ever the rays of light meet, in an oblique 
direction, the surface of a less refracting 
medium than that in which they were pre¬ 
viously moving. They are thus turned back 
into the original medium in the same direc¬ 
tion in which they would be impelled by 
a reflection taking place at the common 
surface of the two mediums. Most extra¬ 
ordinary forms of this, phenomenon have 
been described by travellers. 

MIlt'ROR (miroir: Fr.), in Optics, the 
polished surface of any metal or silvered 
glass, which reflects the rays of lightfalling 


upon it, and presenting images of objects. 
Mirrors are either flat, as looking-glasses; 
concave, for the purpose of making the rays 
of light convergent; or convex, for the 
purpose of rendering them divergent. The 
objects viewed in convex mirrors are di¬ 
minished, but are seen in an erect position, 
and appear to emanate from a point behind 
the mirror : this point is said to be a nega¬ 
tive or imaginary focus, because the rays 
are not actually collected at it, as by a con¬ 
cave mirror, whose focus is called real. It 
is probable that brazen mirrors were the 
first kind used; but silver reflects the best, 
though it is too expensive a material for 
common use. 

MISCH'NA, or MIS'NA (shanach, he re¬ 
peated : IJeh.), that part of the Jewish Tal¬ 
mud on which the Gemara is a commentary. 
It consists of traditions and explanations 
of Scripture. The Jews pretend, that when 
God gave the written law to Moses, he gave 
him also another, which was preserved by 
the doctors of the synagogue without com¬ 
mitting it to writing, till, through their 
dispersion, they were in danger of depart¬ 
ing from the traditions of their fathers: 
when it was judged proper to transfer it to 
books. 

MISDEMEAN'OUR, in Law, a minor of¬ 
fence, or one of less magnitude than that 
which is designated a felony. 

MISEItE'RE (have mercy': Lat.), a title 
given to the 51st psalm, usually called the 
psalm of mercy, on account of the words 
with which it commences in the Latin 
version. 

MIS'LETOE, or MIST'LETOE (misteltau, 
from mistle, birdlime; and tan, a twig: 
Sax.), the Viscum album, a parasitical plant 
found on the branches of many kinds of 
trees in the north of Europe. The misletoe 
was held sacred by the Druids, - because 
they had an extraordinary reverence for 
the number three ; and not only the berries, 
but the leaves of the misletoe, grow in 
clusters of three united on one stalk. Its 
growing upon the oak, their sacred tree, 
was doubtless another cause of its being 
venerated. When the end of the year 
approached, the Druids marched with great 
solemnity to gather the misletoe of the 
oak, in order to present it to Jupiter (Ta- 
ranis), inviting all to assist them at this 
ceremony, with these words: ‘ The new 
year is at hand : gather the misletoe.’ Until 
recently', it has not been found on the oak 
for many centuries. 

MISNO'MER (mis, from miss: Ger., ,wrong¬ 
ly done ; and women, a name : Lat.), in Law, 
the misnaming a person, or mistaking his 
name. The Christian name should always 
be perfect; but the law is not so strict in 
regard to surnames, a small mistake in 
which will be overlooked. It has been ob¬ 
served that a mere misspelling is not a 
misnomer, if the name so spelled have the 
same sound as the real one. At present,no 
indictment or information is abated by any 
plea of misnomer: the court merely orders 
an amendment to be made. 

MISPRIS'ION (mepris, negligence : Fr.), 
in Law, any high offence under the degree 
of what is capital, but bordering upon it. 









































Misprision of treason is a bare know¬ 
ledge and concealment of treason, without 
participation in it. Misprisions are called 
negative, when they consist in the conceal¬ 
ment of something that ought to be re¬ 
vealed; awl positive, when they consist in 
the commission of something which ought 
not to he done. 

MIS'SAL (missale, a mass-book: Mod. 
Lat), in the Roman Catholic church, the 
book which contains the prayers and cere¬ 
monies of the mass. Some early missals 
are beautifully executed, and are objects of 
bibliomania. 

MISTS (Sax.), or Fogs, are formed by par¬ 
ticles of moisture densely congregrated in 
the air. [See Clouds, Fogs, &c.] 

MITE ( miete: Ger.), a name given to 
several minute animals which are placed by 
zoologists in the neighbourhood of spiders. 
The Acarus domesticus, or common cheese 
mite, is so small that it is scarcely visible to 

the naked eye, except by its motion.- 

Mite, in Commerce, a small coin formerly 
current, equal to about one third part of a 
farthing. The piece of money called, in 
Scripture, a mite, was the quarter of a dena¬ 
rius, or about seven English farthings. 

MITHRA'IC, an epithet applied to any¬ 
thing connected with the Persian god 
Mithras, whose worship was introduced at 
Rome, where altars were raised to him, some 
of which are preserved in collections of 
antiquities. The god was usually repre¬ 
sented, in sculptures, as aman plunging his 
dagger into the neck of a prostrate bull, 
upon which he has placed his knee, whilst 
he holds a horn in one of his hauds. 

MITII'RIDATE, a celebrated medical 
confection, whose active ingredient was 
opium : invented by Democrates, physician 
to Mithridates, king of Pontus. It was 
supposed to be an antidote against the 
effects of all poison and contagion. 

MI'TRA ( mitra, a headband : Gr.), iu Anti¬ 
quity, a cap or covering for the head, worn 
by the Roman ladies, and sometimes by the 
men, but it was looked upon as a mark of 
effeminacy in the latter, especially when it 
was tied upon their heads. Amongst the 
Greeks, the mitra was a girdle worn below 

the cuirass, to defend from missiles.- 

Mitra, a genus of marine univalve shells. 

MI'TRAL VALVES (from being like 
mitres in shape), in Anatomy, two valves 
situated in the left ventricle of the heart, 
at the ingress of the pulmonary vein, serv¬ 
ing to hinder the return of the blood from 
the heart into the veins. 

MI'TRE (mitra, a headband: Gr.), an 
ornament worn on the head by bishops 
and certain abbots on solemn occasions; 
being a sort of cap, .pointed, and cleft at 
top. The liigh-priest among the Jews wore 
a mitre or bonnet on his head. The inferior 
priests had likewise their mitres, but in 
what particulars they differed from that of 
the high priest is at this time uncertain. 
Some writers contend that the ancient 
bishops wore mitres ; but there is no men¬ 
tion of the mitre as an episcopal ornament 
before a.d. 1000. It is scarcely ever worn 
by the bishops of the established church, 
the ugh it forms part of their coats of arms. 


MIT'TIMUS (we send : Lat.), in Law, a 
writ for transferring records from one 
court to another. Also a precept or com¬ 
mand in writing, under the hand and seal 
of a justice of the peace, or other proper 
officer, directed to the gaoler or keeper of a 
prison, for the receiving and safe keeping 
of an offender charged with any crime, until 
delivered by due course of law. 

MIXED FE'VER, one that is intermediate 
between an inflammatory, or low fever, and 
a typhus fever. 

MIXTURE ( mixtnra: Lat.), in Pharmacy, 
a liquid medicine which contains not only 
extracts, salts, and other substances soluble 
in water, but powders, &c., which are in¬ 
soluble. 

MIZ'EX MAST ( mezaen: But.), the mast, 
next the stern, which supports the after 

MNEMONICS ( mnemonikos, belonging to 
memory : Gr.), a systematic method of com¬ 
municating assistance to the memory. 

MOAT (motto, a mound: Fr.), in Fortifica¬ 
tion, a deep trench or ditch, dug round the 
ramparts of a fortified place, to prevent 
surprises. The brink of the moat next the 
rampart is called the scarp ; and the opposite 
one, the counterscarp. 

MO'CHA-STONE, in Mineralogy, den¬ 
dritic agate; a mineral, in the interior of 
which appear delineations of shrubs which 
are destitute of leaves, and are either of a 
brown, black, or green colour. In some 
cases these may have been produced by the 
filtration of the oxides of iron and manga¬ 
nese. 

MOCK'IKG-BIRD, the Mimus polyglottus, 
or mocking thrush, a dentirostral passerine 
bird. It builds its nest in trees near the 
dwellings of man, and feeds upon fruits. 
Although this bird is inferior to most of 
the feathered tribe in America in brilliancy 
of plumage, it is much sought for on ac¬ 
count of its wonderful imitative powers. 
Its own natural song is bold, full, and 
exceedingly varied; but in addition to the 
fulness and melody of its original notes, it 
has the faculty of imitating those of all 
other birds from the humming-bird to the 
eagle. In measure and accent it faithfully 
follows its originals, while in force and 
sweetness of expression it greatly improves 
upon them. A bystander might suppose 
that the whole of the feathered tribes 
had assembled together in a trial of skill, 
each striving to produce its utmost effect, 
so perfect are the mocking-bird’s imita¬ 
tions. 

MODE (modus, a manner: Lat.), in Meta¬ 
physics, the manner of a thing’s existence, 
which is either simple or mixed. Simple 
modes are only repetitions of the same sim¬ 
ple idea; thus, by adding units together, in 
distinct separate collections, we come by 
all the several modes of numbers, as a dozen, 
a score, a thousand, &c. Mixed modes, on 
the contrary, are compounded of simple 
ideas of different kinds, as beauty, which 
consists in a certain composition of colour 
and figure, causing delight in the beholder. 
- Essential, or inseparable modes, are attri¬ 
butes without which the substance cannot 
subsist. Non-essential, or separable modes, 














































465 


ilttcravy (Kreagurj). 


[mole 

- I 






I 


are attributes affecting created substances, 
and affixed to them in certain circumstances, 

as coldness in water, &c.- Mode, in 

Music, a regular disposition of the piece in 
relation to certain principal sounds, which 
are called the essential chords of the bass, 
or the essential sounds.of the mode. The 
difference between a mode and a key is, that 
the octave is called a mode with regard to 
the manner of dividing it, but a key with 

regard to its pitch or place in the scale.- 

The word mode is applicable also to particu¬ 
lar acts, or a series of acts, or to the common 
usage of a place or people. 

MOD'EL ( modulus , a measure of any¬ 
thing: Lat.), an original pattern, or the 
shape or design of anything in miniature. 
The term is particularly applied to an arti¬ 
ficial pattern, made in wood, stone, plaster, 
or other material, which is intended to se¬ 
cure the more accurate execution of some 
great work, and to afford an idea of the 
effect to be produced. Living models, for 
the purpose of studying the play of the 
muscles, the varieties of expression, and 
the relative proportions of the human form, 
are provided in all academies for painting. 

MODERATOR ( Lat.), a person who pre¬ 
sides at a public assembly, to propose ques¬ 
tions, preserve order, and regulate the pro¬ 
ceedings. Thus the president of the annual 
assembly of the church of Scotland is styled 
the moderator. 

MODIFICATION ( modificatio: from mo¬ 
dus, a state; and facio, I make: Lat.), in 
Philosophy, a change in the state of any¬ 
thing. Quantity and quality are accidents 
which modify all material substances. Ac¬ 
cording to Spinosa’s system, all the beings 
that compose the universe are only so many 
different modifications of one and the same 
element: and it is the different arrangement 
and situation of their parts that make all 
the difference between them. 

MODIL'LION (modiglione: Ital.), in 
Architecture, an ornament in the cornice of 
the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders ; 
a sort of bracket serving to support the 
projection of the larmier or drip. 

MO'DIUS {Lat.), a Roman dry measure 
for all sorts of grain, containing 32 liemince 
or 16 sextarii, or one-third of the amphora, 
amounting to an English peck. 

MO'DO ET FOR'MA (in the manner and 
form : Lat.), in Law, words frequently used 
in pleadings, &c., and particularly in a de¬ 
fendant’s answer, in which he denies having 
done what is laid to his charge, as affirmed 
by the plaintiff. 

MODULATION( modulatio, from modulor, 
I modulate: Lat.), in Music, the art of com¬ 
posing in accordance with the laws pre¬ 
scribed by any particular key, or of changing 
the mode or key. Also the regular progres¬ 
sion of several parts through the sounds 
that are in the harmony of any particular 
key, as well as the proceeding naturally and 
regularly from one key to another. 

MOD'ULE {modulus, the dim. of modus, a 
measure : Lat.), a measure applied in archi- 
| tecture; it consists of a semidiameter of 
I the column, and is divided into 30 minutes. 

MO'DUS {Lat-.), an equivalent in money, 
or other valuable consideration, given to 


the minister or vicar by the owners of land 
in lieu of tithes. The whole phrase is modus 
decimandi, though modus alone is generally 
used. 

MO'DUS OPERAN'DI, a Latin phrase, 
signifying the way or method in which an 
operation or performance of any kind is 
effected. 

MOGUL', GREAT, the chief of an empire 
founded in Hindostan, by Baber, in the 15th 
century. The last legitimate sovereign 
bearing this title was Shah Allum ; and the 
empire’ terminating at his death in 1806, 
nearly all his immense possessions fell into 
the hands of the East India Company. 

MO'HAIR {moire: Fr.), the hair of a goat, 
Capra angorensis, which inhabits the moun¬ 
tains in the vicinity of Angora in Asia 
Minor. It is white and silky, forming long 
curls on the animal. There is a consider¬ 
able importation of it into this country, 
where it is manufactured into various 
articles, mixed with other fibres. 

MO'HAIR-SHELL, in Conchology, a pe¬ 
culiar species of Voluta, resembling on the 
surface mohair, or a close web of the silk¬ 
worm. 

MOHAM'MEDANS. [See MAHOMETANS/! 

MO'HUR, an East Indian gold coin. 
The mohur of Bengal is worth ll. 13s. 8 d., 
that of Bombay 11. 10s. Id. 

MOI'DOItE, a Portuguese coin, equal to 
27s. sterling. 

MO'IETY {moitid: Fr.), a half part; a 
term frequently used by lawyers. 

MOLA'RES {Lat., from viola, a mill), or 
Dentes Molares, Molar teeth, in Anatomy, 
the large teeth, sometimes called grinders. 
In man they are distinguished as pre-mo¬ 
lars and true or permanent molars. The 
first are two in number, at each side of each 
jaw. They are next the canine teeth, and 
are changed by children like the front 
teeth. The true molars are not changed; 
there are three on each side of each jaw. 

-Molar Glands, two salivary glands, 

situated on each side of the mouth. 

MOLE {moles: Lat.), a mound or massive 
work, formed of large stones laid in the sea 
by means of coffer-dams, &c., extended in 
a right line, or as an arc of a circle, before 
a port, which it serves to defend from the 
violence of the waves; thus protecting 
ships in a harbour. The word is sometimes 
used for the harbour itself. Among the 
Romans, a kind of mausoleum, built like a 
round tower on a square base, insulated, 
encompassed with columns, and covered 
with a dome. Thus, the Moles Eadriani, 

now the Castle of St. Angelo, at Rome.- 

Mole, a spot or mark on the skin, or a small 

excrescence of the cuticle.- Mole {meet: 

Sax.), in Zoology, the Talpa Europcea, a 
small animal, from five to six inches in 
length, which, in search of worms or other 
insects, forms a road just under the surface 
of the ground, raising the soil into a little 
ridge. Its conformation enables it to bur¬ 
row with great ease, and such rapidity that 
its passage through the earth has been 
compared to swimming. It has no external 
ears, and its eyes are so minute, and so con¬ 
cealed by its fur, as to have given rise to a 
belief that it is formed without these im- 

H H 


! 



































HOLE- CRICKET J 


%\)t anft 


466 


portant organs. Moles live in pairs, and 
are chiefly found in places where the soil is 
loose and soft. The females bring forth 
four or five young, for the preservation of 
which the^parcnts construct a habitation, 
I or nest, with great diligence and ingenuity. 

-Mole-hill, a small mound or elevation 

of earth, thrown up by moles working 
under ground. The chamber which it con¬ 
tains is generally formed by enlarging the 
point of intersection of three or four pas¬ 
sages. The mischief done by the mole is 
probably more than counterbalanced by the 
good it effects in destroying immense 
numbers of earth-worms, &c., which cause 
great injury to the roots of grass, corn, and 
other plants. 

MOLE-CRICKET, in Entomology, the 
Gryllotalpa vulgaris, an orthopterous in¬ 
sect, noted for its rapidity in burrowing, as 
well as for its destructiveness in gardens. 
The female forms a nest of clay, about as 
large as a hen’s egg, and deposits in it nearly 
150 eggs, in the preservation of which it 
takes the greatest care. "Wherever a nest 
is situated, avenues and entrenchments 
surround it; there are also numerous wind¬ 
ing passages which lead to it; and the whole 
is environed by a ditch, which presents an 
impassable barrier to most insects. At the 
approach of winter, the mole-crickets re¬ 
move their nests to a depth in the earth 
sufficient to prevent any injury from the 
frost. When the mild season returns, they 
raise it in proportion to the advance of the 
warm weather, and at last elevate it so near 
the surface as to permit the sun and air to 
act on it. The male has a chirp, or low jar¬ 
ring note, which may be heard in the 
evening or night. 

MO'LECULE (a dim. of moles, a mass: 
Lai.), a particle, in Chemistry. The term 
molecules Is applied to those groups of 
matter which hold together during a 
variety of transformations, although each 
group is a chemical compound; whilst the 
term atom is reserved for those particles 
which have not hitherto been broken up, 
and which there is no reason for supposing 
ever will be broken up. Thus we speak of 
the molecules of oxide of iron, and of the 

atoms of oxygen and iron.-In Physics, 

molecule signifies the smallest conceivable 
particle of matter, without reference to its 
chemical constitution. 

MOLLUS'CA, MOLLUSCS' (molluscus, 
soft: Lat.), in Zoology, an animal sub¬ 
kingdom, comprehending those which have 
soft bodies enclosed in a muscular skin, the 
majority being protected by a shell. [See 
Shell.] All of them have gangliated ner¬ 
vous systems, with the ganglions or medul¬ 
lary masses dispersed more or less irre¬ 
gularly through the body. They have a 
heart, which generally consists of one ven¬ 
tricle and one auricle. Their blood is white 
or bluish. Some of them breathe in air, 
others in fresh or salt water. The marine 
molluscs have generally a heavy shell. Some 
are unisexual, others androgynous, and a 
few dioecious. Some of the molluscs are 
very tenacious of life, frequently, to all ap¬ 
pearance, retaining it after they are cut 
asunder. Some are viviparous, while others 


are oviparous. The uses of this numerous 
class are extremely varied ; many of them 
are used as food by man, and others supply 
nutritious prey for birds and fishes. They 
have been divided into six classes, of which 
those of the first three have a distinct j 
head, and are styled encephalous ; those of j 
the remaining classes being acephalous, | 
that is, without ahead 1. The Cephalopoda 
or Cuttle-fishes, which crawl, and seize va- ; 
rious objects by fleshy arms arranged in a ! 
circle round the mouth. 2. Gasteropoda, 
comprising the snails and other univalves, 
which crawl by means of a muscular disc or 
foot on the under side of the body. 3. 
Pteropoda, marine molluscs, which swim by 
means of a pair of fin-like bodies extending 
laterally from the sides of the head. 4. 
Brachiopoda, marine bivalves, one of the j 
shells being perforated to allow a pedicle j 
to pass, by which they are anchored to rocks. 
They are without a special breathing organ. 

5. Conchifera, the ordinary bivalves, which 
have two pairs of gills for the aeration of 
their blood. C. Tunicata, molluscs without 
shells, enveloped in a gelatinous sac or 
tunic with two orifices. 

MOLYB'DENUM ( [molubdos, lead: Gr .), 
in Mineralogy, a metal, obtained as an ash- 
grey powder, which, when fused, is white, 
brittle, and very refractory; its spec. grav. 
is about 8‘6. It forms two oxides and an 
acid, also a combination with oxygen, and 
obtained by raising the sulphuret to a red 
heat in the air; the compounds of the latter 
are called molybdates. The native sulphuret, 
which was considered to be an ore of lead, 
was originally called molybdenum. 

MOMEN'TUM ( Lat .), in Mechanics, the 
effect which one body in motion is capable 
of producing on another. It is numerically 
represented by the product obtained by 
multiplying together the mass and velocity. 

MOE'ACHISM ( monachos, a monk, from 
monos, alone : Gr.). Originally a monk was 
one who lived a solitary life; and the term 
was applicable to great numbers who in 
Egypt and Syria devoted themselves to 
contemplation and prayer. When monks 
began to be assembled in convents, the j 
solitaries were termed ascetics, or hermits ; 
and those who lived in community coeno~ 
bites, or associates. The ancient monks 
renounced all temporal possessions, and 
supported themselves solely by the labour 
of their hands; they practised fasting, but 
in moderation. In later times, the obser¬ 
vances of asceticism assumed a different 
character; worthless, and in many cases 
degrading, acts, were but too often consi¬ 
dered to be highly meritorious. The monk 
was, in numerous instances, one who fled 
from the active and useful, though labori¬ 
ous, duties of ordinary life; or who was over¬ 
whelmed by the miseries, and terrified by 
the dangers, of a disturbed and rude state 
of society. As transcribers and preservers 
of ancient authors, literature owes much to 
some of the older orders. As landlords, 
the monasteries were generally not oppres¬ 
sive. And, although monastic institutions 
gradually fell into abuses which had a con¬ 
siderable share in bringing about the re¬ 
formation, there were among their inmates 

































iG 7 


Htterary STiTatfuni. 


[money 


undoubtedly, many examples of probity and 
virtue. 

MON'AD ( monas , a unit: Gr.), an atom 
which is incapable of division. In Natural 
History, a name given'to various minute 
organisms, some of which may bo animal, 
as others are certainly vegetable. 

MONADELPHTA ( monos , single : adel- 
phos, a brother: Gr.), in Botany, the six¬ 
teenth class of the Linnaean system of 
plants, having the stamens united into one 
body by the lilaments. 

MONAN'DRIA (monos, single ; and aner, 
a male: Gr.), in Botany, the first class in 
the Linnaean system of plants, having only 
one stamen or male organ in each flower. 

MON'ARCHY (monorchia : from monos, 
alone ; and archo, I govern : Gr.), a govern¬ 
ment in which the supreme authority is 
vested in a single person. Where the mon¬ 
arch possesses an absolute power, the mon¬ 
archy is termed absolute: where the supreme 
power is virtually in the laws, though the 
majesty of government and the administra¬ 
tion is vested in a single person, it is a 
limited monarchy. It is hereditary, if the 
regal power descends immediately from the 
possessor to the next heir by blood, as in 
Great Britain; elective, if the choice depends 
upon all who enjoy the benefit of freedom, 
as was the case in Poland. 

MON'ASTERY (monasterion, from mona- 
zo, I live in solitude: Gr.), a convent,'or 
establishment for the reception of monks 
or nuns; and governed by different rules, 
according to the different regulations pre¬ 
scribed by the founders. Monasteries had 
their origin in the deserts of Upper Egypt, 
where Antony, commonly called the Great, 
about the year 305, collected a number of 
hermits, w’ho, for the sake of enjoying, in 
society, the benefits of retirement from the 
world, built their huts near each other, and 
performed their devotional exercises in 
common, as the monks of Palestine did at 
a later period, and as those of Abyssinia do 
at the present day. The number of monas¬ 
teries was much diminished at the time of 
the reformation, when the rich estates of 
the establishments which were taken from 
the monks and nuns, in Protestant states, 
were in part appropriated by the sovereign 
to his own use, and in part devoted to the 
founding and supporting of institutions for 
the purposes of education. In Catholic 
countries, they retained their original con¬ 
stitution till the 18th century ; but, from 
the influence of the spirit of the age, they 
sank in the public estimation, and were 
either suppressed, or obliged, as the papal 
power diminished, to submit to many re¬ 
strictions imposed on them by Catholic 
princes. , , 

MON'DAY (moon-day), the second day of 
the week, so called from being anciently 
sacred to the moon. 

MONETA'RII (Lot., from moneta, the 
mint), in Antiquity, officers of the mint 
amongst the Romans, who presided over 
the production of the coin. 

MON'EY (moneta: Lat.), the portable and 
standard equivalent for commodities, la¬ 
bour, and values transferred. It derives 
its name from having been coined in 


ancient Rome, at the temple of Juno Mo¬ 
neta', and consists either of coins, paper 
money, or moneys of account. Among mo¬ 
dern commercial nations, gold, silver, and 
copper are almost the only metals used for 
this purpose. Paper money is called paper 
currency, to distinguish it from specie,, 
metallic currency, or cash ; it comprehends 
notes of hand, bills of exchange, cheques, 
&c. Moneys of account are imaginary mo¬ 
neys, used only in keeping accounts; such 
was the English pound until sovereigns 
were coined. When money is plentiful, 
with reference to commodities and labour, 
they are said to be dear; but when com¬ 
modities and labour are plentiful in refer¬ 
ence to money, they are said to be cheap : 
dearness and cheapness being merely re¬ 
lative terms. Money is profitable to a 
country only by its circulation; for circula¬ 
tion causes it constantly to produce new 
portions of property; and, on this account, 

I a small sum, in constant circulation, is 
S of far more benefit to a country than the 
possession of the largest sums which re- 
! main locked up and do not change owners. 
The only true means of permanently pre¬ 
venting a scarcity of money is to improve 
the state of internal and domestic industry ; 
and their opinion is wholly destitute of foun¬ 
dation, who believe that a mere abundance 
of money is sufficient to develope a healthy 
state of domestic industry; for money 
does not produce the goods, but follows 
their production. In the most ancient 
times it is certain that all commerce was 
managed by way of barter. There was 
always a necessity, however, for a sort of 
common measure, by which to estimate 
the value of commodities. The first inha¬ 
bitants of the earth were almost all shep¬ 
herds and husbandmen: they therefore 
made that common measure to consist in 
a certain portion of their flocks, and any 
commodity was said to be worth so many 
sheep, oxen, &c. It was afterwards found 
more convenient to express the value of 
most commodities by bits of leather, which 
by their marks showed the number of 
beasts they were worth. This was the first 
money, and the origin of all coins. Silver 
| money was not used at Rome till the 485th 
year after the building of the city; and 
gold was first coined in the year 547, dur¬ 
ing the consulship of Nero and Salinator. 
Julius Caesar was the first whose head was 
stamped upon money, by order of the se¬ 
nate. The first coined money regularly 
minted, and properly so called, amongst the 
Jews, was issued in the time of Judas 
Maccaboeus, who had leave given him by 
Antiochus Sidetes to coin money of his 
own in Judaea. Payments, before this, had 
always been made by weight: hence the 
correspondence between sums of money, 
with them, and weights. Paper, as the 
representative of money, became, after 
some time, a necessity. If the metals were 
used exclusively, the sum required, even 
for a moderate payment, could be carried 
only in a cart or wagon :—a thousand sove¬ 
reigns. exceed 21 lbs. troy in weight. Be¬ 
sides, their wear and tear would be very 
expensive. The currency of the United 




























monitor] %\)t Scientific antr 468 


Kingdom, if entirely of gold, would 
amount to at least 60 millions ; and allow¬ 
ing \ per cent, for wear and tear and loss 
of coins, the waste would he 150,0001. per 
annum. A pound troy of the silver used 
in coining contains 11 oz. 2 dwt. pure silver, 
and is coined into sixty-six shillings. 
This, with one short intermission, has 
been the fineness of the silver used in the 
mint since the conquest. The gold contains 
! ll-12ths of its weight pure gold; and one 
! pound troy of it is coined into 4674 
sovereigns ; that is, into 461.14s. 10rl. [See 
the most important coins, under their dif- 
I ferent names.] 

MON'ITOR (an adviser : Lat.), in Zoology, 
a genus of large lizards, which have teetli 
in both jaws, and none on the palate ; most 
of them have the tail compressed laterally. 
They derive their name from a popular be¬ 
lief that they give warning of the approach 
of crocodiles, by making a kind of whist¬ 
ling noise. They live near water in the hot 
parts of the old world. That which inhabits 
the neighbourhood of the Nile is figured 
amongst Egyptian hieroglyphics. The fossil 
remains of species much larger than any 
now existing have been discovered in va¬ 
rious parts of Europe. 

MON'ITORY LETTERS (monitor ius, 
warning: Lat ), letters of warning and ad¬ 
monition sent from an ecclesiastical judge, 
upon information of scandals and abuses 
within the cognizance of his court. 

MONK (monachos: Gr.), the member of 
I a religious society, who dwells in a monas¬ 
tery, under a vow of observing the rules of 
J the order to which he belongs. 

MON'KEY (a dim. of mon, man: Sax.), 

| the name given to a tribe of quadrumanous 
j animals, coming after the apes and baboons. 

They are for the most part distinguished by 
j having cheek pouches for the temporary 
reception of their food, a long muscular 
tail, and callosities at the side of it. They 
inhabit forests in prodigious numbers, and 
though mischievous and filthy, their man¬ 
ners are not without interest. They have 
hands like man, and can walk on two legs, 
but they are capable of no efforts beyond 
what are suggested by the necessities of the 
moment. They are affectionate to their 
I young, and often exhibit great sagacity. 
Most of the species are gregarious, associat¬ 
ing in large troops; but each troop is inva¬ 
riably formed of the same species. They 
throw missiles with great dexterity, and 
live on vegetables. [See Primates, Quad- 
rumana, Apes, Baboons.] 

MONKS'HOOD, in Botany, a poisonous 
plant bearing a fine blue flower. It belongs 
to the genus Aconitum, amongst the Banun- 

CUlCLCCCB. 

MON'OCIIORD ( monochordos , with but 
one string: Gr.), a musical instrument, 
originally having but one string, as its 
name imports; but it is now generally 
constructed with two. By means of it the 
musician is better enabled to try the pro¬ 
portions of sounds and intervals, and judge 
of the harmony of two tempered notes. 

MONOCHROMAT7C ( monoclirumatos , of 
but one colour: Gr.), in Optics, presenting 
rays of light of one colour only. 


MON'OCHROME (monochromos, of but 
one colour : Gr.), an ancient mode of paint¬ 
ing, in which only one colour was used. 
Most of the existing examples of it are on 
terra cotta 

MONOCOTYLE'DON (monos, single; and 
kotuleddn, a cup-shaped hollow : Gr.). [See 
Dicotyledon.] 

MONOC'ULUS (monos, single: Gr. ; and 
oculus, an eye: Lat.), the name formerly 
given to a genus of Entomostraca, small 
crustaceous animals, living in water. 

MON'ODON (monos, single; and odoas, a 
tooth : Gr.), a mammalian genus, repre¬ 
sented by the Sca-unicom, or Narwhal, a 
cetaceous animal, living in the northern 
seas, the male of which has a remarkable 
tusk or horn, from six to ten feet long, pro¬ 
jecting from its upper jaw. There is also a 
second rudimentary tusk; in the female 
both tusks are rudimentary. The animal 
is usually from 16 to 20 feet in length, and, 
unlike every other species of whale, it has 
no teeth properly so called. 

MONCE'CIA (monos, single ; oikos, house¬ 
hold : Gr.), in Botany, the twenty-first class 
of the Linnman system, comprehending 
those plants which have stamens and pistils 
in different flowers in the same individual. 

MONOG'AMY (monogamia: from monos, 
single ; and gamos, marriage : Gr.), the state 
or condition of those who have never had 
more than one wife. 

MON'OGRAM (monos, single; and gram¬ 
ma, a letter: Gr.), in Arclneology, a charac¬ 
ter or cipher composed of one or more let¬ 
ters interwoven, being an abbreviation of a 
name : anciently used as a seal, badge, arms, 
&c. Printers, engravers, &c., formerly 
made use of monograms to distinguish 
their productions. 

MON'OGRAPH (monos, single; and gra¬ 
phe, a writing : Gr.), a treatise on a single 
subject in literature or science. * 
MONOGYN'IA (monos, single ; and gune, 
a female : Gr.), in Botany, the first order in 
each of the first thirteen classes in the Lin- 
naean system, comprehending plants that 
have only one pistil or stigma in a flower. 

MONOLITH'IC (monolithos : from monos, 
single ; and lithos, a stone : Gr.), consisting 
of a single stone. Some striking specimens 
of monolithic temples have been found in 
Egypt, and bear testimony to the wonder¬ 
ful progress which mechanical knowledge 
had made among that ancient people. 

MON'OLOGUE (monologia : from monos, 
single : and logos, a discourse : Gr.), or So¬ 
liloquy, a dramatic scene, in which a per¬ 
son appears alone on the stage and solilo¬ 
quizes. 

MONOMA'NIA (monos, single; and mania, 
madness: Gr.), the name given, by some 
physicians, to that form of mania in which 
the mind of the patient is so absorbed by 
one idea/ that with reference to it he is 
mad, although sane on every other subject. 
Those who devote themselves too much to 
one study or pursuit are liable to have their 
intellect weakened regarding it. 

MONO'MIAL (monos, single: Gr.; and 
nomen, a name : Lat.), in Algebra, a root or 
quantity which has but one name; that is 
consists of only one member. 

























*69 JUtCttlVg CrrastU'l). [montmAuTrite 


MONOPET'ALOUS (monos, single; and 
petalon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet 
applied to flowers that have only one petal 
or flower-leaf. 

MONOPH'YLLOUS (monos, single; and 
phullon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, having hut 
one leaf. 

MONOPH'YSITE (monopliusites : from 
monos, single; and phusis, nature: Gr.), 
one who maintains that Jesus Christ had 
but one nature, or that the human and the 
divine nature were so united as to form one 
nature only. This doctrine was first pro¬ 
mulgated by Eutyches, an abbot at Constan¬ 
tinople, about a.d. 448 ; but it was con¬ 
demned as heretical, and he was cast out of 
the church. 

MONOP'OLY (monopdlia: from monos, 
alone ; and poleo, I sell: Gr.), an exclusive 
right, secured to one or more persons, to 
carry on some branch of trade or manufac¬ 
ture, obtained either by purchasing all the 
articles in the market, or by a license from 
the government. The monopolies most 
frequently granted in former times were 
the right of trading to certain foreign 
countries, the right of importing or export¬ 
ing certain articles, and that of exercising 
particular arts or trades. This at length 
became an enormous grievance, and was 
abolished in 1624 by an act of Parliament, 
commonly called the Patent Act of James I. 
Its provisions extended to all private mo¬ 
nopolies, but did not prevent the crown 
from granting patents for new inventions. 

MONOPOL'YLOGUE (monos, alone; polns, 
many; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), an en¬ 
tertainment in which a single performer 
sustains many characters. 

MONOTHAL'AMOUS (monos, single ; and 
1 ihalamos, a chamber: Gr.), in Conchology, 
one-chambered; that is, when the chamber 
of the shell is not divided by a partition. 

MONOTH'EISM (monos, single; and 
Theos, God: Gr.), the doctrine or belief of 
the existence of one God only: opposed 
to polytheism, or the belief in a plurality of 
Gods. Many of the most enlightened of the 
heathens were monotheists. 

MONOTH'ELITES (monotheletai : from 
monos, single; and thelo, I will: Gr.), he¬ 
retics who, while they avoided the error of 
Eutyches, and admitted two natures in 
Christ, asserted that the divine nature so 
predominated as to leave the human no 
action or efficacy, and therefore no power 
of volition, and consequently that there 
was but one will in Christ. This doctrine, 
which was condemned as a heresy, distract¬ 
ed the church in the seventh century. 

MOXOT'ONY (monotonia: from monos, 
single ; and tonos, a tone : Gr.), in Rhetoric, 
a sameness of sound, or the utterance of 
successive syllables at one unvaried pitch, 
without inflection or cadence. 

MOXOTRE'MATA (monos, single; trema, 
a perforation: Gr.), a group of mammalia, 
so named from their having only a single 
vent, as in the ornitliorhynchus and 
echidna. 

MONSOO'NS (monsom: Arab.), periodical 
winds in the Indian Ocean, that blow one 
half of the year from the same quarter or 
point of the compass, and the other half 


from the opposite. The change of the winds, I 
or the breaking up of the monsoons, as it is 
called, is accompanied by storms and hurri¬ 
canes. The points and times of shifting are 
different in different parts of the ocean. 
The monsoons which prevail in the East 
Indies are called trade winds; and so are 
the winds which blow the whole year from 
the same point, as the winds within the 
tropics on the Atlantic. 

MON'STER ( monstrum : Lat.), in Physio¬ 
logy, any creature whose formation deviates 
in some remarkable w r ay from what is natu¬ 
ral to the species ; sometimes in a malfor¬ 
mation of the whole or some portion of the 
body, and sometimes in the presence of or¬ 
gans or parts not necessary to it. 

MON'TANISTS, heretics in the second 
century. They were followers of Montanus, 
who pretended to inspiration, and declared 
himself the Paraclete, or Comforter, pro¬ 
mised to the apostles. The doctrines of 
this sect were similar to those of the 
gnostics. They practised great austerities; 
and believed in the possibility of advanc¬ 
ing from the obvious and literal inter¬ 
pretation of the word of God to a state of 
interior and spiritual knowledge, coincident 
with a participation even of the divine na- 
ture. 

MON'TEM (a mountain : Lat.), a singular 
custom long observed at Eton on Whit- 
Tuesday, every third year. The scholars of 
the college, who were arrayed in fancy 
dresses, marched in procession to a turuu- } 
lus, near the Bath Road (admontem), where 
their captain (the best scholar) recited a 
passage from some ancient author. They 
then dispersed in various directions to col- ! 
lcct money for salt, as it was called, from all 
passengers, not allowing anyone to pass 
without contributing something. The j 
money thus collected, which usually 
amounted to several hundred pounds, was j 
given to the captain, no enable him to take i 
up his residence at one of the universities. j 
The royal family generally attended the j 
ceremony. It was abolished in 1843. 

MONTH (monaih, from mond, the moon : 
Ger.), in Chronology, the twelfth part of a 
year, otherwise called a calendar month, to i 
distinguish it from the astronomical,which 
is either solar or lunar. [See Lunar Month, 
&c.] The Romans used lunar months, mak¬ 
ing them alternately of 29 and 30 days; and 
they marked the days of each month by j 
three terms, viz. calends,nones, and ides. A j 
civil or common month consists of a certain 
number of days, according to the laws and 
customs of the different countries in which 
it is used; either having no regard to the 
solar or lunar month, as those of the Egyp¬ 
tians in their equal year, of the Romans in 
the year of Romulus, &c., or coming pretty 
near to the solar astronomical month, as 
the Julian.—There are twelve solar months 
and thirteen lunar months in the year. In 
popular language, four weeks are called a 
month, that space of time being nearly the 
length of the lunar month. 

MONTMAR'TRITE, in Mineralogy, a 
compound of the sulphate and carbonate of 
lime, existing as a mineral of a yellowish 
colour, found at Montmartre, near Paris. 























monument] £Tjc J&rienttttc mtfr 


MON'UMENT ( monumentum: Lett.), in 
Architecture, a building or erection of any 
kind, destined to commemorate the achieve¬ 
ments of the person who raised it, or for 
whom it was raised ; as a triumphal arch, 
a mausoleum, a pyramid, a pillar, a tomb, 

&c. -The Monument, so called among 

us, is a magnificent pillar, erected to pre- 
I serve the memory of the great conflagra- 
| tion of the city of London, in 1666, on the 
1 spot where the fire began. It is of Port- 
I land stone, of the Doric order, and fluted; 

is 202 feet high, and 15 feet in diameter; 

I stands on a pedestal 40 feet high and 21 
j feet square, the front being enriched with 
! curious emblems in basso relievo; and has 
within its shaft a spiral stair of black 
marble of 345 steps. It was begun in 1671, 
i but was not completed till 1677; stone 
oeing scarce, and the restoration of London 
and its cathedral swallowing up the pro- 
i duce of the quarries. It was at first used 
by the members of the Royal Society for 
astronomical purposes, but was abandoned 
on account of its vibrations being too great 
for the nicety required in their observa¬ 
tions. The great fire of London covered 
436 acres with its ruins; it destroyed 89 
churches, including St. Paul’s; also the 
City gates, the Royal Exchange, Custom 
House, Guildhall, and many other public 
buildings, besides 200 streets containing 
13,200 houses. The neighbourhood of Lon¬ 
don Bridge has long been remarkable for 
the number and magnitude of the fires it 
has witnessed. In one, which took place 
at its southern extremity, in the reign of 
King John, 3000 persons are said to have 
perished in the river, while attempting to 
escape from the conflagration. In 1794, at 
Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India 
warehouse containing 35,000 bags of salt¬ 
petre, were consumed, the loss being esti¬ 
mated at a million sterling. But this has 
been far exceeded by the destruction of 
j property consequent on the fire which 
broke out on the 22nd of June, 1861, in 
which it is supposed that, including both 
' buildings and merchandise, the loss 
i amounted to between two and three mil- 
I lions! 

I MOOD (modus, a manner: Lat.), some¬ 
times written mode, in Grammar, the me¬ 
thod of forming a verb, or the manner in 
which a verb is inflected, so as to express 
the nature of our conception of an event 
or fact, whether as certain, contingent, 
possible, &c. 

MOON ( mond: Ger.; from mere: Gr.), in 
Astronomy, a secondary planet, the satellite 
of the earth, whose borrowed light is re¬ 
flected to the earth, and serves at times to 
dispel the darkness of night. The moon 
and the earth are acted upon by the sun as 
one body, and each moves round their com¬ 
mon centre of gravity. Like the other 
heavenly bodies, the moon daily alters her 
apparent position among the fixed stars, 
and, in the course of a month, appears to 
make a complete revolution round the 
heavens, from west to east, while, at the 
same time, she has, like the fixed stars, an 
apparent daily motion from east to west. 
Of all the heavenly bodies, the moon is the 


470 


nearest to us ; her mean distance being esti¬ 
mated at about 237,000 miles. Her diameter 
is about 2182 miles, and her volume the 
l-49tli of that of the earth. She has no 
atmosphere, or at least none of sufficient 
density to refract the rays of light as they 
pass through it, and hence there is no 
water on her surface ; consequently she can 
have no animals like those on our planet, 
no vegetation, nor any change of seasons. 
We have no means of knowing whether or 
not she is composed of the same materials 
as our earth. Her sidereal or periodical 
motion on her own axis is performed in 27 
days 7 hours 43 minutes and 11 seconds; 
her synodical motion, or her motion in her 
orbit round the earth, in 29 days 12 hours 
44 minutes 3 seconds ; the former is called 
the periodical, and the latter the synodical 
month. [See Lunation.] But since the 
motion about her axis is equable and uni¬ 
form, and that about the earth, or common 
centre of gravity, is unequal and irregular, 
as being performed in an ellipsis, it must 
follow that precisely the same part of the 
moon’s surface cannot be turned constantly 
to the earth; and this is confirmed by the 
telescope, through which we often observe 
a little gore or segment on the eastern and 
western limbs appear and disappear by 
turns, as if her body librated to and fro ; 
which, therefore, occasioned this phenome¬ 
non to be called her libration. [See Libra- 
tion.] With regard to the moon’s surface, 
that she is nearly covered with hills and 
mountains is demonstrable from the line 
which bounds the light and dark parts not 
being an even regular curve, as it would be 
upon a smooth spherical surface, but irre¬ 
gular and full of indentations. We observe 
many small spots interspersed all over the 
bright part, some having their dark sides 
next the sun, and their opposite sides very 
bright and circular; these are deep hollows, 
two of which, near her upper part, are very 
remarkable, and may be plainly seen when 
the moon is about four or five days old. 
The depth of these lunar cavities prodi¬ 
giously exceeds the height of the moun¬ 
tains, and consequently the surface of the 
moon has but little resemblance to that of 
the earth. The two eminences on the 
southern limb, which have been named 
Leibnitz and Dorfet, are about 26,000 feet 
high. The various appearances which the 
moon periodically presents in the diffe¬ 
rent portions of her revolution are termed 
phases, and arise from the different posi¬ 
tions which her opaque mass assumes in 
relation to the sun and the earth. When 
the moon is between the sun and the earth 
(in which case the sun and moon are said 
to be in conjunction), she presents her un- 1 
illumined side to us, and we can see no- i 
thing of her. In this state it is said to be : 
new moon. Four days after the time of 
new moon, a portion of the illumined sur- 
face is seen in the shape of a sickle, with P 
the horns towards the sun. After about 
eight days, we perceive a bright semicir- ' 
cular disk; in this state, the moon is said 
to be in her first quarter. The moon then 
assumes more and more of a circular figure 
until about fifteen days after the time of 

































471 Ettenu'y Creagttrg* 


new moon, when she is directly opposite 
the sun, and presents a complete circular 
disk; this is the full moon. From the time 
j of full moon, the illuminated portion de- 
! creases with each successive day, on the 
sido most distant from the sun, gradually 
assuming the sickle shape, with the horns, 
however, turned from the sun. In summer, 

| the full moons are low, and their stay above 
the horizon short ; in winter, the contrary. 

I The inhabitants of t he polar regions never 
j see the full moon in summer, but in the 
| winter, before, at, and after full, she appears 
! to them continuously for fourteen of our 
days and nights. Thus they have constant 
[ moonlight during half the winter, while the 
sun is absent., and lose the moon only from 
the third to the first quarter.when she gives 
little or no light. It has been demonstrated, 
by means of delicate thermometers, that 
i he moon radiates a small degree of heat. 
The new moons,or first days of every month, 
were kept as festivals amongst the Jews; 
aud they were celebrated with the sound of 
trumpets, entertainments, and sacrifice. 
When the moon was at full, it was con¬ 
sidered by the Spartans a favourable time 
for any undertakings; and no motive could 
induce them, when it was not so, to enter 
upon any expedition, march an army, or 
attack an enemy.—The moon was supposed, 
both by Greeks aud Romans, to preside 
I over childbirth. 

MOON'STONE, in Mineralogy, a variety 
of Adularia, of a yellowish-wliite or green¬ 
ish-white colour, and somewhat iridescent. 
It is found massive and crystallized, and, 
is sometimes cut into ring aud brooch' 
1 stones. 

MOOR ( Maurus: Lat.; from mauros, 
dark; Or.), a native of the northern coast 
of Africa, called by the Romans Mauritania, 
which comprehended the present countries 

; of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, &c.-Moon 

1 (moer, mud : Tout.), a tract of land without 
1 trees, usually overrun with heath. Except 
[ rocky soils, moors are generally the least 
fitted for cultivation ; they may, however, 

| be greatly improved by draining. 

MOOR'-COCK, or Black Grouse, the Tetrcio 
tetrix of ornithologists. The male ha3 a 
forked tail, spotted with white underneath. 
It is a native of Eugland, but very rare ; in 
Scotland it is more abundant. The male is 
of a very deep iron grey, but the female is 
; variegated with transverse lines of black. 

MOOR'INGS, the anchors, chains, &c., 
laid athwart the bottom of a river or har¬ 
bour to hold a ship. 

MOOR'STONE, a species of Granite. 

MOOSE DEER. [See Elk.] 

MOOT'-CASE, or MOOT-POINT(mot ian, to 
treat of : Sax.), an unsettled point, a ques¬ 
tion to be mooted or debated. 

MORA'INE, the stony detritus found at 
the ends and along the edges of glaciers. 
[See Glaciers.] 

MORAL'ITIES.akind of allegorical plays, 
which were formerly very common, aud 
consisted in moral discourses praising vir¬ 
tue and condemning vice. They were occa¬ 
sionally exhibited as late as the reign of 
Henry VIII., and, after various modifica¬ 
tions, assumed the form of the masque, 


[MORESQUE 


which became a favourite entertainment at 
the court of Elizabeth and her successor. 

MOIIA'VIANS, a sect of Christians which 
sprang up in Moravia and Bohemia, about 
the year 1467. They seem to have formed a 
portion of that considerable body of per¬ 
sons who were already professing the doc¬ 
trines of the reformation, in Bohemia, when 
Luther began to preach. From the original 
seat of their doctrine, they are sometimes 
called Moravians; and from a settlement 
made in Upper Lusatia, they are generally 
known, on the continent, by the name of 
Uernhutters. Some persecuted brethren, 
having emigrated from Moravia, were re¬ 
ceived by Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzen- 
dorf, on whose estate they built a town. 
The ground allotted to them for this pur¬ 
pose was on the side of a hill called Hutberg, 
or Watcli-hill, whence they took occasion 
to call their new settlement Hernhnt, ‘Tho 
watch of the Lord.’ The United Brethren 
are much attached to instrumental as well 
as vocal music; celebrate agapse or love- 
feasts; and cast lots, to discover the will 
of the Lord. These people live in commu¬ 
nities, and provide for their poor, but do 
not make a common stock of their property. 
They wear a plain, uniform dress, and are 
extremely methodical in all their concerns. 

MOR'BID ( morbidus, diseased: Led.), 
among physicians, signifies unhealthy or 
corrupt; a term applied either to an un¬ 
sound constitution, or to those parts or 
humours that are diseased. 

MORBIDEZ'ZA ( Ital .), a painter’s term, 
expressing that peculiar appearance of 
softness and flexibility in the representar 
tion of the skin which we see in nature. 
Titian and Correggio may be referred to as 
highly successful in morbidezza. 

MOR'DANT ( mordeo, I bite into: Lat.), 
in dyeing aud calico printing, a substance 
which has a chemical affinity for both the 
colouring matter and the cloth to bo dyed, 
and is, as it were, a bond of union between 
them. When that which has to be dyed 
has little or no attraction for the matter on 
which the colour depends, so as not to bo 
capable either of abstracting it from its 
solvent, or of retaining it with such tena¬ 
city as to form a permanent dye, then somo 
intermediate substance is used, which is 
capable of uniting them ; such a substance 
is called a mordant. Sometiriies the mor¬ 
dant modifies the colour; and the colours 
imparted by some dye-stuffs depend on tho 
mordants with which they are associated. 
Of all the bases, those which succeed best 
as mordants are alumina, tin, and oxide of 
iron. 

MOR'EL ( morehel: Ger.), the Morchella 
esculenta, one of the few fungi, found in 
this country, which may be eaten with 
safety. It has a hollow stalk, an inch or 
two high, and a yellowish or greyish ribbed 
head two or three inches deep. 

MORES'QUE (Fr.), ornamental painting, 
in which foliage, fruits, flowers, &c., are 
combined, without the introduction of the 
human figure or that of animals. It was 
much used by the Moors, but was not in¬ 
vented by them. It originated among the 
Mahometans from necessity; since their 






































morganatic] QLl)c J-irteuttfu autr 472 

religion forbids them to represent any 
living creature; hence their ornaments 
consist of foliage, geometrical figures, and 
texts of the Koran. 

MORGANAT'IC MAR'RIAGE, a form of 
marriage which frequently takes place 
amongst the princes of Germany when they 
wed women of lower rank than themselves. 
In the ceremony the left hand is given, and 
though the marriage is looked upon as legal 
and the children legitimate, yet they are not 
entitled to succeed to the dignities and es¬ 
tates of their fathers. It would seem to 
correspond with the coemtio of the ancient 
Romans. The revival of it in modern 
times arose from the absence of a law of 
primogeniture in nearly all the fiefs of the 
Holy Roman Empire, and as this led to an 
inconvenient division of territories, this 
remedy of morganatic marriages was adopt¬ 
ed, or matrimonia ad legem morganaticam 
contracta, as they were termed in North 
Italy, long before they came into use in 
Germany. Tiie origin of the word morga¬ 
natic is doubtful. 

MOR'MONS, the name assumed by a new 
sect of religionists in the United States of 
America, and derived from the book on 
which their creed is founded. The origi¬ 
nator of this sect was a person called Joseph 

1 Smith, who pretended to have had a divine 
j revelation. He declared that, being be¬ 
wildered as to the choice of a religion, he 
was told that all those already existing 
were false; that the North American In¬ 
dians were a remnant of Israel; and that, 
before they had fallen off from the faith, 
a priest and prophet named Mormon had, 
by direction of the Deity, drawn up an 
abstract of their national records and re¬ 
ligious opinions, and buried it, but that he 
himself was selected to recover and publish 
it to the world. He was told, as he pre¬ 
tended, that it contained many prophecies 
i relating to these 1 latter days,’ and would 
give instructions as to the ‘ gathering of 
the saints’ into a temporal and spiritual 
kingdom, preparatory to the second com¬ 
ing of the Messiah, rvhich was at hand. 
He asserted that he found a box that con¬ 
tained a number of plates which resembled 
gold, and were engraved with Egyptian cha¬ 
racters ; and along with it the Urim and 
Thummim, in the shape of divining crystals, 
by means of which he was to decipher the 
characters. It is asserted that the plates 
were seen by eleven persons; but all of 
them, except three, members of Smith’s 
family, or his neighbours. The ouly docu¬ 
ment exhibited as a confirmation of these 
assertions contained a mixture of Greek, 
Hebrew, and Roman letters, with crosses 
and flourishes, and a Mexican calendar 
given by Humboldt, but altered to prevent 
its being recognised. His views met with 
no sympathy from the mass of the people, 
who had recourse to violent means in order 
to exterminate his followers. Yet, in spite 
of two bitter persecutions, accompanied by 
murder, robbery, and arson, and two expul¬ 
sions from flourishing settlements, in the 
course of twenty years the munber of firm 
adherents to this faith has increased to up¬ 
wards of 300,000 persons, of whom a large 

number are now settled in the territory 
called Deseret or Utah. The Mormons allow 
polygamy, permit a very lax system of mo¬ 
rality, and are ruled with great severity by 
their leaders; desertion from their ranks is 
considered a very serious crime, and is pun¬ 
ished with the utmost rigour. Those who 
join them suffer the greatest privations in 
their journey to the settlement. 

MOROC'CO ( maroquin: Fr.), a fine kind 
of leather, prepared from the skin of the 
goat, originally brought from the Levant 
and the Barbary States, but now manufac¬ 
tured in most other countries. 

MOROXY'LIC A'CID, in Chemistry, an 
acid found, combined with lime, in the 
bark of the Morns alba, or white mulberry- 
tree. 

MOR'PHIA ( Morpheus , the god of sleep), 
in Chemistry, an alkaloid extracted from 
opium, of which it constitutes the narcotic 
principle. With acids.it forms a class of 
salts, like the vegetable alkalis. It acts 
with great energy on the animal economy. 

It consists of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 
and nitrogen. 

MORPHOI/OGY ( morphe , shape ; and 
logos, a description: Gr.), that division of 
botany which treats of the metamorphoses 
of organs. Notwithstanding the different 
appearance of the. organs of plants, they 
seem to be modifications of leaves serving 
different purposes. The leaf is taken as the 
representative of all, since, when any cause 
interferes with development, there is a 
tendency to assume its organization. Hence 
it is affirmed that the scale of a leaf-bud is 
a rudimentary leaf ; the petal, a leaf dimi¬ 
nished in size, and thinned or coloured, or 
both ; the stamen, a leaf of which the 
petiole is represented by the filament; and 
so on. These ideas have ceased to be merely 
speculative ; for the organs of plants, traced 
from their earliest condition, through all 
their modifications, up to complete develop¬ 
ment, have been found to be only devia¬ 
tions from a common type subsequent to 
the first stage of their growth. 

MOR'RIS-DANCE < mohrisch , Moorish: 
Ger.), a dance derived from tlieMoriscoes in 
Spain, which was formerly danced at May- 
games, revels, &c., in England, and an imi¬ 
tation of which, under the same name, is 
still occasionally practised by young men in 
a peculiar costume. During the reigns of 
Henry the VII. and VIII. it was a principal 
feature in the popular festivals. Bells were 
attached to the feet of the performers, and j 
their skill consisted in producing from them j 
something like a concord. 

MORSE {mar, the sea; and ors, a horse: 
Goth.), the Sea-liorse or Walrus, the Triche- 
chus rosmarus of zoologists, an animal of the 
Phocadce, or seal family, which sometimes 
grows to the length of 18 feet. It has two 
large tusks projecting from the upper jaw. 
Morses are gregarious, but shy, and very 
fierce when attacked. They inhabit the 
shores of Spitzbergen, Hudson’s Bay, and 
other places in high northern latitudes. 

MORTAL'ITY ( mortalitas : Lat.), BILLS 
OP, registers of the number of deaths or 
burials in any parish or district. They were 
established in England by Lord Cromwell, 
































473 


Etterarj) Crcatfury. 


the king’s vicegerent in ecclesiastical mat¬ 
ters, in 1538; and were adopted in London 
In 1593, but they were not kept regularly 
there till the plague had made great rava¬ 
ges; and they were continued, from the 
facilities they afford for ascertaining the 
precise date of the birth or death of indivi¬ 
duals, and for the information they furnish 
respecting the rate of human mortality. 
The registration of deaths is now effected, 
under recent Acts of Parliament, upon a 
1 regular system throughout the kingdom. 

MORTAR ( morser : Ger.), a short piece of 
i ordnance, thick and wid#, employed for 
I throwing shells, bombs, carcasses, &c. The 
use of mortars is supposed to be older than 
that of cannon, as they were employed in 
the wars in Italy to throw balls of red-hot 
iron and stones long before the invention 

of bombs.- Mortar, a preparation of 

lime and sand mixed up with water, which 
serves as a cement, and Is used by masons 
aud bricklayers in buildings. Stone lime is 
preferable to that which is made from 
chalk, and river sand is better than pit or 

road sand.-In Pharmacy, a vessel made 

of iron, stoneware, &c., and sometimes, for 
chemical purposes, of agate, flint, porphyry, 
steel, &c. It is used for pulverizing, mixing, 
or dissolving, by means of a pestle. 

MOR'TGAGE {mart, dead; and gage, a 
pledge : Fr.), in Law, the conveyance, or 
transfer of a real or personal estate as 
security for the payment of money, on the 
condition that if the money shall be paid 
according to the contract, the transfer shall 
be void, or that the estate shall be conveyed 
back to the owner. The creditor, who holds 
the estate according to the condition of the 
deed, is called the mortgagee; but the mort¬ 
gagor, who is the person that makes the 
mortgage, generally keeps possession of the 
land till failure is made in the payment of the 
mortgage-money; although the mortgagee 
enters for nonpayment, the mortgagor is 
entitled to the equity of redemption, that is, 
has a right to redeem ; and the mortgage is 
thus redeemable as long as the relation of 
debtor and creditor subsists between the 
parties, and for twenty years after the last 
acknowledgment of that relation by the 
mortgagee, unless the right be foreclosed 
by a decree of the court of Chancery, or un¬ 
less the estate has been sold under powers 
contained in the mortgage. 

MORTIFICATION (mortificatio: from 
mortuus, dead ; and facio, I make : Lat.), in 
Medicine and Surgery, the death of one 
part of the body while the rest continues 
alive, and often in a sound state. Mortifi¬ 
cation is called gangrene and sphacelus,when 
occurring in soft or fleshy parts, as in the 
stomach or the limbs ; and caries when in a 
hone, as in the spine, the skull, the teeth, 
&c. 

MORTISE ( mortaise: Fr.), in Carpentry, 
a kind of joint, consisting of a hole of a 
certain depth cut in a piece of timber, so as 
to receive a piece called the tenon. 

MORT'MAIN (a deadband: Fr. —because 
lands so alienated fall, as it were, into a hand 
incapable of performing the usual services 
required of tenants), in Law, an alienation 
of lands and tenements to any guild, cor¬ 


[mosque 


poration, or fraternity, and their succes¬ 
sors. Lands alienated in mortmain never 
revert to the donor, or to a common use ; 
on which account by such alienation the j 
lords of the soil lost their escheats, and 
many services that were formerly due to 
them : for bodies politic never die, nor can j 
they perform personal service, or commit ! 
treason or felony. Many statutes were j 
passed to restrict alienations to religious 
persons and houses, and various devices 
were formed for the purpose of eluding 
them. Alienations to charitable uses are ■ 
exempted from the statute of mortmain, ! 
but they are subjected to certain forms and 
conditions. The tendency so generally ex¬ 
hibited in former times, by weak-minded 
persons at the point of death, to give up as 
much as possible of what they could no \ 
longer enjoy, to monasteries, &c., caused a 
vast quantity of land to be taken from the 
general uses of society, and to be shut up 
irretrievably among the possessions of 
religious houses. 

MORTUARY (pnortuarius, pertaining to 
the dead : Lat.'), in Law, a fee paid in some 
places to the incumbent of a parish on the | 
death of a parishioner. It arose from an an¬ 
cient custom of presenting the priest with 
some chattel of the deceased or its value, 
under the Saxon name of soul-shot. 

MO'RUM (next), in Medicine, an excres¬ 
cence on the skin resembling a mulberry. 

MO'RUS (the mulberry tree: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Moracece, 
consisting of different species of mulberry 
trees, some of which are cultivated for their 
fruit, and others for the sake of their 
leaves, which form the food of the silk¬ 
worm. [See Mulberry.] 

MOSA'IG (rnouseion: Gr.), or MOSAIC 
WORK, small rectangular fragments of 
glass, marble, precious stones, &c., of va¬ 
rious colours, and cemented on a ground of 
stucco, in such a manner as to imitate the 
tints and gradations of painting. It having 
been found that the works of Raphael and 
other great masters suffered very seriously, 
in St. Peter’s at Rome, from damp, they have 
been imitated in mosaic-work with wonder¬ 
ful skill; and the copies having been 
placed in that church, the originals were 
removed to other localities more favourable 
to their preservation. The art was prac¬ 
tised with considerable success by the an¬ 
cients ; and some of their productions still 
excite our admiration,- Mosaic, pertain¬ 

ing to Moses, the leader of the Israelites ; 
as the Mosaic law, &c. 

MOSA'IC GOLD (same deriv.), the Aurmn 
musivum of the old chemists, is a bisulphu- 
ret of tin ; but the composition now called 
mosaic gold, or ormolu, is a yellow alloy of 
copper, zinc, and gold. 

MOS'CHUS (moschos: Gr.). [See Musk.] 

MOSQUE (pnedsclied; from mesgiad, aplace 
of adoration : Arab.), a Mahometan temple, 
or place of religious worship. All mosques 
are square buildings, generally construct¬ 
ed of stone, in the Moresque or Saracenic 
style of architecture. Before almost every 
mosque is a large court, planted with bushy 
trees, in the centre of which, or under a 
vestibule paved with marble, are fountains 



























mosquito] ibctenttffc au’tf 474 

for the prescribed ablutions of the Mussul¬ 
mans ; and a small gallery, on which the 
apartments of the ministers of religion, 
&c., abut, is. usually attached to these 
courts. The interior decorations consist 
chiefly in lamps and carpets; the direction 
towards which the worshippers must turn 
when in prayer, that is, Mecca, is denoted 
by a niche, or a tablet called kebla, inscribed 
with verses of the Koran. It is not lawful 
to enter the mosque with shoes or stock¬ 
ings on. Women are admitted no further 
than the porches outside. Every mosque 
has six high towers, called minarets, in 
each of which there are three small open 
galleries, one above another; these towers, 
as well as the mosques, are covered with 
lead, and adorned with gilding and other 
ornaments ; and from them the people are 
called to prayer by certain officers appoint¬ 
ed for that purpose, the use of a bell not 
being permitted. The mosques of the Turks 
are remarkable for the elegance of their 
cupolas; those of the Arabs and Syrians 
for their columns. The mosques of the 
Arabs often include, in a quadrangular 
area, an immense number of columns 
ranged in flies, the multiplicity and extent 
of which impress the mind of the beholder 
with surprise and admiration. They are, in 
numerous instances, the rich spoils of an¬ 
tique monuments. 

MOSQUI'TO ( Port., dimin. of mosca, a fly), 
a name given to a number of species of bit¬ 
ing gnats, which abound wherever there is 
water, in warm climates, and in colder lati¬ 
tudes during summer. They swarm to an 
incredible extent in the neighbourhood of 
rivers within the tropics. 

MOS'SES (moos: Ger.), in ordinary lan¬ 
guage, any minute small-leaved cryptogamic 
! plants. Thus, the Lycopodia are called club 
mosses, whilst some lichens arc known as 
Iceland and reindeer mosses. But, in sys¬ 
tematic Botany, the term is confined to the 
natural order Bryacece or Musci. Such 
plants are simple-leaved, without spiral 
vessels or stomata; their spores, or repro¬ 
ductive matter, are enclosed in cases called 
: sporangia or theca, mounted on a fine stalk, 
and covered by a cap or calyptra, which 
drops oif as the fruit ripens. And what is 
very singular, they have cases called anthe- 
ridia, containing a powdery matter, among 
which are minute bodies which swim about 
freely in water. The mosses have not any 
known use. They are found in cool, airy, and 
moist situations, chiefly in temperate cli¬ 
mates ; in woods, upon the trunks of trees, 
on old walls, the roofs of houses, &c. Some 
of them are entirely aquatic. About 1400 
species are known, and new species are dis¬ 
covered every year. 

MOTACIL'LA ( Lat .), in Ornithology, an 
old genus of passerine birds, but now distri¬ 
buted amongst new genera. 

; MOTET (motetto: Ital.), a musical compo¬ 
sition ; some sacred subject, such as a 
hymn, psalm, or a small portion of Scrip¬ 
ture, consisting of from one to eight parts. 

MOTHS (matte : Ger.), in Entomology, a 
tribe of lepidopterous insects, with an im¬ 
mense number of species. They are distin¬ 
guished from butterflies by having the 

antennae pointed, not clubbed, at the ends, 
carrying the wings flat on the back or 
deflexed on the sides, when in a state of 
repose, and having the pair of wings on 
each side connected during flight by means 
of a bristle, seated on the fore margin of the 
hind wing, which passes through a ring 
placed on the hind margin of the fore wing. 
[See Lepidoptera.] 

MOTH'ER, a thick slimy substance con¬ 
creted in liquors, particularly in vinegar, 
very different from scum or common lees. 

-Mother-water, a fluid remainingafter 

the first crop of crystals has been depo¬ 
sited, and which is re-evaporated to furnish 
the second ; also, the liquor after all the 
crystals have been separated from it. 

MOTH'ER OF PEARL, the hard,brilliant | 
internal layer of several kinds of marine 
shells; it is often variegated with changing : 
purple and azure colours. Its brilliant hues 
do not depend on its constituents, but its 
structure; the microscopic wrinkles or fur¬ 
rows which run across its surface, when 
transferred to, or imitated in, several other 
substances, produce the same chromatic 
effect. An immense number of articles are 
now made of mother of pearl, and upwards j 
of 20,000 cwt. of shells are annually imported. 1 
These are chiefly the shells of JIaliotis (the 
Ear shell) and Meleagrina, the latter erro¬ 
neously named the pearl oyster. It is 
obtained at Madagascar, Ceylon, Panama, 
and other places. 

MO'TION (motio: Lat.), the continued 
and successive change of place. There are 
three general laws of motion. 1. That a 
body will always continue in a state of rest, 
or of uniform motion in a right line, till it 
is acted upon by some external force. 2.‘ 
That the change of motion is proportional 
to the force impressed, and is produced in 
a direction which is the resultant of the 
original and disturbing forces. 3. That 
action and reaction are equal, and in oppo¬ 
site directions; and are always to lie esti¬ 
mated in the same right line. - Uniform 

motion is generated by a single impulse or 
stroke. The motion of a ball from a cannon 
is produced by the action of the powder 
during the first moment, and, therefore, 
the velocity with which it first sets out 
would always continue the same, were it un¬ 
affected by gravity, and did it move in au 
unresisting medium ; and it would always 

describe equal spaces in equal times. - 

Accelerated motion is produced by a uniform 
force which continues to act: as that of 
gravity, which produces the motion of fall¬ 
ing bodies, and every moment adds a new 
impulse which generates a new and equal 
increment of velocity. In like manner, a 
body thrown perpendicularly upwards will 
have its motion continually retarded, be¬ 
cause gravity acts constantly upon it in a 
direction contrary to that of projection, so 
that its velocity upwards must continually 
be diminished, and its motion as continu¬ 
ally be retarded, till at last it be all de¬ 
stroyed. The body has then attained its 
utmost elevation, and is for a moment mo¬ 
tionless, after which it begins to descend, 
with a velocity in the same manner accele¬ 
rated, till it arrives at the earth’s surface. 




























475 


Eftcrary Erearfurin 


[mountain 


[See Accelerated Motion.]- Perpetual 

motion is that which is effected without the 
impulse or intervention of any external 
cause. It is exemplified in the heavenly 
bodies; but is impossible as the result of 
any mechanical contrivance. [See Perpe¬ 
tual Motion.] With regard to the frcwis- 

ference of motion from one body to another, 
the action of the billiard-ball affords a ready 
and well-known example; the ball that has 
been struck by the player, on its striking 
another ball, suddenly stops, and the second 
ball proceeds with the same degree of velo¬ 
city which the first had ; the action which 
imparts the new motion being equal to the 
reaction which destroys the old. Although 
the transference of motion, in such a case, 
seems to be instantaneous, the change is 
really progressive, and takes place as fol¬ 
lows :—The striking ball, at a certain point 
of time, has given just half of its motion to 
the other equal ball; and if both were of 
soft clay, they would then proceed toge¬ 
ther with half the original velocity. But,as 
they are elastic, the parts which are in con¬ 
tact at the moment supposed, are first com¬ 
pressed by their mutual action ; they then 
expand in both directions, doubling the ve¬ 
locity of the foremost ball, and destroying 
altogether the motion remaining in the 
other. When two forces act on a body, 
unless they are in opposite directions, they 
do not interfere with each other; and some 
common force, combining in its direction 
the direction of both, and called their re- 
sultant, will be produced.—If a ball is fired 
horizontally from a cannon, it will reach 
the ground in the same time it would 
have done had it been merely dropped out 
of the muzzle. Hence, when the range is 
intended to be great, the muzzle of the gun 
must be elevated, that the height from 
which the ball must fall maybe such as will 
allow time for the force of projection to 
carry it to the required distance.- Mo¬ 

tion, in Law, an application in court, either 
by the parties themselves or their counsel, 
in order to obtain some order or rule of 
court. It may be incidental to an action, 
or wholly unconnected with it. Motions 
are accompanied by affidavits, stating the 
facts upon which they are grounded; and 
are generally preceded by a notice to the 

opposite party.-In parliament, or any 

other public assembly, the proposing of 
any matter for the consideration, approval, 
or determination of those present; or for 
the purpose of causing something to be 
done. 

MOTIVE, in Painting and Sculpture, 
signifies the principle of action, attitude, 
and composition. Generally it may signify 
any cause out of which the action or conse¬ 
quence springs.-In Music, the word is 

also applied in a kindred sense. 

MOTIVE POW'ER ( motio , a moving: 
Lat.), in Mechanics, that by which any body 
is put in motion. 

MOT'MOT, the name of some South 
American birds, belonging to the genus Hot- 
motns or Prionites, family Coracida 1 . They 
are shy and timid. Their usual places of re¬ 
sort are the depths of large forests, and 
they build their nests in the ground. 


MOTTO ( Ital .), an inscription or super¬ 
scription.-In Heraldry, a word or short 

sentence put to an emblem or device, or to 
a coat of arms in a scroll at the bottom of 
the escutcheon. For example, ‘ Dieu et 
mon droit ’ is the motto of the royal family 
of England. 

MOULD, the name given to the minute 
fungi which grow upon moist animal and 
vegetable matters in a state of decay. There 
are many species, and these constitute the 
family of Mucorini. They are propagated 
by spores, which are easily carried about by 
moving air, until they find a suitable nidus. 

MOULD'INGS ( moule: Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, certain projections beyond the bare 
wall, column, &c., an assemblage of which 
forms a cornice, or other decoration. 

MOU'LINET (a little mill: Fr.), in Me¬ 
chanics, a roller which, being crossed with 
two levers, is usually applied to cranes, 
capstans, &c., for the purpose of heaving 
stones, &c. 

MOULT'ING (a corruption of the old 
English word molding or mowting ; from 
muto, I change : Lat.), the shedding of the 
plumage of birds. It may be either partial 
or total. 

MOUND ( mund, a defence: Goth.), in 
Fortification, anything, such as a bank of 
earth, &c., raised to fortify or defend a place. 

- Mound ( mnndus, the world : Lat.), in 

Heraldry, a ball or globe with a cross upon 
it, such as our monarchs are usually repre¬ 
sented as holding in the left hand. 

MOUND BIRDS. These constitute the 
family of Hcgapodiidce, which some orni¬ 
thologists have placed amongst the galli¬ 
naceous birds, and others amongst the 
ostriches. These birds are natives of Aus¬ 
tralia and various tropical islands in the 
Indian ocean, the Indian archipelago, and 
the Pacific ocean, living for the most part 
in jungles and forests. They are remarkable 
for the contrivances they resort to for ob¬ 
taining the heat required for maturing 
their eggs. Some of the species bring to¬ 
gether a great quantity of vegetable matter 
and form a large mound of it. In this they 
deposit their eggs, which are hatched by 
the heat generated by the fermentation of 
the vegetable matter. Mounds have been 
found measuring 14 feet high and 150 feet 
in circumference. The young birds on 
coming out of the shell are fully feathered; 
they receive no attention whatever from 
the mother, but proceed at once to the 
jungle to feed. Other species deposit their 
eggs in the hollow of a decaying tree, and 
cover them over with twigs and leaves; 
others again scratch holes in the sand of 
the beach, drop their eggs into it, and cover 
them over with sand, leaving them to be 
hatched by the sun. 

MOUNT {mont: Fr.; from mons: Lat.), 
an eminence or elevation of earth, indefi¬ 
nite in height or size; it may be a hill, a hil¬ 
lock, or a mountain. 

MOUNTAIN ASH, the Pyrus aucuparia 
of botanists ,nat. ord. Pomacece, an orna¬ 
mental tree, wild in Britain, which has pin¬ 
nate leaves and clusters of red berries. 
There is malic acid in this fruit, and much 
hydrocyanic acid in other parts of the tree j 






















mountains] 


MOUNTAINS. The principal mountain 
chains of the globe are the Andes, in South 
America, with a length of 4500 miles ; the 
Stony mountains, in North America, 7000 
miles long; the Altai chain, in Asia, 5000 
miles long; the Himalayan chain, 1900 
miles long ; and the Ural mountains, which 
divide Asia and Europe, 1500 miles long. 
The altitude of the highest mountains 
bears a very inconsiderable proportion to 
the mass of the globe; and its spherical form 
is very slightly altered by all the chains 
and groups which mark its surface. The 
highest Asiatic mountain is Deodunga, in 
the Nepal Himalayas, 29,000feet; the highest 
South American mountain is the Nevado de 
Sorata, in the Bolivian Andes, 25,000 feet; 
the highest mountain in North America is 
the volcano of Popocatepetl, in Mexico, 
17,717 feet; the highest elevation in Africa 
is Geesh, in Abyssinia, 15,000 feet; whilst 
the highest European mountain is Mont 
Blanc, 15,739 feet. Ben Nevis, in Inverness- 
shire, is the loftiest summit in the British 
Islands, 4380 feet. The greatest heights 
to which men have ascended on mountains 
appear to be, 19,400 feet on Chimborazo by 
Humboldt, and 19,000 feet in the Sikkim 
Himalaya by Dr. J. D. Hooker. It must not 
be assumed that mountain chains have been 
thrown up by a few paroxysmal efforts ; on 
the contrai’y, several of them afford evi¬ 
dence that their upheaval was a slow pro¬ 
cess, the rise, en masse, being assisted and 
accompanied by the injection and ejection 
of melted matter. The changing character 
of the vegetation as we ascend mountains 
is well known. Humboldt has painted the 
effect of the increasing rarity of the air 
and cold upon plants on the slopes of the 
Andes. On leaving the burning plains, where 
palms, bananas, and other tropical plants 
luxuriate, he entered the region of forest 
trees and tree ferns, and then passed into 
that where shrubs abounded. In the stormy 
regions above, grasses alone flourished, and 
higher still the rocks were bare of all save 
lichens, until the line of perpetual snow was 
reached, and all vegetation terminated. 

I MOUNTING, in the Mechanic Arts, any- 

j thing that serves to raise or set off a work. 

I- Mounting, in Military affairs, signifies 

going upon a duty ; thus, mounting a breach 
Is running up to it; and mounting guard is 
going upon guard ; but mounting a cannon, 
mortar, &c., is the setting it properly on its 
carriage. 

MOURNING ( murnan , to mourn: Sax.). 
The colours used as badges of grief are dif¬ 
ferent in different countries. In Europe, 
the ordinary colour for mourning is black ; 
in China, as with the ancient Spartan and 
Roman ladies, it is white; in Turkey, it is 
blue or violet; in Egypt, yellow; in Ethi¬ 
opia, grey. The kings of France and car¬ 
dinals mourn in purple. Some have at¬ 
tempted to trace the associations which 
caused the adoption of the various colours 
to natural causes. Thus black, which is the 
privation of light, is supposed very ap¬ 
propriately to denote the privation of life ; 
white is an emblem of purity; yellow is the 
colour of leaves when they fall, and repre¬ 
sents that death is the end of all human 


476' 

hopes, &c. In the East, to cut the hair was 
considered a sign of mourning ; among the 
Romans, on the contrary, it was deemed a 
mark of sorrow to let it grow. The dura¬ 
tion of mourning varies in different coun- i 
tries, being always longer in proportion to 
the nearness of relationship. Among the 
ancients, as among the moderns, public 
mournings were common on the death of a 
distinguished public benefactor ; and with 
the Greeks and Romans it was the custom, 
during the term prescribed for mourning, 
to lay aside all ornaments of dress, to ab¬ 
stain from the bath and other indulgences. 

MOUSE (mus: Or.; from mvsli, to filch: 
Sansk.), a small animal belonging to the 
rodent genus Mus, which also includes the 
rats. The species of mice are very nume¬ 
rous, and are found all over the globe. 

MOUTH (mutli: Sax.), in Anatomy, a ca- ' 
vitv or aperture in the head of any animal, 
by which the food is received, the voice 
uttered, and the inspiration or expiration 
of the air is performed. It consists of the 
lips, the gums, the insides of the cheeks, 
the palate, the salivary glands, the uvula, 

and tonsils.-In Architecture, the same 

as cavetto. 

MO'VEMENT (mouvement: Fr.), in Horo- ■ 
logy, the train of wheelwork of a clock or 

watch.-In Military affairs, the regular 

orderly motion of an army for some par¬ 
ticular purpose.-In Music, the progress 

of sounds from grave to acute, or from j 
acute to grave. 

MU'CIC A'CID, in Chemistry, the same 
as Saclactic Acid, so called because obtained 
from sugar of milk; but all the gums | 
equally afford it. 

MU'CILAGE (Fr.), in Chemistry, a viscous ! 
substance of more or less consistence ; as, 
a solution of gum, or any tenacious liquid. 
——Mucilaginous Glands, in Anatomy, 
glandules or kernels about the joints, that 
secrete a mucilaginous liquor, which serves 
to lubricate many of the internal cavities; 
some are small, some crowded together. 

MU'COUS MEM'BRANE (mucosus, slimy : 
Lat.), the membranous lining of the canals 
and cavities of the body, which have an ex¬ 
ternal opening. It answers to, and is a con¬ 
tinuation of, the external skin of the body. 
It consists of four layers, the innermost of 
which in some parts bears cilia. 

MU'CRO COR'DIS (the point of the 
heart: Lat.), in Anatomy, the lower pointed 
end of the heart. 

MU'CRONATE (mucronatus, sharp-point¬ 
ed : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a sharp- 
pointed leaf terminating like a dagger. 

MU'CUS (Lat.), a fluid in the animal body, 
secreted by the mucous membrane, and best 
exemplified by that from the nasal mem¬ 
brane. It covers the lining membranes of 
all the cavities which open externally, such 
as those of the mouth, nose, lungs, intesti¬ 
nal canal, urinary passages, &c., serving to 
moisten and defend them. It is viscid; 
apparently becomes fluid in water, but is 
not dissolved by it. It maybe repeatedly 
dried and moistened without sensibly 
changing its properties. When boiled in 
water it becomes tough, but on cooling re¬ 
gains its former condition ; less than one 


Elje autr 

























477_ Htfrrarj? 

' per cent, of it gives a ropiness to water. 

It is said to consist of the scales of the 
i epithelium, or cuticle, which continually 
wear off, and mix with a watery secretion. 

-Mucous Fever, a term frequently used 

by medical writers to express those fevers 
in which nature is endeavouring to rid her¬ 
self of an abundance of pituitous, mucous, 
and serous matter. Catarrhal fevers of all 
kinds are comprehended under the term. 

MTJEZ'ZIN, or MUED'DIN, among the 
Mahometans, the crier who announces the 
hours of prayer from the minaret, and re¬ 
minds the faithful of their duty. 

| MUFTI (Turk.), a doctor of the law of the 
Koran. The mufti of Constantinople, or 
Sheikh-ul-Islam, is the chief functionary 
i of the Turkish church, and represents the 
sultan in spiritual matters, as the grand 
vizier does in temporal. He decides in all 
doubtful questions of their law. 

MUGGLETO'NIANS, a religious sect, 
which arose in England about the year 
1561. They were so denominated from their 
| leader, Ludowic Muggleton, a tailor, who, 
with his associate Reeves, asserted that 
they were the two last witnesses of God 
mentioned in the Revelations. 

MULATTO (Span.; from mulus, a mule : 

’ Lat), the offspring of a European and a 
negro. The mulatto is of a deep tawny or 
yellow colour, with frizzled or woolly'hair, 
but resembles the European more than the 
i African. The offspring of a white and mu- 
j latto is called a quadroon; of a white and 
I quadroon, a muster; of a white and muster, 

| a mustafina; after which, they are said to 
be whitewashed, and are considered Eu¬ 
ropeans. The offspring of a mulatto and 
negro is called a cabre; of a cabre and ne¬ 
gro, a griffe; after which, generally speak¬ 
ing, there is no distinction but negro. The 
! descendants of Europeans and American 
i Indians are called mestizos in Spanish 
America. In Brazil they are termed Marne- 
lucos. In some parts of South America, the 
term Creole is applied to the offspring of 
negroes; in others, to those persons who are 
born in the country of Spanish parents. 

MUL'BERRY ( maulberre: Ger.), the fruit 
of trees belonging to the genus Morus, nat. 
ord. Moracece. The Morus nigra has been in¬ 
troduced into Britain from Italy, and is cul¬ 
tivated on account of its fruit, the common 
| black mulberry. The white mulberry (Morus 
alba ) is cultivated in France and Italy for 
its leaves, which are the food of silkworms. 
The red mulberry (Morus rubra) is one of 
the most valuable of American trees, from 
the properties of the wood. It grows to the 
height of sixty feet and upwards, with a 
trunk six feet in circumference. The wood 
is fine-grained, compact, strong, and solid ; 
and is used for knees, floor-timbers, &c., in 
ships, as well as for many other purposes 
where strength and durability are neces¬ 
sary. 

MULCH ( muld, dust: Goth.), a term used 
by gardeners for rotten dung, or the like, 
thrown upon beds of young plants, to pre¬ 
serve them from the ill effects of cold or 
drought. 

MULE (mulus: Lat.), a hybrid animal, 
usually generated between an ass and a 


UCHSU t‘y. [multiplication 


mare, and sometimes between a horse and a 
she-ass ; but the latter is every way inferior 
to the former. Mules are hardy, sure¬ 
footed animals, and, in the mountainous 
parts of Spain and Italy, are far more useful 
than horses, being capable of carrying 
equally heavy burdens, and enduring long- 
continued fatigue. Mules have been much 
employed, both in ancient and modern 
times. The Roman ladies had equipages 
drawn by mules ; and at this day, in Spain, 
they are generally used with the coaches of 
the nobility.——The term is sometimes ap¬ 
plied also to other hybrids, besides those 
produced between the horse and the ass. 

-Mule, in Manufactures, the name 

given to a contrivance, invented by Cromp¬ 
ton about the year 1777, for producing finer 
yarn than was spun by the machines 
previously in use. At present, the mule is 
employed in the fabrication of the most 
delicate articles; thread has been produced 
by it of such fineness that what was made 
from a pound of cotton has been sufficient 
to reach 107 miles. 

MUL'LBR (mouleur: Fr.), a stone held in 
the hand, and used by painters and apothe¬ 
caries for grinding colours, &c., on another 
stone. 

MUL'LET (mullus: Lat.), a name given 
to fishes belonging to two ichthyological 
genera, the grey mullet (Mugil), and the 
red mullet (Mullus). Red mullets were 
held in such estimation by Roman epicures 
that they were sometimes sold for their 
weight in silver. It is recorded that 2401. 
were paid for three fishes, of unusual size, 
by a Roman epicure. The roes are known 
in Italy under the name of botargo. - Mul¬ 

let ( molette, the rowel of a spur: Fr.), in 
Heraldry, a star-shaped ornament, added 
to the family arms by the third of the junior 
branches. 

MUL'LION (moidure, a moulding: Fr.), 
in Architecture, the post, or bar, dividing 
the lights in a window. Vertical mullions 
are termed munnions; those which are 
horizontal, transoms. 

MULTILAT'ERAL (midtus, many; and 
latus, a side: Lat.), polygonal; in Geometry, 
a term applied to those figures which havo 
more than four sides and angles. 

MULTILOC'ULAR (multus, many; and 
loculus, a compartment: Lat.), in Botany, 
having many cells ; as, a multilocular peri¬ 
carp. 

MULTINO'MIAL (multus, many; and no- 
men, a name: Lat.), in Mathematics, aterm 
applied to such roots as are composed of 
many names, parts, or members. 

MULTIPLE (multiplex, manifold : Lat.), 
in Arithmetic, a number which contains 
some other, called its measure, more than 
once: thus G is a multiple of 2, containing 
it thrice, and 12 is a multiple of 6,4, and 3, 
containing the first twice, the second 
thrice, &c.- Multiple Ratio or Pro¬ 

portion, that which exists between mul¬ 
tiples. If the less term be an aliquot part 
of the greater, the ratio of the greater to 
the less is called a mxdtiple ratio ; and that 
of the less to the greater a sub-multiple 
ratio. 

MULTIPLICATION (multiplicatio: Lat.) 































multiplying] (TI)C Scientific 478 


an arithmetical operation by which is found 
the sum of one number (the multiplicand) 
taken as many times as there are units in 
another (the multiplier); thus 10 multiplied 
by 5 is increased to 50. The result of the 
operation is the ■product. - Cross Multi¬ 

plication, otherwise called duodecimal 
arithmetic, an expeditious method of mul¬ 
tiplying things of several species or deno¬ 
minations, by others likewise of several 
species, &e. [See Duodecimals.] 

MULTIPLYING GLASS, in Optics, a 
glass with several plane sides, each of 
which presents a separate picture of an 
object. Its effect is due to the rays of light, 
which issue from the same point, under¬ 
going different refractions, so as to enter 
the eye from every surface in a different 
direction. 

MULTIVALVE (multus, many; and 
valves, the leaves of a door: Lat.), in Con- 
chology, a term sometimes applied to those 
shells that consist of more parts than two, 
such as the Chitons and the Pholades. The 
multivalves do not form a natural division 
j of molluscs. 

MULTURE ( moulture: Fr.; from molo, I 
grind : Lat.), in Scotch Law, the payment 
! given to the proprietor of a mill for grind¬ 
ing corn. 

MUM ( mumme: Ger.), a malt liquor much 
used in Germany. It is made of the malt of 
wheat, with a small proportion of oatmeal 
j and ground beans. 

MU'MIA (Arab; from mum, wax), in 
: Mineralogy, a sort of bitumen or mineral 
pitch, which is soft and tough, like shoe¬ 
maker’s wax, when the weather is warm, 
but brittle, like pitch, in cold weather. It 
! is found in Persia, where it is highly 
valued. 

MUM'MY Oast), a dead body preserved by 
t antiseptics, according to methods practised 
by the ancient Egyptians. The processes 
for this purpose were very various: some of 
i the mummies which have been opened 
having been dried by vegetableand balsamic 
substances, others by salt or natron. In the 
former case, aromatic gums or asphaltum 
were used; and those so treated are gene¬ 
rally in good preservation. Those dried 
with saline substances are of a black, hard, 
smooth appearance; on exposure to the air 
they attract moisture, and become covered 
with a saline substance. The bodies are 
rolled up in bandages of silk and linen, 
which are sometimes 1000 yards in length. 
The coffin is usually of sycamore, cedar, or 
pasteboard; th e case is in one piece, covered 
within and without by paintings, repre¬ 
senting funeral scenes, and a great variety 
of other subjects: the cover, which is also in 
one piece, is ornamented in the same man¬ 
ner, and contains, also, the face of the 
deceased in relief, painted, and often gilded. 
The Egyptians embalmed, not only the 
human species, but all the animals held 
sacred by their religion. We are not to 
imagine that Egypt was the only place in 
which the preservation of the bodies of the 
dead was attended to. In every country 
the custom of embalming has been occa¬ 
sionally practised; a large number of 
mummies have been discovered in the en¬ 


virons of Durango, in Mexico. They are in 
a sitting posture, but have the same wrap¬ 
pings, bands, and ornaments as the Egyp¬ 
tian. In the British Museum considerable 
space is allotted to the Egyptian mummies. 
There are some mummies produced natu¬ 
rally, by the peculiar conditions of the soil 
and atmosphere, which dry the animal tis¬ 
sues so rapidly, that the body is preserved 
from putrefaction. 

MUMPS (mumpelen, to nibble: But.), the 
otmmon name of the disease called by me¬ 
dical practitioners Cynanche parotidea, or 
a swelling of the parotid glands. It seems, 
occasionally, to be the effect of cold, and 
children are more subject to it than adults. 
It is often epidemic, and by some is thought 
contagious. 

MUN'DIC (miondig, from mwn, a mine: 
Wei.), in Mineralogy, a Cornish name for 
iron pyrites. 

MUNICIP'AL (municipals, belonging to 
a town; Lat.), in the Roman civil law, an 
epithet which signifies invested with the 
rights and privileges of Roman citizens. 
Thus the municipal cities were those whoso 
inhabitants were capable of enjoying civil 
offices in the city of Rome; though the 
greater part of them had no suffrages or 

votes there.-In modern times. Municipal 

law relates to the citizens and inhabitants 
of a state, and is thus distinguished from 
political) aw, commercial law, and the law of 
nations. Municipal officers are those elected 
in cities and boroughs, under the Municipal 
Corporation Reform Act, for the purposes 
of local government. 

MU'NIMENTS (munimentum, a defence: 
Lat.), in Law, the writings relating to a per¬ 
son’s inheritance, by which he is enabled to 
defend his title to his estate; or, in a more 
general sense, all manner of evidences, such 
as charters, feoffments, releases, &c., but 
more especially those belonging to public 

bodies.- Muniment Room, a ’small strong 

room in a cathedral, college, or university, 
destined for keeping the seal, charters, &c. 

MUNITION (munitio: Lat.), the provi¬ 
sions with which a place is furnished in 
order for defence ; or that which fotlows a 

camp for its subsistence.- Munition 

Ships are those that have naval or military 
stores on board, and attend or follow a fleet 
to supply ships of war. 

MUN'JEET, a species of madder, pro¬ 
duced ill various parts of India, and used in 
dyeing: the red which it produces being 
nearly the same as that produced from 
European madder. 

MU'RAL ARCH (muralis, belonging to 
a wall: Lat.), the segment of a large circle, 
fixed in the meridian against the wall of an 
observatory, for measuring the meridian 
altitudes, or zenith distances, of heavenly 
bodies. 

MU'RAL CIR'CLE (same deriv.), or Mu¬ 
ral Quadrant, in Astronomy, a large in¬ 
strument, fixed in the meridian, for the 
purpose of measuring the distances of stars 
from the pole or zenith. It is attached to a 
stone wall or pier of solid masonry. As its 
purpose is to measure angular distances in 
the meridian, its axis must be truly hori¬ 
zontal; also the plane of its circle vertical 






































4? 9 iittetmj) 


and in tlie meridian ; the line of sight must 
i he at right angles to the axis, and parallel 
l to the plane of the circle. Entire circles 
arc susceptible of more accurate division 
I than quadrants, and are much less liable to 
! derangement. Troughton’s, in Greenwich 
observatory, is six feet in diameter; it was 
placed there in 1812, and has shown that a 
good mural circle is the most important in¬ 
strument in an observatory. 

MUltA'LIS CORO'NA (a mural crown: 
Lat.), among the ancient Romans, a crown, 
consisting of a circlet of gold, indented 
and embattled, bestowed on him who first 
mounted the wall of a besieged place, and 
there planted a standard. 

MUR'DER (meurtre: Fr .), in Law, the 
wilful and felonious hilling a person from 
premeditated malice; provided the party 
wounded or otherwise hurt die within a 
year and a day after the crime is committed, 
i To constitute murder in law, the person 
• killing another must be of sound mind, and 
the act must be done with malice prepense 
and aforethought; but malice may be im¬ 
plied as well as expressed. 

MU'REX {Lat.), a genus of univalve mol¬ 
luscs, from some species of which the an¬ 
cients obtained a purple dye. The animals 
feed on other molluscs. About 200 species 
are known, some of which are curiously 
spined. Murex tenuispina is a shell of this 
kind, well known to collectors. 

MU'RIACITE, an anhydrous sulphate of 
liine, containing a little common salt. 

MU'RIATES, in Chemistry, salts com¬ 
posed of what was formerly called muriatic 
acid, but now termed hydrochloric acid, and 
a base. The salts are called chlorides, that 
is, combinations of chlorine, the radicle of 
| the acid, with the metallic or other bases 
of the oxides ; water being formed, during 
the combination, by the union of the 
hydrogen of the muriatic acid with the oxy¬ 
gen of the oxide. Common salt (chloride 
of sodium) is the most abundant of these 
compounds, which from it are termed haloid 
{halts, the sea; and eidos, form : Gr.). 

MURIAT'IC A'CID {muria, brine: Lat.), 
called also, and more correctly, hydrochlo¬ 
ric acid, is a combination of hydrogen and 
chlorine. It is the spirit of salt of the shops, 
and is obtained by acting on common salt 
with strong sulphuric acid. Water is de¬ 
composed ; its hydrogen goes to the chlo¬ 
rine of the chloride, and forms hydrochloric 
acid; and its oxygen goes to the sodium, 
forming soda, which, combining with the 
sulphuric acid, forms sulphate or bisulphate 
of soda. Muriatic acid is a gas, without 
colour, but of a penetrating taste and smell; 
it does not support combustion, is intensely 
sour, and is absorbed in large quantities by 
water, unless that fluid is hot, or is satura¬ 
ted witli common salt. It is liquefied by a 
pressure of about 40 atmospheres, that is, a 
pressure of 600 Jbs. to the square inch. The 
ordinary muriatic acid is a strong solu¬ 
tion of this gas in water, which may be 
made to contain 480 volumes of it; or, 
in other words, one cubic inch of water 
will absorb 480 cubic inches of the gaseous 
acid. 

MU'RICATED {muricatus, pointed: Lat.), 


(KfCtCS’UVl). [MUSCLE 


in Botany, having the surface covered with 
short hard excrescences. 

MUR'RAIN {Fr.), the popular name of a 
malignant epizootic influenza, to which cat¬ 
tle are subject, and which sometimes makes 
great havoc among them. It appears in 
the form of an extremely inflammatory 
oedema, generally confining itself to one of 
the hind quarters of the animal. It is most 
common in spring and autumn, and usually 
attacks young cows. The side affected be¬ 
comes discoloured and swollen; there is 
lameness and inability to move, a peculiar 
emphysema over different parts of the body, 
but particularly the spine; and all the 
symptoms of putrid fever which usually [ 
appear in diseases of a typhoid character, ! 
manifest themselves. Gangrene speedily j 
supervenes, and few animals survive more 
than ten or twelve hours. It is known by 
different names in different places. Abund- j 
ance of fresh air, with plentiful fumigation 
by means of chlorine or chloride of lime, 
aud the immediate removal of the infected, 
are the best preservatives against it. 

MURR'HINE YA'SES {murrhina vasa: 
from murrha, the material of which they j 
were made—supposed to be fluor spar: Lat.), ! 
splendid antique vessels, made of a material j 
the nature of which is not certainly known, [ 
and equally distinguished for the beauty of 
their execution and the costliness of their 
material. They were brought by Pompey | 
from Asia to Rome, after his victory 7 over 
Mithridates, and were of great value. 

MUS (a mouse: Lat.), in Zoology’, a genus 
of rodent animals comprehending the x-ats 
and mice. 

MUSA'CEiE, in Botany 7 , anat. ord. of en¬ 
dogenous plants, natives of warm countries, 
containing five genera, Strelitzia and Ueli- 
conia; two of these genera have remarkably 
handsome flowers. The Traveller’s Tree, a 
splendid palm-like plant, belongs to the 
genus Ravenala. To the genus Musa belong 
the Bananas and Plantains. All the 
species abound with a strong fibre; that of 
Musa textilis forms Manilla hemp. 

MUS'CA (a fly : Lat.), in Entomology, a 

genus of dipterous insects.-Muse a In- 

dica, in Astronomy, a southern constella¬ 
tion. 

MUS'CADINE, MUS'CADEL, MUSCA¬ 
TEL', or MUSCAT' (muscadin: Fr.; from 
musca, a fly: Lat .—because flies are very j 
fond of the grape), a rich kind of wine, the i 
produce of a peculiar variety of grape, the 
growth of Italy and the south of France. 

MUS'C/E VOLITAN'TES (flies flitting 
about: Lat.), certain dark spots, which seem 
to flit before the eyes of many people on 
looking at the sky, a candle, or other bright 
object; and so called from their resembling 
flies. 

MUS'CLE {musculus: Lat.). Whafcwecall 
flesh is for the most part composed of mus¬ 
cle. It consists of bundles'of fibres, united 
by areolar or cellular tissue. When torn 
into its ultimate fibres, there are found to 
be two kinds, one termed organic or un¬ 
striped muscle, the other voluntary or 
striped muscle. The former consists of 
solid elongated fibres, thicker in the middle 
than at the ends. The latter is composed 































(Hjc Scientific antf 


480 


muscovado] 


of slender flbrillne, each inclosed in a sheath, ! 
and marked transversely hy alternate light 
and dark spaces. On closer examination 
with the microscope, a fibrilla is seen to con¬ 
sist of a number of cells placed end to end, 
each of them containing a cavity tilled with 
some highly refracting substance. When 
the fibril is in a state of contraction, the 
dark space presents a nearly square shape ; 
but in the ordinary state of relaxation, the 
dark spaces are longer than wide. The two 
kinds of fibrils have the same chemical 
composition. The diameter of these fibrils 
differs greatly in the muscle of different 
animals. Nerves, blood-vessels, and other 
vascular tissue, ramify amongst, and are 
supported by, the muscular tissue.- Mus¬ 

cular motion is of three kinds, voluntary, 
involuntary, and mixed. The voluntary 
motions of muscles proceed from an exertion 
of the will; thus the mind directs the arm 
to be raised or depressed, the knee to be 
bent, the tongue to move, &c. The involun¬ 
tary motions of muscles are performed by 
organs, without any attention of the mind, 
as the contraction and dilatation of the 
heart, arteries, veins, absorbents, stomach, 
intestines, &c. The mixed motions are those 
which are in part under the control of the 
will, but which ordinarily act without our 
being conscious of their acting; and are 
perceived in the muscles of respiration, the 
intercostal and abdominal muscles, and the 
diaphragm. When a muscle acts, it be¬ 
comes shorter and thicker; both its origin 
and insertion are drawn towards its middle. 
When a muscle is wounded or otherwise 
irritated, it contracts independently of the 
j will; this power is called irritability, and it 
is a property peculiar to, and inherent in, the 
! muscles. If the nerve belonging to a mus- 
I cle is cut, the powers of the muscle are first 
disturbed, and then cease; but if electricity 
be transmitted through the nerve before 
rigidity supervenes, the action of the mus¬ 
cle will, to a certain extent, be recalled; 
and hence the nervous fluid and electricity 
are supposed to be identical. The intensity 
1 of muscular contraction, that is, the de- 
! gree of power with which the fibres draw 
themselves together, is regulated by the 
action of the brain. Muscles consist of 
fibrine with some albumen, and the gela- 
[ tine and fat derived from the cellular mem¬ 
brane ; also hmmatosine, osmazone, and the 
other constituents of the blood: hence they 
constitute the most nutritious species of 
animal food. 

MUSCOVA'DO, unrefined sugar, or the 
raw material from which loaf-sugar is pro¬ 
cured by refining. Muscovado is obtained 
from the juice of the sugar-cane by evapo¬ 
ration and draining off the liquid part called 
molasses. 

MU'SffiS ( musce: Lat.), in the poetry of the 
ancients, personifications of the various 
branches of knowledge in which human 
genius displays itself. They were beauti¬ 
fully said to be the daughters of Jove and 
Mnemosyne, or Memory ; and they were re¬ 
presented as companions of Apollo upon 
Parnassus. They were said to be nine, 
namelyClio, to whom was attributed the 
invention of history; Melpomene, the in- 


I ventor of tragedy; Thalia, of comedy ; Eu¬ 
terpe, of the use of the flute; Terpsichore, 
of the harp; Erato, of the lyre and lute; 
Calliope, of heroic verse; Urania, of astro¬ 
logy ; and Polyhymnia, of rhetoric. 

MUSE'UM ( mouseion , literally a seat of 
the muses : Or.), a place set apart as a repo¬ 
sitory for curious, valuable, and interesting 
objects connected with the arts and sci- l 
ences, more especially such as relate to 
natural history. The term was originally 
applied to a study, or a place devoted to 1 
learned men, in the royal palace of Alexan- | 
dria,by Ptolemy Philadelphia, who founded 
a college, and gave salaries to the several 
members, adding also an extensive library, 
which was one of the most celebrated in If 

the world.-The British Museum in Lon- j 

don is a very extensive and magnificent 1 
building, and the noblest collection of 
curiosities in the world. In the year 1753, 
parliament having passed an act for pur- ■ 
chasing the museum of Sir Hans Sloane, I 
and the collection of manuscripts of Lord 
Oxford, called the Harleian Library, for the 
use of the public, twenty-six trustees were I 
appointed and incorporated to provide a 
repository for these and some other collec¬ 
tions, which repository was to be called the 
British Museum. The collections were 
placed originally in Montague House, the I 
residence of the Dukes of Montague in 
Bloomsbury. Since that time vast gifts 
and purchases have been made, in every 
department of science, literature, and art. 
The old ducal mansion lias been replaced by 
noble buildings, and the convenience of 
the public has been studied in every possible 
way; so that for extent and usefulness it is 
altogether unrivalled. It is rich in natural 
history, particularly in mineralogy. It pos¬ 
sesses the marbles brought by Lord Elgin ; 
from Greece, the Townley marbles, a magni¬ 
ficent collection of Egyptian antiquities, 
with those brought from Nineveh ; also the 
Hamilton and Portland vases, &c. Its 
library contains a vast number of books 
and manuscripts. [See Library.] Its new 
reading-room is the finest and most con¬ 
venient structure of the kind in the world, 
being a rotunda of 140 feet in diameter, 106 
in height, and capable of accommodating 

300 readers in the most perfect manner.- 

The museum of the Vatican is the most 
celebrated in Italy; that of Florence is 
considered the next; after which is the 
Museo Borbonico at Naples. On the conti¬ 
nent, galleries of pictures are termed mu¬ 
seums (musees) ; and, as such, that of the 
Louvre ranks very high. 

MUSH'ROOM (mousseron: Fr.), the popu¬ 
lar name of some edible cryptogamic plants 
of a soft structure. They belong to the 
order of fungi. Since many fungi, closely 
resembling mushrooms in appearance, are 
of a poisonous quality, the greatest caution 
should be used by those who provide them. 

If a mushroom have an offensive smell, a 
bitter, astringent, or styptic taste, oris even 
of unpleasant flavour, it is certainly unfit 
for food. Colour, figure, and texture can¬ 
not be relied on ; but the pale or sulphur 
yellow, bright or blood red, and the green¬ 
ish, are generally poisonous. The safe kinds 























481 Httsrarg 

have mostly a compact brittle texture ; the 
llesli is white; and they grow more readily 
in open places than in damp or shady spots. 

, The mushrooms used in sauces are the 
Agaricus campestris and the arvensis. It 
' is singular that the former species is consi¬ 
dered pernicious in Italy. 

MU'SIC ( niousike: Gr.), the science of 
sounds, considered as capable of producing 
melody, and agreeably affecting the mind 
by a due disposition, combination, and pro- 
I portion. It treats of the number, time, 
division, succession, and combination of 
sounds. It is divided into theoretical music, 
which inquires into the properties of con- 
. cords and discords, and explains their com¬ 
binations and proportions for the produc- 
, tlon of melody and harmony; and practical 
music, which is the art of applying the 
theory of music in the composition of all 
sorts of pieces, tunes, and airs. Music is 
also either vocal or instrumental. Vocal 
music is the melody of a single voice, or 
the harmony of two or more voices in con¬ 
cert ; instrumental music is that produced 
by one or more instruments. Every musi¬ 
cal production ought to be expressive of 
feelings, and, through them, of ideas; but 
though music of some kind exists wherever 
{ the human species is found, it does not 
follow that every good piece of music must 
| please all men alike, or be understood 
j equally by all; because music is an art re¬ 
quiring cultivation of the mind and heart 
! to appreciate it fully. As civilization ad- 
j varices, music, as a science, gains new ad¬ 
mirers.—The Jews were fond of music in 
llieir religious ceremonies, their feasts, 
their public rejoicings, their marriages, and 
their mournings. The music of the temple 
was performed by the families of Asaph, 
Heman, and Jeduthuu, the Levites, whose 
whole business was to learn and practise 
this agreeable art; and abundant provision 
’ was made for them, that they might not be 
prevented from pursuing their musical stu¬ 
dies by the cares of life. Kings and great 
men among the Jews cultivated music, and 
David made a very great proficiency in it. 
Indeed, music reached a high perfection 
among the Hebrews, and part of their reli¬ 
gious service consisted in chanting solemn 
| psalms, with instrumental accompaniments. 

’: —The invention of the lyre is ascribed to 
Hermes Trismegistus, the Mercury of the 
j Egyptians, which is aproof of its antiquity ; 
i but a still greater proof of the existence of 
i musical instruments amongst them at a 
very early period is drawn from the figure 
of an instrument said to be represented on 
an obelisk, erected, as is supposed, by Se- 
sostris at Heliopolis. The Greeks, we know, 
were exceedingly fond of music. It had a 
considerable share in their education ; and 
so great was its influence over their bodies 
as well as their minds, that it was thought 
; to be a remedy for many disorders. 

MU'SICAL GLAS'SES. [See HARMONICA.] 
MUSK (mwsc: Fr.), a dry, light, and fri¬ 
able substance, of a dusky black colour, 

I i tinged with purple; it is of a very strong 
j i odour, and is agreeable only when in small 
quant|ty, or moderated by mixture with 
i\some other perfume. It is imported into 

| . - ■ — 


dr return. [mussel 


England from China; but an inferior kind 
is brought from Bengal, and a still worse 
description from Russia. From its being a 
very high-priced article, it is often adul¬ 
terated, and most usually with dried blood, 
a substance it very much resembles in ap¬ 
pearance.-The Moschus moschiferus, or 

Thibet musk-deer, from which the perfume 
is obtained, in size and figure resembling a 
small roebuck. It has no horns ; the hair 
of the body is long, and stands erect; the 
tail short; the ears long and narrow; the 
hoofs black; and the tusks, which are nearly 
two inches long, project considerably. The 
male is furnished with a small bag, about 
the size of a hen’s egg, hanging from the 
abdomen, in which is contained the musk. 
As this animal is naturally timid, it lives on 
the cliffs and summits of lofty mountains; 
and in running, leaping, and climbing, dis¬ 
plays astonishing agility. 

MUSKETOO'N, a species of ancient mus¬ 
ket, shorter, thicker, and wider in the bore, 
than that in ordinary use. It was common 
in the time of Louis XIV. and subsequently. 

MUSK'-OX, the Ovibos moschatus; an 
animal of the ox tribe, which inhabits the 
most barren parts of North America, to the 
north of the 60th parallel. It is much 
smaller than the common ox. Its horns 
are very broad at the base, covering the 
forehead and crown of the head, but each 
curving downwards between the eye and 
ear, until about the level of the mouth, 
when they turn upwards. The colour of the 
hair is generally brown; on the neck and 
between the shoulders, it is long, matted, 
and somewhat curled, causing the animal 
to appear humped ; on the shoulders, sides, 
and thighs.it is of such a length as to hang 
down below the middle of the leg. The 
legs are short and thick, and furnished with 
narrow hoofs. When lean, the flesh smells 
strongly of musk. 

MUSK'-RAT, called in Canada, the Mus¬ 
quash, the Ondatra zibethicus of naturalists, 
a rodent animal allied to the beaver, which 
yields an oily fluid, having the perfume of 
musk. The colour of its body is a reddish- 
brown, the belly and breast of an ash colour. 
The hair is soft and glossy, and beneath it 
is a thick coat, which is much used in the 
manufacture of hats. An immense number 
of skins are annually imported into this 
country. They live on the banks of small 
rivers ; and where the banks are high they 
form large and extensive burrows, which 
have entrances below the surface of the wa¬ 
ter, and gradually ascend till they terminate 
in a chamber above the level of high water. 

MUSK'-ROSE, a sort of rose from which 
a highly odorous oil is extracted at Tunis. 

MUS'LIN ( mousseline: Fr.), a fine sort of 
cotton cloth, which bears adowny nappn its 
surface. This nap the French call mousse, as 
resembling moss; whence the name muslin. 
Muslins are made in the greatest perfection 
in Asia; but the nations of Europe imitate 
the manufacture with great success. The 
extreme lightness of the finer kinds pro¬ 
duced in the East is admirable. But some 
derive the wox’d from Moussul, a city in 
Asiatic Turkey# 

MUS'SEL, the popular name of several 

I I 


















MUSSULMAN] 


482 


CTj t antt 


species of bivalve molluscs. The sea mus¬ 
sels belong to the genus Mytilus. Immense 
quantities of these mussels are collected on 
our coasts for food. At times they are de¬ 
leterious, and persons have occasionally 
died from eating them. The animal anchors 
Itself by a byssus. The horse mussels belong 
i to the genus Modiola; some of them bur¬ 
row, others spin a nest. Tbe river mussels 
belong to the genus Vnio. They secrete an 
inferior kind of pearl, and these were for¬ 
merly collected from the mussels of the 
Scotch rivers. Tbe swan mussels, which re¬ 
semble the last, but with a slight difference 
in the shell. A single female has been 
computed to contain 600,000 young. 

MUS'SULMAN (the dual of moslem, of 
which the plural is muslemins, literally re¬ 
signed to God: Arab.), or MOS'LEM, a fol¬ 
lower of Mahomet. This word signifies, in 
the Turkish language, a true believer. 

MUST ( mustum: Lat.), the juice of the 
grape, which by fermentation is converted 
.into wine. 

MUS'TARD ( moutarde: Fr.), the ground 
seeds of some species of cruciferous plants 
belonging to the genus Sinapis. It is a 
powerful stimulant, which is often taken 
internally, and is used externally in cata¬ 
plasms. 

MUSTE'LA (a weasel: Lat), in Zoology, 
a genus of carnivorous animals, including 
the common weasel and the ermine. 

MUS'TER-ROLL {mustera, to inspect: 
Ger.), in a Military sense, a list of the offi¬ 
cers and men in every regiment, which is 
delivered to the muster-master, inspecting 
field-officer, or whoever is appointed to ex¬ 
amine it. 

MUTE (mutus, dumb: Lat.), in Law, a 
person that remains speechless when he 
ought to answer or plead. Such a person is 
now considered to plead not guilty, which is 
entered by the proper officer; in former 
times he was compelled to answer by tor¬ 
ture.- Mute, a dumb officer of the serag¬ 

lio, usually employed as an executioner. 

-One of those employed to stand before 

a house in which there is a corpse.-In 

Grammar, a letter that is written but not 
pronounced, as the vowel e at the end of 
many English words, in some of which, 
however, it changes the pronunciation of 
the preceding vowel, rendering it long; 
thus, bite. The e mute was formerly added 
more generally to the end of words, parti¬ 
cularly of nouns. Mutes also are consonants 
which emit no sound without a vowel; as 

b, p, t, d, k, with c and g hard.- Mute, 

In Mineralogy, an epithet for minerals which 
do not ring when they are struck. 

MU'TINY (mutin, a mutineer: Fr.), an in¬ 
surrection of soldiers or seamen, or an open 
resistance to the authority of their com¬ 
manders. Any attempt to excite opposition 
to lawful authority, or any act of contempt 
towards officers, or disobedience of com¬ 
mands, is by the British mutiny act de¬ 
clared to be mutiny, and is punishable by 
the sentence of a court-martial. 

MYOG'RAPHY or MYOL'OGY {muon, a 
muscle; and graplio,! write; or logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), that part of anatomy which 
treats of the muscles of the human body. 


MYR'IAD {murias, ten thousand: Gr.), 
the number of ten thousand; or, in poetical 
language, an innumerable multitude. 

MYRIAME'TRE {murias, ten thousand, 
Gr.; and m&tre), a French measure contain¬ 
ing ten thousand metres; equal to 10936‘13 
yards, or two of the old leagues. 

MYRIAP'ODA {murias, ten thousand; 
poda, feet: Gr.),in Zoology, a class of inver¬ 
tebrate animals, which are wingless and pos¬ 
sess one or two pairs of feet to each ring 
of the body. They have antennae, and are 
all terrestrial. They are divided into two 
sections :—1. Cliilopoda, the centipedes, &c. 
2. Chilognatha, the scolopendra, &c. 

MYR'IARE, a French superficial measure i 
of ten thousand ares, or 1,000,000 square I 
metres. 

MYRICINE' {murikinos, belonging to the 
myrtle: Gr.—on account of wax being the 
product of some of the species), in Che¬ 
mistry, one of the proximate principles of 
bee’s wax, obtained by boiling in alcohol. 

MYRIOLI'TRE {murias, ten thousand: 
Gr.; and litre), a. French measure of capa¬ 
city, containing ten thousand litres, or 
610,280 cubic inches, that is, very nearly 355 
cubic feet. 

MYRIORA'MA {murias, ten thousand; 
and orama, a view : Gr.), a moveable picture, 
capable of forming an almost endless va¬ 
riety of picturesque scenes, by means of 
several fragments or sections of landscapes 
on cards, which may be placed together in 
numberless combinations. 

MYRME'LEON {murmos, an ant; and lean, 
a lion : Gr.), a genus of neuropterous insects, 
including the ant lion. 

MYROB'ALAN {murobalanos ; from mu- 
ron, ointment; and balanos, any glandular 
fruit: Gr.), a dried fruit brought from the 
East Indies; the produce of trees belong¬ 
ing to the genus Terminalia, nat. ord. Com- 
bretacece. The Hindoos use it both in medi¬ 
cine and in calico printing. It has an un¬ 
pleasant bitter taste; produces, with iron, 
a durable black dye and ink ; and with alum, 
a very full, though dark, brownish yellow. 

MYRRH {murrha: Gr.; from mer, to be 
bitter: Heb.), a fragrant, bitter, aromatic 
gum-resin, issuing by incision, and some¬ 
times spontaneously, from the trunk and 
larger branches of a shrub growing on the 
Abyssinian coast, called by botanists Balsa- 
modendron Myrrha, nat. ord. Amyridacece. 
Myrrh is light and brittle; does not melt 
when heated ; burns with difficulty ; and 
yields oil by distillation. 

MYRTA'CERS, a natural order of trees 
and shrubs, the greater number of which 
may be recognised by the leaves being op¬ 
posite, and marked with transparent dots, 
and their having a vein running parallel 
with the margin. The common Myrtle is 
a shrub of this order, which contains some 
fruit-bearing trees, such as the Pomegra¬ 
nate, Rose Apple, and Guava. The trees 
producing cloves, all-spice, and cajeput oil, 
belong to the order, as well as the Eucalypti 
of Australia, the Stringy barks and Gum 
trees of the colonists, some of which are 
200 feet high. Several yield oils which are 
likely to be useful in medicine. Those 
singular flowering shrubs, the Bottle 
























483 


Httmrj) (Evratftirg. 


brushes, which are natives of Australia, 
belong to Myrtace®. 

MYR'TLE ( murtos: Gr.), in Botany, a fra¬ 
grant shrub, of the genus Myrtus, which, 
among the ancients, was sacred to Venus. 
Tlie common myrtle is a native of Asia, but 
: lias become naturalized in Europe. It lias 
j been celebrated from remote antiquity on 
account of its fragrance and the beauty of 
I its evergreen foliage. Myrtle wreaths 
adorned the brows of bloodless victors, and 
were used as the symbol of authority by 

magistrates at Athens.- Myrtle Wax, a 

concrete oil, or vegetable wax, the product 
of plants of the genus Myrica, more com¬ 
monly known by the name of Candleberry 
I myrtle, nat. ord. Myricacece. 

MYS'TERIES ( musterion: Gr.), or MIR'A- 
| CLES, in the middle ages, were a favourite 
kind of dramatic spectacles or entertain¬ 
ments, represented at solemn festivals. 
They were very common previous to the 
‘ Moralities' [which see]; and were called 
Mysteries an d Miracles, because they taught 
the mysterious doctrines of Christianity, 
and represented the miracles attributed to 
the saints and martyrs. At first the eccle¬ 
siastics were both the authors and the per¬ 
formers of them. 

MYS'TERY (same derive, something se¬ 
cret or concealed, impossible or difficult to 
comprehend. The Eleusinia. or sacred rites 
of Ceres, solemnized at Eleusis.were called, 
by way of eminence, the Mysteries ; and with 
such superstition were they concealed, that 
if any person divulged any part of them, he 
was thought to have called down some 
divine judgment on his head, and it was ac¬ 
counted unsafe to abide under the same 
roof with him ; Horace, indeed, declares 
[ that be would not put to sea in the same 
! ship with one who revealed the mysteries 
I of Ceres. The whole religion of the Egyp- 
i tians was mysterious, and both their doc¬ 
trines and worship wrapped up in symbols 

I and hieroglyphics.-The religion of the 

I Jews was likewise full of mysteries; their 
laws, nay, their whole constitution and na¬ 
tion, were mysterious. 

MYS'TICS ( mustikos, secret: Gr.), those 
whose tendencies in religion are towards a 
j more direct communication with God than 
is afforded by revelation ; not through the 
medium of the senses, but through the 
: Inward perception of the mind. Thus the 
; quietism of Madame Guyon, Fenelon, &c., 
sought for revelation in a species of ecstasy. 
I The Illuminati in Germany, the followers of 
Swedenborg, &c., were mystics. 

MYTH ( mutlios, a story : Gr.), originally 
Bignifled a current narrative, and nothing 
I more. Afterwards it came to mean an 


[mytholog r 


ancient tradition, without authentic basis, | 
and sometimes known to be untrue. [See j 
the next article.] ‘ 

MYTHOL'OGY ( muthologia, literally a 
telling of fables : Gr.), the collective body 
of the traditions of any people regarding 
its gods and other supposed preternatural 
beings. Whether mythological fables are 
to be considered as allegorical expositions 
of truth, or as founded on historical facts, 
which have been varied and exaggerated by 
tradition, embellished by poetry, and pur¬ 
posely altered by cunning, they still retain 
their interest for the student of human 
nature, to whom it is almost as important 
to study the wide aberrations of mankind 
in their search for truth as their successful 
attempts to attain it. Grote, who considei'3 
the Grecian myths to be a special product 
of the imagination and the feelings, radi¬ 
cally distinct both from history and philo¬ 
sophy, thinks that they ‘were originally 
produced in an age which had no records, 
no philosophy, no criticism, no canon of be¬ 
lief, and scarcely any tincture of astronomy 
or geography ; but which, on the other hand, 
was full of religious faith, distinguished 
for quick and susceptible imagination, see¬ 
ing personal agents where we look only for 
objects and connecting laws ; an age, more¬ 
over, eager for new narrative, accepting 
with the unconscious impressibility of chil¬ 
dren all which ran in harmony with its pre¬ 
existing feelings, andpenetrable by inspired 
prophets and poets in the same proportion 
that it was indifferent to positive evidence. 
To such hearers did the primitive poet or 
story-teller address himself. It was the j 
glory of his productive genius to provide 
suitable narrative expression for the faith [ 
and emotions which he shared in common | 
with them, and the rich stock of Grecian 
myths attests how admirably he performed j 
his task. As the gods and thelieroesformed 
the conspicuous object of national rever¬ 
ence, so the myths were partly divine, partly J 
heroic, partly both in one.’ At a later time, I 
when the Grecian mind was more developed, 
the same writer says, that ‘ while the literal 
myth still continued to float among the 
poets and the people, critical men inter¬ 
preted, altered, decomposed, and added, I 
until they found something which satisfied ’ 
their minds as a supposed real basis. They 
manufactured some dogmas of supposed 
original philosophy, and a long series of 
fancied history and chronology, retaining 
the mythical names and generations, even 
when they were obliged to discard or recast 
the mythical events. The interpreted myth 
was thus promoted into a reality, while the 
literal myth was degraded into a fiction. 
































N 


N the fourteenth letter and eleventh con¬ 
sonant of the English alphabet, is an im¬ 
perfect mute, or semi-vowel, because part 
of its articulation may be continued for any 
length of time; it is also a liquid, and a 
nasal letter, the sound being formed by forc¬ 
ing the voice strongly through the mouth 
and nostrils, and, at the same time, inter¬ 
cepting it, by applying the tip of the tongue 
to the fore part of the palate, with the lips 
open. It has one sound only, and after m 
is silent, or nearly so, as in hymn, condemn. 
Among the ancients, N, as a numeral, stood 
for 900 ; and with a dash over it, for 9000. 
N. or No. is an abbreviation for numero, 
number; also for north; for Nota, as N. B. 
nota bene (mark well!; for New, as N. S. 
Neiv Style; for Non, as N. L. Non liquet (the 
cause is not a clear one); for Notarius, as 
N. P. Notarius Publicus (notary public); 
Nem, con.,nemine contradicente (no one con¬ 
tradicting); Nem. dis., nemine dissentiente 
(no one dissenting), &c. 

NA'BOB ( naw&b; from naib, a deputy; 
Ind.), the governor of a province, or com¬ 
mander of an army, under the Moguls. Dur¬ 
ing the decay of the empire of the Moguls, 
some of the nabobs became independent; 
and remained so, until their dominions 
were conquered by the English. In popular 
language, the word is applied to those Euro¬ 
peans who have amassed a large fortune in 
India, and live in splendour. 

NAC'ARAT (linear, mother-of-pearl: 
Span.), a crape or fine linen fabric, dyed 
fugitively of a pale red colour, which ladies 
sometimes rub upon tbeir faces, to give 

them a delicate tinge of pink.-A marine 

shell-bearing mollusc, belonging to the 
genus Pinna, which has abyssus that affords 
silky fibres, woven by the Italians into 
various articles. 

NA'CRITE (nacre, pearl: Fr.), in Minera¬ 
logy, a substance of a pearly lustre; a sili¬ 
cate of alumina and potash, found crystal¬ 
lized in granite. 

NA'DAB (a prince: Neb.), the sovereign 
pontiff or liigh-priest of the Persians, whose 
dignity and office are very similar to those 
of the mufti among the Turks. 

NA'DIR (nazeer, opposite: Arab.), in As¬ 
tronomy, that point of the heavens which 
is diametrically opposite to the zenith, and 
directly under the place where we stand. 
The zenith and nadir are the two poles of 
the horizon. 

NA'HUM, or Prophecy op Nahum, a 
canonical book of the Old Testament. Na¬ 
hum, the seventh of the twelve minor pro¬ 
phets, was a native of Elkoshai, a small 
village of Galilee. The subject of his pro¬ 
phecy is the destruction of Nineveh, which 
he describes in the most lively and pathetic 
manner, his style being bold and figurative. 

NA'IADS (Naiades; from nao, I flow : Gr.), 
in Mythology, water-nymphs, or deities that 
preside over brooks and fountains. They 


are represented as beautiful women, having 
their heads crowned with rushes, and re¬ 
clining against an urn, from which water 
is flowing. 

NAI'ANT (nageant, swimming: Fr.), in 
Heraldry, an epithet for fish that are borne 
across the escutcheon as if swimming. 

NAIL (ncigel: Ger.), a horny excrescence 
growing at the ends of the fingers and toes 
of men and animals. "When nails are com¬ 
pressed, curved, pointed, and extended be¬ 
yond the digit, they are called talons or 
claws. When they encase the extremity of 
the digit like a box, they are called hoofs. 
The substance of the nail is that of the 
skin, hardened, but firmly connected with 
it; for this reason, it is extremely sensible 
at its root, where it is yet tender; but at the 
apex, where it is perfectly hardened, it is ca¬ 
pable of being cut without pain.- Nails, 

in Building, &c., small spikes of iron or 
other metal, generally with a head, formed 
for driving into, and fastening together, 
boards, &c. Of these there are numerous 
kinds; and of such importance is the ma¬ 
nufacture become, that several patents have 
lately been taken out for improved nail¬ 
making machinery, as well as for nails made 

by hand labour.- Nail, a measure of 

length containing the sixteenth part of a 
yard. 

NAIS'SANT (being born : Fr.), in Heral¬ 
dry, a term applied to any animal issuing 
out of the midst of some ordinary, and show¬ 
ing only its head, shoulders, fore feet and 
legs, with the tip of its tail. 

NAl'VETE (Fr.), absence of artifice. The 
essential meaning of the word is, a natural, 
unreserved expression of sentiments ancl 
thoughts, without regard to conventional 
rules, and without weighing the construc¬ 
tion which may be put upon the language 
or conduct. When it is genuine, it implies 
a guileless simplicity of heart, unimpaired 
by the chilling experience of society; but 
when affected, it is pre-eminent hypocrisy, 
and a good judge of human nature will in¬ 
fallibly detect it. 

NAME (nomen: Lat.), a word by which 
men have agreed to express some idea, or 
which serves to signify a thing or subject 
spoken of. Names are either proper or ap¬ 
pellative. Proper names are those which 
represent some person or place, so as to 
distinguish it from all others of the sama 
species. Names of persons are either Chris¬ 
tian names, being given us at baptism, or 
surnames ; the first is intended for the dis¬ 
tinction of individuals, the second for the 
distinction of families. The Romans usually 
had three names : the preenomen, answering 
to our Christian name ; the nomen, that of 
the tribe ; and cognomen, that of the family; 
to these was sometimes added tlieapnomen, 
derived from some peculiarity in the cha¬ 
racter of the individual. All are exemplified 
in the names Publius Cornelius Scipio Afri- 











































485 3Lttcnitt) Crtatfury. [natron 

canus. We do not use either a clan-name 
or an agnomen. 

NANKEEN' or NANKIN', a sort of cotton 
cloth, of a firm texture, which takes its 
name from Nankin, in China, where it was 
originally manufactured. It isnow imitated 
in most other countries where cotton goods 
are woven; but none is equal to that made 
in the East, on account of the natural colour 
of the cotton (the Gossypium religiosum ) 
being reddish, while we are compelled to 
dye what we manufacture. 

NAPHTHA (Or.), or Rock-oil, in Mine¬ 
ralogy, one of the thinnest of the liquid 
bitumens, the thicker kinds being called 
Petroleum. It issues from the earth, is of 
a light brown or yellowish colour, and is 
found on the borders of springs round the 
shores of the Caspian Sea. It feels greasy, 
has a bituminous smell, easily takes fire, 
and is so light as to float on water. The 
city of Genoa is lighted by means of a naph¬ 
tha spring at Amiano, in the state of Parma. 
The term naphtha is also given to one of the 
products of the distillation of coal. It in¬ 
flames at a low temperature, and is too 
dangerous to be used in lamps. 

NAPHTHALINE (last), a white and 
highly volatile substance, which may be 
extracted by distillation from coal tar. Its 
vapour condenses into white flaky crystals. 
It is a compound of carbon and hydrogen, 
and, with sulphuric acid, forms sulpho-naph- 
tlialic acid. 

NA'PLES YEL'LOW, a fine pigment, em¬ 
ployed not only in oil-painting, but also for 
porcelain and enamel. It has a fresh, bril¬ 
liant, rich hue. Of late years chromate of 
lead has very much superseded its use. 

NARCIS'SUS ( narkissos , from narke, tor- 
! por: Gr. —on account of the effects pro- 
1 duced by its smell), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Amaryllidacece, including 
daffodils, jonquils, tazzettas, &c. 

NARCOT'ICS ( narlcotikos ; from narke, tor¬ 
por : Gr.), soporiferous medicines, which, 
bv causing stupefaction, take away the 
sense of pain. They seem to act first as 
stimulants; in large doses they produce 
tranquillity of mind, torpidity, and even 
coma. They are distinguished from mere 
sedatives, which produce no preliminary ex¬ 
citement. Opium is a narcotic; henbane, a 
sedative. 

NAR'COTINE (same derive, in Chemistry, 
the pure narcotic principle of opium. 

NARD ( nardos: Gr.; from nerd: IIeh.), a 
species of aromatic oil, with which the an¬ 
cients anointed themselves at their feasts. 

NAR'WAL, or NAR'WHAL (Narwall: 
Ger.) in Zoology, the Monodon monoceros, a 
cetaceous animal. [See Monodon.] 

NA'SAL ( nasus, the nose: Lat.), an epi¬ 
thet sometimes applied to the letters m and 
n because their sound partly depends upon 
the nose.— Nasal Bones, two small bones 
in the face, forming the osseous portion of 

the nose. . , ,. 

NASTURTIUM (Lat.: as if nasi-tortmm, 
a torment of the nose, from its pungent 
smell), in Botany, a genus of cruciferous 
Plants, including the common water-cress. 
The name is commonly given to the Indian 
cresses, plants of the nat. ord. Tropceolacece. 

NATA'LIS, or NATA'LIS DI'ES (literally 
abirthday : Lat.), theday on which the birth 
of any one is commemorated ; but the term 
was used by the ancients more particularly 
to signify the anniversary of the birthday 
of a deity, an emperor, or a distinguished 
person. On such occasions, every Roman 
was dressed in white, wore a ring called the 
annulus natalis, offered sacrifices to the 
genius of the person whose birthday was 
celebrated, and terminated the whole with 
a feast. 

NATIONAL DEBT, a sum borrowed by 
government, on the security of the exist¬ 
ing taxes, which are pledged to the lender 
for the payment of the interest on the sum 
borrowed. Thus, at the Revolution, for 
the purpose of avoiding unpopular taxation, 
the English government borrowed of a 
company then incorporated under the name 
of the Bank of England vand, as the system 
was found convenient, this debt increased. 
The progressive augmentation of the na¬ 
tional debt was as followsAt the Revolu¬ 
tion, in 1688, it was 664,263?.; at the acces¬ 
sion of queen Anne, in 1702, 16,394,702?.; 
at the accession of George I., in 1714, 
54,145,363?.; at the accession of George II., 
in 1727, 52,092,238?,; at the commencement 
of the American war, in 1775,128,583,635?.; 
at the conclusion of the American war, in 
1784, 249,851,628?.; at the commencement 
of the French revolutionary war, in 1793, 
239,350,148?.; at the conclusion of the French 
revolutionary war, 840,850,491?.; on the 1st 
of February, 1817, when the English and 
Irish exchequers were consolidated, 
840,850,491?. The debt cancelled from the 
1st of February, 1817, to the 5th of January, 
1850, was 49,041,153?., leaving the remaining 
debt at 791,809,338?. 279,551 persons were 
receiving half-yearly dividends, from 5?. 
upwards ; but the number of persons really 
having an interest in the national debt is 
very much greater, since, in the above enu¬ 
meration, companies acting as factors or 
trustees for a great number are counted 
only as individuals. In 1856, the national 
debt, on account of the Russian war, had 
become 808,108,722?.; but since that time it 
has been reduced by a few millions. 

NATIV'ITY (nativitas: Lat.), the day of 
a person’s birth. The word is chiefly used 
in speaking of the saints, as the nativity of 
St. John the Baptist, &c. But when we 
say the Nativity, it is understood to mean 
that of Jesus Christ, or Christmas-day. 
Among the astrologers, it meant a horo¬ 
scope, which see. 

NA'TROLITE (natron; and lithos, a stone: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, a hydrated silicate of 
soda and alumina, which occurs in small 
rounded fibrous masses, of a yellowish 
colour. It is called by some prismatic 
zeolite. 

NATRON, native carbonate of soda, or 
mineral alkali. This substance was used by 
the Egyptians in large quantities when 
embalming. It is common in Egypt; and 
in Mexico and Columbia there are several 
natron lakes, from the bottom of which 
native mineral natron is dug up.- Na¬ 

tron, the German name for soda, on which 
account sodium i3 termed natrium. 






















natural] 


&i)t ^ctenttCc <wtf 


486 


NAT'URAL (naturalis : Lat.), in Music, a 
character which contradicts a flat or sharp 
placed at the beginning of a stave or else¬ 
where, and causes the note to become what 
it would be if the flat or sharp were not 
used.— Natural, in Heraldry, a term 
used when animals, fruits, flowers, &c., are 
blazoned wdtli their natural colours. 

NAT'URALIST (naturalis, natural: Lat.), 
a person well versed in the study of nature 
1 and the knowledge of natural bodies, espe¬ 
cially in what relates to animals, vegeta¬ 
bles, and minerals. 

NATURALIZATION ( naturalis , by birth: 
Lat.), in Law, the act of placing an alien in 
the condition of a natural subject. On me¬ 
morializing the home secretary, and taking 
a prescribed oath, aliens may acquire nearly 
all the rights of natural-born subjects, 

I except that they cannot become members 
! of the privy council, or of either house of 
! parliament. [See Alien.] Naturalization 
I of an alien by act of parliament has a retro¬ 
spective effect. His son, for instance, born 
before his naturalization, may inherit, &c. 
This is not the case with naturalization by 
j certificate of a secretary of state. 

NAT'URAL HISTORY, in its most ex- 
[ tensive sense, is the description of material 
existences composing the universe. But 
it is usually limited to the study of the 
i animal, vegetable, and mineral objects of 
our globe. In this sense it includes zoology, 
botany, geology, and mineralogy, with their 
i dependent sciences. 

NAT'URAL OR'DERS OF ANI'MALS 
1 AND PLANTS, as opposed to artificial 
! systems, are those in which beings are 
brought more nearly together, in propor¬ 
tion as they are related in structure and 
afflnity. As more animals and plants be¬ 
come known, and as naturalists become 
better acquainted with their structure, 
existing arrangements will have to undergo 
j repeated modifications. All the organs 
I must be taken into consideration, and the 
afflnity of any two or. more beings will be 
- determined by the agreement or disagree¬ 
ment, first in the more important organs, 
and then in the less important. The rela¬ 
tive importance of organs is a matter that 
requires preliminary investigation. 

NAT'URAL PHILOS'OPH Y, or PnvsiCS, 
a collection of sciences, treating of the laws 
of nature, the properties of bodies, so far 
as they are or may be considered to be 
destitute of life, and the action of these 
bodies upon each other. Under this head 
are comprehended astronomy, chemistry, 
electricity, galvanism, magnetism, me¬ 
chanics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, optics, 
&c. 

NA'TURE-PRINT'ING, an art whereby 
truthful impressions of leaves, mosses, 
feathers, embroidery, and other objects, 

. may be obtained. It consists of pressing the 
object to be copied into a plate of soft 
metal, by which means an accurate mould 
is obtained, from which casts can be taken. 
Impressions can then be taken from these 

NAUMACH'IA (Gr.: from nans, a ship; 
and mache, a fight), the representation of a 
sea-fight, which among the Romans formed 


a part of the Circensian games. These 
mock sea-fights are supposed to owe their 
origin to the time of the first Punic war, 
when the Romans w r cre first initiated in 
the knowledge of naval affairs. After¬ 
wards they were intended both to entertain 
the populace and improve the seamen. ! 
They were frequently, like other shows, 
produced at the expense of individuals, to 
increase their popularity. Nero exhibited 
one, on an artificial lake, in which large 
marine animals avere seen swimming about. 
At one given by Claudius, there were 
19,000 combatants. The seats for the spec¬ 
tators, at these exhibitions, were arranged i 
somewhat similarly to those in the amphi- 1 
theatre—in which, indeed, as well as in 
other places of the same description, nau- 
machirn Avere sometimes exhibited, on a 
smaller but still very magnificent scale. 
The naumachiarii, or persons who fought 
on these occasions, were gladiators, slaves, 
criminals, &c., who were doomed to die, 
unless they were saved by the interposition 
of the people, or of the person presiding at 
the spectacle. 

NAU'SEA ( nausia, sea-sickness ; from 
naus, a ship : Or.), in Medicine, a sickness 
of the stomach, accompanied by a sensation 
similar to that of sea-sickness, whence its 
name. 

NAUTILUS (natitilos, a sailor: Or.), shell- 
bearing molluscs, allied to the cuttle fishes, 
in the class of Cephalopoda. The true nau¬ 
tilus (A. pompilius) has a shell formed of 
one continuous piece, rolled into a spiral 
form, and having its cavity divided into a 
great number of chambers by transverse 
partitions, each of which has a perforation, 
the various perforations being connected 
with each other by means of a pipe carried 
the whole length of the shell. The fossil 
species of nautilus, which are very nume¬ 
rous, are found in all geological formations. 
The Paper Nautilus (Aryonauta argo) is a 
different animal, but belonging to the same 
class. Its shell is thin and translucent, but 
not chambered. The long arms are fur¬ 
nished with numerous suckers, by which it j 
lays hold of its prey. The story of its float¬ 
ing on the sea in fine weather, driven along 
by the breeze acting on its sail-shaped arms, 
is a fable repeated from the time of Aris¬ 
totle to this day. 

NA'VAL AR'CHITECTURE ( navalis, be¬ 
longing to asliip : Lat,), orSHiP-BuiLDiNO. 
The art of constructing vessels for the pur¬ 
poses of navigation was practised, after a 
rude manner, in Egypt. The Greeks are 
supposed to have derived their knowledge 
of it from the Carthaginians. But neither 
in Greece nor in Rome did naval architec¬ 
ture rise to what may be considered as the 
result of scientific knowledge. The .cru¬ 
sades first gave the impulse to improve¬ 
ments in ship-building, which, notwith¬ 
standing, continued for some time at a 
low ebb. The states of Venice and Genoa 
were the first to increase the size of their 
vessels, but they were soon surpassed by 
the Spaniards, who first employed cannon 
The Hanse towns made such progress that 
in the 14th century it was usual for them to 
let their ships out to foreign priuces. In 





































487 Httcvary (Qtoatfury. [nazaritb 

the reign of Henry IV., ships of consider¬ 
able size began to be built in England, and 
they continued to increase in magnitude 
until the reign of Henry VIII., when the 
Regent, of 1000 tons burden, and the Henry 
Grace Dieu, which was larger, were built. 
From the reign of Charles II., the navy of 
Great Britain acquired great importance, 
and in consequence of the wars which have 
since been carried on in several reigns, it 

has risen to its present state.- Naval 

Stores comprehend all those articles made 
use of, not only in the royal navy, but for 
naval purposes generally; as timber and 
iron for shipping, pitch, tar, hemp, cordage, 
sail-cloth, gunpowder, ordnance and fire¬ 
arms of every sort, ship-chandlery, &c. 

NA'VAL CROWN ( navalis corona), a 
crown, among the Romans, given to him 
who first boarded an enemy’s ship; it was 
a circle of gold representing the prow of a 
ship. 

NAVE (.navis, a ship : Lat.), in Architec¬ 
ture, the middle or body of a church, ex¬ 
tending from the baluster or rail of the 

choir to the chief door.- Nave (nabe: 

Ger.), that part in the middle of a wheel 
where the spokes are fixed. 

NAVIGA'TION ( navigatio: Lat.), the art 
and science by which, in open seas, ships 
are conducted from port to port. This is 
effected by the use of charts, and by keep¬ 
ing a journal of the courses from hour to 
hour, and the distance on each, by means 
of the log-line ; also by observations on the 
sun, moon, and stars. Imperfect as were 
the means and knowledge of the ancients 
in this noble art, yet the Carthaginians, who 
superadded the greatest commercial enter¬ 
prise to the greatest skill which had yet 
been attained," achieved the most brilliant 
results. They made the whole of the old 
world tributary to their city. Not con¬ 
tented with exploring every nook and cor¬ 
ner of the Mediterranean, they left behind 
the limits which had bounded the excur¬ 
sions of their predecessors, visited the Atlan¬ 
tic coasts of Europe, the British isles, and, 
pursuing the grand idea which afterwards 
led the Portuguese to India, discovered 
a vast extent of the western coast of Africa. 
The art of navigation gained nothing for 
a long period after the fall of Carthage, 
and the invasion of the northern barbarians 
effectually extinguished the few gleams of 
science which had survived her destruction. 
Everything remained stationary for cen¬ 
turies, until the discovery of the magnet, 
and the invention of the mariner’s compass 
which followed it. [See Magnet, Compass, 
&c ] 

NAVIGA'TION LAWS, a most important 
branch of maritime law, defining the pecu¬ 
liar privileges to be enjoyed by British 
ships, and the way in which they shall be 
manned ; as also the conditions under which 
foreign ships shall be allowed to engage in 
the trade of this country, either as import¬ 
ers or exporters of commodities. As long 
ago as the reign of Henry VII., the im¬ 
portation of certain commodities was 
prohibited, except in ships belonging to 
English owners, and manned by English 
seamen. But a regard for our manufac- 

turing and commercial interests led to the 
adoption of, first, what was called the ‘ re¬ 
ciprocity system’ in our intercourse with 
other nations; to the total repeal of the 
navigation laws in 1850—except that trade 
from one part of any British possession, in 
Asia, Africa, and America, to another part 
of the same possession, must still be 
carried on in British shins, unless the legis¬ 
lature of such possession ask to be freed 
from this restriction; and, finally, to the 
adoption, in a very great degree, of the 
principles of free trade. 

NA'VY (navis, a ship: Lat), the whole 
naval establishment of any country, includ¬ 
ing the collective body of ships, officers, 
men, stores, &c. That part of the navy of 
Great Britain which is distinguished by the 
title of the royal navy, comprehends all 
ships of war and their crews, &c. The 
ministerial management of the royal navy 
of Great Britain is entrusted to seven lords 
commissioners for executing the office of 
the lord high-admiral of England, com¬ 
monly known by the title of lords of the 
admiralty. Commissioners of the navy are 
officers whose department is wholly distinct 
from that of the admiralty. The number 
of those resident in London is eight, and 
there are others stationed in different parts 
of the empire. They superintend the dock¬ 
yards, and provide the vessels which the 
admiralty requires for service. To the 
royal navy there also belong a victualling 
office, an office of sick and wounded seamen, | 
and a pay office. Ships are classified ac¬ 
cording to the guns they carry. All those 1 
having HO guns and upwards, or whose 
complements consist of 950 men or more, 
are first-rate. One of her majesty’s yachts, I 
and all ships having less than 110 guns, and 
not less than 80, and whose war comple¬ 
ments consist of 750 men and upwards, are 
second-rate. The other royal yachts, and all 
yachts bearing the flag or pendant of an 
admiral, or captain superintendent of a 
dockyard; all ships whose complements 
are under 750, and not less than 620, and 
whose guns are from 70 to 80, are third-rate. 
Ships whose complements are under 620, 
and not less than 450, and whose guns are j 
from 50 to 70, arc fourth-rate. Ships whose 
complements are under 450, and not less 
than 300, and whose guns are from 36 to 50, 
are fifth-rate. All other ships having a 
captain, and whose guns are from 24 to 36, 
are sixth-rate. Steam vessels are assigned a 
rate by the lords of the admiralty. Troop¬ 
ships, surveying-ships, fire-ships, store- 
ships, or those used on a temporary- ser¬ 
vice, do not receive a rate higher than the 
fourth. 

NAZ'ARITE ( nazar, to separate: Ileb.), 
in the Jewish dispensation, one separated 
to the Lord by a vow. Nazarites were some¬ 
times bound for theirwliole lives,at others 
only for a time. They were obliged to re¬ 
frain from wine, to allow their hair tc grow, 
to avoid coming into contact with a corpse, 
&c. The word Nazarene meant a very dif¬ 
ferent thing; it was applied to the natives 
of Nazareth, and was used, in contempt, to 
indicate the first Christians. A sect of 
Nazarenes sprang up in the second century 

















neap-tides] 


^ricuttfic iut& 


408 


they endeavoured to ingraft the Jewish on 
Christian rites. 

NEAP'-TIDES C ncpftod, low: Sax.—a, word 
used only in speaking of the tide), the tides 
in the second and last quarters of the moon. 
Also low tides, not so high or so swift as 
the spring-tides. They occur when the 
attractions of the sun and moon act at 
right angles, the difference of their effects 
only being left. 

NEAT (an ox: Sax.}, all kinds of bovine 
cattle; as the ox, cow, &c. Neat's-foot oil is 
an oil extracted from the feet of oxen; and 
Neat's leather is leather made of the hide of 
an ox. 

NEB'UL/E (nebula, a vapour: Lai.), in 
Astronomy, certain luminous spots in the 
heavens, many of which the telescope re¬ 
solves into groups of stars, whilst others 
resist the power of the best instruments, 
although astronomers are led to think that 
irresolvable nebulse are also groups of stars. 
Some nebulae have very fantastic or com¬ 
plicated shapes, and most of them undergo 
great change in appearance, according to 
the power of the telescope with which they 
are viewed. Nebulae have been thus classed : 
1. Those that are resolvable into clusters 
of stars ; some are globular, others elliptic, 
others of an irregular figure. 2. Such as 
lead the observer to suspect that they con¬ 
sist of stars, and would be resolved by tele¬ 
scopes of higher power. 3. True nebulce, in 
which there is not the slightest appearance 
of stars, with the highest powers that can 
be directed to them. 4. Planetary nebulae, 
which have exactly the appearance of 
planets, and are of immense magnitude; 
their light must be most brilliant. 5. Stel¬ 
lar ne&nta,-whosenebulous matter is greatly 
and suddenlycondensed towards the centre ; 
and 6. Nebulous stars, which are brilliant 
stars, surrounded by a perfectly circular 
disk or atmosphere of faint light. Upwards 
of 5000 nebulse have been catalogued. [See 
Magellanic Clouds.] 

NECES'SITY (necessitas: Lat), the cause 
of that which cannot be otherwise; or 
whatever is done by a power that is irre¬ 
sistible, in which sense it stands opposed 
to freedom. The schoolmen distinguish a 
physical necessity and a moral necessity; 
a simple or absolute necessity, and a rela¬ 
tive one. Physical necessity is that which 
arises from the laws of nature, and which 
cannot be overcome without, for the occa¬ 
sion, setting those laws aside. Moral neces¬ 
sity is only a great tendency, such as that 
arising from a long habit, a strong inclina¬ 
tion, or a violent passion. Simple or absolute 
necessity is that which has no dependence 
on any state or conjuncture, or any particu¬ 
lar situation of things, but is found every¬ 
where, and in all the circumstances in 
which the agent can be placed. Relative 
necessity is that which renders a person 
incapable of acting, or not acting, in those 
circumstances and that situation in which 
he is found ; though in other circumstances, 
and in another state of things, he might, 
at pleasure, act or not act. When a man’s 
actions are determined by causes beyond 
his control, he acts from necessity, and is 
hot a free agent. 


NECK ( nacken: Ger.), in Anatomy, that 
slender part situated between the head and 
the trunk of the body. Its osseous part 
consists in the mammalia of seven cervical 
vertebras. In birds there are from ten to 

twenty-three vertebras in the neck.-In 

Architecture, the neck of a capital is the 
space above the shaft of a column, between 
the annulet of the capital above, and the 

astragal at the top of the shaft below 7 .- 

Neck of Land, a long narrow tract pro¬ 
jecting from the mainland; or a narrow 
tract connecting two larger tracts. 

NEC'ItOLITE (nekros, dead ; and lithos, a 
stone: Gr.), in Mineralogy, foetid felspar ; a 
mineral which, when struck or pounded, 
exhales a foetid odour like that of putrid 
flesh. It is found, in small nodules, in the 
limestone of Baltimore. 

NECROL'OGY (nekros, a dead body ; and 
logos, a catalogue: Gr.), a register of the 
deaths of benefactors in a monastery. For¬ 
merly, also, what is now called a martyro- 

logy was called a necrology. -A register of 

distinguished persons who die within a 
certain period (not a record of their lives 
and actions, for that is biography) is also 
known by this term. 

NEC'ROMANCY ( nekromanteia: from ne¬ 
kros, dead; and manteia, prophecy: Gr.), 
a sort of magic practised among the Jews, 
Greeks, and Romans, by w'hich they at¬ 
tempted to raise the dead, or make them 
appear. The witch of Endor was a striking 
example of a bold and artful deception of 
this kind. 

NECROP'OLIS (nekros, dead ; and polis, a 
city : Gr.), the name given to some ancient 
cemeteries in the vicinity of large cities ; 
and also to some of our modern ones. 

NEC'TAR (Gr.), in Mythology, the sup¬ 
posed drink of the gods, which was ima¬ 
gined to contribute much towards their 
eternal existence. It was, according to the 
fables of the poets, a most delicious liquor, 
far exceeding anything that the human 
mind can imagine. It gave a bloom, a 
beauty, and a vigour, which surpassed all 
conception, and, together with ambrosia 
(their solid food), repaired all the decays or 
accidental injuries of the divine constitu¬ 
tion.-Also a sweet wine of Scio. 

NECTARINE (nectareus, sweet as nectar: 
Lot.), a fruit differing from the common 
peach, of which it is a variety, in having a 
smoother rind and a firmer pulp. 

NECTA'RIUM, or NECTARY (nectar, 
honey: Lat.), in Botany, that part of the 
corolla which contains honey-like mat¬ 
ter. It is very various in its figure ; being 
sometimes only a hollow in a petal, some¬ 
times a little squama or tubercle, and some¬ 
times a plain tube. The term has been also 
vaguely applied to any part of a flower 
which has an unusual shape; for example, to 
the crown of Narcissus and the rings of 
filaments in the Passion flower. 

NEE'DLE (nedl: Anglo-Sax.), a steel im¬ 
plement used in serving, embroidery, &c. 
Needles are made from wire that is drawn 
into various sizes and cut into pieces that 
are flattened at one of their ends, in -which 
the eyes are then formed with a punch; 
they are next filed at the points, hardened. 













439 Httentrj) CvcaSuvn. [nem^ah 


and finally polished with emery powder. 

-Magnetic Needle, in Navigation, a 

slender bar of steel magnetized, and mov¬ 
ing freely on a pivot. It arranges itself in 
the direction of the magnetic force of the 
earth: one end or pole pointing to the 
north, and the other to the south. As only 
: opposite magnetic poles attract each other, 
it is, in reality, the south pole of the needle 
which points to the north pole of the earth ; 

! though it is always called its north pole, 
i [See Compass, Magnetism.] 

NE EX'EAT REG'NO (let him not go out 
of the kingdom : Lat.), in Law, a writ direc¬ 
ted to the sheriff, or to the party himself, 
to prevent him from leaving the kingdom. 
The writ lies where there is a suit in equity 
regarding a demand for which the plaintiff 
could not arrest at law. 

NEFAS'TI DI'ES (inauspicious days: 
Lat.), an appellation given by the Romans 
to those days on which it was not allowed 
to administer justice or hold courts. 

NEGA'TION ( ncgatio: Lat.), in Logic, a 
denial. 

NEG'ATIVE ( negativus, that denies : Lat.), 
in general, something that implies a nega¬ 
tion : thus we say, negative quantities, ne¬ 
gative signs, negative powers, &e.-In 

Logic, an epithet applied to propositions in 

which the copula is negative.- Negative 

Quantities, in Mathematics, those which 
are opposed to positive. It is an error to 
state, as is sometimes done, that they-are 
less than nothing; there is no such quantity 
as one less than nothing, and negative 
quantities are as real as positive. Thus, if 
money which I possess is considered to be 
I a joins or positive quantity, money which I 
I owe must be a minus or negative quantity. 

} If seven miles towards the east are to be 
considered as positive, seven miles in the 
! opposite direction, or towards the west, are 
negative. It is evident that any quantity of 
one kind will neutralize an equal quantity 
of the other; but that, if the quantities are 
i unequal, what is left will be of that kind 
which was in excess. Thus, if I owe 51., and 
have 3 1., taking the 3 1. which I have from 
the 51. which I owe, 21. of a debt will be 
left: that is, substracting minus 5 from 
| plus 3, minus 2 will remain. The characters 
| plus and minus (+ and -) have two different 
objects to fulfil: one being to show whe¬ 
ther a quantity is positive or negative, the 
other to indicate whether it is to be added 
or subtracted. When no sign is expressed, 
the positive is always understood.- Ne¬ 

gative Electricity, that state of bodies 
In which they are deprived of some portion 
of the electricity which they naturally con¬ 
tain ; or, according to others, that in which 
they have free resinous electricity. [See 

Electricity.]-Negative Pregnant, 

In Law, is a negation which implies an 
i affirmation. Thus, when a person denies 
having done a thing in a certain manner or 
at a certain time, as stated in the declara¬ 
tion, he implies that he did it in some 
manner. 

NE'GRO ( niger, black: Lat.), a variety of 
the human species deriving their name 
from one of their most striking character¬ 
istics, their black colour. Their native re¬ 


gion seems to be the central portion of 
Africa; but the negro formation prevails 
also in Eastern and Western Africa, and, 
extending southwards, is most strongly 
marked in Guinea. The origin of the ne¬ 
groes, and the cause of this remarkable 
difference from the rest of the human 
species, have been the source of much ar¬ 
gument among naturalists. In Africa itself 
many nations of Ethiopia are not black, nor 
were there any blacks originally in the 
West Indies. In many parts of Asia, under 
the same parallel with the African region 
inhabited by blacks, the people are merely 
tawny. It is affirmed that the degree of 
development of the rcte mucosum and its 
pigment determines the power of resisting 
the excessive heat of the sun in tropical 
climates, as evinced by the negro (the type, 
in this respect, of the dark races), the Euro¬ 
pean, and the Albino. It has long been the 
prevailing opinion among naturalists that 
the negro race is inferior, both in organiza¬ 
tion and in intellectual powers, to the 
European; and, whatever the cause whence 
it has arisen, negroes have never as yet 
distinguished themselves either as nations 
or individuals. Those African and other 
states in which the negro predominated, 
have been either devoid of civilization, or 
indebted to a foreign element for any civili- 
1 zation they possessed. And in a space of 
4000 years, the race, whatever opportunities 
it may have had, has not produced one who 
has been eminently distinguished for his 
achievements, or his proficiency in any 
branch of human knowledge. Undoubtedly 
negroes have hitherto laboured under great 
disadvantages; for, from the earliest times, 
they seem to have been doomed to supply 
the more fortunate races with slaves ; but 
the experience of the past indicates that, 
only by admixture with other races, and in 
proportion as they deviate from the true 
negro type, do they make any progress in 
civilization and enlightenment. Those, how¬ 
ever, who hold the most extreme views on 
this point admit that education can do 
much in enlightening and improving them. 
[See Slave Trade.] 

NEREMI'AH, a canonical book of the 
Old Testament, so called from the name of 
its author. Nehemiah was born at Babylon 
during the captivity, and succeeded Ezra in 
the government of Judah and Jerusalem. 
He was a Jew, and was promoted to the 
office of cup-bearer to Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, king of Persia; and the opportuni-' 
ties he had of being daily in the king’s pre¬ 
sence, together with the favour of Esther 
the queen, procured him the privilege of 
being authorized to repair and fortify the 
city of Jerusalem, in the same manner as 
before its destruction by the Babylonians. 

NEM. CON. and NEM. DIS. The former 
is a contraction for nemine contradicente (no 
one contradicting); and the latter, for 
nemine dissentients (no one dissenting). 

NEMlEAN GAMES, in Antiquity, cele¬ 
brated games in Greece, deriving their name 
from NemaBa, a village between the cities of 
Cleonte and Philus, in Argolis, where they 
were celebrated every third year. They were 
instituted in memory of Archemorus or 






























03jc Scientific autf 


490 


neocomian] 


Oplieltes ; but, having been for some time 
interrupted, they were revived by Hercules, 
in honour of Jupiter, after his victory over 
the Nemtean lion. These games were of the 
same kind as the Olympian, and the victors 
were crowned with parsley. 

NEOCO'MIAN, in Geology, a term applied 
to the lower portion of the Cretaceous series. 
It is divided into the lower Greensand 
group, which is well developed at Neufcha- 
tel (anciently Neocomum, in Switzerland, 
whence the name), and the Wealden beds 
of Kent and Sussex. 

NEOL'OG Y ( neos , new; and logos, a word : 
Gr.), the introduction of new words into a 
language. The progress of science has of 
late years necessarily given rise to many 
neologisms ; but the practice of coining new 
words to express old ideas cannot be too se¬ 
verely reprehended.- NeologyIs also the 

name given to the rationalist system of 
interpretation, which is applied by many 
German and English divines to the records 
of revealed religion. 

NE'OPHYTE ( neophutos: from neos, new ; 
and pliutos, grown: Gr.), a new convert or 
proselyte; a name given by the early Chris¬ 
tians to such as had recently been converted 
from paganism. 

NEOZO'IC (neos, new; zoe, life: Gr.), a 
term applied by some geologists to all the 
strata included in the secondary and ter¬ 
tiary epochs, in contra-distinction to the 
older or palaeozoic strata. 

NEPENTHE ( nepenthes: from ne, not; 
and penthos, sorrow: Gr.), in Antiquity, a 
kind of magic potion, supposed to make 
persons forget their sorrows and misfor¬ 
tunes. It was the juice or infusion of a 
plant now unknown. We use the term figu¬ 
ratively, to express what gives rest and con¬ 
solation to an afflicted mind. 

NEPH'ELINE ( nephele, a cloud: Gr.), a 
mineral found mixed with other substances, 
primitive or volcanic, in small masses or 
veins. It is white or yellow. When thrown 
into nitric acid, its transparent fragments 
become cloudy. It is a double silicate of 
alumina and soda, and is known also by the 
name of somnite. 

NE'PHRITE ( nephrites, like the kidney: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, a sub-species of jade, 
occurring in granite and gneiss, remark¬ 
able for its hardness and tenacity. It is 
of a leek-green colour, and was formerly 
worn as a remedy for diseases of the kid¬ 
neys. The Chinese are celebrated for the 
manufacture of articles from this sub¬ 
stance. It consists of silica, alumina, and 
magnesia. 

NEPHRITIS (nephros, the kidneys: Gr.), 
in Medicine, an inflammation of the kidneys. 
Hence nephritics, medicines proper for dis¬ 
eases of the kidneys, particularly for uri¬ 
nary calculi. 

NEPHROT'OMY ( nephros, the kidney; 
and temno, I cut: Gr.), the operation of ex¬ 
tracting a stone from the kidney. 

NE PLUS ULTRA (Lat.), no farther, the 
extremity, or utmost extent to which any¬ 
thing can go. 

NEP'TUNE (in Mythology, the god of the 
sea), the most remote planet at present 
known. For several years irregularities 


had been noticed in the motions of Uranus, 
which it was conjectured were caused by 
the disturbing force of some exterior planet. 
In 1816, M. Leverrier of Paris and Mr.Adams 
of Cambridge occupied themselves inde¬ 
pendently, and unknown to each other, in 
calculating the place of the theoretical 
planet, and the former having communi¬ 
cated the result at which he had arrived to 
Ur. Gallc of Berlin, that astronomer, on the 
23rd of September, 1846, discovered the 
planet since called Neptune, as a star of 
the eighth magnitude. This discovery is 
justly regarded as one of the greatest i 
triumphs of modern astronomy. Neptune \ 
is 2800 millions of miles from the sun; its ; 
diameter is 39,700 miles ; its mean sidereal j 
period is 164jj years, but the time of its 
revolution on its axis is not yet known; 
the inclination of jts orbit (which is nearly ; 
circular) to the ecliptic, is 1° 46'59". Some 
astronomers have suspected that it has a 
ring, and it certainly has at least one satel¬ 
lite ; but, even with the most powerful 
telescopes, it is difficult to make any obser¬ 
vation with regard to its satellites, physical 
constitution, &c. 

NEPTU'NIAN, or NEP'TUNIST, one who 
adopts the theory that the substances of 
which the earth is composed were formed 
from an aqueous solution; opposed to the 
Plutonic theory,which attributes the earth’s 
formation to the action of fire. 

NE'REIDS (. Nereides: Gr.), in Mythology, 
sea-nymphs, daughters of Nereus and Doris, 
celebrated for their beauty, and represented 
as riding upon sea-horses, sometimes with 
the human form entire, and at others with 
the tail of a fish. 

NE'RIUM (neros, humid: Gr.), in Botany, 
a genus of plants, nat. ord. Apocynacece. 
The species are shrubs or trees, and include 
the oleander. 

NERVES ( nervus, a nerve: Lat.), long 
white medullary cords, which pass in pairs 
from the brain .and the spinal marrow, as 
instruments respectively of sensation and 
volition; of which nine pairs proceed from 
the brain, and thirty-one from the spinal 
chord. They spread over the body like a 
fine network. Formerly the word nerve 
meant a sinew: this accounts for the oppo¬ 
site meanings of the word nervous, which 
sometimes signifies strong and sinewy; 
sometimes weak and irritable. The nerves 
are often interwoven; and some of them 
have rounded masses termed ganglia. There 
are two systems of nerves1. Those of 
animal life, or the cerebrospinal nerves, 
which convey impressions from the brain 
to the voluntary muscles, and are the media 
of sensation and voluntary motion ; they 
are connected with the brain and with tho 
spinal chord. 2. Those of organic life, the 
ganglionic or great sympathetic nerves, 
which are connected with the brain and 
spinal chord, or with the cerebro-spinal 
nerves, by very small filaments, and are 
furnished with numerous ganglia. The 
cerebro-spinal nerves contain, generally 
enclosed in the same sheath, the centripetal 
filaments, which convey impressions from 
their extremities to the brain, in the way 
of pain, &c.; and the centrifugal filaments, 

















































491 


Ettcravy Cmtgttry. 


[neutrality 


which convey the influence of the will from 
the brain to the voluntary muscles. 

NER'VOUS FE'VER,a low fever, in which 
nervous symptoms or sensorial debility are 
particularly prevalent. 

NER'VOUS SYS'TEM, the arrangement 
within an animal, of the brain, spinal mar¬ 
row, and nerves: constituting the means 
of perception, volition, and muscular action. 
In some of the lowest organized animals, 
the nervous system consists of mere fila¬ 
ments, which, iu those a little higher, are 
connected with a nervous i-ing surrounding 
the oesophagus; as organization advances, 
the ring gradually forms a brain, and gan¬ 
glia are produced on the filaments. When 
the principal gangliated filaments are not 
parallel or symmetrical, the organization is 
that of the heterogangliate or molluscous 
animals. When there are two gangliated 
filaments, which arc symmetrical, arid run 
parallel along the ventral aspect of the 
body, they indicate the homceogangliate 
\ or articulate animals. When the brain is 
no longer a ring, but sends down the back 
a prolongation of its substance, termed the 
spinal marrow, the organization is that of 
the myelencephalous or vertebrate animals, 
the primary division of the animal kingdom. 
In articulate and vertebrate animals, the 
superficial portion of the ventral or spinal 
chord is‘sensitive,’the deep-seated‘motive.’ 

NESTO'RIANS, in Ecclesiastical Ilistory, 
the followers of Nestorius, patriarch -of 
Constantinople, in the first half of the fifth 
century. He carefully distinguished the 
! two natures of Christ, but affirmed that the 
human nature was inhabited by the divine, 
. as a temple by its divinity. He asserted 
that the virgin was merely the mother of 
Christ or man. His opinions, which spread 
through Asia, were soon after counteracted 
by the opposite heresy of the Eutychians. 
[See Monophysite.] He was deposed by a 
council held at Ephesus in 431, and died iu 
exile in upper Egypt. 

NET, or NEAT (nett: Ger.; from nitidus, 
pure: Lat.), in Commerce, that which, is 
without adulteration or deduction. Hence 
i we say neat wines, &c.; and net produce, or 
: that which a commodity has yielded, after 
i all tare and charges have been deducted. 

NETH'INIMS (given or offered: Heb.), 
among the Jews, the ‘ hewers of wood and 
drawers of water;’ they were the descend¬ 
ants of the Gibeonites, condemned by 
Joshua; and of the Canaanites, who had 
surrendered themselves and were spared. 

NET'TINGS, in a ship, a sort of gratings 
made of small ropes brought together with 
rope-yarn or twine, and fixed on the quar¬ 
ters, tops, &c., for various purposes—among 
others, to prevent boarding. 

NET'TLE, the popular name of well- 
known plants of the genus Urtica, nat. ord. 
UimcACEiE. The species are chiefly herba- 
i ceous, and are usually covered with ex¬ 
tremely fine, sharp, tubular hairs, placed 
upon minute vesicles filled with an acrid 
and caustic fluid, which, by pressure, is 
injected into the wounds caused by the 
sharp-pointed hairs; hence arises the well- 
known stinging sensation when theseplants 
are incautiously handled. The nettle is not 


so useless as it appears. The young leaves, 
when boiled, are a good substitute for cab 
bage; the fibres of the stem have been 
woven into coarse stuffs; jockeys mix the 
seed with the food of horses, in order to 
give them a sleek coat; and the roots, when 
washed, and mixed with alum or common 
salt, afford a yellow dye. It is a wholesome 
food for horned cattle when young. 

NET'TLE-RASH, an eruption on the skin, 
resembling that produced by the sting of a 
nettle. It goes oil’, or changes its place, 
most usually in a few hours ; and is relieved 
by bathing the part affected with very weak 
vinegar, and by the use of mild aperients. 

NEURAL'GIA ( neuron , a nerve; and 
algos, pain: Gr.), an acute, and generally 
intermittent, painful sensation along the 
course of the nerves. One of its most dis¬ 
tressing forms is tic douloureux. 

NEUROL'OGY ( neuron , a nerve; and 
logos, a description : Gr.), in Medicine, a 
description of the nerves of animal bodies; 
or the doctrine of the nerves. 

NEUROP'TERA (neuron, a nerve; and 
pteron, a wing: Gr.), an order of insects, 
composed of those possessing four mem¬ 
branous wings, traversed by a close net¬ 
work of veins. In some groups the organs 
of the mouth are rudimentary, but usually 
they form a complete biting apparatus. 
The abdomen has no terminal ovipostor, as 
amongst the Hymenoptera. The metamor¬ 
phosis is sometimes complete, sometimes 
incomplete. To this order belong the 
Stone fly, May fly, the Dragon flies, Scorpion 
flies, and Caddice flies. 

NEURO'SES (neuron, a nerve: Gr.), iu 
Medicine, nervous disorders. 

NEUROT'OMY (neuron, a nerve; and 
temno, I cut: Gr.), iu Anatomy, the cutting 
or dissecting of the nerves. 

NEU'TER (neither: Lat), in Grammar, 
the gender of nouns which are neither 

masculine nor feminine.- NeuterVerbs, 

by some grammarians called intransitive 
verbs, are those which govern nothing, and 
are neither active nor passive. When the 
action expressed by the verb does not pas3 
to any object, the verb is said to be neuter; 

as, I sleep, we walk, they stand still.-. 

Neuter, the name given to the labourers 
of the honey-bee, before it was found that 
they were essentially females, though in- 
fertile 

NEUTRALITY (nev,trails, neutral: Lat .): 
in International Law, a nation which does 
not take part, directly or indirectly, in a 
war between other nations is said to be 
neutral. Certain rights and obligations to¬ 
wards the belligerents arise; and through 
the infraction of these, the neutral power 
frequently becomes involved in hostilities 
with one or the other of them. A neutral 
nation has the right to furnish either of 
the contending nations with all supplies 
which do not fall under the description of 
contraband of war, and to conclude treaties : 
unconnected with the subject of the war ; 
also, though this rule is sometimes set 
aside by the necessities of a powerful bel¬ 
ligerent, to carry the property of any one 
of the hostile nations in its vessels, and 
under the security of its flag. 



























neutralization] Ki)C J?CtCUttItC iintf 492 

NEUTRALIZA'TION (same deriv.), in 
Chemistry, the combination of any two 
elements, but particularly of an acid and 
alkali, in such proportions that the pro¬ 
perties of each are rendered inert. If either 
substance is in excess, its properties .will be 
perceptible; which may be the case when 
the whole is really combined: thus we have 
both acid and neutral salts. 

NEWS'PAPER. In the time of the Ro¬ 
man emperors, periodical notices of passing 
events, having the name of acta diurna 
(daily events), were compiled and distri¬ 
buted. The first newspaper published in 
modern Europe made its appearance at 
Venice in 1536, but the jealousy of the 
government would not allow of its being 
printed, so that, for many years, it was 
circulated in manuscript! It would seem 
that newspapers were first issued in Eng¬ 
land, by authority, in 1588, during the alarm 
occasioned by the approach of the Spanish 
armada to our shores, in order, as was 
stated, by giving real information, to allay 
the general anxiety, and to hinder the 
dissemination of false and exaggerated 
statements. From this era, newspapers, of 
one sort or other, have, with a few inter¬ 
missions, generally appeared in London, 
sometimes at regular and sometimes at ir¬ 
regular intervals. For more than a century 
past they have gone on gradually increas¬ 
ing in size, as well as in commercial and 
political importance. In 1864 there were 
1250 newspapers published in the United 
Kingdom ; viz. in England 919, in Wales 37, 
in Scotland 140, in Ireland 140, and in the 
British Isles 14. There were 46 daily 
newspapers published in England, 1 in 
Wales, 9 in Scotland, and 14 in Ireland. 
No person may, under a penalty of 50 1. per 
day, print or publish, or cause to be printed 
or published, any newspaper, until a decla¬ 
ration in writing has been delivered to the 
stamp office, or to the proper office of the 
district, stating the correct title of the 
newspaper, the true description of the house 
in which it is to be printed, and also of 
that in which it is to be published; the 
true names, &c., of every printer, publisher, 
and—with certain qualifications—every pro¬ 
prietor; signed by the printers and pub¬ 
lishers mentioned in it, and by such pro¬ 
prietors as reside in the kingdom : and any 
false statement in it is a misdemeanor. 
And, under a penalty of 20b, a copy of each 
publication must be delivered at the ordi¬ 
nary price to the head office of stamps, with 
the name and abode of the printer or pub¬ 
lisher, written with his own hand, or by 
some person by his direction. And this, 
if required, must be produced, at any time 
within two years, as evidence in a court. 
Newspaper reporting has been brought to 
the highest degree of perfection. A staff 
of reporters is required for the House of 
Lords, and another for the House of Com¬ 
mons, by any journal which does not 
abridge or copy. As soon as one of them 
has attended for a certain short period, he 
retires to write out his notes and forward 
them to the compositors, being succeeded 
by another; so that, very frequently, one 
part of a speech is in type while a member 

is delivering the remainder. [See Print¬ 
ing.] 

NEW STYLE, the method of reckoning 
the days of the year in accordance with the 
Gregorian calendar, which adjusts the odd 
hours and minutes by which the earth’s 
revolution exceeds 365 days. [See Calen¬ 
dar.] 

NEWTO'NIAN SYS'TEM, or PHILOS'O- 
niY, a phrase applied by some to the Coper- 
nican or solar system, which, however, was 
generally adopted before Newton’s time; 
and by others principally to the laws of 
planetary motion, first promulgated by 
Kepler and Hooke ; but strictly applicable 
only to certain geometrical and analytical 
demonstrations of those known laws, as de¬ 
veloped by the genius and industry of Sir 
Isaac Newton, and chiefly to the theory of 
universal gravitation. The principal parts 
of the Newtonian philosophy are explained 
by the author in his ‘ Principia,’ 

NICE'NE CREED, a particular creed, or 
confession of faith, drawn up by the clergy 
in the council of Nice, in 325. It has been 
adopted by the church of England, and is 
printed in the Communion Service in the 
Book of Common Prayer. 

NICHE (JFV.), in Architecture, a hollow or 
recess in a Avail, for the reception of a statue 
or bust. 

NICK'EL (a worthless person: Ger.), a 
metal which miners, being disappointed in 
not finding it to be copper, as they expected 
from the colour of its ore, in contempt 
called kupferniclcel (worthless copper). It 
is Avhite, ductile, and malleable; it may be 
draAvn into Avire, or rolled into plates, but a 
very small quantity of arsenic destroys its 
ductility. It is attracted by the magnet, 
and, like iron, may be magnetized. Its spec, 
grav., Avhen hammered, is 8'82. It is some- 
Avhat more fusible than iron ; isnotaffected 
by air or moisture at ordinary temperatures, 
but is sloAvly oxidized at a red heat. It is 
found in meteoric iron, but is obtained 
chiefly from kupferniclcel, its sulphuret, and 
the ores of cobalt, with which it is associ¬ 
ated. Its equivalent is 29 - 6. It forms 
salts with sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. 

NICK'EL SlL'VER, an alloy frequently 
used in the manufacture of white metal 
spoons and forks, composed of 60 per cent 
of copper, 17§ per cent, of zinc, and 22i per¬ 
cent. of nickel. 

NIC'OL PRISM, a prism of Iceland spar 
used in the examination of the phenomena 
of polarized light. 

NIC'OTINE, in Chemistry, a highly 
poisonous alkaloid obtained from tobacco 

It derives its name from Nicotiana Taba- 
cum, the botanic term for tobacco ; Avhich 
was so called from Nicot, a Frenchman Avho 
introduced it into France about the year 
1560. 

NICTA'TING, or NICTITA'TING MEM'- 
BRANE (nicto, I wink : Lat.), a thin skin 
attached to the eyes of birds, and serving 
to clear them of extraneous matters. 

NIDIFIC A'TI ON ( nidus, a n es t ; an d facio 

I make: Lat.), the act or operation of build¬ 
ing a nest, and the hatching and feeding of 
young in the nest. 

Nl'DUS (a nest: Lat.), a term applied by 




















naturalists to any place In which eggs are 
hatched or larvae nursed, or in which seeds 
germinate. 

NIEBELUN'GEN LIED, or NIEBEL'UN- 
GENS NOT, a Teutonic epic poeui of about 
10,000 verses, probably written in the 13th 
century, although a much higher antiquity 
has been claimed for it. Possibly the 
stories of which it is composed had been 
passing for many ages through the mouths 
of the people. The poem relates the ad¬ 
ventures of one Siegfried, son of a king on 
the Lower Rhine; but the chief heroes 
seem to be Attila king of the Huns, and 
Dietrich king of the Goths. There are 
dragons, dwarfs, enchanted maidens, ma¬ 
gical swords, and all the other marvels of 
the dark ages. The poem has been rendered 
into modern German. 

NIEL'LO WORK, an old method of orna¬ 
menting silver articles, by tracing thereon 
any kind of design with the graver, and 
filling up the lines with some hard black 
metallic paste or alloy. This was called 
nigellum (diminutive of niger, black : Lat.), 
and then niello by the Italians. In this way 
church plate, sword-hilts, clasps, and other 
articles were decorated, and such objects 
are eagerly sought for by collectors. Im¬ 
pressions taken by the old artists them¬ 
selves with some black fluid on paper, as 
well as impressions on sulphur, are also to 
be found in the cabinets of the curious. 

NI'GHTINGALE (Nachtigall: Ger.), in 
Ornithology, a migratory species of passe¬ 
rine birds, a type of the sub-genus Philome¬ 
la. The nightingale is more remarkable for 
the sweetness of its note than for its beauty. 
It is of the size of the linnet, but in shape it 
more resembles the redbreast; the head is 
small; the eyes are large, and their iris pale ; 
the beak is dusky, slender, and moderately 
long; the head, neck, and back are of a grey¬ 
ish-brown; the upper parts of the wings, and 
about the tail, have also a reddish tinge ; 
and the throat, breast, and belly are of a 
pale ash colour. This bird is well known in 
the southern counties of England for the 
fineness of its tones, especially in the 
evening. The males arrive there some¬ 
times in April, but more usually in May ; 
the females, a week or ten days after the 
males. It is equalled only by the skylark 
in variety, compass, and execution; but 
the latter is greatly inferior in mellow¬ 
ness and plaintiveness, in which two quali¬ 
ties the woodlark alone approaches the 
nightingale. It is the constant theme of 
the eastern poets; and is represented by 
them as attached, in a most extraordinary 
degree, to the rose, their favourite flower. 
It is very generally believed that the night¬ 
ingale will live but a very short time in a 
state of confinement; this, however, is a 
mistake. 

NI'GHTMARE. [See Incubus.] 

NI'GHTSHADE, or Deably Nightshade. 
r S66 ATROPA.] 

L NI'GHTSHADE, WOODY. [See Bitter¬ 
sweet.] 

NI'HIL, or NIL (Lat.), nothing.- Nil 

capiat per breve (he is to receive no benefit 
from the writ), in Law, the judgment given 
against the plaintiff in an action, either in 


bar thereof, or in abatement of the writ. 

- Nihil debet (he owes nothing), the usual 

plea in an action of debt; but it is no plea 
in an action of covenant, in a breach 

assigned for non-payment of rent, &c.- 

Nil dicit (he says nothing), a failure of the 
defendant to putin an answer to the plain¬ 
tiff’s declaration, &c., by the day assigned 
for that purpose, which omission causes 

judgment to be had against him.- Nihil 

habuit in tenementis (he has no interest in 
the tenement), a plea that can be allowed 
only in an action of debt brought by a lessor 
against a lessee without deed. 

NIM'BUS (a rain-cloud: Lat.), in Meteo¬ 
rology, a word used to express the combina¬ 
tion of clouds which condense into rain. [See 

Cloud.]- In Art, the circle of luminous 

rays, placed by painters round the heads of 
the persons they represented, as a mark of 
divinity or sanctity. The nimbus of any 
person of the Trinity is distinguished by 
four rays at right angles to each other, one 
of the rays being concealed by the head. 
The nimbus is sometimes square, lozenge¬ 
shaped, or triangular. 

NI'SI PRI'US, in Law, a term often given 
to trials by jury in civil actions. By it is 
meant a commission directed to the judge? 
of assize, empowering them to try all ques¬ 
tions of fact issuing out of the courts of 
Westminster, that are then ready for trial; 
and as all causes are heard at Westminster, 
the clause is added in such writ s, Nisipriils 
justiciarii domini regis ad assisas capiendas 
venerint —that is. Unless before the day fixed i 
the justices come thither to hold assizes— 
whence the writ, as well as the commission, ' 
have received the name. 

NI'TRATE OP SIL'VEIt, in Chemistry, 
a compound of nitric acid and oxide of sil- I 
ver. It is prepared by dissolving as much 
pure silver as possible in pure nitric acid, 
evaporating the solution and crystallizing [ 
the nitrate. When melted and cast in a 
mould it is called lunar caustic, which is 
employed in surgery to destroy abnormal 
growths, reduce local inflammation &c. 
When swallowed, it is a powerful poison; 
the antidote is common salt, which, if used 
in time, converts it into an insoluble, and 
therefore a harmless chloride. It is an in¬ 
gredient in marking ink [see Ink], and a 
substance of great importance in photogra¬ 
phy, which see. 

NI'TRATES, in Chemistry, salts formed 
of nitric acid with salifiable bases; as ni¬ 
trate of potash, soda, &c. 

NI'TRE (nitron: Ger.), Saltpetre, a salt 
termed by the chemists nitrate of potash. 

It is found on the surface of the ground in 
several parts of the world, but particularly 
in India, whence all the nitre used in Great 
Britain is obtained. It may be produced in 
‘ nitre beds,’ formed of a mixture of calca¬ 
reous soil and animal matter. The earth 
containing it is collected and thrown into 
water, which dissolves out the salt; when 
the fluid clears, it is run off, and is evapo¬ 
rated by the heat of the sun. The nitre 
thus obtained is purified by solution and 
recrystallization. This salt crystallizes in 
six-sided prisms, containing no water of 
crystallization. It is soluble in seven parts 





































nitric] 


%Ll)t Jri'tcntific autr 


494 


of cold, and In less than its own weight of 
boiling water. It has a cooling saline 
taste, and is decomposed at a red heat. Me¬ 
dicinally it acts on the kidneys and on the 
skin. It is highly important as an ingre¬ 
dient in gunpowder, for which purpose ni¬ 
trate of soda, though abundant, cannot be 
used, as it is slightly deliquescent. [See 
Gunpowder.] It is also one of the sources 
of nitric acid. 

NITRIC A'CID, a compound consisting of 
one atom of nitrogen, and five of oxygen. 
In ordinary circumstances, it cannot exist 
except in combination at least with water : 
the nitric acid of the shops, termed aqua¬ 
fortis, is united with more or less of that 
fluid. It is colourless, unless it contains 
nitrous acid ; exposed to the light, it gra¬ 
dually becomes of a yellow or reddish tint, 
according to the quantity of nitrous acid 
formed by decomposition of the nitric acid. 
Iti s intensely corrosive, produces painful 
sores if brought in contact with the animal 
body; and, though removed with great 
rapidity, stains the skin and nails yellow. 
It is a powerful oxidizing agent, dissolving 
most of the metals, after oxidizing them ; 
hut it is worthy of notice that when its 
spec. grav. is l - 485, it has not the least ac¬ 
tion on tin, though, if stronger or weaker, 
it oxidizes it rapidly, nitrous gas being 
evolved with almost explosive violence. It 
has very recently been obtained in the an¬ 
hydrous state, which chemists long consi¬ 
dered to be impossible; it is in the form of 
six-sided prisms, which are perfectly clear 
and colourless ; they become very hot in 
water, and dissolve in that fluid without 
imparting to it any colour or disengaging 
any gas. Nitric acid is obtained by acting 
on nitrate of potash, or nitrate of soda, 
with sulphuric acid, and distilling off the 
acid which is set free. 

NITROGEN (nitron, nitre; gennao, I pro¬ 
duce : Or.), an elementary gas, which forms 
about four-flftlis of our atmosphere, the 
remaining fifth being oxygen. The two 
are mechanically mixed, not chemically 
combined. It is invisible and elastic. It 
immediately extinguishes animal life, 
whence its name azote (a, not; zoe, life: Or.). 
It cannot support combustion, and a lighted 
candle immediately ceases to burn if placed 
in it. It has no taste. It is absorbed very 
sparingly by water, and is a little lighter 
than atmospheric air, its specific gravity 
being '9713. It is capable of combining 
with oxygen, and with different propor¬ 
tions of this substance forms gaseous 
oxide of azote or nitrous oxide, nitric 
oxide, liyponitrous acid, nitrous acid, and 
nitric acid. Combined with hydrogen, it 
forms ammonia; and it enters into the 
composition of most animal substances. 

NI'TRO-MTJRIAT'ICA'CID, in Chemistry, 
a compound of nitric and muriatic acids— 
the Aqua regia of the alchemists—which has 
the property of dissolving gold and platina. 
It is more correctly termed nitro-hydro- 
chloric acid. 

NITROUS OX'IDE, a gas which, if re¬ 
spired, produces a sense of exhilaration 
and intoxication. It is popularly called 
laughing-gas, because it causes a certain 


degree of pleasurable excitement, often ac¬ 
companied by laughter, in those who inhale 
it. It is protoxide of nitrogen, and is ob¬ 
tained by heating nitrate of ammonia, 
which is resolved into this gas and water. 
If breathed too long, or if it is not quite 
pure, it may produce serious consequences 
when respired ; even when pure, its effects 
are not the same with persons of different 
temperaments. The intoxication which it 
ordinarily produces is not followed by lan¬ 
guor, or, generally sreaking, by any bad 
effect. 

NIZAM', the title of one of the native 
sovereigns of India. It was derived from 
Nizam-ul-Mulk, who, in the commencement 
of the last century obtained possession of 
the Mahometan conquests in the Deccan ; 
and his successors assumed his name as a 
title of dignity. 

NO'BILES (literally those who are 
known : Lat.), among the Romans, were 
such as possessed the jus imaginum, or the 
right of having the pictures or statues of 
their ancestors; a right which was allowed 
only to those whose ancestors had borne 
some curule office, that is, had been curule 
tedile, censor, preetor, or consul. For a long 
time, none but the Patricii were nobiles, 
because no person under that rank could 
bear any curule office. The first of any family 
who was raised to a curule dignity was 
termed novus homo (a new man), an upstart. 
Catiline reproached Cicero with being such. 
The Roman nobility, by way of distinction, 
wore a half-moon upon their shoes, espe¬ 
cially those of patrician rank. 

NOBIL'ITY (nobilitas: Lat.), rank con¬ 
ferred by express authority of the govern¬ 
ing power. British nobility consists only 
of five degrees, viz. that of a duke, marquis, 
earl, viscount, and baron [each of which see 
under their proper terms]. In Britain these 
titles are conferred by the sovereign only, 
and by letters patent, which mark out the 
course of descent. The privileges of the 
nobility are very considerable; they are 
all esteemed hereditary counsellors of the 
crown, and are exempt from all arrests, 
unless for treason, felony, breach of the 
peace, condemnation in parliament, and 
contempt of the sovereign authority. They 
enjoy their seats in the house of peers by 
descent [see Parliament], and no act of 
parliament can pass without their concur¬ 
rence ; they constitute the supreme court 
of judicature, and even in criminal cases 
give their verdict upon their honour, with¬ 
out being put to their oath. An hereditary 
nobility is found in the infancy of most 
nations, ancient and modern. Its origin is 
to be attributed to various causes, for the 
most part to military tenures; in some 
cases, to the honours paid to superior 
ability, or to the guardians of the mysteries 
of religion. The priestly nobility of anti¬ 
quity has everywhere yielded to the supe¬ 
riority of military chieftains. In France 
and Germany, the origin of hereditary 
nobility dates from the downfall of the 
Carlovingian dynasty ; in England, from 
the conquest of the Normans, in the tenth 
and eleventh centuries; it afterwards 
spread over all Europe, for, since that time, 














































495 


mtcrarj) ®rea£ttri). 


dignities, as well as lands, have become 
hereditary. There is no nobility in the 
United States, Norway, or Switzerland. 

' NO'BLE, in Numismatics, a gold coin, 
value 6s. 8 d., struck in the reign of Edward 
III., and stamped with the impression of a 
ship, which emblem is supposed to have 
been commemorative of a naval victory ob¬ 
tained by Edward over the French at Sluys, 
in 1340. 

NOCTILU'CA (something that shines by 
night: Lat.), a name given by some of the 
older chemists to phosphorus.—It is also 
the name of a phosphorescent marine ani¬ 
mal of microscopic dimensions. 

NOC'TURN ( nocturnus, pertaining to 
! night: Lat.), one of the parts into which 
the matins in the Roman Catholic breviary 
are divided. The matins generally consist 
! of three nocturns, of which the first con¬ 
tains threfe lessons from Scripture, and 
I three psalms; the second, three lessons 
i constituting the life of the saint, with 
i three psalms; and the third, three lessons 
from some homily on the gospel of the day, 
with three psalms. [See Hours, Canonical.] 
On rare occasions there is but one nocturn, 

I which is considered a great advantage ; and 
seems generally meant as a privilege, since 
j it occurs, ordinarily, in a great festival only, 

: and the week following it is termed its 
j octave. 

j NODE (nodus, a knot or prominence: 

[ Lat.), in Surgery, a tumour on a bone which 
causes great pain, and is often attended by 

i j caries or necrosis. - Node, in Dialling, a 

[ point or hole in the gnomon of a dial, by 
the shadow or light of which are shown the 
hour of the day, the parallels of the sun’s 
declination, &c. 

NODES (same deriv.), in Astronomy, the 
two points iu which the orbit of a planet 
intersects the ecliptic. That by which the 
planet passes from the south to the north 
side of the ecliptic is termed the ascending 
node; the other the descending node. The 
\ straight line which joins these two points, 
and is formed by the intersection of the 
plane of the planet’s orbit and that of the 
ecliptic is called the line of the nodes. In 
all the planetary orbits, the line of the 
nodes has a retrograde motion from east to 
west; but it amounts to only a few seconds 
in a year. It is a necessary consequence of 
the mutual attraction of the heavenly 
0 bodies. 

NO'LI ME TAN'GERE (touch me not: 
Lot.), in Botany, the specific name of a bal¬ 
sam, a British plant belonging to the genus 
Impatiens. -In Art, a name given to pic¬ 

tures, which represent Christ appearing to 
Mary Magdalen after the resurrection. 

NOLLE PROS'EQUI (to be unwilling to 
prosecute: Lat.), a legal term signifying a 
proceeding in an action, by which the 
plaintiff undertakes not to proceed further, 
i If entered before judgment, the plaintiff 
may bring another action for the same 
cause against the same defendant. 

NOM'ADS, or NOM'ADES (nomades, from 
nomos, pasture : Gr.), a name given to na¬ 
tions whose chief occupation consists in 
feeding their flocks; and who have no fixed 
nk.ee of abode, but shift their residence 


[non 


according to the state of pasture. Nomadic 
tribes are seldom found to abandon their 
wandering life, until they are compelled to 
do so by being surrounded by those who 
reside in fixed habitations, or unless they 
can make themselves masters of the set¬ 
tlements of a civilized nation. 

NOM'BRIL (the navel: Fr.), in Heraldry, 
the centre of an escutcheon. 

NOM DE GUERRE (literally, a war name), 
a French term commonly used to denote an 
assumed or fictitious name. 

NOME (nomos, from nemo, I distribute: 
Gr.), the name for those provinces into 
which Egypt was divided from the earliest 
period. In the time of Strabo they were 36 
in number; 10 in the Thebaid; 16 in the 
Heptanomis, or intermediate district; and 
10 in the Delta. 

NOMENCLA'TOR (nomen, a name ; and 
the obsolete calo, I call out: Lat.), in Ro¬ 
man Antiquity, a slave who attended upon 
persons that stood candidates for offices, 
and prompted or suggested to them the 
names of all the citizens they met: in 
order that they might address them by 
name, which was esteemed an especial act 
of courtesy. 

NOMENCLA'TURE (nomenclatura, from 
same : Lat.), a systematic classification of 
words, which designate the divisions and 
dependencies of a science. 

NOM'INATIVE (nominations, from no¬ 
mine, I name : Lat.), in Grammar, the first 
case of nouns that are declinable. The no¬ 
minative case is the subject of a proposi¬ 
tion or affirmation ; thus, in the sentence 
* the house is repaired,’ house is the nomi¬ 
native case of the noun. 

NON (not: Lat.), a word used in the Eng¬ 
lish language as a prefix only, for giving a 
negative sense ; as in non-ability, non- resi¬ 
dence, non-payment, non-appearance, and 
the like.- Non assumpsit (he has not un¬ 

dertaken), in Law, a general plea in a per¬ 
sonal action, by which a man denies that 

he has made any promise.- Non compos 

mentis (of unsound mind: Lat.), a phrase 
used to denote that a person is not of sound 
memory and understanding. A distinction 
is made between an idiot and one non 
compos mentis, the former being constitu¬ 
tionally destitute of reason, the latter de¬ 
prived of that with which he was naturally 
endowed; but, in many cases, the law makes 

no distinction between the two.- Nondis- 

tringendo (not distraining), a writ granted 

to prevent distraining.- Non est inventus 

(he has not been found), the answer made 
by the sheriff in the return of tho writ, 
when the defendant is not to be found in 

his bailiwick.- Non liquet (it docs not 

appear), a verdict given by a jury, when a 
matter is to be deferred to another day of 

trial.- Non ohstante (notwithstanding), a 

clause in statutes and letters-patent, im¬ 
porting a licenso from the king to do a 
thing which at common law might be le¬ 
gally done, but, being restrained by act of 
parliament, cannot be done without such 
license. Nonpros, or Nolle prosequi (is un¬ 
willing to proceed further), a term made 
use of to signify that the plaintiff will 
proceed no further in his action, being 



























convinced that he cannot support his cause. 
In criminal cases, it can he entered only by 
the attorney-general. 

NON'AGE, the period of life preceding 
the time when a person, according to the 
laws of his country, becomes of age to 
manage his own concerns. 

NON'AGON C novem. , nine: Lat.; and gonia, 
an angle: Gr.), in Geometry, a figure hav¬ 
ing nine angles and therefore nine sides. 

NON-CONDUC'TOR, a substance or fluid 
which does not conduct or transmit an¬ 
other substance, or fluid, or motions, or 
which transmits them with difficulty. Thus, 
glass is a non-conductor of electricity; 
wool is a non-conductor of heat. [See 
Electricity, Heat.] 

NONCONFOR'MIST, one who refuses to 
conform to the rites and worship of the 
established church. The name was at first 
particularly applied to those clergymen 
who were ejected from their livings by the 
act of uniformity in 1662. [See Dissen¬ 
ters.] 

NONES (■ norm , from nonus, the ninth: 
Lat.— because the ninth day before the ides), 
in the Roman calendar, the fifth day of the 
months January, February, April, June, 
August, September, November, and Decem¬ 
ber ; and the seventh of March, May, July, 
and October; these last four months having 
six instead of four days before the nones, 
because they alone, in the ancient constitu¬ 
tion of the year by Numa, had thirty-one 
days each, the rest having only twenty- 
nine, and February thirty; but when Caisar 
reformed the year, and made other months 
contain tbirty-one days, he did not allot 
them six days of nones. The nones, like 
the calends and ides, were reckoned back¬ 
wards.- Nones, one of the canonical hours 

of the Roman Catholic breviary, anciently 
appointed to be said at the ninth hour of 
the twelve into which the Romans divided 
the day, corresponding, at the equinoxes, 
with our three o’clock. It may be recited, 
at present, at almost any part of the day. 

NON-JU'RORS, the adherents of James 
II., who refused to take the oath of allegi¬ 
ance to the government at the Revolution, 
when James abdicated and William and 
Mary were placed on the throne. 

NON-NAT'URALS. Under this term, an¬ 
cient physicians comprehended air, meat 
and drink, sleep and watching, motion and 
rest, the assimilated substances and excre¬ 
tions, and the affections of the mind; or, 
in other words, those matters which do not 
enter into the composition of the body, 
but at the same time are necessary to its 
existence. 

NON-RESIST'ANCE, in English Constitu¬ 
tional History, unqualified obedience to 
every command, especially of the sovereign, 
whether he orders wdiat is right or wrong. 

NON'SUIT, in Law, the renunciation of a 
suit by the plaintiff. It is either adjudged, 
on account of some neglect, delay, &c„, in 
the prosecution of the suit, or it is volun¬ 
tary. It is usual to call on the plaintiff, 
when he is unable to make out a case to 
support his pleadings for ivant of the ne¬ 
cessary evidence, and the jury are about to 
give a verdict, to choose a nonsuit. He 


does this by withdrawing, neither answer¬ 
ing by himself nor another, when, pre¬ 
viously to the delivery of the verdict, the 
crier calls the plaintiff. Except in certain 
cases, a nonsuit does not prevent the bring¬ 
ing of another action, for the same cause. 
When a plaintiff is nonsuited, he is obliged 
to pay the costs of his adversary. 

NOON (non: Sax.), mid-day, or twelve 
o’clock, called apparent as shown by a sun¬ 
dial, and real as shown by a clock. 

NOR'THERN LIGHTS, the Aurora Bo¬ 
realis, which see. 

NORTH POLE ( nord: Ger.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, a point in the northern hemisphere 
of the heavens, ninety degrees every way 

distant from the equinoctial.- North- 

pole Star, a star in the tail of Ursa minor, 
so called from its not being more than two 
degrees and a half distant from the pole. 

NORTH'-WEST PAS'SAGE. The‘North 
Polar Expeditions’ undertaken by the en¬ 
terprising mariners of England, after the 
year 1496, when Cabot penetrated into Hud¬ 
son’s bay, had continued to increase in in¬ 
terest with every fresh attempt, till, at 
length, parliament offered a premium of 
20,000 1. to the first navigator who should ac¬ 
complish the north-west passage, and 50001. 
to the first vessel which should reach the 
north pole and pass it. In 1819, the prince- 
regent offered prizes of from 50001. to 
15,0001. to those vessels which should ad¬ 
vance to certain points in the Arctic seas ; 
the British government having the year be¬ 
fore fitted out two expeditions to the north 
pole. Captain Buchan, commanding the 
Trent and the Dorothy, was instructed to at¬ 
tempt a passage between Spitzbergen and 
Nova Zembla, over the pole into the Pacific, 
and Captain Ross, commanding the Isabella 
and the Alexander, to attempt the north¬ 
western passage from Davis’s straits and 
Baffin’s bay into the Frozen ocean, and 
thence into the Pacific. Captain Buchan, 
however, reached only 80° 32' north of Spitz¬ 
bergen, where he remained three weeks 
frozen in : while the chief geographical re¬ 
sult of Captain Ross’s expedition was the 
more accurate determination of the situa¬ 
tion of Baffin’s bay ; for, although he sailed 
up Lancaster sound, he did not continue 
his progress far enough to discover that it 
was open. The British government, there¬ 
fore, in 1819, sent out Lieutenant Parry, who 
had accompanied Captain Ross, on a second 
voyage into Baffin’s bay. He penetrated 
with his vessels, the Hecla and Griper, 
through Lancaster sound into Barrow’s 
strait, in which he examined Prince Re¬ 
gent’s inlet, running in a southern direc¬ 
tion, and the polar sea ; and wintered in the 
harbour of an uninhabited island, which he 
called Melville island (74° 45' lat.). As he 
had passed (Sept. 10) 110° W.long. of Green, 
wich, he was entitled to the first prize offei 
ed by parliament. With eleven companions 
he explored Melville island, and reached 
(June 6) the northern coast (75° 34' 47" lat. 
and 110° 36' 52" long.). Having gone as far 
as 113046' 43'' long, and74° 27' 50" lat., he re¬ 
turned, in consequence of the immense fields 
of ice, through Davis’s straits to Britain. 
While Parry and Ross were seeking for a 


























497 Ettctttry 


north-west passage into the polar sea. Cap¬ 
tain Franklin was sent by the British go¬ 
vernment to penetrate to the northern 
coast of America by land, along Hudson’s 
bay and Coppermine river. In May, 1824, go¬ 
vernment fitted out a third polar expedition 
for the discovery of a north-west passage 
through Prince Regent’s inlet, under Parry 
and Lyon. Storms and icebergs drove the 
ships ashore, and it became necessary to 
abandononeof them,the J'nry. In 1825,Capt. 
Franklin undertooka new journey overland, 
with the intention of sailing westerly from 
Mackenzie’s river along the coast to Behring 
strait. At the same time Captain Beechey 
sailed in the Blossom by the way of Cape 
Horn, to discover an easterly passage round 
the Icy cape, or in Kotzebue sound. In six 
months Franklin reached the Northern 
ocean, near Garry’s island (6CP 30' lat.), and 
returned upon the Mackenzie to his winter 
quarters at Fort Franklin, on Great Bear 
lake. Both parties left their winter quar¬ 
ters June 21, 1826, and shortly after separa¬ 
ted in 67° 38' lat. and 133° 52' W. long., 
Franklin descending the western arm of tlie 
Mackenzie, which runs along the foot of the 
Rocky mountains.—The admiralty now sent 
Captain Parry, in the Eecla, to reach the 
north pole. He took reindeer and ice-boats 
on board at Hammerfest, in Lapland; 
reached Spitzbergen May 27, 1827 ; left the 
Eecla there in the ice ; sailed June 21, with 
two boats, through an open sea; left the 
boats on the 24tli, and began (81° 12' 51") his 
journey over the ice to the north pole. But 
I he reached only the latitude of 82° 45' 15"; 
and the ice being everywhere broken, he 
was obliged to return.—In the spring of 
1829, Captain Ross, chiefly through the libe¬ 
ral assistance of Felix Booth, Esq., sheriff 
of London, undertook a private expedition 
I into the Polar seas, with a view to deter¬ 
mine the practicability of a new passage by 
Prince Regent’s inlet, which had been con¬ 
fidently said to exist. This voyage was 
perilous in the extreme; and no authentic 
intelligence was received of the expedition, 
from the 27th of July, 1829, the day it sailed 
from Wideford, in Greenland, where it had 
put in to refit, till August, 1833, when the 
commander and crew were discovered on 
the south shore of Lancaster sound, by 
Captain Humphreys, of the Isabella, of Hull, 
the very ship which Captain Ross had for¬ 
merly commanded. Our space compels us 
to pass over the subsequent attempts to 
effect the discovery of the north-west pas¬ 
sage, till 1845, when Sir John Franklin with 
a gallant crew volunteered on this perilous 
undertaking. On the return of the Arctic 
J ' Discovery Squadron, under Captain Sir J. 
C. Ross, from its unsuccessful operations 
to discover Sir John Franklin, "whose fate 
remained a mystery, in 1848 and 1849, it was 
at once determined by government to re- 
/ equip the Enterprise and Investigator, in 
it order that they might resume the search 
by the way of Behring strait. Accordingly 
these two ships sailed from Plymouth on 
January 20tli, 1850. They unfortunately did 
not succeed in finding Captain Franklin, 
but they saw, across the entrance of Prince 
of Wales’s strait, the frozen waters of Mel¬ 


Ercn£ttnn [notation 


ville sound, and thus obtained the object of 
so many expeditions. After spending a 
fourth winter in these desolate regions. 
Captain McClure returned to England, and 
received 10,0001., the reward which had been 
promised for the successful discovery of the 
north-west passage, together with the hon¬ 
our of knighthood. A record was subse¬ 
quently found by Captain McClintock on 
the north-west coast of King William is¬ 
land, stating that on the 22nd of April, 1848, 
the Erebus and Terror had been abandoned 
in the ice, and that the survivors, 105 in 
number, were proceeding to the Great Fish 
river, under the command of Captain Cro- 
zier, Sir John Franklin having died on the 
11th of June, 1847. 

NOSOL'OGY (nosos, a disease ; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), an arrangement of dis¬ 
eases, with names and definitions, accord¬ 
ing to the distinctive character of each 
class, order, genus, and species. 

NOSTAL'GY ( nostalgeo, I pine for my 
home : Gr.), home sickness, le mal du pays ; \ 
a vehement desire to return to one’s native 
country, attended with melancholy, want of 
appetite, and other symptoms indicative of 
a restless and unhappy state of mind. 

NOS'TOC, cryptogamic plants, of which 
the commonest species is often called star- 
jelly. It is a trembling, gelatinous, sub¬ 
stance, found on pastures, gravel walks, &c., 
in rainy weather ; but it soon dries and shri¬ 
vels up almost to nothing. Paracelsus, who, 
it is said, gave it the name, attributed won¬ 
derful properties to it. Being supposed to 
fall from the sky with meteors, it obtained, 
in Sweden, the name of ‘sky-fall;’ and in 
England, as well as some of the liverworts, 
that of ‘ witches’ butter.’ Some species 
form an article of food in China, and one 
was similarly employed in a late Arctic ex¬ 
pedition. 

NOTATION ( notatio: Lat.), the recording 
of anything by marks, figures, or letters. 
Mathematical notation relates to number 
and quantity, or to operation. The system 
of numerical notation, now universally 
adopted by civilized nations, owes its admi¬ 
rable simplicity to the giving both an abso - 
lute and a local value to the characters. 
Thus, the absolute value of 5 is five : this is 
never changed. Its local value depends on 
its position with regard to the decimal 
point: thus 50’ means five tens; 500’ five 
hundreds, &c.: "05 five hundredths ; "005 flve 
thousandths, &c. These principles, with 
the power of combining the few characters 
employed, enable us to express the most 
enormous numbers with the greatest ease, 
and impart the utmost simplicity to the 
very language we use regarding them. This 
system, usually termed the Arabic, is far 
more perfect and convenient than that of 
any nation of antiquity, however enlight¬ 
ened. The symbols of quantity are arbi¬ 
trary, but the letters of the alphabet are 
almost exclusively employed: the first, j 
as a, b, c, &c., to indicate known quantities; 
and the last, x, y, and z, to indicate un¬ 
known. In selecting a letter, we some¬ 
times choose it so as in some measure to 
assist our memory : thus we usually indi¬ 
cate momentum by M, velocity by Y, &c.; 

JL K 




























498 


Elje Jrctcntiffc autf 


note] 

and different momenta with different M’s: 
thus, one momentum by M, another by M', 
or m, &c. Symbols of operation contribute 
much to simplicity and the saving of time : 
thus it is easier to write a-\-b-c, than a 
added to b is equal to c. In performing an 
operation, or verifying it, we proceed far 
more easily with symbols than we could 
possibly do if the various processes were 
described by words. There are many sym¬ 
bols used to indicate processes; but the fol¬ 
lowing are the most common. + for addi¬ 
tion ; as a + b, a plus b, or a to be added to 
b. —for subtraction; as c — d, c minus d, 
or d to be subtracted from c. x for multi¬ 
plication ; as x x y, x multiplied by y 
when the multiplication is supposed to be 
actually performed, the sign is omitted: 
thus, x y means the product of x and y. 
— for division, asm — n, m divided by n :— 
w hen the division is supposed to be actually 
performed, the quantities may be put down 

thus, —. = for equality; asp — q,p is equal 
n 

to q. Two dots indicate the ratio between 
two quantities; as a: b, a is to b. Eight 
dots indicate proportion ; as a : b : : c : d, 
a is to b as c is to d. V is the radical sign, 
as */«> the square root of a, written also 
a a ; fyb, the fourth root of b, written also b*, 
&c. 

NOTE ( nota , a mark: Lat.), in Music, a 
character which marks the pitch and the 
time of a sound. In general, under notes are 
comprehended all the signs or characters 
used in music, though in propriety the 
word only implies the marks which denote 
the degrees of gravity and acuteness to bo 
given to each sound. [See Music.] 

NO'TICE ( notitia , a knowledge : Lat.), in 
Law, a communication given, or received, 
which conveys the presumed or real know¬ 
ledge required to affect the receiver with 
legal liabilities. 

NOUN (nomen, a name: Lat.), in Gram¬ 
mar, a word that denotes any object of 
which we speak, whether it be animate, 
inanimate, or ideal; as man, gate, mind. 
Nouns form the basis of all language: thus 
we call a certain instrument a saw; the act 
of using it is sawing; and the verb is to 
sate. 

NOVAC'ULITE (novacula, a razor: Lat.), 
in Mineralogy, the Ilone, or Turkey oil-stone, 
a variety of argillaceous slate. It owes its 
power of whetting or sharpening steel in¬ 
struments to the line siliceous particles it 
contains. Various other stones are used 
as whetstones, such as mica slate, freestone, 
&c,. 

NOV'EL ( novella: Ital.; from novus, new: 
Lat.), in Literature, a fictitious tale, or 
imaginary history of real life, generally 
intended to exhibit the operation of the 
passions, foremost among which is love. 
The novel and romance, though sometimes 
confounded, appear to be different. The 
former depicts life as it is in ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances, and brings together incidents, 
any one of which has happened or may very 
fairly be supposed to have happened. Ro¬ 
mances generally relate to periods long 
passed by; their incidents are often im¬ 


probable, and sometimes impossible. The 
supposed adventures of chivalry form their 
favourite theme; and their scenes are most 
frequently laid in ancient castles and monas- 1 
teries; they do not even reject the aid of 
imaginary beings, and of enchantment. 
Some of Sir Walter Scott’s works hold in 
many respects an intermediate position : 
his delineation of real, though past man¬ 
ners, renders them novels; but the distant 
times of which lie writes, and the wonder¬ 
ful, though perhaps always absolutely pos- ; 
sihle, incidents he so frequently introduces, 

bring them into the class of romances.-■ 

Novel (novus, new : Lat.), in Civil Law, a 
term used for the constitutions of several 
emperors. Those of Justinian are best 
known, and are generally understood by 
the term. They were so called, either from 
their producing a great alteration in the 
face of the ancient law, or because they 
were made on new cases, and, after the 
revisal of the ancient code, compiled by j 
order of that emperor. 

NOVEM'BER (Lat,, from novem, nine), 
the eleventh month of the Julian year, 
consisting of thirty days. It is the first 
winter month in the northern hemisphere, 
and the first summer month in the southern. 

Its name arose from its being the ninth 
month of the ancient Roman calendar. 

NOV'ICE (novitius, fresh : Lat.), a person 
not yet skilled or experienced in an art or 
profession ; among the Romans, it signi¬ 
fied a recruit. The term is applied in mo- | 
nasteries to a religious person, in his or 
her novitiate, or year of probation, and j 
who has not yet made the vows. 

NOVI'TIATE, the period appointed for 
the trial of novices, or those who enter a : 
monastery, in order to ascertain whether 
they have the qualifications necessary for 
living up to the rule to which they are to 
bind themselves by vow. The novitiate is 
generally very severe, the novice generally 
having to perform many menial offices 
about the convent, and to give an account ; ! 
of his most trifling actions to the master 
of the novices. 

NU'OLEUS (a kernel: Lat.), anything , 
round which matter has accumulated, or 
to which it is attached.——In Astronomy, 
the term nucleus is used for the body of a 

comet, otherwise called its head.-In 

ancient Architecture, nucleus signified the 
middle layer of a flooring, which consisted [ 
of a strong cement, over which they laid 
the pavement. 

NUDE COM'PACT (nudum pactum, from 
nudus, naked: Lat.), in Law, a contract 
made without any consideration, and there¬ 
fore not valid; the term is borrowed from 

the civil law.- Nude Matter, a bare 

allegation of something done. 

NU'DITIES ( nuditas, nakedness: Lat.), in 
Painting and Sculpture, those parts of the 
humau figure which are not covered with 
drapery. The appearance of the covering 
being determined by the form of the body, 
it is essential to the painter, as well as the 
sculptor, to study the naked figure with 
the greatest attention. 

NUG'GET (niggot, an old English word, 
perhaps a corruption of ingot), the miner’s 

































499 _ Mmurj) ©'vcasuri). [numismatics 


term for natural lumps of nearly pure gold. 
They are usually found In superficial ac¬ 
cumulations of gravel, having been there 
deposited on the destruction of the parent 
rock. The largest nugget hitherto found 
weighed 1841b. 9oz. 6dwts., and received 
the name of the ‘Welcome Nugget.’ It 
was discovered in 1858, at a depth of 180 
feet in drift matter at Ballarat, Victoria, 

| and was sold for 10,5001. It was melted 
in London. Another, found at the same 
; place, was named the ‘ Blanche Barkly,’ 
and sold for 69051. Several others have 
been found ranging in value from 30001. 
to 60001. 

NU'ISANCE ( nuire , to injure: Fr.), in 
Law, annoyances which are of two kinds, 
public and private. A public nuisance af¬ 
fects the king’s subjects in general. A pri¬ 
vate nuisance is defined to be ‘anything 
done to the hurt or annoyance of the lands, 
tenements, or hereditaments of another.’ 
The remedy for public nuisances is by in¬ 
dictment or presentment; for private, by 
action of trespass on the case for damages ; 
and the party annoyed may abate the nui- 
i sauce by his own act, entering his neigh¬ 
bour’s land, &c., if necessary for the purpose, 

S but committing no riot. 

NUM'BER (numcrus: Lat.), in Arithme- 
1 tic, an assemblage of several units or of 
several things of the same kind. Cardinal 
numbers express the amount, as 1,2, 3, 4. 
Ordinal numbers denote the order, as 1st, 
2nd, 3rd, &c. Even numbers are those which 
I may be divided into two equal parts without 
( a fraction being produced, as 6,12, &c. Un¬ 
even numbers are such as leave a remainder 
: after being divided by 2, as 5, 13, &c. A 
: rational number is one commensurable with 
unity. A number incommensurable with 
unity is termed irrational, or a surd. A 
square number is the product of any number 
multiplied by itself, as 4, which is the pro- 
j duct of 2 multiplied by 2. A cubic number 
is the product of a square number by its 
: root: such is 27, as being the product of 
the square number 9 by its root 3. A perfect 
number is that whose aliquot parts added 
together make the whole number, as 6, 28, 
&c.: the aliquot parts of 6 being 3, 2, and 
1=6; and those of 28 being 14, 7, 4, 2,1=28, 
&c. An imperfect number is that whose ali¬ 
quot parts added together make either more 
, or less than the whole of it. Homogeneal 
'■ numbers are those referred to the same 
units, those referred to differentunits being 
; termed heterogeneal. Almost all civilized 
nations have chosen 10 as the common ra¬ 
tio of their numerical systems—that is, have 
made their systems of numbers decimal. 
This was not a matter of necessity; the 
only thing required was the selection for 
the common ratio of a number neither too 
small nor too large. Too small a ratio would 
1 require many places of digits to express 
even a moderate number, and too large a 
1 ratio would be laborious to the mind. It is 
unfortunate that our systems of money, 
I weights, and measures not only do not 
follow the decimal system, but no one of 
them has even a common ratio. 

NUM'BERS, the title of the fourth book 
of the Pentateuch, so called because it con¬ 


tains an account of the numbering of the 
people. It comprehends a period of the 
Israelitish history of about thirty-eight 

years- Numbers, in Poetry, Oratory, 

Music, &c„ are certain measures, or ca- ! 
deuces, which render a verse, period, or 
song, agreeable to the ear. roetical numbers 
consist in a certain harmony in the order 
and quantity of syllables constituting feet. 
Rhetorical members are a sort of simple 
harmony, less apparent than that of verse, 
but such as is perceived and affects the 
mind with pleasure. 

NU'MERAL LETTERS, the Roman capi¬ 
tal letters which stand as substitutes for 
numerical characters: as I for 1, X for 10, 

L for 50, C for 100, &c. 

NUMERATION (numeratio: Lat.), the 
art of reading any number expressed by 
characters ; it is often confounded with 
notation, which is the art of expressing 
any number by characters. 

NU'MERATOR (Lat., from numero, I 
reckon), in Arithmetic, the quantity in 
the upper line of a fraction, denoting how 
many of the equal parts into which one or 
more integers are supposed to be divided, 
are taken. Thus, the 3 in f shows that the 
integer having been divided into four equal 
parts, three of them are taken. 

NUMISMAT'ICS (numisma, a coin : Lat.), \ 
or NUMISMATOL'OGY (nomisma, a piece 
of money; and logos, a description: Or.), 
the science which has fot its object the 
study of coins and medals of all nations, as 
an aid to history and a means of rectifying 
dates in chronology. The earliest coins are 
Phoenician, and were struck from dies un¬ 
reversed, so that the inscription was re¬ 
versed ; but those struck by the ancient 
Greeks and Romans ai - e most deserving our 
attention. The parts of a coin or medal 
are the obverse, or face, generally containing 
the bust, &c., of the sovereign in whose 
honour it was struck, or some emble¬ 
matic design; and the reverse, containing 
various figures, &c. The words rouud the 
border constitute the legend, and those in 
the middle the inscription; when they oc¬ 
cupy the lower extremity of the piece, and 
are separated from the rest by a horizontal 
line, they are termed the exergue. Coins 
struck in this country before the reign of 
Charles II. had their devices impressed by 
blows of the hammer. The lettering and 
milling on the edges of coins was invented 
to meet the fradulent practice of clipping 
and filing. The study of coins and medals 
is indispensable to archaeology, and to a 
thorough acquaintance with the fine arts. 
They indicate the names of provinces and 
cities, and point out their position; and 
they afford representations of many cele¬ 
brated places. They fix the period of even ts, 
and sometimes determine their character; 
and they enable us to trace the series of 
kings. They also givens the attributes and 
titles of different divinities, the utensils 
and ceremonies of their worship, and the 
costume of the priests. In fine, they afford 
information regarding many things con¬ 
nected with usages, civil, military, and 
religious ; while they enable us to trace the 
epochs of different styles of art, and are 






























nummulite] 


Tjc <g>ctcnttTfr antr 


500 


of great assistance in our philological re¬ 
searches. [See Medals.] 

NUM'MULITE ( nummus, money : Lat.; 
and lithos, a stoDe : Gr.), the fossil remains 
of a small chambered shell, round and flat, 
like a coin. It was inhabited by an animal 
of very low organization, belonging to the 
group of Foraminifera [which see]. There 
is a calcareous formation of the eocene 
epoch, occurring in every quarter of the 
globe, and having occasionally a width of 
1800 miles, with a thickness of some thou¬ 
sands of feet,which abounds to a surprising 
extent with several species of nummulites. 
This formation is found in the Alps, Py¬ 
renees, Carpathians, and Himalayas. In 
the last-mentioned mountains nummulites 
have been seen at a height of 16,500 feet. 
The great pyramids of Egypt were built of 
nummulitic limestone. 

NUN'CIO (Ital.; from nuntio, I inform: 
Lat.), an envoy sent by the pope on foreign 
missions which concern ecclesiastical af¬ 
fairs. 

NUNCUPATIVE WILL ( nuncupo , I 
name : Lat.), in Law, a will or testamentary 
desire expressed verbally, but not put into 
writing. It depends merely on oral testi¬ 
mony for proof, though afterwards reduced 
to writing. Nuncupative wills are not now 
valid, unless they regard the personal es¬ 
tate of soldiers and seamen, or were exe¬ 
cuted before January 1st, 1838. Nuncupa¬ 
tive, in a general sense, signifies that exists 
only verbally. 

NUN'I) I NEE (nonius, the ninth ; and dies, 
a day : Lat.), in Antiquity, days set apart by 
the Romans for the country people to ex¬ 
pose their wares and commodities for sale, 
very similar to our market or fair days. 
They were called nundince, because they 
were kept every ninth day. 

NUN'NERY ( nonne, a nun : Ger.), in the 
Roman Catholic Church, a religious house 
for nuns, orfemales who have bound them¬ 
selves by vow to a single life. 

NUR'SERY ( nourrice, a nurse: Fr.; from 
nutrix: Lat.), in Gardening, a piece of land 
set apart for raising and propagating all 
sorts of trees and plants, to supply the 
garden or plantations. 

NUT, in Botany, a one-celled fruit in 
which the pericarp becomes hard, and 
bracts surround the base. The immature 
ovary contains several ovules, but there is 
only one when the fruit is mature. The 
fruit of the hazel is a nut. The bracts are 
united into a cup in the acorn. The term 
glans is frequently applied to the nuts 
borne by the oak, beech, and chestnut trees. 

NUTA'TION (: nutatio, a nodding: Lat.), 
in Astronomy, the gyratory movement of 
the earth’s axis, which, but for the pre¬ 
cession of the equinoxes, would cause the 
pole of the equator to describe a small el¬ 
lipse among the stars in about 19 years. 
The action of the sun and moon on thepro- 
1 tuberant mass about the earth’s equator 
tends to draw the plane of the latter to¬ 
wards that of the ecliptic—that is, to dimi¬ 
nish the angle between them. The earth’s 
rapid rotation on its axis prevents the in¬ 
clination of the two planes from being per¬ 
manently altered, but communicates a mo¬ 


tion to the plane of the equator of such a 
nature that its pole describes a circle about 
the pole of the ecliptic, though with a velo¬ 
city amounting to only 50T" annually. It 
would therefore take 25,868 years to de¬ 
scribe the whole circle. A similar action I 
of the moon causes the pole of the earth’s 
equator to revolve in nearly 19 years, in a 
small circle, about the pole of the moon’s 
orbit,which does not coincide with the pole 
of the ecliptic, being always 5° 9' from it. 
The earth’s pole, therefore, has a double mo¬ 
tion—a slow one round the pole of the 
ecliptic, and a more rapid one round the 
pole of the moon’s orbit,which itself moves 
round the pole of the ecliptic on account 
of the motion of its own line of nodes, in 
about 19 years. The path, therefore, de¬ 
scribed by the pole of the equator round 
the pole of the ecliptic is not simply an 
elliptic curve, but a gently undulated ring ; 
and these undulations constitute each of 
them a nutation of the earth’s axis. As the 
sun, at different positions of the earth in 
her orbit, on account of her different dis¬ 
tances from it, has a different effect in 
altering the obliquity of the ecliptic, there 
is a semi-annual variation, depending on 
the sun alone, which is called the solar nu¬ 
tation; the combined action of the sun and 
moon is termed the luni-solar nutation. 

NUT'GALLS, excrescences on the leaf of 
the oak. The Aleppo galls are imported for 
the use of dyers, calico-printers, &c. [See 
Cyxips.] 

NUT'HATCH, the Sitta Europcea of orni¬ 
thologists, a climbing bird, inhabiting 
woods in England and on the continent of 
Europe. It runs along the trunk of a tree 
upwards and downwards with the same ease, 
and so smoothly that its motion is said 
more to resemble that of a mouse than that 
of a bird. Its popular name is derived 
from its habit of opening nuts to get at the 
kernel, by means of repeated blows of its 
bill, the nuts being first placed in a crevice 
in a tree. 

NUT'MEG, the nut of the Myristica mos- 
chata, a tree growing in the Indian archi¬ 
pelago. The fruit is of the kind called a 
drupe, that is, a pulpy pericarp without 
valves, containing a nut, which is enve¬ 
loped by a substance called mace. The 
nutmeg tree yields three crops annually. 
Several other species of the genus yield 
aromatic fruit of an inferior kind. 

NUTRI'TION ( nutrio, I nourish: Lat.), 
in the animal economy, is the assimilation 
of nutritive matter to our organs, or the 
repairing of the continual loss which the 
different parts of the body undergo. The 
motion of the parts of the body, the 
friction of those parts with each other, 
and especially the action of the air, would 
soon entirely destroy the body if the loss 
were not repaired by a proper diet, which 
being digested in the stomach, and after¬ 
wards converted into chyle, mix with the 
blood, and are distributed through the 
whole body for its nutrition. When the 
nutritive matter has been animalized, or - 
assimilated to thebody which it is designed 
to nourish, by the organs of digestion, ab¬ 
sorption, circulation, respiration, and secre- 





























501 


Httcrary Crca^ury. 


tion, the parts which it supplies retain and 
incorporate it with their own substance. 
This nutritive identification is variously 
effected in the brain, muscles, bones, &c.; 
each of these appropriates to itself, by a true 
secretion, that which is found analogous to 
its nature, and rejects the heterogeneous 
particles. Thus, a bone is a secretory organ 
that attracts to itself phosphate of lime. 
It is the same in muscles with respect to 
fibrin, and in the brain with albumen; 
each part imbibes, and forms into a portion 
of its own structure, such juices as are of 
the same nature, in consequence of a power, 
of which the affinity of aggregation of the 
chemists gives us an idea, or perhaps fur¬ 
nishes us with a model. Every living body, 
without exception, seems to possess a fa¬ 
culty of decomposing the substances by 
means of which it is supported, and of 
giving rise to new products. The ani¬ 
mal machine is therefore continually de¬ 
stroyed, and at one period; of life does 
not, perhaps, contain any of those par¬ 
ticles of which it was constituted at 
another. 

NUX VOM'ICA (emetic nut: Lat.), the 
! seeds of an East Indian tree, the Strychnos 
mix vomica, nat. ord. Loganiacece. They 
yield Strychnine, which see. 

NYCTALO'PIA (nuktalopia: Gr.), a ma¬ 
lady of the eyes, commonly called night- 
blindness, under which the patient, though 
able to see by day, is unable to distinguish 
objects by artificial light, or in the twilight. 


[OAE 


It is supposed to proceed from a partial 
paralysis of the retina. 

NYL'GHAU (nyl gau, a blue bull: Hind.), 
the Portax tragocamelus of zoologists, an 
Indian animal belonging to the antelope 
section of the bovine family. Its body, 
horns, and tail are not unlike those of a 
bull; and the head, neck, and legs are very 
similar to those of a deer. Its colour, in 
general, is ash or grey. Its horns are about 
seven inches long, and of a triangular shape. 
The female is much smaller than the male, 
more resembles the deer, and has no horns. 
It is the largest and finest of the antelope 
species. Its temper is vicious, and being 
both powerful and resolute it is not often 
made an object of chase. 

NYMPH'A, or NYMPH ( numplia , a 
nymph : Gr.), in Entomology, the second 
state of an insect passing to its perfect form 
—another name for the pupa, chrysalis, or 
aurelia 

NYMPELE'A (Gr.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Nympliceaccce, including 
our white water lily. The Victoria regia 
belongs to the same order. 

NYMPHS ( numphai: Gr.), in Heathen 
Mythology, local goddesses; they were 
termed Nereids when belonging to the sea, 
Naiads when attached to fountains, Dryads 
when found in the woods, &c. 

NYSTAG'MUS ( nustagmos, from nustazo, 
I am sleepy : Gr.), in Medicine, a twinkling 
of the eyes, such as happens when a person 
is very sleepy. 


O 


0, the fourth vowel and the fifteenth 
letter in the alphabet, is pronounced by 
projecting the lips, and forming an opening 
resembling the letter itself. The English 
language represents no fewer than four 
sounds by the character o, exemplified in 
the words, no, prove, for, not. The French 
indicate the sound o (pronounced as in no) 
by various signs. The use of o is next in 
frequency to that of a. It is used particu¬ 
larly to express admiration, warning, pity, 
imploring; and, in general, as introductory 
to language expressive of great emotion, as 
01 or oh! With an apostrophe after it, O 
is a prefix in some Irish proper names, and 
seems to have had originally the force of 
the French de, the prefix Mac correspond¬ 
ing to Fitz in England. It stands for Old, 
as 0. S. (Old Style), &c.,but is not often used 
as an abbreviation. 

OAK, a tree ranking among the most 
useful of temperate climates. More than 
eighty species are known; but the common 
European oak ( Quercus robur) is a tree of 
the first consequence, on account of the 
qualities of its wood. It usually attains the 
height of from 60 to 100 feet, with a trunk 
from 6 to 12 feet, or more, in circumference ; 
but it sometimes reaches to an enormous 


size. In 1810 an oak tree, which grew about 
four miles from Newport in Monmouth¬ 
shire, and was felled for the use of the roya 
navy, contained 2416 cubic feet of sound 
and convertible timber. The main trunk 
was nine feet and a half in diameter. It 
was purchased, standing, for 405(.,and, wlieD 
brought to market, realised nearly 600L But 
the most magnificent oak ever produced in 
England was probably that dug out of Hat¬ 
field bog ; it was about 120 feet in length, 
twelve in diameter at the base, ten in the 
middle, and six at the smaller end where 
broken off; the butt for sixty feet squared 
seven feet of timber, and four its entire 
length. From the solidity and durability 
of its wood, the oak is employed for a vast 
variety of purposes, and above all for ship¬ 
building. For supporting a-weight, resist¬ 
ing a strain, and not splintering with a 
cannot-shot, it is superior to every other 
timber. Before the introduction of maho¬ 
gany, it was very generally used for furni¬ 
ture. The oak timber imported from the 
continent and from America is very inferior 
to what is grown in this country. There 
are two varieties of British oak which are 
frequently considered distinct species, one 
having stalked fruit, the other unstalked 






















t£f)c Scientific autf 


502 


oak-galls] 


fruit, and lienee named Quercus pedunculala 
and Querous sessilijlora. Tliere was a com¬ 
mon opinion that the latter affords a less 
valuable timber than the former, but this 
is now believed to be a mistaken notion, 
arising from omitting to notice the locality 
where the sessile flowered oak grew, for the 
timber of this tree is much affected by the 
soil in which it grows. The growth of the 
common oak, in general, is extremely slow, 
but it should be cut when it is between 50 
and 70 years old. The flowers are mome- 
cious, that is the stamens are in one flower, 
forming a sort of catkin, and the pistil in 
another. The acorn is the fruit of this tree, 
and, though now used only as the food of 
swine, in ancient times it formed an im¬ 
portant article of nutriment to some of the 
northern nations, and, among others, to the 
rude inhabitants of the British isles. The 
oak is raised from the acorn, sown either 
where the tree is to stand, or in a nursery 
whence the young trees are transplanted. 
- Oak-bark is used in tanning. In medi¬ 
cine, it is a strong astringent, and is there¬ 
fore applied in haemorrhages. Both the 
bark and the leaves are employed in hot¬ 
beds; and the leaves are now reckoned better 
for this purpose than the bark. 

OAK'-GALLS, protuberances on the 
leaves of the oak, formed and inhabited by 
insects. They appear in April, and remain 
till June or longer. When opened, they 
are found to contain one insect only. It 
might appear that the parent fly, when she 
j forms a gall for the habitation of her off¬ 
spring, places it in an impregnable fortress. 
This is not the case ; for it frequently hap¬ 
pens that a fly which produces a worm of 
the carnivorous kind, pierces the gall and 
deposits her egg within it. This worm, 
■when hatched, feeds upon the proper inha¬ 
bitant; and Anally, after devouring it, 
passes itself into the chrysalis state, and 
then, in the form of its parent fly, makes 
, its way out of the gall. 

OAK'UM ( cecumbe , combings, refuse: 

! Sax.), old ropes untwisted, and pulled out 
into loose hemp; used in caulking: the 
seams, tree-nails, and bends of a ship, to 
stop or prevent leaks. That formed from 
untarred ropes is called white oakum. 

OAR, a long piece of timber, flat at one 
end and round at the other, used to propel 
a boat or barge on the water. The flat part 
is called the blade; and the round end the 
loom, which terminates in the handle. The 
fulcrum is the hole in the gunwale called 
the rowlock, or the space between the pins 
called thole-pins. To boot the oars is to lay 
them in after rowing. To feather the oar is 
to hold the blade horizontally, so as not to 
catch wind. To lie on the oars is to suspend 
rowing for a short time; this is done also 
! as a salute to persons of distinction when 
passing. To ship the oars is to fix them in 
the rowlocks ; and to unship the oars is to 
throw them out of the rowlocks. 

O'ASIS ( ouah: Copt.; wait: Arab.), a fer¬ 
tile spot, situated in the midst of the unin¬ 
habitable deserts of northern Africa; the 
name is also applied to a cluster of verdant 
spots. In the desert of Sahara there are 
several oases, which serve as lialting-plaees 


for the caravans. They are described as 
spots of exceeding beauty, but something ' 
is due to the striking contrast with the de- j 
serts around them : their fertility arises 
from springs of water. The Romans used 
them occasionally as places of banishment, 
on account of their being, though agree¬ 
able, as it were out of the world, and its 
being very difficult to escape from them. [ 
Some noble remains are found in the larger 
oases : thus the temple of Jupiter Ammon, 
at Siwah. 

OAT, the Arena sativa, a plant of the nat. 
ord. Graminacece. When the seed or grain 
only is meant, the word is commonly used 
in the plural, oats. Oatmeal forms a consi¬ 
derable article of food for man in some 
countries ; and oats are everywhere excel¬ 
lent food for horses and cattle. The oat 
is the hardiest of all the cereal grasses, 
growing luxuriantly in cold northern cli¬ 
mates, and in mountainous districts, where 
neither wheat nor barley can be advanta¬ 
geously cultivated. In Scotland, it has long 
formed a principal part of the food of the 
people; and great quantities are sowm in 
Ireland. Bruce has described a wild species 
which he met with at Aroossi, a small ter¬ 
ritory on the Nile. ‘ Wild oats,’ says this 
traveller, ‘ grow up here, spontaneously, to 
a prodigious height and size, capable o'ften 
of concealing both the horse and his rider, 
and some of the stalks being little less than 
an inch in circumference. They have, when 
ripe, the appearance of small canes.’ Several 
kinds of oats are cultivated: the potato oat 
has long enjoyed the highest reputation in 
this country. The produce of oats varies 
greatly : not more than 20 bushels an acre 
are obtained from inferior ground; while 60, 

70, and even 80 , have been produced from 
good ground. 

OATH lath: Sax.), a solemn affirmation 
made in the presence of a magistrate or 
other person rendered competent by the 
law to administer it, in which the person 
sworn calls upon the Almighty to witness 
that his testimony is true: invoking his 
vengeance, and renouncing hi 3 favour, if 
what is said be false, or what is promised 
be not performed. A witness swearing 
falsely is subject to the penalties of perjury. 

By statute, all w 7 ho hold offices of any kind 
under the government, members of the ’ 
house of commons, ecclesiastical persons, 
members of colleges, schoolmasters, ser- 
jeants-at-law, barristers, &c., are required 
to take the oaths of allegiance, &c. The 
Quakers and Moravians—influenced by the 
sense which they attach to that text of 
Scripture in St. Matthew (v. 341 which says 

i^wear not at all,* and St. James’s words 
(v. 121—refuse to swear upon any occasion 
even at the requisition of a magistrate,and’ 
in a court of justice, and they have been 
relieved from being compelled to do so by 
the legislature. Persons who cannot take 
an oath are declared by the existing law 
to be incapable of being witnesses; such 
are those who will not declare tbeir belief 
in God, and in a future state of rewards and 
punishments, or who do not believe that 
perjury will be punished by the Deity ; also 
those who are incapable of comprehending 

























503_ Htteraru 

the nature of an oath. Declarations have 
been substituted for oaths, in a great num¬ 
ber of cases; especially those relating to 
the customs, excise, and post-office. Oaths 
to perform illegal acts do not bind ; nor do 
they excuse the performance of such acts. 
The Jews are sworn with their liats on. 

OBADI'AH, or Prophecy of Obadiah, 
a canonical book of the Old Testament, 
which is contained in one single chapter, 
and is partly an invectiveagainst the cruelty 
of the Edomites, and partly a prediction of 
the deliverance of Israel, and of the victory 
and triumph of the whole church over her 
enemies. 

OBCOR'DATE {oh, down ; and cor, a heart: 
Lat.), in Botany, shaped like a heart, with 
the apex downwards. 

O'BEAH, a species of witchcraft prac¬ 
tised among the negroes, the apprehension 
of which operating upon their superstitious 
fears, is frequently attended with disease 
and death. 

OB'ELISK ( obeliskos : a dim. of obclos, any 
pointed instrument: Gr.), in Architecture, 
a high quadrangular pillar, diminishing as 
it ascends, and terminating, not in a flat sur¬ 
face, but in a small pyramid. Obelisks are 
of Egyptian origin, and, according to-Hero- 
dotus, were first erected in honour of the 
sun. It was formerly supposed that one of 
their uses was to find the meridian altitudes 
of the sun at different times of the year, 
serving instead of very large gnomons; 
but this opinion is now exploded, though 
It has been stated that Augustus erected 
one at Rome, in the Campus Martius, which 
marked the hours on a horizontal dial drawn 
on the pavement. Diodorus mentions two 
obelisks of Sesostris, placed before a The¬ 
ban temple, which were 120 cubits high ; 
and Herodotus, two others, 100 cubits high, 
one of which was erected before a temple at 
Bais, and the other before the temple of the 
sun at Heliopolis. In the plenitude of their 
power the Romans removed many of these 
relics, of times then ancient, from their 
original situations into Italy, and re-erected 
them there. One of these obelisks, now 
standing at Rome—that of St. John of Late- 
ran—is 105 feet in height without the pe¬ 
destal, and weighs 440 tons. The obelisk 
next in size was, on being brought from 
Egypt, placed in the Vatican'circus by Cali¬ 
gula ; but it now stands in the piazza of St. 
Peter’s, and, including the pedestal, is 132 
feet in height. The obelisk of Luxor, now 
at Paris, is 76 feet high. Cleopatra’s Needle, 
an obelisk given to the British nation, but 
still lying in Egypt, is 03 feet long. The 
ancient Egyptians must have had an extra¬ 
ordinary knowledge of mechanics, to have 
been able to bring these and similar masses 
from the quarries, and elevate them to their 
respective positions ; even in modern times, 
to do this is considered a wonderful feat of 

engineering.-In Printing, an obelisk (i) is 

used as a reference to a note in the margin 
or at the foot of the page. 

OBE'SITY ( obesus , fat: Lat.), a tendency 
j to the formation of fat, which often 
i amounts to a disease. There have been 
some very remarkable examples of obesity. 
The celebrated Daniel Lambert, who died 


STrfatfiu'iK [oblique 


at 40 years of age, weighed, a little before 
his death, 739 lbs. And there is, in the 
‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ an account of 
a girl, only 4 years old, who weighed 256 
lbs. 

O'BTT ( obitus, death : Lat.), in the Roman ! 
Catholic church, a funeral solemnity, or 
office for the dead. In religious houses 
there is a register, in which are entered the 
obits of their founders and benefactors, 
which is thence termed the obituary. \ 

OB'ITER DICTUM (spoken by the way: 
Lat.), amongst lawyers, an opinion of a 
judge not material to the point at issue. 

OB'JECT-GLASS, in Optics, the glass of 
a telescope or microscope next the object. 
Its purpose is to form a picture which may j 
be magnified by the eye-glass. 

OBJECTIVE CASE ( objectus , an object: 
Lat.), in English and other grammars, a 
term used for the accusative case. The ob- i 
jective case is that of the noun to which ! 
the action refers. Thus, in ‘ I reminded the j 
master,’ master is in the accusative or objec- | 
tive case.— Objective Line, in Perspec- | 
tive, the line of an object, drawn on the j 
geometrical plane, the representation of j 
which is sought for in the draft or picture. 

-Objective Plane, any plane situated 

in the horizontal plane, the perspective re¬ 
presentation of which is required. 

OB'LATE (oblatus, offered: Lat.), in Ec¬ 
clesiastical Antiquities, a person who, en¬ 
tering the monastic state, gave all liis goods? 
to the community. Also, one dedicated 
from early life by his parents to a religious 
order; or, a layman residing in a religious 
community, to which lie had assigned his 
property, either for ever, or during-liis re¬ 
sidence. Such persons were lay-brothers, 
and the form of their admission was putting 
the bell-ropes of the church round their 
necks, as a kind of dedication to its service 
They wore a religious habit different from 
that of the monks. A layman who had 
made over to a community not only his 
property, but liis person as a bondsman, j 
was termed an oblate. Also, in France, ail 
invalided soldier, recommended to a monas¬ 
tery for maintenance by the king, who had 
the privilege of naming several for that 

purpose.- Oblate ( oblatus, flattened : 

Lat.), in Geometry, an epithet for any figure 
that is flattened or shortened ; as an oblate 
spheroid, such as our globe, which lias its 
axis shorter than its middle diameter. 

OBLA'TION (oblatio, an offering: Lat.), a 
sacrifice or offering made to God. In the 
canon law, oblations are defined to be any¬ 
thing offered by godly Christians to God 
and the church, whether moveables or im¬ 
moveables. Till the4th century, the church 
had no fixed revenues, the clergy wholly 
subsisting on voluntary oblations. 

OBLIGA'TION ( obligatio, a being bound : 
Lat.). In a Legal sense, obligation signi¬ 
fies a bond. 

OBLIGA'TO (bound: Ital.), in Music, a 
term used with regard to those voices or 
instruments which are indispensable to the 
just performance of a piece. 

OBLI'QUE ( obliquus, slanting : Lat.), de¬ 
viating from a perpendicular line or direc¬ 
tion : as an oblique angle, &c., that which is t 































obliquity] 5LT)C gjctentffic antt 504 

not a riglit one.- Oblique Planes, in 

Dialling, are those which decline from the 
zenith, or incline towards the horizon.—— 
Oblique Ascension and Descension, in 
Astronomy, those points of the equinoctial 
which rise and set with the sun, or any 
other point of the heavens in an oblique 

sphere.- Oblique Sailing, is when a ship 

sails upon some rhomb between the four 
cardinal points, making an oblique angle 
with the meridian. 

OBLIQ'UITY (obliquitas : Lat.), deviation 
from a right line; a direction which is 
neither parallel nor perpendicular: gene¬ 
rally applied to the ecliptic, which devi¬ 
ates from the plane of the earth’s equator, 
23° 27' 36’52". 

O'BOE. [See Hautboy.] 

OB'OLUS (obolos: Gr.), a small Grecian 
silver coin, worth rather more than three- 
halfpence. It was this coin which was 
placed in the mouth of the dead, to pay 

Charon for their passage over the Styx.- 

! Obolus, as a weight, the sixth part of a 
j drachma. 

OBO'VATE (o5, down ; and ovatus, shaped 
like an egg : Gr.), in Botany, obvcrsely ovate, 
or ovate inverted, a term for a leaf the 
narrow end of which is downwards. 

OBSECRA'TIO {Lat.), in Roman Anti¬ 
quity, a solemn ceremony performed by the 
chief magistrates of Rome, to avert any im¬ 
pending calamity. It consisted of prayers 
offered up to those gods whom they sup¬ 
posed to be enraged. So exact were they 
in observing the prescribed form on these 
occasions, that a person was appointed to 
read it over to him who was to pronounce 
it; and the most trifling omission was held 
sufficient to vitiate the whole solemnity. 

OBSECRA'TION (last), in Rhetoric, a 
figure in which the orator implores the as- 
, sistance of God or man. 

OBSERV'ATORY (observatio, a watching : 
Lat.), a building fitted up with astronomical, 
magnetical, or meteorological instruments, 
for the purpose of making observations. 
We find astronomical observatories men¬ 
tioned at a very early period ; some of them 
: existed in Chaldaea, ancient Persia, India, 
and China. The most celebrated modern 
ones are those at Greenwich, Paris, Ber¬ 
lin, St. Petersburg, Munich, Palermo, and 
Cambridge, TT.S.; and the accuracy of 
i their instruments is such, that the astro¬ 
nomers who use them are enabled to cal¬ 
culate to the 3600th part of a minute of 
time, and the 216,000th part of a degree. 

; The first regular observatory erected in Eu¬ 
rope was that of Tycho Brahe, in 1576. The 
Greenwich observatory was built in 1675, 
by order of Charles II. at the instance of Sir 
Jonas Moore and Sir Christopher Wren; 
the former being surveyor-general of the 
ordinance. The duty of making observa¬ 
tions was first committed to John Flam¬ 
steed, a man who, as Halley expresses it, 
seemed born for the employment. In the 
year 1690, having provided himself with a 
mural arch, of seven feet diameter, well 
fixed in the plane of the meridian, he began 
to verify his catalogue of fixed stars, which 
hitherto had depended altogether on the 
distances measured with the sextant, after 

a new and very different manner, viz. by 
taking the meridional altitudes, and the 
moments of culmination, or, in other words, 
the right ascension and declination. In i 
the space of upwards of forty years this 
astronomer collected an immense number 
of observations, which may be consulted in 
his ‘ Historia Coelestis Britannica,’ pub¬ 
lished in 1725; the principal part of which 
is the British catalogue of fixed stars. This 
observatory is situated on the highest 
eminence of Greenwich park, about 160 feet 
above low-water mark. The observations 
made here not only possess unrivalled ac¬ 
curacy', but have been the foundation of 
the most important work on practical as¬ 
tronomy ever published, viz. the Nautical 
Almanack, which Maskeiyne commenced in 
1767. There are many other observatories 
in the United Kingdom, both public and 
private. The instruments essentially ne 
cessary for an observatory are a transit in¬ 
strument, and sidereal clocks, for observing | 
right ascensions; a circle, for observing | 
polar distances; a barometer and thermome¬ 
ter, for observing the state of the atmo¬ 
sphere, that the corrections for refraction 
may be made with accuracy. For the pur¬ 
pose of observing the moon still nearer to 
her conjunctions with the sun, an altitude 
and azimuth instrument, of extraordinary 
steadiness, was erected in the observatory | 
at Greenwich, in 1847.—The places where j 
meteorological and magnetic observations 
are carried on are also styled observatories. 
The Observatory of Kew, established and 
still supported by the Britisli Association, is 
devoted to both these purposes. 

OBSID'IAN, in Mineralogy, a glassy lava, : 
of various colours, but usually black, and 
nearly opaque. It consists of silica and 
alumina, with a little potash and oxide of 
iron. Pliny says it received its name from 
Obsidius, who first found it in Ethiopia. 

OBSID'IONAL COINS (from obsideo, I 
besiege : Lat.), in Numismatics, coins of va¬ 
rious base metals, and of different shapes, 
struck in besieged places, as a substitute 
for current money. The oldest known are 
those struck at the siege of Pavia, under 
Francis I. 

OBSIDIONA'LIS CORO'NA (a siege 
crown, from same deriv.), a crown or garland 
made of grass or herbs found on the spot, 
and given by the R.omans to such generals 
as had delivered a Roman army or fortress 
besieged by the enemy. 

OB'TURATORS ( obturo, I stop up: Lat.), 
in Anatomy, muscles which fill up openings 
in the bones. 

GCCIDEN'TAL (occidentalis, westerly; 
Lat.), western, in the direction of where the 
sun sets; opposite to oriental, or eastern . 

the direction in which the sun rises.- 

Occidental, in German Sculpture, a term 
applied to those precious stones which are 
of an inferior kind. 

OC'CIPUT (Lat.), in Anatomy, the hinder 

part of the head.- Occipitis os, called also 

os memoriae, and os nervorum, that bone 
which forms the posterior and inferior part 
of the skull. It is of an irregular figure 
convex on the outside, and concave inter¬ 
nally ; and is thicker and stronger than any 


























505 


Ettaavy 


other of the bones of the head, except the 
petrous parts of the ossa temporum. 

OCCULTA'TION ( occultatio, a hiding: 
Lat.), in Astronomy, tire obscuration of any 
star or planet by the interposition of any 
other body, as the moon, &c. Like a solar 
eclipse, au occultation is confined to only 
a portion of the terrestrial globe, for the 
moon is not between the star and all parts 
of the earth. As the motion of the moon 
in her orbit is from west to east, the first 
contact or immersion must occur on her 
eastern limb; and the emersion, or reap¬ 
pearance, on her western. By analogy, a 
total eclipse of the sun is an occultation of 
that luminary. 

OCCULT' SCI'ENCES (occultus, concealed: 
Lat.), a term applied to the imaginary sci¬ 
ences of former times—alchemy, astrology, 
but, abQ ve all, magic. 

O'CEAN ( okeanos: Gr.), the name given 
to that great mass of salt water which sur¬ 
rounds the land, covering nearly three- 
quarters of the globe. There is a good deal 
of disparity between the extent of the ocean 
in the two hemispheres, there being an ex¬ 
cess of land in the northern hemisphere 
! over that of the southern in the ratio of 11 
to 4. It is remarkable that the line of the 
equator lies upon sea for five-sixths of its 
length. The ocean, though really con¬ 
tinuous, is, for convenience of description, 
l divided by geographers into five por- 
; tions1. The Pacific ocean, which separ- 
; atcs Asia from America, and is the largest 
of all—being of greater extent than the 
whole of the dry land; 2. the Atlantic 
ocean, having Europe and Africa on its 
eastern shore, and America on its western; 
3. the Indian ocean, which washes the 
south of Asia and the south-eastern coast 
of Africa; 4. the Arctic ocean, which sur¬ 
rounds the north pole; and 5. the An¬ 
tarctic ocean, which surrounds the south 
pole. Other smaller parts of this great 
connected body of water are termed seas. 
The bed of the ocean presents the same ir¬ 
regularities of aspect as the surface of the 
land. It is diversified by rocks, mountains, 
plains, and deep valleys. The greatest 
depth that has ever been sounded is 25,000 
feet, and this was in the North Atlantic 
immediately to the southward of the Great 
Bank of Newfoundland. Laplace calculated 
the mean depth of the great oceans to be at 
least 21,000 feet. The level of the ocean, 
independently of the changes produced by 
the tides, is not everywhere the same—that 
is, it does not form a part of the same sphe¬ 
roid-; but the difference is not so great, in 
some cases, as has been supposed. Gulfs 
and inland seas are affected according to 
their position with regard to prevailing 
winds. The level of the Red sea was found 
to be 32.i feet higher than that of the Medi¬ 
terranean, which is supposed to be lower 
than the ocean. The waters of the gulf of 
Mexico are believed to be about two feet 
higher than those of the Pacific ocean. The 
Baltic and Black seas are lower in summer 
than in winter, on account of the smaller 
supply from the rivers and the greater eva¬ 
poration. The temperature of the ocean 
i (/syater being a bad conductor of heat) is 


Cmitfuri). [octave 


much more uniform than that of the land ; 
at a certain depth it probably remains al¬ 
ways the same. Its usual tint is a bluish 
green, but in certain localities its colour 
varies from peculiar circumstances, the 
difference being considered due to animal¬ 
cules, to marine vegetables, to the colour 
of the soil, and very often to that of the 
sky. The ocean holds in solution a number 
of saline matters, the most abundant being 
common salt, which constitutes very gene¬ 
rally two-thirds of the whole. The saltness 
of the ocean is very uniform, but it dimi¬ 
nishes near large masses of ice; and the 
southern ocean contains rather more salt 
than the northern. The mean spec. grav. 
of sea-water near the equator is P02777. 
[See Tides, Sea, &c.] 

OCHLOC'RACY ( ochlos, a mob; and kra- 
teo, I govern: Gr.), a form of government 
in which the multitude or common people 
rule. 

O'CHRE ( ochra: Gr.), a genus of earths 
slightly coherent, composed of fine, smooth, 
soft, argillaceous particles. It is of various 
colours, always due to oxide of iron, which 
is sometimes so considerable in quantity 
that the ochre may be reckoned an ore of 
that metal: thus in certain kinds of the 
native red ochre, called in England reddle 
and red chalk. 

O'CHRO, the seeds of the Abelmosclius 
esculentus, a malvaceous plant cultivated In 
warm climates. They are mucilaginous and 
form an ingredient in soups. 

OC'TAGON (okio, eight; and gonia, an | 
angle : Gr.), in Geometry, a figure of eight 
sides and eight angles. When all the sides 
and angles are equal, it is called a regular 

octagon. -In Fortification, a place with 

eight bastions. 

OCTAN'DRIA (okto, eight; and aner, a 
male: Gr.), the eighth class of the Linnaean 
system of plants, comprehending those 
which have hermaphrodite flowers, with 
eight stamens. 

OC'TANT {octans, an eighth part or half 
quadrant: Lat.), an instrument for measur¬ 
ing angles; which, from the manner in 
which the rays are reflected, are double 
those indicated by the arc; and hence it 
answers the purpose of a quadrant. -Oc¬ 

tant, in Astronomy, an aspect of two pla¬ 
nets when they are distant from each other 
45 degrees, or the eighth part of a circle. i 

OCTAVE ( octavus, the eighth : Lat ), in 
Music, the eighth interval in a scale, which, 
as it affords a sound agreeing very closely 
with the first, is denoted by the same letter 
of the alphabet. The most simple percep¬ 
tion that we can have of two sounds is that j 
of unisons; the vibrations beginning and 
ending together. The next to this is the 
octave, where the more acute sound makes 
precisely two vibrations, while the deeper 
makes one; consequently, the vibrations of 
the two meet at every vibration of the more 
grave. Hence unison and octaves pass, 
almost for the same concord; hence also 
the proportions of the two sounds that 
form the octave are, in numbers or in lines, 
as 1: 2, so that two cords or strings of the 
same material, thickness, and tension, one 
of which is double the length of the other, 





















Efje Jrcmxttfu antf 


506 


I 

octavo] 


produce the octaves. The number of upper 
and lower octaves, or the manner in which 
the several octaves of the scale are to be 
chiefly distinguished, is not absolutely de¬ 
termined, on account of the continually in¬ 
creasing compass of instruments.- Oc¬ 

tave, in the Roman Catholic church, a fes¬ 
tival day and the seven days immediately 
following it; the last or eighth day being 
termed the octave, or octave day. The cir¬ 
cumcision is the octave of Christmas-day. 
A festival is supposed, in that church, to 
last during its octave, and therefore the 
office and mass on every day during the oc¬ 
tave are invariably those of the festival, un¬ 
less a greater feast interferes, by occurring 
within the octave. In the Roman Catholic 
church, all great holidays have octaves. 

OCT A'VO (same deriv.), in Printing, the 
form of a page which is made by folding a 
sheet into eight leaves, or sixteen pages. 
It is often written 8vo. 

OCTO'BER (Lat., from octo, eight), the 
tenth month of the Julian year, consisting 
of thirty-one days ; it obtained the name of 
October from its being the eighth month 
! in the calendar of Romulus. 

OCTOHE'DRON (oktd, eight; and hedra, 
a base: Gr.), in Geometry, one of the five 
regular or Platonic bodies; consisting of 
eight equal and equilateral triangles. 

OCTOPET'ALOUS (oktd, eight; and peta- 
lon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, having eight 
petals or flower leaves. 

OC'TOPUS (oktd, eight; pous, afoot: Gr.), 
a genus of cuttle-fishes, including the 
poulpe of our coasts and the polypus of an¬ 
cient writers. When alarmed they vary 
their colours according to the nature of the 
ground over which they pass, in order to 
escape .detection, and with the same object 
they eject a quantity of ink which dis¬ 
colours the water. 

OCTOSPERM'OUS (oktd, eight; and sper- 
ma, a seed: Gr.), in Botany, containing 
ci rr lit seeds. 

OC'TOSTYLE (oktd, eight; and stulos, a 
column: Gr.), in Ancient Architecture, the 
face of an edifice decorated with eight co¬ 
lumns. These may be disposed either in 
a right line, as in the Pantheon ; or in a 
circle, as in the temple of Apollo Pythius at 
Delphi, &c. 

OC'TROI ( auctoritas, axtthority: Lat.), an 
impost levied at the gates of many towns 
and cities in France, and applied partly to 
the general expenses of the state, and 
partly to local purposes. There were 1500 
communes subject to it, forming a revenue 
of nearly 100,000,000 francs, of which the 
city of Paris alone, before the late changes, 
produced more than 30,000,000 francs an¬ 
nually. 

OC'ULUS. [See Eye.] 

OC'ULUS BE'LI (the eye of Belus: Lat.), 
a species of onyx; a semi-pellucid gem of 
a greyish-white colour variegated with yel¬ 
low, and with a black central nucleus. It 
| is of a roundish form, and its variegations 
{ represent the pupil and iris of the eye; 

I whence the name.- Oculus Mpndi (the 

world’s eye), otherwise called hydrophone, 
a precious stone of an opaque whitish-brown 
colour; but becoming transparent by im¬ 


mersion in an aqueous fluid, and resuming 
its opacity when dry. It is found in Hun¬ 
gary, Silesia, and Iceland.- Ocultts Cati 

(cat’s eye), or Asteria, a beautiful gem, ap¬ 
proaching the nature of the opal, having a 
bright colour which seems to be lodged 
deep in the stone, and which shifts as it is 
moved in various directions. It is larger 
than a pea, anti generally semicircular. 

OD'ALISQUE (odah, a chamber: Turk.), a 
female slave in a Turkish harem. 

ODE (dde, a song : Gr.), a poem belonging 
to that class of lyrical compositions which 
express the feelings of the poet with tho 
vividness which present emotion inspires. 
The ancient odes had originally but one 
stanza, or strophe; but afterwards they > 
were divided into three parts, the strophe, 
the antistrophe, and the epode. Unlike those 
of the moderns, they wrnre usually intended 
to be sung and accompanied by some musi¬ 
cal instrument. The heroic ode celebrates 
heroes or sons of gods, princes, victory, 
greatness of mind, &c. In course of time j 
love and festivities were likewise thought 
suitable to the ode. Anacreon and Sappho 
excelled in this species of composition, and 
Horace has left us odes of various kinds, 
written with peculiar elegance. Among 1 
the moderns, Dryden’s ode on St. Cecilia’s 
day, and Pope’s on the same subject, rank 
high. Coleridge and Wordsworth have also 
written some striking compositions of this 
class. Variety of numbers is essential to 
the ode. At first, indeed, its verse v r as of 
but one kind, but, in order to adapt it to 
music, the poets varied its measure to an 
almost boundless extent. The Pindaric ode 
is distinguished by its boldness and the 
loftiness of its flights; but Pindar, though 
the most daring and elevated of the lyric 1 
poets, amidst all his raptures has preserved 
harmony, and often uniformity, in his 
versification. The dithyrambic ode was a 
Bacchanalian song; and, on account of the 
attributes of the deity to which it wans dedi¬ 
cated, it admitted of great irregularity; 
hence its name has been applied, in mod¬ 
ern times, to all odes of a wild impetuous 
character 

ODE'ON, or ODE'CM (ddeion, from same : 
Gr.), in Greek and Roman Architecture, a 
public building devoted to poetical and 
musical contests. The first odeon was built 
at Athens by Pericles, and was afterwards 
used for popular meetings and the holding 
of courts. The odeons resembled other 
theatres, except that they were not so 

large, and were covered with a roof.-The 

name Odeon has been given to one of the 
theatres in Paris, and in Munich to a con- 
cert-room. 

ODONTAL'GIA (odontalgia, from odous, 
a tooth ; and algos, pain : Gr.), in Medicine, 

the tooth-ache. 

ODONTI'ASIS (Gr., from odontiao, I cut 
my teeth), in Medicine, teething, or cutting 
the teeth. 

ODONTOI'DES (odous, a tooth ; and eidos, 
form : Gr.), in Anatomy, an epithet for the 
tooth-like process of the second vertebra 
of the neck. 

ODONTOL'OGY (odous, a tooth; logos, a 
discourse: Gr.), that branch of science 































607 Htternrn tEr**gur-». [officer 


which is concerned with the teeth of ani¬ 
mals, their structure, mode of growth, &c. 

OD'Y SSEY ( Odusseia , from Odusseus, 
Ulysses: Gr.), a celebrated Greek epic 
poem, usually attributed to Homer, and 
containing the adventures of Ulysses in his 
return from the siege of Troy, and of his 
son Telemachus, who went in search of 
i him. The principal adventures of Ulysses 
I were his visit to the land of the Lotus eaters 
and to the land of the Cyclops, where 
Polyphemus lived in a cave; his arrival at 
Circe’s island, where the enchantress turned 
his sailors into swine; his descent to the 
infernal regions, where he saw the shades 
of his old comrades ; his dangerous voyage 
along the coast of the Sirens and between 
Scylla and Charybdis; his shipwreck, he 
only escaping to the island of Calypso, where 
he was detained seven years ; his shipwreck 
on the coast of Phasacia, where he was hos¬ 
pitably entertained by King Alcinous, who 
possessed a beautiful garden, the descrip¬ 
tion of which has been often referred to ; 
his arrival at his own kingdom of Ithaca 
and Ills return home, when he found his 
wife Penelope besieged by suitors who had 
taken possession of his palace. He disguises 
himself as a beggar, the better to circum- 
A’ent his enemies. Penelope at length pro¬ 
mises to marry any one who can send an 
arrow from the bow of Ulysses through 
certain rings. The suitors all try, but fail; 
the beggar alone succeeds. Telemachus 
aids his father in slaying his enemies, and 
Penelope recognises him as her husband. 
Gods and goddesses are introduced assist¬ 
ing or opposing the hero and his son. The 
poem is written in hexameter verse and is 
dividedintotwenty-four books. It is thought 
to have been composed by one person, and 
to be of a later date than the Iliad, the 
author or authors of whfch had no hand in 
it. Grote thinks that both may be assigned 
to the period between 850 B.c. and 776 b.c. 

(ECUME'NICAL ( oikoumenikos, from oi- 
koumene ge, the whole habitable earth : Gr. 
—ge, the earth, being usually omitted), gene¬ 
ral, or universal; as oecumenical council, 
bishop, &c. 

CEDE'MA (oidema, from oidco, I swell: 
Gr.), in Medicine, a puffiness or swelling, 
arising from water having collected in the 
cellular membranes; it is attended with 
paleness aud cold, retains the print of the 
Unger when pressed with it, and is accom¬ 
panied by little or no pain. 

I GSKOTHE'RA (oinotheras: from oinos, 
wine; and thera, a catching: Gr.—from its 
root, on being dried, acquiring the odour 
of wine), in Botany, a genus of plants, nat. 
ord. Onagracece, including the different 
species of evening primrose. 

CESOPH'AGUS ( oisophagos: Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the Gullet, a membranous and muscu¬ 
lar canal, reaching from the fauces to the 
stomach, and conveying into it the food 
taken at the mouth. Its figure is somewhat 
like a funnel, and its upper part is called 

rhr» tnhn'mt'ii'Y* 

CES'TltUs" (oistros: Gr.), in Entomology, 
a genus of dipterous flies. [See Gadfly.] 

OF'FERINGS (offer o, I offer: Lat.), in a 
scripture sense, denote gifts presented by 


men at the altar, in order to express their 
entire dependence on and submission to the 
Deity. They constituted a principal part 
of the Israelitish worship. With regard to 
their meaning and object, these offerings 
were either thank-offerings and peace-offer¬ 
ings, which consisted of some animal, and 
were usually accompanied with offerings of 
vegetable food; or trespass and sin-offerings, 
in which only animals were used. In the 
last-mentioned cases, the priests were ac¬ 
customed to sprinkle the parties who made 
the offerings witli the blood of the victims, 
as a sign of reconciliation with Jehovah; 
and where the offering was an expression 
of the penitence and expiation of the whole 
people, it was usual to burn the victim; 
but if it concerned only private persons, 

the priests were allowed to eat the flesh.- 

Offerings, in a modern sense, are church 
dues, payable by custom ; as the Easter of¬ 
ferings, or the offerings at marriages, &c. 

OF'FERTORY (offertorium, from same: 
Lat.), in the Romish church, a form of 
words, in the first part of the mass, by 
which the priest offers the elements pre¬ 
viously to their consecration. In the Eng¬ 
lish communion service, the sentences read 
by the officiating clergyman, while the, 
people are making their offerings. 

OF'FIOE ( offlcium , a business: Lat.), a 
particular charge or trust, or a dignity 
accompanied by a public function ; as the 
ofilce of a secretary of state, the office of a 
sheriff, of a justice of peace, &e. Offices 
are civil, judicial, ministerial, executive, 
legislative, political, municipal, ecclesias¬ 
tical, diplomatic, military, &c. 

OF'FICER (same cleriv.), a person com¬ 
missioned or authorized to fill a public situ¬ 
ation or perform any public duty. Officers 
are civil, military, or ecclesiastical. The 
great officers of the crown, or of state, are 
the lord high-steward, the lord high-chan¬ 
cellor, the lord liigli-treasurer, the lord 
president of the council, the lord privy seal, 
the lord-chamberlain, the lord high-con¬ 
stable, and the earl-marshal.-In the 

array, General officers are those whose com¬ 
mand is not limited to a single company, 
troop, or regiment, but extends to a body 
of forces composed of several regiments; 
such are the general, lieutenant-general, 

major-generals, and brigadiers.- Staff 

officers, those who belong to the general 
staff, as the quartermaster-general, adju¬ 
tant-general, aides-de-camp, &c. Com¬ 
missioned officers are those appointed by 
a commission from the crown, from the 
general to the cornet or ensign, inclusive. 

- Brevet officers, those who hold a rank 

without pay, or take rank according to 
the commission which they hold from the 
sovereign, and which is superior to the 
one for which they actually receive pay. 

- Subaltern officers, all officers under the 

rank of captain.- Non-commissioned offi¬ 

cers are sergeant-majors, quartermaster- 
sergeants, sergeants, corporals, and drum 
and fife-majors, who are appointed by the 

commanding officers of regiments.-In 

the navy, officers are distinguished into 
—Commissioned officers, who hold their 
commissions from the lords of the ad- 

























official] 


Cl )t ®ctrnttftf antf 


503 


miralty; Flag officers, admirals who hoist 
flags at the mast-head ; Petty officers, those 
who are appointed by the captain; Warrant 
officers, the gunner, boatswain, and car¬ 
penter. 

OFFI'CIAL ( offlcialis, pertaining to office : 
Lat.), an ecclesiastical judge appointed by 
a bishop, chapter, archdeacon, &c„ with 
charge of the spiritual jurisdiction of the 

diocese.-Also a deputy who is appointed 

by an archdeacon as his assistant, and who 
sits as judge in his court. 

OFFICINAL ( offlcina, a shop: Lat.), in 
Pharmacy, an appellation given to such 
medicines, whether simple or compound, 
as are directed by the college of physicians 
to be constantly kppt in the apothecaries’ 
shops. 

OFF'ING, in sea language, a distance 
from the shore sufficient to afford deep 
water, and to render a pilot unnecessary. 
A ship in the offing is one not far from 
land; and when she keeps at a distance 
from the shore she is said to ‘keep her 
offing.' 

OFF'SET, in Accounts, a sum set off 
against another sum or account, as an 

equivalent.-In Architecture, the ledge 

or surface left uncovered when a wall is 
continued upwards with a diminished thick¬ 
ness.-In Gardening, the young shoots 

that spring from the roots of plants ; which 
being carefully separated and planted in a 
proper soil, serve to propagate the spe¬ 
cies.-In Surveying, a perpendicular 

let fall from the stationary lines to a 
hedge, fence, or the extremity of an en¬ 
closure. 

O'GEE ( ogive : Fr.), in Architecture, the 
Cyma reversa, which see. 

OGI'VE, in Architecture, an arch or 
branch of a Gothic vault; which, instead 
of being circular, passes diagonally from 
one angle to another, and forms a cross 
with another. The middle, where the ogives 
intersect, is called the key. The members 
or mouldings of the ogives are called 
nerves, branches, or reins; and the arches 
which separate the ogives, double arches. 

-The pointed arch itself is termed by the 

French an ogive. 

OIL (til: Ger.; from oleum: Lat.), an 
unctuous substance, derived from various 
I sources, both animal and vegetable. The 
l distinctive characters of oil are inflamma¬ 
bility, fluidity, and insolubility in water. 
The fat oils are little soluble in alcohol, but 
perfectly so in ether. From the peculiar 
properties of different oils, they are natu¬ 
rally divided into two kinds, the fixed or 
fat oils, and the volatile or essential oils: 
the former require a high temperature to 
raise them to a state of vapour, and indeed 
are decomposed before they reach their 
boiling point; but the latter are volatilized 
at or below the temperature of boiling 
water. The fat oils are generally bland to 
the taste; the volatile hot and pungent. 
When exposed to the action of the air, the 
oils by degrees lose their liquidity, thicken, 
and occasionally solidify. Such as become 
indurated take the name of drying oils; 
thus, linseed oil, poppy-seed oil, nut oil, 
&c. Such as do not harden in this way, 


but become rancid, are called unctuous oils ; 
thus, olive oil, almond oil, rape-seed oil, 
&c. Those which burn best are a com¬ 
pound of carbon and hydrogen, which, 
changed into gas having a high tempera¬ 
ture, by the application of heat, absorbs 
the oxygen of the air, emitting heat, flame, 
and light; but most oils contain oxygen 
also, and a few of the essential oils sul¬ 
phur.-The fat oils are medicinally pre¬ 

scribed as relaxing, softening, and laxative 
remedies; they enter into many medical 
compounds, such as balsams, unguents, 
plasters, &c.; they are often used as food, 
being well adapted for that purpose, in cold 
countries, on account of their combustible 
elements, which maintain an effective 
combustion within the body. [See Respira¬ 
tion.] When boiled with potash or soda, 
they are decomposed into glycerine, and 
fat acids which unite with the alkali, form¬ 
ing soap. Ammonia affords with them a 
milky emulsion, called volatile liniment; 
metallic oxides, and alkaline earths, in- , 
soluble soaps. Most of the fixed oils and 
fats are mixtures of two or more substances, i 
Essential oils are employed as cordial, 1 
stimulant, and antispasmodic remedies. 
Chlorine, bromine, and strong mineral 
acids act energetically on the oils. 

OIL GAS. [See Gas.] 

OLE'FIANT GAS (.oleum, oil; and fio, 

I make: Lat.), in Chemistry, a colourless 
elastic fluid, a compound of carbon and 
hydrogen, which has no taste, and scarcely ! 
any odour when pure. It extinguishes flame, 
does not support the respiration of animals, 
and is set on lire when a lighted candle is 
presented to it, burning slowly with an 
intense white light. It is obtained by the 
action of sulphuric acid on alcohol. When 
olefiant gas is mingled with chlorine in the 
proportion of one measure of the former to 
two of the latter, they form a mixture 
which takes fire on the approach of flame, 
and which burns rapidly with formation of 
hydrochloric acid, and a thick black smoke 
composed of particles of carbon; but if 
the gases are allowed to remain at rest 
after being mixed together, a very different 
action ensues. The chlorine, instead of 
decomposing the olefiant gas, enters into 
direct combination with it, and a yellow 
liquid (called Dutch liquid), which is like 
oil, and has an aromatic odour, not unlike 
that of caraways, is produced; hence the 
name of the gas. 

OLE'IC A'CID (oleum, oil: Lat.; from 
elaion, olive oil: Gr.), one of the compo¬ 
nents of fats possessing a distinctly acid 
reaction. It has many properties that are 
common to margaric and stearic acids, also 
components of the fats. 

O'LEINE (oleum, oil: Lat.), or Elaine 
(elaion, oil: Gr.), in Chemistry, the thin 
oily part of fats. It may be pressed out of 
hog’s lard and other solid fats; and may 
be separated from oils, by exposing them 
to cold, and then to pressure. 

OLFAC'TORY NERVES (oleo, I smell of; 
and facio, I cause: Lat.), the pair of nerves 
which proceed from the brain to the nose, 
and cause the sense of smell. They are the 
first pair; and, perforating the ethmoid 
























609 


Etterarg Criarfutg. 


bone, are distributed over tlie mucous 
membrane of the nose. 

OLIB'ANUM ( oleum Libani, the oil of 
Libanus: Lat.), a gum-resin brought from 
the East Indies, which consists of tears or 
drops of a transparent yellow colour. When 
burned It exhales an agreeable odour, and 
is sometimes called frankincense. It was 
formerly used in medicine. It is produced 
by a tree called Boswellia serrata, nat. ord. 
Amyridacece. 

OLIGARCHY ( oligarchia , from oligos, 
few ; and arclio, I govern: Gr.), a form of 
government, in which the administration 
of affairs is lodged in the hands of a few 
irresponsible persons. 

OL'IVE {oiiva: Lat.), in Botany, a genus 
of trees, nat.ord. Oleacece. The OleaEuropcea, 
or common olive,-the species most usually 
cultivated for its fruit, grows to the height 
of twenty or thirty feet, having an upright 
stem with numerous branches; the fruit is a 
unilocular drupe of a somewhat oval shape, 
containing an ovato-oblong nut with a ker¬ 
nel of the same form, and is almost the 
only example of a fruit with an oily pulp. 
The olive was celebrated in the mythology 
of the ancients; and olive wreaths were 
used to crown the brows of victors. It was 
revered by the Greeks and Romans, and was 
considered the emblem of peace and humi¬ 
lity. The athletes anointed their bodies with 
olive oil when preparing for gymnastic 
exercises; and it was in common use after 
the bath. It is consumed in.vast quantities, 
for culinary purposes, in many countries ; 
and, as well as the pickled fruit, is the 
source of considerable trade. The quantity 
of olive oil imported into England in 1850 
was nearly 21,000 tons. It is inodorous, and 
the taste is very mild ; but if taken in large 
quantities it is purgative. When obtained 
by simple expression, without the use of 
boiling water, it is the best and purest; 
and that made in some parts of France is 
now the most highly esteemed. Dr. Clarke 
mentions an interesting fact, ‘ that, during 
a period of little more than two thousand 
years, Hebrews, Assyrians, Romans, Mos¬ 
lems,and Christians,have been successively 
in possession of the rocky mountains of 
Palestine ; yet the olive still vindicates its 
paternal soil, and is found, at this day, 
upon the same spot which was called by 
the Hebrew writers Mount Olivet, and the 
Mount of Olives, eleven centuries before 
the Christian era.’ 

OL'IVINE (same deriv.), in Mineralogy, a 
gem of inferior value, being a sub-species 
of prismatic chrysolite, of a brownish or 
olive-coloured green, often inclining to a 
yellow hue, usually found in roundish grains 
in other stones. It frequently occurs in 
basaltic rocks, and is sometimes associated 
with meteoric iron. It contains oxide of 
iron. 

OLIV'INITE (same deriv.), an ore of cop¬ 
per of an olive-green colour. It is a hy¬ 
drated phosphate of copper, occurring, with 
quartz, in micaceous clay-slate. 

OLYM'PIAD ( olumpias: Gr.), a period of 
four years, by which the Greeks reckoned 
their time. This method of computation took 
Its rise from the Olympic games, so famous 


[OLYMPIC 


in Grecian history, which were celebrated 
at intervals of four years. It is said that 
they were instituted 1354 years before the 
Christian era, and were revived by Iphitus, 
king of Elis, 844 b.o. About 100 years after 
was introduced the practice of designating 
the Olympiad by the name of the victor; 
and Corcebus was the first who received this 
honour. The Olympiad of Corcebus forms 
the principal era of Grecian chronology. 
The games in which he was victor were 
celebrated about the time of the summer 
solstice, 776 years before the era of the in¬ 
carnation, in the 3938th year of the Julian 
period, and 23 years before the date assigned 
for the foundation of Rome. Subsequently 
to the introduction of the Metonic cycle, 
the Olympic year always began with the 
eleventh day of that moon which followed 
the solstice, and is usually regarded as com¬ 
mencing on the 1st of July. As the Olym¬ 
piads began in the middle of the year, the 
first six months of a year of our era belong 
to one Olympiad, and the last six to another. 
Hence, to reduce the date by Olympiads to | 
our era, multiply the number of the past 
Olympiad by 4,and add the odd years; sub¬ 
tract the sum from 777 if before Christ, or 
subtract 776 from the sum if after Christ; 
the remainder will be the year before or 
after Christ, if the event happened between 
July and January; but if it happened in the 
last six months of the Olympic year, that is, 
between January and July, the remainder 
must, in each case, be diminished by one. 
The method of computing time by Olym¬ 
piads did not come into use until after the | 
death of Alexander; it ceased at the 364th 
Olympiad, in the year 440 of the-Cliristian 
era. History is much indebted to the Olym¬ 
piads ; they have served to fix the date of 
many important events; and, indeed, the 
history of Greece, before this method of 
computing time was observed, is almost j 
entirely fabulous, or filled with anachroii- I 
isms. 

OLYM'PIC GAMES, in Antiquity, solemn } 
games among the Greeks in honour of the 
Olympian Jupiter, which were celebrated 
once in every four years. Besides running, 
leaping, boxing, wrestling, and the quoit, 
there were horse-racing, chariot-racing, &c. 
Sometimes there were contests in elo¬ 
quence, poetry, &o. The victor’s prize was a 
wreath of wild olive. A material of small 
value was chosen, that the combatants 
might be stimulated by courage and the 
love of glory, more than by the sordid hope 
of gain. In fact, the glory of the conquerors 
(who were termed Olympionicce) was inesti¬ 
mable and immortal. Their statues wore 
erected at Olympia, in the sacred wood of 
Jove; they were conducted home in tri¬ 
umph on a car drawn by four horses, were 
complimented by poets, painters, &c.; and 
many privileges and immunities were 
thenceforth conferred on them. Not only 
all the states of Greece, but foreign nations 
also, resorted to these games, in great num¬ 
bers, from the extremities of Egypt, from 
Libya, Sicily, and other countries. The 
combatants contended naked. At first they 
used to tie a scarf round their waist; but 
this having once thrown down a combatant 

























—-—-—-- 1 ' 

ombhkj Cf;c Jrctcnttfrc anft 610 , 

by entangling his feet, and caused him to 
lose the victory, it was thenceforth laid 
aside. The priestesses of Ceres excepted, no 
females were permitted to he present; and 
if any woman was found to have passed the 
river Alpheus during the solemnity, she 
was to be thrown headlong from a rock. 

OM'BRE DE SOLE'IL (the shadow of the 
sun: Fr.), in Heraldry, the sun borne in 
armoury, in such a way that the eyes, nose, 
and mouth, which are represented at other 
times, do not appear; and the colouring is 
so light that the field is seen through it. 

O'MEGA, the name of the Greek long o. 
It is the last letter in the Greek alphabet, 
as alpha is the first; and from the expres¬ 
sion in Revelations, ‘ I am Alpha and Omega, 
the beginning and the ending, saith the 
Lord, which is, and which was, and which 
is to come, the Almighty’ (i. 8), the charac¬ 
ters of alpha and omega became with the 
Christians symbolical hieroglyphics. 

OM'ELET ( omelette: Fr.), a kind of pan¬ 
cake or fritter, made of eggs and other in¬ 
gredients ; much used in France and other 
countries. 

O'MEN (Lat.), a casual indication, which 
men believe to authorize their conjectures 
regarding future events. Omens differ from 
other inodes of divination, in being acci¬ 
dental. They constitute a superstition as 
ancient as the world itself ; and there is a 
sameness regarding them, in distant times 
and countries, which is very remarkable. 
They may be divided into three classes:— 
those derived from natural occurrences,re¬ 
lating to inanimate objects, as lightning, 
earthquakes, phosphoric appearances, &c.; 
those derived from animals, especially 
birds, as the place of their appearance, their 
voices, actions, &c.; and those which the 
Individual uraws from sudden sensations 
of his own—sneezing has generally been 
looked upon as particularly ominous. With 
both Greeks and Romans the good omens 
came from the east, but the former stood 

1 facing the north and the latter the south; 

: hence among the Greeks the right hand de¬ 
noted good luck, and the left the contrary ; 
t among the Romans this rule was reversed, 
although their writers, in latter times, 
often adopted the Greek mode of expres¬ 
sion. The practice of making ordinary 
events ominous of good or bad fortune, 
i wherever it may have arisen, spread itself 
over the inhabited globe, and still prevails 
among the vulgar and unenlightened of all 
nations. 

OMEN'TUM (Lat.), in Anatomy, the caul 
or epiploon: a membranaceous covering of 
j the bowels, usually furnished with a large 
quantity of fat; being placed under the 
peritoneunij and immediately above the in- 
testines 

OM'XIBUS (for all: Lat.), omnibuses are 
; of Parisian origin : having been first used 
in that city in 1825, and in London in 1829. 

OM'NIUM (of all: Lat.), a term relating to 
the public funds, and used to express the 
aggregate value of the stock or securities 
which the subscribers to a loan receive from 
government. As the omnium of every loan 
is the subject of extensive speculations, it 
is generally liable to considerable variations 

with respect to its current price, sometimes 
selling at a high premium, at other times ■ 

at a discount. 

OM'PHACITE ( omphakitls, unripe ; Gr. — I 
from its greenish colour), a mineral of a pale 
leek-green colour, massive or disseminated, 
and in narrow radiated concretions. 

OMPHALOCE'LE (omphalos, the navel; 
and lcele, a hernia: Gr.), in Surgery, an um¬ 
bilical hernia, or rupture of the navel. 

OMPHALOT'OMY (omphalotomia: from 
omphalos, the navel; and temno, I cut: Gr.), 
in Surgery, the operation of dividing the 
navel string. 

ONEIROCRIT'ICA (Gr: from oneiros, a ! 
dream; and kritilcos, fit for judging), the 
art of interpreting dreams, and foretelling 
events from them. 

ONGLE'E (ongle, a claw : Fr.), in Heraldry, 
an appellation given to the talons or claws 
of beasts or birds, wdien borne of a dif¬ 
ferent tincture from that of the body of 
the animal. 

ON'ION (ognon: Fr.), the common species 
is the allium cepa of botanists, nat. ord. 
Liliacece. Upwards of sixty species of this 
genus are known, all with bulbous roots. 
The leek, garlic, and shallot belong to it. I 

ONOMATOPCE'IA (onomatopoeia, from 
onoma, a name; and poieo, I make: Gr.), 
in Rhetoric, a figure in which words are 
formed so as to resemble the sounds made 
by the things signified ; as the buzz of bees, 
the cackling of hens, &c. 

ONTOI/OGY (on, a being; and logos, a 
discourse: Gr.), the doctrine of being; a 
name formerly given to that branch of me¬ 
taphysics which treats of the essential qua¬ 
lities of things. 

O'NUS PROBAN'DI (Lat.), in Law, the ob¬ 
ligation of proving what has been alleged. 

O'N YX (onux: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a spe¬ 
cies of agate, stratified with opaque and 
translucent lines; being a semi-pellucid 
gem of different colours. The bluisli-whito 
kind is looked upon as the true onyx of the 
ancients. It is valued in proportion as the 
colours are distinct and opposed. Any stone 
exhibiting layers of two or more colours, 

strongly contrasted, is called an onyx. - 

Onyx, in Medicine, an abscess, or collection i 
of pus, between the lamellae of the cornea ; 
so called from its resemblance to the onyx 
stone. The diagnostic signs of it are, a 
white spot or speck, prominent, soft, and 
fluctuating. 

O'OLITE (Oon, an egg; and litlios, a stone: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, a species of limestone 
composed of small rounded grains like the 
roe of a fish. Each grain has commonly a 
particle of sand for a nucleus about which 
the calcareous matter is arranged concen¬ 
trically. —The oolitic series, in Geology, in¬ 
cludes the great series of secondary de¬ 
posits lying between the Lower Cretaceous 
or Neocomian beds and the Lias. In these 
strata are found the best materials for 
building which the midland and eastern 
counties of England produce, and the 
formations are systematically divided into 
—1. the upper oolite, consisting of the Pur- 
beck beds of Dorset and Wilts, the Portland 
beds and the Kimmeridge clay of Dorset¬ 
shire; 2. the middle oolite, which includes 
















511 Ettcrar^) 


(lie Coral rag and the Oxford clay; and 3. 
the lower oolite, which includes the Great or 
Bath oolite and the Inferior oolite. The 
oolitic rocks extend across England from 
the Yorkshire coast to the Dorsetshire 
coast, having an average width of nearly 
30 miles. On the continent of Europe the 
oolitic series is well developed, and the 
whole mountain chain of the Jura is com¬ 
posed of oolitic beds, whence tho term 
| Jurassic applied to that series. 

OPAC'ITY ( opacitas , from opacus, dark: 
Lat.), the quality which renders anything 
impervious to the rays of light. It may 
exist in bodies of any colour. 

O'PAL (opalus: Lat.), in Mineralogy, a 
precious stone of various colours, which 
comes under the class of pellucid gems. It 
consists of silex, with about ten per cent, 
water. It is found in many parts of Europe, 
especially in Hungary. It is brittle, and 
when first dug out of the earth is soft; but 
it hardens and diminishes in bulk by expo¬ 
sure to the air. 'flie substance in which it 
is most commonly found is a ferruginous 
sandstone. It i3 generally dull, owing to 
foreign admixture; but in some specimens 
a lively play of light is observable, while 
others show different colours by reflected 
and transmitted light. There are many va¬ 
rieties or species, the chief of which are— 
I. noble opal, which exhibits brilliant and 
changeable reflections of green, blue, yel¬ 
low, and red ; 2. fire opal, which simply af¬ 
fords a red reflection; 3. common opal, whose 
colours are white, green, yellow, and red, 
but without the play of colours; 4. semi¬ 
opal, the varieties of which are more opaque 
than common opal; 5. tcood opal, which ap¬ 
pears in the shape of trunks, branches, and 
roots of trees; C. hydrophone, which as¬ 
sumes a transparency only on being thrown 
into water; 7. hyalite, which occurs in 
small reniform and botryoidal shapes, and is 
transparent; and 8. menilite, which occurs 
in tuberose masses, and is opaque. 

OPALES'CENCE (last), a coloured shining 
lustre, reflected from a single spot in a 
mineral. It is sometimes simple, and some¬ 
times radiated. 

OP'ERA (a work: Ital), a dramatic com¬ 
position, of which music makes the essen¬ 
tial part; and in this it is distinguished 
from other dramas which are accompanied 
by music. [See Melodrama.] According 
as the serious or the comic character pre¬ 
vails in the opera, it is termed opera seria 
or opera buffa. The name of grand opera is 
given to that kind which is confined to 
music and song, of which tli e'recitativo is a 
principal feature. An operetta is a short 
musical drama of a light character: to which 
species of composition the French vaude¬ 
ville belongs. Italy may be considered the 
birthplace and cradle of the opera; but in 
Germany romantic operas have also, of late 
years, been produced with great success. 

OP'ERA GLASS, in Optics, a Galilean 
telescope, so called from its use in theatres. 
The field of view of this instrument is very 
limited, and thereforeit cannot be used with 
a high magnifying power. It is generally 
binocular —that is, consists of a small tele¬ 
scope for each eye. These telescopes are 


[OPISTHOTONOS 


connected together, and have their foci ad¬ 
justable by turning the same screw.-The 

name is applied also to an instrument which 
causes objects to be seen in a direction 
different from that towards which it is 
pointed. The rays from the object really 
looked at enter at the side, are reflected to 
the eye-glass, and are thence transmitted 
to the eye. The person who uses it seems 
to be looking towards a very different point 
from that to which his attention is really 
directed 

OPERATION ( operatio: Lat.), in Surgery, 
any methodical action of the hand, per¬ 
formed on the human body, with a view to 
heal an injured or diseased part, whether 

instruments are used or not.-Military or 

naval operations signify the movements of 
an army or fleet to effect some object of 
warfare. 

OPER'CULTJM (alid,from operio, I cover: 
Lat.), in Conchology, the plate with which 
some species of molluscs close the aperture 

of their shells.-In Botany, the lid whicli 

some capsular seed-vessels possess, and 
which falls off when the seeds are ripe. 

OPIIICLEI'DE ( ophis, a serpent: and kleis, 
a key: Gr.), a powerful bass wind instru¬ 
ment in a brass band. It is of modern 
introduction. 

OPHID'IAN (ophis, a serpent; Gr.), in 
Zoology, a term given to reptiles belonging 
to’the order of Serpents, which see. 

OPHIOL'OGY (ophis, a serpent; and lo¬ 
gos, a discourse: Gr.), that part of natural 
history .which treats of serpents. 

O'PHITE (ophites, like a serpent: Gr.), 
in Mineralogy, serpentine, or green-speckled 
porphyry; a dusky green stone of different 
shades, sprinkled with spots or crystals of 
a lighter green, so as in some measure to 
resemble the back of a serpent. 

OPHTHAL'MIA (Gr., from ophthalmos, 
the eye), in Medicine, an inflammation of 
the mucous membrane which covers the 
globe of the eye, and of the correspondent 
surface of the eyelids. It may be induced 
by many different exciting causes, such as 
sudden transition from heat to cold, resi¬ 
dence in damp or sandy countries in tho 
hot season, exposure of the eyes to the 
vivid rays of the sun, the suppression of 
some habitual discharge, &c. 

OPHTHALMODYN'IA (ophthalmos, tho 
eye ; and odune, pain : Gr.), in Medicine, a 
violent pain in the eye. 

OPIITHAL'MOSCOPE (ophthalmos, tho 
eye ; and skopeo, I examine: Gr.), an optical 
apparatus by which a surgeon can examine 
the interior of the eye in living persons. 
It is extremely useful in ascertaining the 
seat and nature of the disease. 

OPIN'ION (opinio, from opinor, I think : 
Lat.), the judgment which the mind forms 
of any proposition, of the truth or false¬ 
hood of which there is not sufficient evi¬ 
dence to produce absolute certainty. 

OPISTHOT'ONOS (Gr.: from opisthen, 
backwards; and tonos, a straining), in 
Medicine, a spasmodic action of the muscles 
of the back, which causes the body to arch 
backwards. This condition is observed in 
cases of tetanus. The opposite condition, 
or emprosthotonos (emprosthen, forwards; 

























opium] ^ctentttfc <*wtf 512 

Gr.), is t a tetanic spasm of the anterior 
muscles of the trunk, by ■which the body 
is bent forwards. 

O'PIUM (opos, juice : Gr.), the inspissated 
juice of a species of poppy, the Pap aver 

1 soviniferum, a native of Turkey and other 
eastern countries, but now naturalized in 
many parts of Europe. It is obtained by 
wounding the unripe seed capsules, col- 
i lecting the milky juice which exudes, dry¬ 
ing it in the sun, and kneading it into 
cakes. Opium is the most energetic of 
narcotics, and at the same time one of the 
most valuable of medicines. The opium of 
commerce is in cakes, covered with pieces 
of dried leaves, and the seed capsules of 
some species of Bumex. It should be of a 
rich brown colour, a tough consistency, 
and smooth uniform texture. Its peculiar 
narcotic smell ought to be strong and 
fresh ; its taste is hot, and somewhat acrid. 
Its activity as a medicine depends on the 
presence of morphia, an alkaline base, in 
combination with meconic acid. It contains 
also narcotine, narceine, codein, gum, resin, 
extractive matter, and small quantities of 
other proximate elements. Its great con¬ 
sumption is in China, where, though it is 
contraband, 27,000 chests of it are used per 
annum. In 1850, the quantity imported 
into England was upwards of 126,000 lbs.; 
the duty has been, since 1836, only Is. 
per 1 b. 

OPOBAL'SAM (opobalsamon, from opos, 
juice; and balsamon, balsam: Gr.), in 
Medicine, the balm of Gilead, which see. 

OPODEL'DOC, in Pharmacy, a sapona¬ 
ceous camphorated liniment: being a solu¬ 
tion of soap in alcohol, with the addition 
of camphor and essential oils. It is consi¬ 
dered to be a good remedy for sprains, 
bruises, &c. 

OPOP'ANAX (Gr.: from opos, juice ; and 
panakes, all-healing), the concrete juice of 
an umbelliferous plant, a native of the Le- 
| vant, the Opopanax chironum of botanists. 
It is usually imported in loose granules or 
drops, but sometimes in larger masses, of 
a reddish-yellow colour, and white within. 
It has a strong smell and an acrid taste. 

OPOS'SUM, a marsupial animal of the 
genus Didelphis, which is peculiar to the 
American continent. There are several 
species, which live in woody places, and 
feed on eggs, insects, and fruits. The 
female is remarkable for having, like the 
kangaroos, an external pouch in the abdo¬ 
men, in which she carries her young. On 
the ground, the opossum’s progress is awk¬ 
ward and clumsy, but on the branches of a 
tree he advances with great celerity and 
ease, using his tail, which is prehensile, to 
assist his motions. Instead of flying at the 
approach of danger, opossums lie close to 
the branch on which they are clinging. 
When they are discovered, the branch is 
shaken violently, which causes them to 
drop to the ground ; and if the hunter is 
unaccompanied by dogs, they steal slowly 
away, and, gathering themselves into as 
small a compass as possible, remain per¬ 
fectly quiet as if feigning death. 

- OPPIL'ATIVES ( oppilo, I stop up : Lat.), 
medicines which shut up the pores 

" ■ 8 ’ 1 ——------ 

OPPOSITIFO'LIOUS 0 oppositus, placed ’ 

against; and folium, a leaf: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, an epithet fora peduncle placed oppo¬ 
site to the leaf. 

OPPOSITION (oppositio: Lat.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, that aspect or situation of two stars 
or planets, in which they are diametrically 
opposite to each other, or 180 degrees apart. 

-In Logic, the disagreement between 

propositions which have the same subject 
or the same predicate, but differ in quan¬ 
tity, in quality, or in both.-In Politics, 

the name given in Great Britain to that party 
in parliament which is opposed to the ad ; 
ministration for the time being, and which j 
would, most probably, succeed to power , 
were it displaced. 

OPSIOM'ETER ( opsis, sight; and metron, 
a measure : Gr.), an instrument for measur¬ 
ing the extent of the limits of distinct vi¬ 
sion in different persons, for the purpose 
of ascertaining the focal length of the 
lenses necessary for correcting the imper- , 
fections of the eye. 

OPTATIVE ( optativus, expressing a wish: 
Lat.), in Grammar, a mode or form of a 
Greek verb, by which is expressed the wish 
or desire to do a thing. 

OPTICS ( optikos, pertaining to seeing: 
Gr.), the science which treats of the laws of 
vision and light, whether direct, reflected, 
or refracted. In a more simple application 
optics is the science of direct vision only, 
while the science of thelaws and properties 
of the rays of light, when considered as re¬ 
flected, is called catoptrics, and the science 
of refracted rays dioptrics ; but in its gene¬ 
ral sense, optics comprehends the whole of 
that of which catoptrics and dioptrics are 
two parts. For information regarding the j 
different branches of this science, recourse 
must be had to the different heads. [See 
Eye, Light, Microscope, Reflection, 

Refraction, Telescope, &c.]- Optio 

Angle, that which the optic axis of the 
eyes make with one another, as they tend 
to meet at some distance before the eyes. 

-Optic Axis, the axis of the eye, or a 

line going through the middle of the pupil 

and centre of the eye.- Optic Nerves, 

in Anatomy, the second pair of nerves from 
the brain, which perforate the bulb of the 

eye, and serve for the sense of sight.- 

Optic Place of a star, in Astronomy, that 
point of its orbit in which to our eye it 
appears to be.— Optic Pyramids, a py¬ 
ramid formed by rays drawn from the seve¬ 
ral points of the perimeter to the eye. 

OPTIMISM ( optimus , best: Lat), that 
philosophical doctrine which maintains 
that this world, in spite of its apparent im¬ 
perfections, is the best that could have been 
devised. 

OPTIMUS MAX'IMUS (best greatest: 
Lat.), epithets given by the ancient Romans 
to Jupiter, on account of his superlative 
greatness and goodness. 

OPTION (optio, from opto, I choose: Lat.). 

In Ecclesiastical Law, in former times, 
when a bishop was consecrated by an arch¬ 
bishop the latter had the right of naming a 
clerk or chaplain to be provided for bv the 
hishop. Instead of this the bishop'now 
makes over to the archbishop the next 

------ 
























613 ilttcrary 

presentation to a benefice in the bishop’s 
disposal. This is called the archbishop’s 
option; it is the private patronage of the 
latter, and descends to hi3 personal repre¬ 
sentatives. 

Oil (gold : Fr.), in Heraldry, a colour, 
otherwise called gold, or yellow, which, in 
engravings, is represented by small dots all 
over the field or charge. 

OR'ACLE ( oraculmn, from oro, I speak : 
Lat.), in Heathen Antiquity, a pretended 
revelation of future events, or the will of 
supernatural powers, through the medium 
of a priest or priestess. The most famous 
oracles were those of Apollo at Delphi, and 
of Jupiter Ammon in Egypt. [See Ammon.] 
In the founding of cities and colonies, the 
introduction of new governments, the 
undertaking of important enterprises, and 
particularly in all cases of great urgency, 
the oracles were consulted, and rich gifts 
presented to them. Darkness and ambi¬ 
guity in the responses were made to cover 
those mistakes which would otherwise 
have disclosed the imposture; and thus 
for many centuries they obtained the vene¬ 
ration and homage, not only of the ignorant 
multitude, but of monarclis, warriors, and 
philosophers. They were extremely venal; 
the rich and powerful had no difficulty in 
obtaining a favourable answer. It has also 
been asserted that they ceased at the birth 
of Christ. But the edicts of the emperors 
Theodosius, Gratian, and Valentinian, show 
that they were consulted, at least occasion¬ 
ally, down to a.d. 328. 

O'RANG-OU'TANG (man of the woods: 
Malay), in Zoology, the Indian or red orang 
(Pithecus Sutyrus), with a flat face and dis¬ 
torted resemblance to the human form. These 
animals live in swampy forests, walk erect, 
feed on fruits, sleep on trees, and make a 
shelter against the inclemencies of the wea¬ 
ther. They are clothed with reddish brown 
hair, and are remarkable for their strength' 
as well as their ability to use weapons with 
the hand. They inhabit the islands of 
Borneo, Sumatra, &c., and attain the 
In ight of four or five feet. They have 
neither tail, cheek pouches, nor ischial 
callosities. When full-grown they have an 
enormous laryngeal pouch. The African 
animal, corresponding to the orang-outang, 
is the Chimpanzee, which still more nearly 
resembles man. 

OR'ANGE, the well-known fruit of the 
orange-tree, the Citrus Aurantium of bo¬ 
tanists. The orange-tree is a.lowevergreen, 
bearing leaves reseinbling«those of the lau¬ 
rel, and white flowers. It is a native of 
India and China, but was introduced by the 
Portuguese into other countries; it is very 
long lived. The orange-tree was not culti¬ 
vated in Europe till the 14th century, nor 
in England till 1492. It is propagated by 
seeds, cuttings, layers, grafting, or inocu¬ 
lation. The principle varieties are the 
sweet or China, and the bitter or Seville 
orange. The orange trade is a very conside¬ 
rable one ; in 1850, 360,000 boxes of oranges 
were entered for home consumption in 
this country, each box containing about 
700 lemons and oranges. The peel, when 
preserved, forms an article of confectionary; 


&rea£urg. [oratory 


and the flowers yield an essential oil, little 
less esteemed than ottar of roses. The wood 
is fine-grained, compact, susceptible of a 
high polish, and is employed in the arts. 
The productiveness of the common orange 
is enormous. A single tree at St. Michael’s, 
in the Azores, where our best oranges are 
obtained, has been known to afford 20,000 
oranges fit for packing, exclusive of the 
damaged fruit and the waste, which may be 
calculated at one-tliird more. 

OR'ANGEMEN, the name given by the 
Roman Catholics in Ireland to those who 
were zealous adherents of William III. 
Also the members of an association pro 
fessing those principles on account of 
which that prince obtained the sovereignty. 

OR'ATOR {Lat., from oro, I speak), in mo¬ 
dern usage, signifies an eloquent public 
speaker, or a person who pronounces a dis¬ 
course publicly on some special occasion. 
In ancient Rome, orators were advocates of 
a superior kind, differing from the patrons; 
the latter were allowed only to plead causes 
on behalf of their clients; whereas the for¬ 
mer might quit the forum and ascend the 
rostrum or tribunal, to harangue the senate 
or the people. The orators had rarely a pro¬ 
found knowledge of the law, but they were 
eloquent, and their style was generally cor¬ 
rect and concise. 

ORATO'RIO ( Ital.; from oratorium, a 
small chapel: Lat.), a musical performance 
of a dignified character, expressing various 
elevated and tender affections; dramatic, 
but destined only for musical execution, not 
for theatrical action. Properly speaking, 
the oratorio commenced when sacred music 
was distinctly separated from secular. It 
is probable that it originated with members 
of a society termed the fathers of the Ora¬ 
tory ; who, to draw youths to church, had 
hymns and sacred stories written in dia¬ 
logue and set to music. The people were 
induced to hear the sermon, that they might 
be present at the performance of the second 
part. The subjects, in early times, were 
the Good Samaritan, Prodigal Son, Tobit’s 
Story, &c. The excellence of the composi¬ 
tion, the band of instruments, and the per¬ 
formance, brought the oratory into great 
repute ; and this species of musical drama 
obtained the general appellation of oratorio. 
Oratorios soon became great favourites in 
Italy, where they have been constantly per¬ 
formed during the carnival; and they have 
caused the production of the noblest and 
most elaborate compositions by the great 
masters of various countries. A character 
more elevated than it possessed at first was 
given to the oratorio by Handel, who de¬ 
voted all his power to the chorus. He in¬ 
troduced it into Englaud in 1720, though no 
oratorio was publicly performed in this 
country for twelve years after. Oratorios 
were, fora long period, performed twice a 
week during Lent. 

OPPATORY {oratorius, pertaining to an 
orator: Lat.), the art by which a speaker 
is enabled to persuade and convince his 
hearers, according to the rules of rhetoric. 
It properly consists of four parts, namely, 
invention, disposition, elocution, and pro¬ 
nunciation. Quintilian says, ‘ The faculty 





























£Dxjc J^ctsmttfu autf 


514 


oratory] 


of speech we derive from nature; hut the 
art of speaking from observation.’ To con¬ 
stitute oratory, the language must be just 
aud pertinent to the subject; it must be 
methodical, all parts of the discourse being 
disposed in due order and connection ; and 
it must be embellished, and pronounced 
i with eloquence. Diction, manner, gesture, 
modulation, a methodical arrangement of 
the several topics to be introduced, and a 
logical illustration of them, are all essential 
requisites in oratory; and, as Cicero has 
| observed, * the action of the body ought to 
I be suited to the expressions, not in a 
. theatrical way, mimicking the words by 
[ particular gesticulations, but in a manner 
expressive of the general sense, with a 
sedate and manly inflection.’ 

OR'ATORY, Pmests op the, a religious 
I order founded by Philip Seri, in 1574, for 
the study of theology, and for superintend- 
| ing the religious exercises of the devout; 
i its members not being bound by monastic 
vows. This order still exists in Italy, and 
there is a house in London ; but the more 
I important congregation of the Fathers of 
, the Oratory of Jesus, founded at Paris in 
! 1611, is no longer in being. The different 
societies which adopted this name were not 
I necessarily connected in any way; and it 
I has been assumed by various congregations 
of ecclesiastics living in community, but 
not bound by any special vow. 

ORB ( orbis: Lat.), in Ancient Astronomy, 

| a hollow sphere. The heavens were sup- 
! posed to consist of as many such concentric 
spheres as there were known planets. The 
sun was placed in the orbis maximus. 

QRBICULA'RIS (of a round form : Lat-.), 
in Anatomy, an appellation given to the 
constrictor muscle of the lips, or osculato- 
rius; as also to the constrictor of the upper 
eyelid, which rises from the upper apophy¬ 
sis of the maxiliary bone, near the larger 
can thus of the eye, and surrounds the eyelid 
with a series of circular fibres. This latter 
is called the orbicularis palpebrarum. 

ORBIC'PLATE, or ORBIO'ULAR ( orbica - 
latus, rounded : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
for ‘ a leaf whose margin is circular, or 
which has its longitudinal and transverse 
diameters equal. 

OR'BIT ( orbita , the track of a chariot- 
wheel : Lat.), in Astronomy, the path of a 
planet or comet in its course round the sun ; 
thus the earth’s orbit is the curve which 
it describes in its annual revolution, and 
which is usually called the ecliptic. Modern 
astronomers have ascertained that the orbit 
of every planet is an ellipse, having the sun 
in one of its foci; and that their motions 
in these ellipses are such, that a radius 
drawn from the centre of the sun to the 
j centre of the planet always describes equal 
[ areas in equal times. The orbits of satel¬ 
lites, also, are ellipses.——In Anatomy, the 
two cavities under the forehead in which 
the eyes are situated, are termed orbits ; and 
these organs are set in bony sockets. 

OR'CHESTRA ( orchestra, from orcheomai, 

I dance: Gr.), the space in theatres between 
the stage and the seats of the spectators; 
appropriated by the Greeks to the chorus 
and the musicians, by the Romans to the ( 


magistrates and senators, and by the mo¬ 
derns to the musicians. The word is also 
used to denote any erection for the per¬ 
formers of a concert; or any instrumental 
band performing together in modern con¬ 
certs, operas, or sacred music. 

ORCHID A'CEyE ( orchis: Gr., one of the 
genera), in Botany, a natural order of her¬ 
baceous endogens, inhabiting all parts of 
the world, except those on the verge of the 
frozen zone, or which are excessively dry 
They are remarkable for the singular form 
of their flowers, many of which resemble 
insects. Some of them grow in the earth, 
others inhabit rocks and tho branches 
of trees, and a few of them are parasites. 
They all belong to the Lin mean cl. Gynan- 
dria; they are frequently of an agreeable 
scent; and a few, as the Vanilla, produce 
an aromatic fleshy fruit. Salop is prepared 
from the amylaceous roots of some of the 
terrestrial species. Many of the epiphytal 
species have flowers of exquisite beauty, 
and these have been much sought after of 
late years by wealthy collectors. The very 
irregular structure of the floral organs has 
been a great puzzle to botanists, and has 
given rise to many theories. The latest is 
that of Mr. Darwin, which is probably the 
true one. He considers that the flower 
consists of fifteen organs very much modi¬ 
fied and some of them confluent, viz. three 
sepals, three petals (with one of which, the 
curiously formed labellum, two stamens 
are confluent), six stamens arranged in two 
whorls, one stamen alone being in the ma- I' 
jority of cases fertile. However, in the 
genus Cypripedium (Lady’s Slipper) two 
stamens of the inner whorl are fertile. 
Lastly, three stigmas, the two lower ones 
being usually confluent and the upper one ! 
modified into an organ called the rostellum. I 
According to this viewthere arc five simple i 
parts, namely, three.sepals and two petals ; • 
and two compound parts, namely, the 
labellum and the column, the latter being 
made up of three pistils and generally four 
stamens. 

OR'CINE, in Chemistry, the name of a 
colouring principle obtained from lichens. 
[See Akchil.] 

ORDE'AL ( urtheil: Ger), an ancient mode 
of trial, in which God was asked to manifest 
the truth, by leaving nature to its ordinary 
course, if the accused were guilty ; by in¬ 
terposing a miracle, if innocent. It was 
borrowed from the pagans; it prevailed, 
during the middle ages, throughout almost 
the whole of Europe; and it is still practised 
in some parts of the East Indies. In Eng¬ 
land it existed from the time of the Con¬ 
fessor to that of Henry III., who abolished 
it by declaration. While it lasted, the more 
popular modes of resorting to it were those 
of fire and of water—the former, among the 
Saxons, for freemen and persons of rank, 
the latter for peasants. The method of 
administering tho ordeal by fire, in Eng¬ 
land, was by placing nine red-hot plough¬ 
shares in a line, at certain distances from 
each other, and requiring the person ac¬ 
cused to walk over them barefoot and blind¬ 
fold. If his feet always alighted in the 
spaces between the shares, so that he passed 


































£>15 lift entry GTreatfurj). [orders 


over them unhurt, his success was consi¬ 
dered a divine assertion of his innocence ; 
if, on the contrary, lie was burnt, the disas¬ 
ter was a proof of his guilt. The ordeal by 
water was of two kinds. In one, the arm 
was plunged into boiling water—up to the 
wrist if it was an expurgatio simplex, but up 
to the elbow if an expurgatio triplex ; when 
the accused remained unhurt, he was 
deemed innocent; if lie was injured .guilty. 
In the other, the person suspected was 
cast into a river or pond of cold water; 
and if he floated without an effort to swim, 
it was an evidence of innocence, but if he 
sank lie was convicted.- Ordeal by Com¬ 

bat was when a person accused of murder 
was obliged to fight the next relation, &c., 
of the person who had been slain.— Ordeal 
of the Cross consisted in the litigants both 
standing upright before a cross; when he 
who fell, or changed his position first, lost 

his cause, or was condemned.- The Trial 

of the Eucharist, an ordeal which was used 
chiefly among the clergy, consisted in the 
accused taking the sacrament. It was be¬ 
lieved that, if he were guilty, he would be 
immediately punished for the sacrilege. 
Sometimes the ordeal consisted in- the 
choice of one out of two dice ; at others, in 
the supposed murderer being obliged to 
touch the body of the slain, when, if the 
blood flowed, he was pronounced guilty. 
There is no doubt that, in the severe ordeals, 
the clergy took precautions to preserve 
those whom they desired to save; and 
modes of trial so liable to human collusion, 
and founded upon unwarranted ideas of the 
divine interference, have deservedly passed 
away. But the fact of their former exist¬ 
ence remains attested by a form of words 
still required to be used by a person ar¬ 
raigned for trial. Such a one, in the days of 
ordeals, had it in his choice to put himself 
upon God and his country, or upon God 
alone. In the former case, he professed his 
readiness to abide the decision of a jury; 
in the latter he appealed to the ordeal, as to 
the immediate judgment of God. A pri¬ 
soner, by pleading ‘ not guilty,’ is now 
deemed, in treason and felony, to put him¬ 
self upon the trial by jury ; but he formerly 
did so expressly : being asked, ‘How wilt 
thou be tried ?’ he answered, * By God and 
the country’—meaning, by the latter, a 
jury. 

ORDE'AL NUT, the seed of a tree, the 
Tanghinia venenifl.ua, nat. ord. Apocynacece, 
growing in Madagascar, where persons ac¬ 
cused of sorcery are obliged to drink an 
infusion, and those who escape death by 
poison are declared to be innocent. 

OR'DER ( ordo: Lat.), in Zoology, a group 
of families, each of the latter being made up 
of genera; in the natural system of Botany, 
a group of genera ; in the artificial system 

of Linnaeus, a subdivision of a class.- 

Order, a term used in Astronomy, and 
applied to the motion of a planet. Planetary 
bodies are said to go according to the order 
of the signs, when their apparent motion is 
direct, proceeding from Aries to Taurus, 
thence to Gemini, &c. 

OR'DERS, in Architecture, those systems 
of the parts of a building which are sub¬ 


ject to uniform and established proportions. 
An order consists essentially of two parts, 
the column and entablature. The column 
includes the base, shaft, and capital; the 
entablature includes the architrave, frieze, j 
and cornice. Though the column regulates 
the order, a building without columns may 
belong to an order, if its details are in ac¬ 
cordance with the laws of that order. The 
height of a column Is measured in terms of 
its lower diameter, supposed to be divided 
into sixty parts called minutes. The column 
varies from seven to ten diameters in the 
different orders. The entablature is gene¬ 
rally divided into ten parts, three being 
given to the architrave, three to the frieze, 
and four to the cornice: except in the 
Doric, where the entablature is divided 
into eight parts, two being given to the 
architrave, three to the frieze, and three to 
the cornice. 

OR'DERS, or HO'LY OR'DERS, the dif¬ 
ferent ranks of ecclesiastical persons; or 
the character of such persons. The Roman 
Catholic church holds that there are seven 
orders:—four minor, those of janitor, ex¬ 
orcist, reader, and acolyte; three major 
or holy orders, those of sub-deacon, deacon, 
and priest. It does not consider the epis¬ 
copacy, as a separate order, but merely the 
perfection of the priesthood. It holds that 
holy orders constitute a sacrament. Pre¬ 
viously to admission to the lowest order, tne 
tonsure is conferred ; it consists in clipping 
and shaving a small circular space on the 
crown of the head; the size of this space is 
increased as the cleric advances through 
the various orders. The reformed churches 
acknowledge only three orders: those of 
deacon, priest, and bishop. 

OR'DERS, RELIG'IOUS, societies bound 
to observe the rules prescribed by their re¬ 
spective founders. An order, in fact, con¬ 
sists in the rules to be observed by thoso 
who enter it; thus some orders are more 
austere than others, and one order dresses 
in white, while another is habited in grey j 
or black. There are three kinds of religious 
orders in the Romish church—the monas¬ 
tic, the military, and the mendicant. The 
monastic orders are the Basilian, instituted 
by Basil in the fourth century ; the August- 
inian, termed regular and secular cations, 
in the 4th ; the Benedictines, by Benedict, 
in the 6th. The military orders were tho 
knights of St. John of Jerusalem, called 
afterwards the knights of Rhodes, and still 
later the knights of Malta, founded in the 
11th century; the knights-templars, in the 
12th ; and the Teutonic knights, also in the 
12th. The latter, embracing the doctrines 
of the reformation, ceased to exist as an 
order. The mendicant orders, created by the 
papacy for its own political purposes, are 
the Carmelites, who pretend to derive their 
origin from the Jewish prophets that dwelt 
in Mount Carmel; the Augustinians, a re¬ 
vival, in the 11th century, of the order sup¬ 
posed to have been founded by Augustine 
in the 4tli; the Dominicans, founded by 
Dominick in the 13th century; and the 
Franciscans, by Francis of Assisi, also in 
the 13th century. To these may be added 
| the Jesuits, instituted by Ignatius Loyola 



























ordinary] 5Ti)C fi'ctcnttfic atttt 516 


in the 16th century; and a number of others 
of inferior note, which have been devised 
and established, from time to time, as the 
energy of those already existing dimi¬ 
nished, their zeal cooled down, or their cha¬ 
racters became impaired. 

OR'DINARY (ordinarhis, usual: Lat.), a 
term employed in the church of Rome, to 

designate the bishop of the diocese.-In 

English Law, it means an ecclesiastical 
judge—a bishop, as judge in his diocese ; an 
archbishop, for the purpose of appeal, in 

his province.- Ordinary, in the Court of 

Sessions in Scotlrmd, a judge who, as the 
case may be, decides with or without a 

jury.-In the Navy, a term applied to the 

shipping not in actual service.- Ordi¬ 

nary op Newgate, a clergyman who is 
attendant in ordinary upon the prisoners 
in that gaol, preaches and reads prayers in 
the chapel, and attends and prays with 
condemned malefactors at the place of ex¬ 
ecution.- Ordinary, in Heraldry, a por¬ 

tion of the escutcheon, included between 
straight or other lines ; it should comprise 
the fifth of the shield. The chief ordinaries 
in common use are the pale, fesse, bend, 
bar, saltier, chevron, and cross [which see]. 
They are generally, but not necessarily, 
bounded by straight lines. If the lines are 
serrated, the ordinary is indented; other 
deviations from the straight line are termed 
ingrailed, invected, &c. When an ordinary 
has two sides, but is varied only on the 
upper, it is said to be superingrailed, super- 
invected, &c.; if only on the lower, subin- 
grailed, subinvected, &c. 

OR'DINATE ( ordino , I arrange : Lat.), in 
Geometry, a straight line drawn from any 
point in a curve, perpendicular to another 
straight line called the absciss. The absciss 
and ordinate together are called co-ordinates 
of the point. 

ORDINATION ( ordinatio, from ordino, I 
appoint to office : Lat.), the conferring holy 
orders, or initiating a person into the priest¬ 
hood. In the church of England, the first 
thing necessary on application for holy or¬ 
ders is the possession of a title—that is, a 
means of support as a clergyman. The 
candidate is examined by the bishop, or his 
chaplain, respecting both his faith and his 
erudition; and must produce various certifi¬ 
cates, particularly one signed by the clergy¬ 
man of the parish in which he has resided 
during a given time ; he must subscribe to 
the thirty-nine articles; must have attained 
liis twenty-third year before he can be or¬ 
dained a deacon, and his twenty-fourth to 
receive priest’s orders. The ceremony of 
ordination is performed by the bishop, by 
the imposition of hands on the person to 
be ordained. The Roman Catholic church 
holds ordination to be a sacrament. It 
also requires a title, as a preservative 
against the multiplication of clergymen be¬ 
yond their means of support; but this, in 
numerousinstances, is evaded, as ordination 
is conferred with imaginary titles—for in¬ 
stance, that of poverty ( titulum paupertatis). 
The term ordination, in the Presbyterian 
church,is applied exclusively to the solemn 
act by which a licensed preacher or proba¬ 
tioner is inducted into the charge of a par¬ 


ticular parish. Hence, in the Scottish 
church, a clergyman can be ordained more 
than once. 

ORD'NANCE, a general name for artillery 
of every description. A large amount of 
inventions has been applied to the con¬ 
struction of ordnance, either with a view 
to getting a maximum of strength from a 
minimum of material, or of making it carry 
a very large ball. It requires to be very 
carefully cast, and the toughest quality of 
metal is employed. Some guns have hot 
rings of metal slipped upon them, in order 
to strengthen them. Guns are cast in a 
solid piece, and are afterwards bored by 
machinery, some being rifled ; and breech¬ 
loading contrivances are frequently adopt¬ 
ed, but they have a tendency to weaken 
the gun. 

ORES, a general name for metals as they 
are dug out of the earth, where they are 
found in the four following states:—1. 
pure, that is, by themselves, or as alloys 
in combination with other metals; 2. as 
sulphurets, or in combination with sulphur; 
3. as oxides, or in combination with oxygen ; 
and 4. as salts, that is, in combination with 
acids. Metallic ores, after being taken 
from the mines, in general pass through 
several processes before they are in a state 
fit for use. They are first washed in run¬ 
ning water, to clean them from loose earthy 
particles, and picked, to get rid of worthless 
stones, for which purpose the masses are 
previously reduced to a smaller size if too 
large. They are then crushed by hand or 
machinery, and sifted by contrivances of 
various kinds. When necessary, the ores 
are next roasted in heaps in the open air, 
between low walls, or in furnaces. Roast¬ 
ing in the open air is practised with iron 
ores, and such as are pyritous or bitu¬ 
minous. Roasting between walls is em¬ 
ployed with pyritic sands, and, in general, 
with all ores containing arsenic, sulphur, 
&c., which are to be exposed several times 
to the action of fire. Furnaces are employed 
in roasting iron ones, and all others which 
are in the state of fine powder, or when the 
roasting is intended to be very perfect. 
The various metals are subjected to differ¬ 
ent processes for their reduction. Some 
are operated on without difficulty; others 
require much art, and the addition of 
proper fluxes. The substances naturally 
combined with metals, and which mask 
their metallic characters, are chiefly 
oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, 
selenium, arsenic, water, and carbonic 
acid. But some metals, as gold, silver, 
and platinum, often occur native—that is. 
in the metallic state, either alone, or 
forming alloys by being in combination 
with other metals. [See Metals, Mines, 
&c.] 

OR'GAN ( organon, an instrument: Gr.), 
an apparatus designed for the production 
of some certain action or operation; in 
which sense, the mechanical powers, and 
even the veins, arteries, nerves, muscles, 
and bones of the human body, mav be called 
organs. The organs of sense are those parts 
of the body by which we receive the im¬ 
pressions or ideas of external objects; thus. 
























r 


517 


Ettrraru 


[ORGIA 


tlie ears are the organs of hearing, the 
nerves are the organs of perception and 
sensation, and the tongue is the organ of 

speech.-The ‘organic world’ comprises 

the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; mine¬ 
rals are not organized bodies. The various 
gradations of organized being, from man, 
through all the inferior animals, down to 
the most humble plant that grows, furnish 
a most curious and interesting subject of 
study.- Organ, in Music, a wind instru¬ 

ment, or rather a collection of instruments 
under the command of a single performer. 
It is a very ancient contrivance, but was 
little used until the 8th century. The first 
organ mentioned in history was a small 
portable instrument sent by the Emperor 
Constantine Copronymus to Pepin, the fa¬ 
ther of Charlemagne, in 757. St. Jerome 
mentions an organ with twelve pairs of 
bellows, which might be heard at the dis¬ 
tance of a thousand paces, or a mile, and 
another at Jerusalem which might be heard 
at the Mount of Olives. There is an organ 
in the cathedral at Elm, supplied by sixteen 
pairs of bellows ; it is 93 feet high and 28 
broad, and its largest pipe is 13 inches in 
diameter. The celebrated organ at Haarlem 
is 103 feet high and 50 broad; its great or¬ 
gan contains 16 stops; its upper manual, 15 
stops; and the pedals, of which the larg¬ 
est pipe is 38 feet long and 15 inches in 
diameter, 15 stops. The organ in the town- 
hall at Birmingham contains 63 stops; it 
lias four claviers or keyboards, and four 
miles and a half of trackers or wooden 
rods ; its largest pipe, 32 feet in length, is 
20i inches in diameter; and there are two 
octaves and a half of bells At the Industrial 
Exhibition in London, in 1851, an organ 
was exhibited having 77 stops and 4500 
pipes. The machinery of the organ is very 
superior to what it was in former times; 
it acts more easily, and as there is less 
leakage, the bellows do not require to be of 
the same power. Every part of it has been 
greatly improved. The size of an organ is 
usually expressed by the length of its 
longest pipe; thus, one of 32 or 16 feet. It 
generally consists, in reality, of two or more 
organs—the great organ, the choir organ, 
the swell organ, the pedals; each having 
usually its keyboard or clavier. The stops 
are contrivances for throwing one or more 
systems of pipes, or, as they may be very 
well termed, instruments, in or out of ac¬ 
tion, or combining them. And they receive 
their names from the kind of pipes with 
which they are connected, as the flute stop, 
the trumpet stop ; or from their object, as 
coupling stops, &c. The word stop is ap¬ 
plied also to the system of pipes itself; 
thus, the trumpet stop comprises all the 
trumpets belonging to the scale. There is, 
in all the stops, a different pipe for each 

note. . 

ORGAN'IC DISE'ASE (organikos, relat¬ 
ing to an instrument: Gr.), one in which 
the structure of some organ of the animal 
body is morbidly altered. In a functional 
disease, the secretions or functions only 

are changed. . 

ORGAN'IC REMA'INS (same deny.), a 
term given by geologists to the remains of 


animals and plants embedded in the strata 
of the earth. [See Geology, Fossils 
Palaeontology.] 

ORGANIZATION ( organizo , I organize 
Gr.), the act of forming or arranging the 
parts of a compound or complex, body in a 
suitable manner for use or service. Also 
the totality of the parts which constitute, 
and the laws which regulate, an organized 
body. 

ORGANOG'RAPHY ( organon , an instru¬ 
ment; and graphs, a writing: Gr.), the de¬ 
scription of the structure of plants, com¬ 
prehending the various forms of their tis¬ 
sues, the exact organization of their parts 
performing vital functions, the relation 
which one part bears to another, and the 
dependence of the whole upon a common 
system. 

ORGANOL'OGY ( organon, an instrument; 
and logos, a discourse : Gr.), that branch of 
physiology which specially treats of the 
different organs of animals, but more par¬ 
ticularly those of the human species. 

OR'GANON, BACON'S. The Novum Or¬ 
ganon Scientiarum, or New Method of 
studying the Sciences, forms , the second 
part of Lord Bacon’s general work, the In- 
stauratio Magna, first published in 1620. 
The Greek word organon signifies an instru¬ 
ment. His design was to lay before the 
world ‘the science of a better and more 
perfect use of reason in the investigation 
of things and of the true aids of the un¬ 
derstanding,’ but, unfortunately, he com¬ 
pleted only a small portion of the work he 
sketched. Bacon gave his method the 
name of induction, and he grounded it on 
the uniformity of the laws of nature, so that, 
to borrow the words of Hallam, in certain 
conditions of phenomena the same effects 
or the same causes may be assumed. He 
endeavoured to establish these words on a 
more exact and finer process of reasoning 
than partial experience can effect. For 
the recurrence of antecedents and conse¬ 
quences does not prove a necessary connec¬ 
tion between them,unless we can exclude the 
presence of all other conditions which may 
determine the event. Long and continued 
experience of such a recurrence, indeed, 
raises a probability of a necessary connec¬ 
tion; but the aim of Bacon was to super¬ 
sede experience in this sense and to find a 
shorter road to the result; and for this his 
methods of exclusion are devised. As 
complete and accurate a collection of facts 
connected with the subject of enquiry as 
possible is to be made out by means of that 
copious natural history which he contem¬ 
plated or from any other good sources. 
These are to be selected, compared and 
scrutinized according to the rules of natu¬ 
ral interpretation delivered in the second 
book of the Novum Organon, or such others 
as he designed to add to them; and if ex¬ 
periments are admissible these are to be 
conducted according to the same rules. Ex¬ 
perience and observation are the guides 
through the Baconian philosophy, which is 
the handmaid and interpreter of nature. 

OR'GIA (Gr., probably from erdo, I per¬ 
form sacred rites), in Antiquity, feasts and 
sacrifices performed in honour of Bacchus, 

































'Cljc Jrctcuttfic airtf 


513 


OEGUESj 


instituted by Orpheus, and chiefly cele¬ 
brated on the mountains by wild, distracted 
women, called Bacchce. These feasts were 
held in the night; hence the term ‘ noctur¬ 
nal orgies.’ [See Bacchanalia.] 

OR'GUES ( orgne , an organ : Fr — from the 
■appearance of the machine), in the Military 
art, a machine composed of several musket 
barrels united, by means of which several 
explosions are made at once, to defend 
breaches. [See Infernal Machine.] Also, 
long thick pieces of timber, pointed with 
iron, and hung over a gateway, to be let 
down in case of attack. 

ORICHAL'CUM (oros, a mountain; and 
chalkos, brass: GY.), in Antiquity, ametallic 
substance resembling gold in colour, but 
very inferior in value. It was known both 
to the Greeks and Romans ; and although 
it has been a matter of dispute what this 
metal could be, it is highly probable that it 
was either the same kind of composition as 
our brass, or a mixed metal very analogous 
to it. 

O'RIEL, in Gothic Architecture, a bay 
window, and sometimes, with early writers, 
a recess. .Oriel windows were usually orna¬ 
mented with tracery. The fine oriel in 
Wolsey’s Hall at Hampton Court may be 
cited as an example. 

O'RIENT ( oriens , rising: Lat.), in old 
Geography and Astronomy, the east, or 
eastern point of the horizon ; thus called, 
because it is the point where the sun rises. 

-In Surveying, to orient a plan is to 

mark its bearing with regard to the cardinal 
points. 

ORIENTALS ( orientalis , belonging to the 
east: Lat.), the natives or inhabitants of 
the eastern parts of the world. It is com¬ 
mon to give this appellation to the inhabit¬ 
ants of Asia from the Hellespont and Medi¬ 
terranean to Japan. 

OR'IFLAMME (auri Jlamina, a blaze of 
gold: Lat.), the old royal standard of France, 
originally the church banner of the abbey 
of St. Denis. It was a piece of red taffeta 
fixed on a gilt spear, in the form of a ban¬ 
ner, and cut into three points, each of 
which was adorned with a tassel of green 
silk. 

OR'IGENISTS, in Church History, follow¬ 
ers of Origen of Alexandria, a celebrated 
Christian writer, who lived in the third 
century, and held that the souls of men have 
a pre-existent state; that they are holy 
intelligences, and sin before they are united 
to the body; that the torments of the 
damned shall not be eternal, but that the 
devils themselves shall yet be happy, &c. 

ORIL'LON (Fr.), in Fortification, around 
mass of earth faced with a wall, raised on 
the shoulder of those bastions that have 
casemates, to cover the cannon of the re¬ 
tired flank. 

O'RIOLE ( aureolus, golden-coloured: 
Lat.), the Oriola galbula of ornithologists, a 
bird with yellow plumage, belonging to 
the family of thrushes which spends the 
summer in Europe, and the winter in more 
southern latitudes. There are other species 
well known in the United States of America 
for the richness of their plumage and the 
peculiar form of their nests. 


ORI'ON, in Astronomy, one of the forty- 
eight constellations arranged by Ptolemy. 
It is in the southern hemisphere, with re¬ 
gard to the ecliptic, but the equinoctial 
passes nearly across its middle. It contains 
seven stars, which are very conspicuous to 
the naked eye. Of these three are in a line 
and form the belt, pointing in one direc¬ 
tion to Sirius, the Dogstar, and in the 
other to the cluster of the Pleiades. Imme¬ 
diately below the belt is Rigel in the foot j 
of Orion. Above the belt are Bellatrix on 
the right shoulder and Betelguez on the 
left shoulder. South of the belt is a cluster 
of stars forming the sword or the nebula of 
Orion. The name Orion is of great anti¬ 
quity, and occurs in Job, Amos, and Isaiah. 

ORLAN'DO FURIO'SO, the title of Ludo¬ 
vico Ariosto’s great poem, published in 
1516 at Ferrara. There are forty-six cantos 
in ottava rima, and the subject is the 
fabulous adventures of the Christian 
Knights and Moorish paladins of Cliarle- 1 
magne’s age. The hero is Orlando (or J 
Rolando), the champion of the Christians, 
who had been the hero of a poem, entitled 
‘ Orlando Innamorato,’ by Boiardo, who had 
represented him in love with Angelica, a 
Saracen princess. Ariosto took up the 
story, and painted Orlando driven mad by 
jealousy, in which state he does many ab¬ 
surd acts, but is at last restored to hife 
senses by having his wits brought back to 
him from the moon! The war between 
Charlemagne and the Moors goes on 
throughout the poem, until the latter are 
driven out of France. There are besides 
many episodes, with abundance of giants, 
magicians, flying horses, enchanted pa- j 
laces, and other wild creations of the 
fancy; so that Cardinal Ippolito, to whom 
the poem was dedicated, may very well 
have asked the author, as it is reported he 
did, where he had picked up so many ab¬ 
surdities. The poem has been translated 
repeatedly into English, and most European 
languages possess translations. The Ita¬ 
lian reprints have been numerous, and its 
popularity amongst the writer’s country¬ 
men has been quite equal to that of Tasso’s 
epic, the Jerusalem Delivered ; although 
out of Italy the latter poem has perhaps 
been the greater favourite. 

OR'LOP (overloft: Tent.), in a ship of war, 
a platform of planks laid over the beams in 
the hold, on which the cables are usually 
coiled. It contains also sail-rooms, carpen¬ 
ters’ cabins, and other apartments. 

ORNITH'OLITE ( omis, a bird ; and litlios, 
a stone : GY.), a fossil bird. The name is 
also applied to stones of various colours, 
bearing the figure of birds. 

ORNITHOL'OGY (omis, a bird; and logos, 
a discourse: Or.), that branch of natural 
history which treats of birds, a class in the 
animal sub-kingdom. In the majority of 
birds every part of the frame is marked by 
lightness and buoyancy ; their plumage ad¬ 
mirably protects them from cold and mois¬ 
ture ; their wings, although of the lightest 
materials, are furnished with muscles of 
such power as to strike the air with great 
force, and to impel thei.rbodies forward with 
rapidity, whilst the tail acts as a rudder, by 

















519 Ettn*arj) 

which their course can he directed at plea¬ 
sure. The most characteristic part of a 
bird’s internal structure is that connected 
with its power of flight. The boues of the 
wing are those of the fore arm modified. 
The muscles which set the wings in motion 
are attached to a widely expanded sternum 
or breast bone, with which is connected the 
fork-like elastic bone called the furcula, or 
merry-thought, which serves, with the aid 
of the clavicles, to keep the wings apart in 
the act of flying. The voice of birds is a 
gift of nature, by which the greater part are 
distinguished from all the rest of the ani- 
j mal creation. At the bifurcation of the wind¬ 
pipe is a glottis supplied with appropriate 
muscles, called the lower or inferior larynx; 
it is here that the voice is formed ; the vast 
body of air contained in the air-cells con¬ 
tributes to the force, and the windpipe, by 
its form and movements, to the modifica¬ 
tion of the voice. The gift of song is be- 
i stowed on the male birds only, and their 
notes are mostly an expression of love; 
hence they are heard singing chiefly at the 
time of pairing. Almost all birds incubate 
or hatch their eggs, by keeping them at a 
uniform temperature by brooding over 
them ; and before laying, they are directed 
1 by instinct to the operation of building a 
1 nest or habitation for their young. Birds, 
although the most marked of all the classes 
of animals, resemble each other so closely 
in their general characters that their sub¬ 
division is extremely difficult. Various 
classifications have been proposed. The 
following is one of the latest. 1. Raptores 
j or Accipitres, birds of prey: as eagles, vul¬ 
tures, and hawks. These are a rapacious 
tribe, feeding on carcases, however putrid, 
but, unless pressed with hunger, seldom 
attacking living animals; they are bold, 
gregarious, fly slowly unless when very 
high in the air; and they have an exquisite 
sense of smell. 2. Insessores, or perching 
birds : as thrushes, nightingales, sparrows, 
larks, &c.; and, from including the smaller 
birds, they are sometimes termed Passeres. 
3. Scansores, or climbers: as parrots and 
woodpeckers. 4. Columbce, the dove and 
pigeon family. 5. Gallince or Rasores, gal¬ 
linaceous or game birds, including our 
barn-door fowls, pheasants, partridges, 
grouse, curassows, &c. 6. Strntltiones, in¬ 
cluding the ostrich, cassowary, emu, &c. 
In these the wings are so little developed 
that the birds are unable to fly. 7. Grallce 
or Grallatores, the wader3, including 
cranes, herons, snipes, plovers, rails, &c. 
8. Anseres or Natatores, web-footed birds, 
such as the swan, duck, auk, petrel, and 
gull. These orders are subdivided into se¬ 
veral families. 

ORNITHORHYN'CHUS ( ornis , a bird; 
and rhunchos, a beak: Gr.), an Australian 
four-footed animal of singular structure. 
Its skin is clothed with soft fur, the feet 
are webbed, and the mouth is furnished 
with a bill like a duck’s. It is a mammal 
allied to the kangaroos, about 20 inches in 
length. It lives in the neighbourhood of 
water, and its habits are very shy. 

OROG'RAPHY, or OROI/OGY (ores, a 
mountain; and grapho, I write, or logos, a 


Cl’CRStU‘|l. [ORTHOPTERA 


discourse: Gr.), physical geography as it 
relates to mountains. Descriptions of the 
height and form of mountains and their ; 
branches, the trending directions of moun¬ 
tain chains, and their relations to the rest 
of the country, belong to orography. As to 
the measurement of heights, see Hypso- 
metuy. 

OR'PIMENT ( anripigmentum, gold paint: 
Lat.), yellow sulphurct of arsenic: it is the 
basis of the paint called king's yellow. 

OR'RERY (from the Earl of Orrery, for 
whom the first was made), a machine repre¬ 
senting the motions, relative magnitudes, 
and distances of the bodies composing the 
solar system. It is calculated to impart a 
very imperfect, and even inaccurate, idea 
of what it is intended to represent. It dif¬ 
fers from the planetarium, in giving tho 
revolution of one or more of the satellites. 

OIl'RIS ROOT, the root of a white-flower¬ 
ing species of Iris, the Iris Florentina, a 
native of the south of Europe. It is ex¬ 
ported from the Mediterranean in consi¬ 
derable quantities, and is used in making 
perfumed powders, to which it communi¬ 
cates an odour resembling that of violets. 

OR'THODOX ( orthos, right; and cloxa, 
opinion: Gr.), having a right judgment in 
matters of religious faith. Every sect has 
its own notions of orthodoxy. 

ORTHODROM'ICS {orthos, right; anddfo-o- 
mos, a course: Gr.), in Navigation, the art 
of sailing on the arc of a great circle ; which 
is the shortest distance between two points 
on a sphere. 

ORTHO'EPY {orthos, right; epos, a word : 
Gr.), a right pronunciation of words. It 
refers to questions of sound, whereas or¬ 
thography refers to spelling. 

ORTHOG'N ATHO(JS {orthos, straight; 
gnathos, a jaw, Gr.), a term applied by com¬ 
parative anatomists to skulls such a3 those 
of the Calmucks, which have the profile of 
the face almost vertical; opposed to progna¬ 
thous. 

ORTHOG'RAPIIY {orthographia: from 
orthos, right; and grapho, I write : Gr.), in 
Architecture, a geometrical representation 

of an elevation or section of a building.- 

In Fortification, the profile or representa¬ 
tion of a work in all its parts, as it would 
appear if perpendicularly cut from top to 

bottom.-In Geometry, the art of drawing 

a front view of an object, so as to represent 
the height of each part; so called from its 
determining things by perpendicular lines 

falling on the geometrical plan.-In Gram- j 

mar, that division which teaches the nature 
and properties of letters, and the correct 
spelling and writing of words.— Ortho¬ 
graphic Projection of the Sphere, that projec¬ 
tion which is made upon a plane passing 
through the middle of the sphere, by an eye 
placed vertically at an infinite distance. In 
other words, every point of the hemisphere 
is referred to its diametral plane or base. 
In this projection only the central parts are 
truly represented; distortion increases as 
the edges of the map are approached. 

ORTHOP'TERA {orthos, straight; ptera, 
wings, Gr.), in Entomology, an order of 
four-winged insects with incomplete meta¬ 
morphoses. It includes the grasshoppers, 





















(CTjc Jmenttftc mrtf 520 


ORTIYE] 


locusts, crickets, and earwigs. The wings 
when present, for in some genera the fe¬ 
males never possess any, are leathery or 
membranous, traversed by numerous veins. 
The front pair usually lap more or less over 
each other. The hinder pair are nearly 
semi-circular in form, and their veins radi¬ 
ate from the point of attachment. When 
the insect is at rest they lie straight down 
j the back, instead of being folded trans- 
j versely as amongst the beetles. 

| OR'TIVE ( ortus , a rising : Lat.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, rising or eastern. The ortive ampli¬ 
tude of a planet is an arc of the horizon 
intercepted between the point where a star 
rises and the east point of the horizon— 
the point where the horizon and equator 
intersect. 

| ORTOLAN (Fr.), or Green-headed Bunt- 
I ing, the Fmberiza hortulana of ornitholo- 
I gists, a bird greatly esteemed for the deli- 
j cacy of its flesh, when in season. It belongs 
to the Fringillidce, and is a native of nortli- 
l ern Africa; but in summer and autumn it 
j visits southern, and sometimes even central 
; and northern, Europe. It is about the size 
j of a lark; and seems identical with the 
I miliaria of Varro, which was sold at such 
enormous prices to the epicures of Rome. 

ORYCTOG'NOSY, ORYCTOG'RAPHY, or 
ORYCTOL'OGY ( orulctos , digged out; and 
gnusis, knowledge; graplio, I write; or logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), that branch of science 

| which treats of fossil organic remains.- 

Also those parts of mineralogy which have 
for their object the classification, descrip¬ 
tion, nomenclature, and arrangement of 
! minerals. The terms are synonymous with 
mineralogy, which is almost always em¬ 
ployed. 

OS'CAN, an ancient Italian language 
spoken by the Samnites, who lived on the 
south of Rome, of which a few fragments 
remain. It had not entirely disappeared as 
a spoken tongue in the time of the earlier 
emperors. 

OSCILLA'TTON ( oscillatio , from oscillo, I 
swing: Lat.), in Mechanics, the vibration, 
or alternate ascent and descent, of a pen- 
; dulous body. In falling down the curve, it 
generates as much force as, but for the re¬ 
sistance of the air, and friction at the centre 
of motion, would carry it up to the height 
from which it descended ; and, were it not 
for these, it would continue to descend and 
ascend through equal spaces. Oscillations 
in small circular or in cycloidal curves are 
performed in equal times, the length of 
i which depends on the length of the pendu¬ 
lum, being proportional to its square root; 
j thus, a pendulum four times as long as an- 

j other will vibrate twice as slowly.-The 

| centre of oscillation is that point in a pen¬ 
dulous body at which all its matter being 
collected, the oscillations would still be 
performed in the same times. The axis of 
oscillation is a straight line passing through 
the point of suspension, parallel to the 
horizon, and perpendicular to the plane in 
, which the oscillation is made. 

' OSCULA'TION ( oscular, I kiss: Lat.), in 
Geometry, one curve is said to osculate 
another, when they are in contact in such a 
way that the greatest possible number of 


points are common to both.- Oscula¬ 

tion’, in Medicine, the intercommunication 
of blood-vessels. 

OSI'RIS, I'SIS, HO'RUS, the three prin¬ 
cipal deities of the Egyptian mythology. 
The first was worshipped under the form of 
bulls, and his statues frequently had the 
horns of a bull. A cow was sacred to Isis, 
who was considered the sister of Osiris, 
and her statues had horns. She was often 
represented holding a sistrum with a lotus 
on her head, and one of her statues bore 
the celebrated inscription, ‘ I am all that 
has been, that shall be; no mortal has ( 
hitherto taken off my veil.’ Horns was the ; 
son of Isis and Osiris, and he seems to have 
corresponded with the Apollo of the Greeks. 
He is often represented either as sitting on 
the lap of Isis, or as trampling on a croco¬ 
dile. 

OS'MAZOME (osme, odour; and zZmos, 
broth : Gr.), the extractive matter of mus¬ 
cular fibre, which gives its peculiar smell 
to roast meat, and its flavour to broth and 
soup. 

OS'MIUM ( osme, odour: Gr.—from the 
pungent smell of its volatile peroxide), a 
rare metal, generally found in the ores of 
platinum. It is, in the most compact state 
in which it has yet been obtained, of a 
bluish-white colour ; and though somewhat 
flexible in thin plates, it is easily powdered. 
It cannot be fused or volatilized, for when 
heated to redness it combines with the 
oxygen of the atmosphere and forms osmic 
acid, which has an irritating and dangerous 
vapour. The specific grav. of osmium is 
10; its equivalent 99’6. 

OS'PREY (orfraie: Fr.), or Fishing Hawk, 
the Pandion lialicetus of ornithologists, a 
bird of the falcon family inhabitingEurope 
and North America. It is nearly two feet 
in length. It feeds on fish, which it takes 
by suddenly darting upon them when near 
the surface of the water. 

OSSIFICATION (os, a bone; and facia, I 
make : Lat.), the formation of bone, or the 
change of any soft solid of the body into 
bone. 

OSSILE'GITJM (Lat.: from ossa, bones; 
and lego, I collect), in Antiquity, the act of 
collecting the bones and ashes of the dead 
after the funeral pile was consumed, which 
was performed by the friends or near re¬ 
lations of the deceased, who first washed 
their hands and unfastened their garments. 
■When all the bones were collected, they 
were washed with wine, milk, perfumes, and 
the tears of friends; after this ceremony 
was over, the relics were put into an urn, 
and deposited in a sepulchre. 

OSS'UARY ( ossuarium: Lat.), a place of 
deposit for the bones of the dead. 

OSTEOCOL'LA (osteon, a bone; and holla, 
glue: Gr.), a term applied to the glue ob- i 
tained from bones. 

OSTEOI/OGY (osteon, a bone; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), that part of anatomy 
which treats of the bones. j 

OSTRACISM (ostrakismos: Gr.) in Gre¬ 
cian Antiquity, a kind of popular judgment 
or condemnation among the Athenians by 
which such persons as had power and popu¬ 
larity enough to attempt anything against 
























521_ Ettcrary Cvca^ufj?. [ounce 



the public liberty were banished for a term 
of ten years. The punishment was called 
by this name from the Greek word ostrakon, 
which properly signifies a tile or shell; but, 
when applied to this object, it is used for 
the billet on which the Athenians wrote the 
names of the citizens whom they intended 
to banish, and which was a tile or a shell. 
If 6000 of the shells deposited in the place 
appointed were in favour of the banishment 
of the accused, it took effect; otherwise he 
was acquitted. After the expiration of ten 
years, the exiled citizen was at liberty to 
return to his country, and reeume posses¬ 
sion of his wealth and all his civil privileges. 
To this sentence no disgrace was attached ; 
for it was never inflicted upon criminals, but 
only upon those who had excited the jea¬ 
lousy or suspicion of their fellow-citizens, 
on account of the influence they had gained 
by peculiar merit, wealth, or other causes. 
Aristotle and Plutarch called ostracism 

* the medicine of the state.’ 

OS'TRICH ( autruclie: Fr.'), a bird distin¬ 
guished by its immense size and peculiar 
habits, as well as by the beauty and value 
of its plumage. The African or true ostrich 
C Siruthio Camelus ) is from seven to nine feet 
high from the top of its head to the ground; 
most of this, however, is made up by the 
great length of its neck. Its thighs and the 
sides of the body are naked, and the wings 
are so short as to be unsuited for flying. It 
is different from all other birds, in having 
only two toes, which correspond to the two 
outermost in the rest of the class. It in¬ 
habits the burning and sandy deserts of 
Africa in large flocks; and its speed in run¬ 
ning exceeds that of the fleetest horse, 
which renders the ostrich-hunter’s task ex¬ 
ceedingly laborious. In running, it dashes 
the stones behind it with great force. The 
female lays from ten to twelve eggs in a 
hole in the sand; and, although she does 
not incubate them continually, no bird has 
a stronger affection for its offspring, or 
watches its nest with more assiduity; al¬ 
ways brooding over her eggs at night, and 
leaving them only during the hottest part 
of the day. They are said to be a great de¬ 
licacy, and are prepared for the table in va¬ 
rious ways. One of them is equal in weight 
to eleven hen’s eggs. The digestive powers 
of the ostrich appear almost incredible,and 
its voracity is equal to its digestion. In 
South America there are two species of os¬ 
trich, both smaller than the African species. 

OT'TAVA RI'MA (Jtal.), the name givento 
the stanza in which the ‘ Orlando Furioso,’ 

* Gerusalemme Liberata,’ and mauy other 
Italian poems are written. There are eight 
lines and three rhymes. The first, third, 
and fifth lines rhyme together, and the 
second, fourth, and sixth ; the stanza then 
ends with a couplet. The rhyming words 
are trochees. 

OT'TER, the Lutra vulgans, a quadruped 
belonging to the family of Felidce, remark¬ 
ably sagacious in the construction of its 
dwelling under ground. It inhabits the 
banks of rivers, and feeds principally on 
fish. The feet are palmated, and the tail is 
half the length of its body, the fur of which 
is much esteemed. It is fierce and crafty 


when attacked, but may easily be tamed 
when young, and taught to catch fish. 
When the otter, in its wild state, has taken 
a fish, it carries it on shore, and devours 
the head and upper parts, rejecting the re¬ 
mainder. When hunted by dogs, it defends 
itself very obstinately, often inflicting on j 

them the severest wounds.-The Ameri- | 

can otter ( Lataxina mollis ) is taken in great 
numbers in Canada, nearly 20,000 skins ! 
having been sent to England in one year by 
the Hudson’s Bay company. Its habits are 
the same as those of the European species, 
but it is larger, and the fur much more 
valuable. The common mode of taking 
these animals is by sinking a steel trap near 

the mouth of their burrow.-The sea-otter 

C Enhydra marina ), which is a much larger 
species than the others, is about the size I 
of a large mastiff, and weighs 70 or 80 lbs. 
When in full season, the fur is a fine glossy 
black, and sells at very high prices in 
China, where the skins are usually obtained. 

It is exclusively found between the 49th 
and 60th degrees north latitude, and always 
frequents the coast. 

OT'TO, or AT'TAR OF RO'SES.the most 
agreeable perfume known ; being an aro¬ 
matic oil obtained from the flowers of the 
rose, but in such small quantities that half 1 1 
an ounce can hardly be procured from a 1 
hundred pounds of the petals. It is brought 
from Turkey and the East Indies; and, 
when genuine, is sold at a very high price, j 
It is frequently adulterated with some es¬ 
sential or fixed oil, or with spermaceti; but 
the adulteration may be detected bytesting 
it in a watch-glass, with a drop of sulphuric 
acid; if the otto is pure, it will remain 
colourless; if adulterated, it will be dark¬ 
ened. It is chiefly manufactured at Ghazee- 
pore, a place celebrated throughout India ! 
for the beauty and extent of its rose-gar- j 
dens, which occupy many hundred acres. 
The otto is obtained, after the rose-water j 
is made, by setting it out during the night, 
until sunrise, in large open vessels, exposed 
to the air, and then skimming off the es- j 
sential oil which floats on the top. To pro- ! 
duce one rupee’s weight of otto, 200,000 
well-grown roses are required. The juice, 
even on the spot, is extremely dear, a 
rupee’s weight being sold at the bazaar for 1 
81, sterling, and at the English warehouse j 
for 101. 

OT'TOMAN, an appellation given to what 
pertains to the Turks or their government; 
as, the Ottoman power or empire. The word 
derived its origin from Othman, the name 
of a sultan who assumed the government 

about the year 1300.-A peculiar kind of 

sofa much used in Turkey, and introduced j 
into Europe. 

OUNCE ( uncia: Lat., in general the 
twelfth part of anything), in Commerce, j 
a weight of different amounts: in avoir- J 
dupois weight, it is the sixteenth part of a 
pound, or 437i grs.; in troy weight, the 
twelfth part of a pound, or 480 grs.; in 
apothecaries’ weight, it is equal to eight 

drams.- Ounce, in Zoology, the Leopn^-dm 

uncia, an animal inhabiting the mountain¬ 
ous regions of Asia. Its tail is long and 
thick, the spots on the thick fur are pale 






























outlawry] 


Oje Jrcumttftc xri# 


5 22 


and of irregular shape. It approaches the 
leopard in size. The jaguar of South 
America is sometimes called the (Xmce. 

OUT'LAWRY, the putting a man out of 
the protection of law ; or the process by 
which a man is deprived of that protection. 
To kill an outlaw is murder, unless it hap¬ 
pens in an attempt to apprehend him ; any 
one may arrest an outlaw, on a criminal 
prosecution, for the purpose of bringing 
him to be dealt with according to law. 
Outlawry is a punishment inflicted for a 
contempt, in refusing to be amenable to 
the jurisdiction of a competent court. It 
is issued against a defendant, after he has 
been live times proclaimed at a county 
court; but, should he have previously left 
the kingdom, he can set it aside, by a writ 
of error, or on motion. In civil cases, the 
effect of outlawry is a forfeiture of personal 
goods and chattels at once; and of chattels 
real, and profits of lands, when found on 
inquisition. 

OUT'RIGGER, in Nautical language, any 
projecting spar, or piece of timber, used for 
extending ropes or sails, or for any other 
temporary purpose. 

OUT'WORKS, in Fortification, all those 
works of a fortress which are situated with¬ 
out the principal wall, within or beyond the 
principal ditch. They are designed not only 
to cover the body of the place, but also to 
keep the enemy at a distance, and prevent 
his taking advantage of the depressions and 
elevations usually found in the places about 
the counterscarp, which might serve either 
as lodgments, or as rideaux, to facilitate 
the carrying on trenches, and planting bat¬ 
teries against the place : such are ravelins, 
tenailles, horn-works, crown-works, &c. 

O'VAL (ovum, an egg : Lat.), an oblong 
curvilinear figure, resembling the longi¬ 
tudinal section of an egg. The mathema¬ 
tical oval, which is a regular figure equally 
broad at each end, and therefore not strictly 
egg-shaped, is called an ellipsis. 

O'VATE (ovatus, shaped like an egg: 
Lat), cgg-sliaped, as an ovate leaf. 

OVATION (ovatio, from ovis, a sheep: 
Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, a lesser triumph 
allowed to commanders who had obtained 
a bloodless victory, or defeated an incon¬ 
siderable enemy. It derived its name from 
sheep being sacrificed on such occasions, 
instead of bullocks, which were the victims 
in a triumph. Ovations, but not triumphs, 
were permitted in civil wars. 

OVERRA'KE, in sea language, a term 
signifying that the waves break in upon a 
ship lying at anchor; as, the waves overrake 
her, or she is overralced. 

O'VERT ACT (ouvert , open : Fr.), in Law, 
a plain and open matter of fact, serving to 
prove a design; distinguished from a secret 
intention not carried into effect, and even 
from words spoken. An overt act must be 
alleged in every indictment for high trea¬ 
son. 

O'VERTURE (ouverture: Fr.), in Music, a 
prelude or introductory symphony, chiefly 
used to precede great musical compositions, 
as oratorios and operas; and intended to 
prepare the hearer for the piece which is to 
follow, often by concentrating its chief 


--- j 

musical ideas, so as to give a sort of outline 
of it in instrumental music. 

O'VIDUCT (ovum, an egg; and duco, I 
conduct : Lat), in Natural History, a pas- j 
sage which conveys the egg from the ovary ! 
to the uterus, or to an external outlet. In i 
the Mammalia, it is termed the Fallopian I 
tube, from Fallopius having first described 
that of the human subject. 

OVIPOS'ITOR (ovum, an egg; and potto, 

I place : Lat), in Entomology, the organ by 
which an insect conducts the eggs into the 
appropriate nidus. It is frequently armed 
at the extremity with a piercing apparatus. 

OV'OLO (Ital.; from ovum, an egg : Lat), 
in Architecture, a convex moulding, the 
section of which is usually the quarter of a 
circle, and often called the epuarter-round 
The Grecian ovolo resembles more the 
form of an egg. 

OWL, the name of birds belonging to the 
large family Strigidce. Owls are distin¬ 
guished by having a large head, very large 
eyes encircled by a ring of fine feathers, 
and a harsh screeching voice. From the 
enormous size of the pupils of their eyes, 
they are enabled to see well in the night, 
but in the day their sense of sight is im¬ 
perfect; hence during this time they keep 
concealed in some secure retreat. Their 
hearing is very acute, and their plumage 
soft and loose, enabling them to fly without 
noise, and thus to come on their prey in an 
unexpected manner. They breed in fissures 
of rocks, or in holes of trees, and feed on 
small birds, mice, bats, &c. There are many 
species; but the most common in this 
country isthebarn owl, Strix flammea, which 
frequents barns, towers, churches, old 
ruins, &c., generally leaving its haunts 
about twilight, and exploring the neigh¬ 
bouring woods for its prey during the 
night. The tawny owl, Syrnium aluco, is 
the one with the well-known hooting call, 
to-ivoo. The great horned owl of America, 
Bubo virginianus, with a tuft of feathers at 
each ear, is nearly as large as the golden 
eagle. 

O WL'ING (so called from its being usually 
carried on in the night) was the offence of 
transporting wool or sheep out of England, 
contrary to the statute. It was formerly a 
capital crime; but the law has been re¬ 
pealed. 

OX (oclis: Ger.) The common ox, Bos 
Taurus, has a flat forehead, and round horns 
placed at the two extremities of aprojecting 
line which separates the front from the 
occiput; the horns, however, differ so much 
in their form and direction in the numerous 
varieties, that no specific characteristic can 
be based upon them. There is scarcely any 
part of this valuable animal that is not use¬ 
ful to mankind. Its flesh is the principlo 
article of animal food; the horns are con¬ 
verted into combs, knife-handles, &c.; the 
bones form a cheap substitute for ivory; the 
blood is employed in the manufacture of 
Prussian blue; the hide is made into astror.g 
leather; the hair is used by plasterers, and 
the fat is employed in the formation of 
candles and soap. Besides the different 
varieties of the common ox produced by 
domestication, there are several others, 






























523 Cttrrarn 


as the Abyssinian ox, having the horns 
pendulpus, adhering only to the skin, and 
the African ox, having the body snowy, and 
hoofs black, &c. 

OX'ALATE, in Chemistry, a salt formed 
by a combination of oxalic acid with a base, 
as tine oxalate of ammonia. 

OXAL'IC A'CID ( oxalis , sorrel; from oxus, 
sour: Gr.), in Chemistry, an acid first ob¬ 
tained from sorrel, but now readily pro¬ 
duced by the action of nitric acid on sugar. 
It is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and 
hydrogen. It is a violent poison, and has 
sometimes been swallowed by mistake for 
Epsom salts ; from which, however, it is 
distinguishable by its intensely sour taste. 
The best antidote, in such cases, is a mix¬ 
ture of chalk and water, which may be 
effective if swallowed at once. Oxalic acid, 
as also its salts in solution, give an insoluble 
precipitate with solutions containing lime, 
or its salts ; and hence oxalic acid and lime, 
or its salts, are employed as tests for each 
other. 

OX'ALIS (sorrel: Gr.), in Botany, a genus 
of plants, nat. ord. Oxalidacece. The species 
have tuberous roots and trifoliate leaves. 
The common oxalis {O. acetosella) has been 
thought to be the Shamrock, as it flowers 
about St. Patrick’s day. Some of the species 
have sensitive leaves, and of others the tu¬ 
bers are eaten as a substitute for potatoes. 

OX'IDE ( oocus , sharp; and eidos, form: 
Gr.), the combination of a simple or com¬ 
pound element with oxygen, in smaller 
quantity than is required to produce 
acidity. To designate oxides having pro¬ 
gressively increasing quantities of oxygen, 
the first syllables of the Greek numerals are 
prefixed: thus, protoxide, deutoxide, tritox- 
ide, &c. And hyper, or per, is used with the 
oxide containing it in the largest quantity, 
as per-o&ide of iron. When the combination 
is equivalent to an atom of the base united 
with an atom and a half of oxygen, it is a 
sesqui-oxide. 

OX'YGEN, or OX'YGEN GAS {oxus, acid; 
and gennao,! produce: Gr.—from being at 
first considered the only cause of acidity), 
in Chemistry, a permanently elastic fluid. 
Invisible, inodorous, and a little heavier 
than atmospheric air. It is the respirable 
part of air, and was called dephlogisticated 
air, also vital air, from its being essential 
to animal life; but it received its present 
name from its property of giving acidity 
to compounds in which it predominates. 
Cteygen is the most extensively diffused of 
material substances. In union with azote 
or nitrogen, it forms atmospheric air, of 
which it constitutes about a fifth part. 
Water contains eight ninths by weight of 
it, and it exists in most vegetable and ani¬ 
mal products, acid salts, and oxides. It is 
also a very energetic agent, and the history 
of its properties and combinations forms the 
most important subject in chemistry. Oxy¬ 
gen gas nowhere exists pure and uncom¬ 
bined ; hence certain processes are required 
to obtain it in an insulated form; these con¬ 
sist, chiefly, in applying heat to some of its 
compounds, in which it is retained by a 
weak attraction. Itsmost striking property 
Is that of exciting and supporting combus- 


Creagurj). [oyster 


tion. A candle or wax taper, freshly extin 
guished, is relighted on being immersed in 
a jar of this gas. A partially kindled piece 
of charcoal, on being introduced into it, in¬ 
flames with great rapidity and brilliancy. 
But the most interesting example of com¬ 
bustion in this gas is that of iron or steel 
wire, which only require to have their tem¬ 
perature elevated, by the previous ignition 
of a piece of sulphur and a small bit of iron 
turnings, attached to them at the extre¬ 
mity, in order to be kindled into the most 
vivid and intense combustion, burning 
with sparks and scintillations. The sulphur 
ignites the iron turnings, and the latter the 
iron or steel wire. Atmospheric air sus¬ 
tains life only from the oxygen it contains; 
the exhausted blood abstracts it from the 
atmosphere by means of the respiratory ap¬ 
paratus, giving off at the same time carbonic 
acid gas. But pure oxygen proves too 
highly stimulating for animal existence. 

OX'YGON {oxus, sharp ; and gonia, an 
angle : Gr.), in Geometry, a triangle having 
three acute angles. 

OX'YMEL {oxus, acid ; and meli, honey : 
Gr.), a syrup made of honey and vinegar 
boiled together. It possesses aperient and 
expectorant qualities, and is sometimes 
made a vehicle of medicines. 

OXYMO'RON {Gr: from oxus, clever; and 
moros, foolish—because, though the expres¬ 
sion is seemingly incorrect, it is really 
accurate), a Rhetorical figure, in which an 
epithet of a quite contrary signification is 
added to a word : as tender cruelty. 

OXYMURIAT'IO A'CID, in Chemistry, 
the name by which chlorine was formerly 
known ; being at first considered.,-! com¬ 
pound of oxygen and muriatic acid. 

OXYO'PIA {oxuopia: from oxus, sharp ; 
and ops, the eye : Gr.), the faculty of seeing 
more acutely than usual. The proximate 
cause is a preternatural sensibility of the 
retina; and it has been sometimes known 
to precede the gutta serena. 

O'YER AND TER'MINER {oyer, to hear; 
and terminer, to end: Norm. Fr.), a court 
which, by virtue of the kiug’s commission, 
hears and determines certain specified 
offences. 

0 YES (corrupted from the French oyez, 
‘hear ye’), the expression used, by the 
crier of a court, in order to enjoin silence, 
when any proclamation is made. 

OYS'TER (oestcr: Butch), a well-known 
edible shell-fish, belonging to the genus 
Ostrea. In many places oysters are planted, 
as it is called; that is, large artificial beds 
are formed in favourable situations, where 
they are permitted to fatten and increase. 
They attain a size fit for the table in about 
a year and a half and are in their prime at* 
three years of age. The best British oysters 
are said to be those found near Purfleet, 
and the worst near Liverpool. They are 
brought from the coasts of the maritime 
counties, and planted on beds along the 
6hore ; they thrive best in a mixture of 
salt and fresh water. About 200 small ves¬ 
sels are employed in dredging for oysters. 
British oysters were highly prized by the 
ancient Romans, and were generally eaten 
at the beginning of the entertainment. 
























CTjc ^ctenltftc antf 


524 


OZONE] 


OZO'NE ( ozo, I have a smell: Gr.), a sub¬ 
stance occasionally existing in the atmo¬ 
sphere, and having a peculiar odour resem¬ 
bling that produced when repeated electric 
sparks, or electric discharges from a point, 
are transmitted through the air. It is sup¬ 
posed to he an allotropic form of oxygen. 
It is also formed in certain cases of the slow 
action of air upon phosphorus. The ozone 
existing from time to time in the atmo¬ 


sphere has been supposed to have an influ¬ 
ence on the health of the community, and 
observations with regard to it are fre¬ 
quently made by means of an appara¬ 
tus called an ozonometer, the essential 
part of which consists of strips of paper 
steeped in a mixture of starch and iodide 
of potassium. Ozone turns the paper 
brown, the tint varying with the quantity 
of ozone. 


P 


P, the sixteenth letter and twelfth con¬ 
sonant of the English alphabet, is a labial 
articulation, formed by expressing the 
breath somewhat more suddenly than in 
emitting the sound of b. When p stands 
before t or s, it is mute, as in the words 
psalm, psychology, ptarmigan, &c.; and 
when before h, the two letters thus united 
have the sound of /, as in philosophy. As 
an abbreviation, in Latin words, P. stands 
for Patres: as P. 0. Patres Conscripti (con¬ 
script fathers). For Publius: P. F. Publii 
Filins (the son of Publius). For Pontifex: 
P. M. Pontifex Maximus (chief priest). For 
Populus : P. R. Populus Romanus (the Ro¬ 
man People); and S.P.Q.R. Senatus Popu- 
lusqiie Romanus (the senate and people of 
Rome), &c. We use it for post, as P. M. Post 
Meridiem (after noon); and for Parliament, 
as M.P. Member of Parliament. Physicians for 
partes, as P.A3. partes cequales (equal parts 
of the ingredients); ppt., for prcvparatus 

(prepared), &c.-In Music, p. stands for 

piano, or softly ; pp. for piil piano, or more 
softly; and ppp. for pianissimo, or very 
softly. 

PAB'ULUM ( Lat., from pascor, I feed). 
In Medicine, such parts of our common 
aliments as are necessary to recruit the 
animal fluids. 

PA'CA, the Ccelogevys Paca of zoologists, 
a small rodent animal of America, bearing 
some resemblance both to the capybaras 
and agoutis. It is sometimes called the 
spotted cavy. It is a burrowing nocturnal 
animal, living in damp woods and feeding 
on vegetables. 

PACE (pas: Fr.), the space between the 
two feet of a man in walking, usually 
reckoned two feet and a half ; but the geo¬ 
metrical pace, or the whole space passed 
over by the same foot from one step to 
another, is five feet. The ancient Roman 
pace, the thousandth of a mile, was five 
Roman feet, or about 58T English inches; 
and hence the Roman mile, or mille passus, 
was 1614 yards, or nearly 150 yards less than 
the English mile, 

PACHA', or PASHAW' (padi shah, the 
foot of the shah : Pers.), the military gov¬ 
ernor of a Turkish province. The most 
distinguished of the pachas have threa 
horsetails carried before them : the infe¬ 
rior, two. Though the pasha is appointed 


and removed at the will of the sultan, his 
power is very great, and the provincial 
administration is in his hands. This word 
is also written bashaic. 

PACHYDER'MATA (pachus, thick ; and 
derma, a skin : Gr.), in Zoology, the name 
given by Cuvier to an order of mammalia 
corresponding with the family of Flephan- 
tidee of later writers. It comprehended the 
elephant, mastodon or North American 
mammoth, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, ta¬ 
pir, hog, &c. 

PACIF'IC (pacificus, peaceful: Lat.), the 
appellation given to the ocean situated be¬ 
tween America on the east, and Asia and 
Australia on the west; so called on account 
of its supposed exemption from violent 
tempests. It is the greatest expanse of 
water on the globe. 

PA'CO, or PA'COS, the Alpaca of South 
America. 

PAD'DOCK-PIPE ( pada, a toad : Sax.), in 
Botany, a plant of the genus Equisetum. 

PA'DDOCK-STOOL (same denv.), a name 
sometimes given to various species of fun¬ 
gus, the toadstools. 

PAD'ISHAH (pad, protector ; and shah, 
prince: Pers.), a title assumed by the Turk¬ 
ish sultan. Formerly the Ottoman Porte 
applied that name only to the king of 
France, calling the other European sove¬ 
reigns horal; but it has since been given to 
other princes of Europe. 

P-ZE'AN (paian: Gr.), among the ancients 
a song of rejoicing in honour of Apollo, 
chiefly used on occasions of victory and 
triumph. Such songs were named paeans, 
because the words Io Pcean! which alluded 
to Apollo’s contest with the serpent, fre¬ 
quently occurred in them.-Also, a song 

to Mars before battle. 

PHil'DOBAPTISTS (pais, a child ; and bap- 
tizo, I dip : Gr.), those who hold that bap¬ 
tism should be administered to infants—a 
term applicable to most Christians. 

PiE'ONY ( paidnia : Gr.), the Pceonia of 
botanists, a genus of plants belonging to 
the natural family Ranunculacece, well 
known for their handsome flowers. The 
species are chiefly herbaceous, having 
perennial tuberose roots, and large leaves. 
The flowers are solitary, and of a crimson, 
purplish, or sometimes white colour. The 
ancients attributed many wonderful pro- 



































525 Etearn Crcas'um [fainting 

perties to this plant, but it has long since 

lost all such reputation.-The tree-pseony, 

called in China mou-tan, is cultivated in 
that country with great care; and many 
varieties of it are produced, of all colours. 

PA'GANISM, the religion of the heathen 
world, in which the deity is represented 
under various forms, and by all kinds of 
images or idols ; it is therefore called idola¬ 
try or image worship. The theology of the 
pagans was of three sorts—fabulous, natu¬ 
ral, and political or civil. The fabulous 
treats of the genealogy, worship, and attri¬ 
butes of their deities, who were for the 
most part the offspring of the imagination 
of poets, painters, and statuaries. The nat¬ 
ural theology of the pagans was studied 
and taught by the philosophers, who re¬ 
jected the multiplicity of gods introduced 
by the poets, and brought their ideas to a 
more rational form. The political or civil 
theology of the pagans was instituted by 
legislators, statesmen, and politicians, to 
keep the people in subjection to the civil 
power. This chiefly related to their tem¬ 
ples, altars, sacrifices, and rites of worship. 
The word pagan (pagus, a district: Lot.), 
was originally applied to the inhabitants of 
the rural districts, who, on the first propa¬ 
gation of the Christian religion, adhered 
to the worship of false gods, or who refused 
to receive Christianity after it had been 
adopted by the inhabitants of the cities. 
In the middle ages, this name was given to 
all who were not Jews or Christians, they 
only being considered to belong to a true 
religion ; but in more modern times, Mo¬ 
hammedans, who worship the one supreme 
God of the Jews and Christians, are not 
called pagans. 

PAGE, a young person attached to the 
service of a royal or exalted personage. In 
ancient Persia it w r as used for a number of 
noble youths to attend on the sovereign; but 
this custom was not adopted by the Greeks 
or Romans. It was common among the 
northern nations of Europe, and until a 
comparatively recent period the position 
was one of servitude and inferiority. When, 
however, the young noblemen passed 
through the degree of page to the honours 
of knighthood, and the custom of bringing 
up the sons of noble families as pages at 
court became prevalent, the condition of a 
page was altered; and his office was con¬ 
tinued after chivalry had disappeared. The 
pages in the royal household are various, 
and they have different offices assigned 
them : as pages of honour, pages of the 
presence-chamber, pages of the back-stairs, 
&c. 

PAGO'DA ( poutghad , a house of an idol: 
Pers.), a Hindoo place of worship, contain¬ 
ing an idol. It consists of three portions : 
an apartment surmounted by a dome, rest¬ 
ing on columns, and accessible to all; a 
chamber into which only Brahmins are 
allowed to enter; and,lastly, a cell contain¬ 
ing the statue of the deity, closed by mas¬ 
sive gates. The most remarkable pagodas 
are those of Benares, Siam, Pegu, and par¬ 
ticularly that of Juggernaut, in Orissa. In 
the interior of these buildings, besides al¬ 
tars and images of the gods, there are many 

curiosities. The statues, which are likewise 
called pagodas, and which are often nume¬ 
rous, are usually rude figures of baked 
earth, richly gilt, but without any kind of 

expression.- Pagoda is also the name of 

a gold and a silver coin, current in different 
parts of Hindostan, and of a value varying 
from 8s. toSs. sterling. 

PA'GODITE, a name given to the mineral 
of which the Chinese make their statues; 
it is a kind of steatite or serpentine. 

PAINS AND PEN'ALTIES, Bill of, in 
Law, an act of parliament to inflict pains 
and penalties beyond or contrary to the 
common law, in the particular cases of great 
public offenders. 

PAINT'ING ( peinture : Fr.), the art of re¬ 
presenting objects in nature, or scenes in ! 
human life, with fidelity and expression. 
Coeval with civilization, it was practised 
with success by the Greeks and Romans; 
obscured for many ages, it revived in 
Italy in the 15th ceptury, producing the 
Roman, Venetian, and Tuscan schools; 
afterwards the German, Dutch, Flemish, 
French, and Spanish schools ; and, finally 
the English school. The painting of 
the Egyptians, as is evident from the 
specimens found in their tombs, was very 
rude; that of the Etruscans, as seen on 
their vases, was extremely elegant; that of 
the Greeks, from the praises bestowed on 
some of their productions by the ancients, 
must have had considerable merit; and that 
of the Romans, as evinced by what we find in 
Pompeii, must have attained a high degree 
of excellence. The art is distinguished into 
historical painting, portrait painting, land¬ 
scape painting, animal painting, marine 
painting, &c.; and, as regards the form and 
the materials, into painting in oil, water 
colours, fresco, distemper, miniature, mosaic, 

&c. -Historical painting is the noblest 

and most comprehensive of all branches of 
the art; for in that the painter vies with 
the poet, embodying ideas, and represent¬ 
ing them to the spectator. He must have 
technical skill, a practised eye and hand, 
and must understand how to group his well- 
executed parts so as to produce a beautiful 
composition; and all this is insufficient 
without a poetic spirit which can form a 
striking conception of an historical event, 
or create imaginary scenes of beauty. The 
following rules of criticism in painting have 
been laid down:—1. The subject must be 
well imagined, and, if possible, improved in 
the painter’s hands; he must think well as 
an historian, poet, philosopher, and more 
especially as a painter, in making a wise 
use of all the advantages of his art, and in 
finding expedients to supply its defects. 

2. The expression must be proper to the 
subject and the characters of the persons; 
it must be strong, so that the dumb-show 
may be perfectly and readily understood; 
every part of the picture must contribute 
to this end—colours, animals, draperies, 
and especially the attitudes of the figures. 

3. There must be one principal light, and this 
and all the subordinate ones, with the sha¬ 
dows and reposes, must make one entire and 
harmonious whole; while the several parts 
must be well connected and contrasted so 













pairing] 


®A)t ^ctenttftc antt 


526 


as to render tlie entire as grateful to the eye 
as a good piece of music to the ear. 4. The 
I drawing must be just; nothing must be out 
of place or ill-proportioned; and the pro¬ 
portions should vary according to the cha- 
j racters of the persons drawn. 5. The co¬ 
louring, whether gay or solid, must be 
natural, and such as delights the eye, in 
shadows as well as in lights and middle 
tints; and the colours, whether they are 
laid on thick, or finely wrought, must ap¬ 
pear to have been applied by a light and 
accurate hand. 6. Nature must be the 
; obvious foundation of the piece; but nature 
must be raised and improved, not only from 
what is commonly seen to what is rarely 
met with, but even yet higher, from a judi¬ 
cious and beautiful idea in the painter’s 
mind. 

PAIR'ING, that custom in the House of 
Commons, by which two members of oppo¬ 
site political opinions agree to absent them¬ 
selves from divisions of the house during a 
: certain period. 

PAL'ACE-COURT, a court erected by 
Charles I., and made a court of record, for 
administering justice in disputes between 
the domestic servants of the crown. It was 
held once a week before the steward of the 
household and knight-marshal; its jurisdic¬ 
tion extending twelve miles round White¬ 
hall. Malpractises having crept in, it was 
abolished in 1849. 

PAL'ADIN, in the romances of the middle 
ages, a lord, or chieftain. The name origi- 
| nated in that of the palatini, or officers of 
the palace, in the Byzantine court. It was 
appropriated by the Italian romantic poets 
to their heroes, the warriors of Charle¬ 
magne ; and was ultimately given to the 
knights-errant, who travelled from place 
to place to exhibit proofs of their valour 
and gallantry; extolling their own mis¬ 
tresses as unrivalled in beauty, and com¬ 
pelling those who refused to acknowledge 
the truth of their panegyrics to engage with 
them in mortal combat. Of this kind the 
most famous were Amadis of Gaul and the 
brave Roland or Orlando, the hero of 
Boiardo’s ‘ Orlando Innamorato,’ and Arlos- 
| to’s ‘ Orlando Furioso.’ 

PALiEOG'RAPHY ( palaios , ancient; and 
I graphs, a writing: Gr.), a description of an¬ 
cient writings, inscriptions, characters, &c. 

PAL/EOL'OGY ( palaios, ancient; and 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), a discourse or trea¬ 
tise on antiquities; or the knowledge of 
them. 

PAL2EONTOI/OGY (palaios, ancient: on, 
a being; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), that 
branch of the science of geology which 
embraces the study of fossil remains, whe¬ 
ther of animal or vegetable origin. 

PALZEOZO'IC (palaios, ancient; zoe, life: 
Gr.), a name given to the oldest groups of 
sedimentary strata, equivalent to the pri¬ 
mary period of some geologists. The Per¬ 
mian or Magnesian Limestone, the Carbo¬ 
niferous, the Devonian or Old Red Sand¬ 
stone, the Silurian, the Cambrian, and the 
Laurentian groups, belong to the Pale¬ 
ozoic series. In the Cambrian and Lauren- 
tiau divisions fossils are very scanty, and 
the lowest members have been much altered 


by heat, exhibiting what is termed rneta- 
morphic action. [See Geology.] 
PALZES'TRA (palaistra, from palaio, I 
wrestle: Gr.), in Grecian Antiquity, a public 
building, where the youth exercise them¬ 
selves in wrestling, running, playing at 
quoits, &c. According to some, the palcestra 
consisted of two portions, the one for 
exercises of the mind, the other for those 
of the body. 

PALANQUIN', or PALANKEE'N ( palkee: 
Hind.), a sort of litter or covered carriage, 
used in the East Indies, and borne on the 
shoulders of four porters called coolies, 
eight of whom are attached to it, and who 
relieve each other. Fresh bearers are ob¬ 
tained at certain stations on the road. Pa¬ 
lanquins are usually provided with a bed 
and cushions, and a curtain, which can be 
dropped when the occupant is disposed to 
sleep. The motion is easy, and the travel¬ 
ling, in this way, is safe and rapid. 

PAL'ATE (palatum: Lat.), in Anatomy, 
the roof or upper and inner part of the 
mouth. The glands in this part secrete a 
mucous fluid, which lubricates the mouth 
and throat, and facilitates deglutition. The 
‘hard palate’ is formed by the lower por¬ 
tions of the superior maxillary and palatal 
bones ; the ‘ soft palate ’ by the extension 
of membranous and muscular substance, 
unsupported by bones. 

PAL'ATINE (palatinus, belonging to the 
palatium, or emperor’s court: Lat.), an epi¬ 
thet applied originally to persons holding 
an office oi employment in the palace of the ! 
sovereign; hence it came to import possess- i 
ing royal privileges, as in the cases of the , 
counties palatine of Lancaster, Chester, and 
Durham, which have particular jurisdic- i 

tions.-On the continent, a palatine, or 

count palatine, is a person delegated by a ! 
prince to hold courts of justice in a pro¬ 
vince, or one who has a palace and a court 
of justice in his own house. All the princes 
of the German empire -were originally ser¬ 
vants of the Imperial crown. In course of 
time they acquired independent authority, 
and secured that authority to their heirs ; 
among these was the count-palatine, or of 
the palace, in the German language deno¬ 
minated the pfalzgraf. This officer was a 
president who decided upon appeals made 
to the emperor himself from the judgment 
of provincial courts. All titles, except 
that of lord, which is now complimentary, 
and once belonged to territory, were origi¬ 
nally official, as are those of judge, general, 
&c., at this day. When Charlemagne had 
extended the German empire, he sent per¬ 
sons to govern in the provinces, under the 
title of dukes—officers, probably, whoso 
duty was partly military, whence their de¬ 
nomination, which is synonymous with that 
of leaders or generals. Under the dukes, 
justice was administered’in each district of 
the province by a conies, count or earl; and 
from these courts lay the appeals already 
mentioned. 

PALE ( palus, a stake: Lat.), an instru¬ 
ment of punishment and execution among 
the ancient Romans, and still so among tho 
Turks. Hence impaling, the passing asliarp 
pale or stake upwards through the body 



































527 


Httcrarg Crea£urg» 


[pallium 


-Pale, in Heraldry, one of the honoura¬ 
ble ordinaries of an escutcheon; it is also 
the simplest, being bounded by two vertical 
lines, at equaldistancesfrom the sides of the 
escutcheon, of which it encloses one-third. 
The pallet is half the pale. A coat bisected 
| by a vertical line, with a different field on 
! each side of it, is said to be party (that is, 
divided) per pale. 

PALEA'CEOUS ( palea , chaff: Lat.), in 
Botany, an epithet for chaffy, or resembling 
chaff; as a paleaceous pappus, 
j PALIL'OGY ( palilogia : from palin, 
again ; and lego, I speak : Gr.), in Rhetoric, 
a repetition of a word, or portion of a sen¬ 
tence, for the sake of greater energy : thus, 
‘The living, the living shall praise thee.’ 
When the last word of a verse or of a para¬ 
graph is repeated, the figure is that species 
of palilogy called deuterologia. 

PAL'IMPSEST (palimpsestos: from palin, 
again; and psao, I wipe away: Gr.), a parch¬ 
ment twice prepared for writing. In con¬ 
sequence of the scarcity of materials for 
writing upon, it was not unusual, particu¬ 
larly in the middle ages, to erase one work 
that another might be written in its place. 
The ingenuity of the monks in erasing has 
been exceeded by that of the moderns in 
reviving the original writing, and thus re¬ 
covering some valuable works and frag¬ 
ments which had been considered as lost. 
Among these is the treatise of Cicero De 
Ilcpublicd, which was found under a com¬ 
mentary of St. Augustine on the Psalms. 

PAL'INDROME (palin, again; and dro- 
mos, a course: Gr.), in Composition, averse 
or line which reads the same backwards 
and forwards : thus, what is put in the 
mouth of Satan— Signa te, signa, temerb me 
tangis et angis (cross thyself, cross thyself 
you touch and torment me in vain); or, 
Roma, tibi subito motibus ibit amor (love 
shall suddenly turn to thee, Home, with 


deep emotion). 

PALINGEN'ESY (palingonesia, regenera¬ 
tion : from palin, again; and genesis, birth : 
Gr.), a terra used by entomologists to de¬ 
signate the transitions from one state into 
another, which are observed with insects, 
and in each of which the insect appears in a 

totally different form.-Also the doctrine 

of the destruction and reproduction of 
worlds and living beings; it had an oriental 
origin, though it seems to have been that 
of the stoics. In the New Testament (Tit. 
iii. 5 ), it means moral regeneration. 

PAL'INODE, or PAL'INODY (palinodia: 
from palin, again ; and ode, a song: Gr.), 
a recantation, particularly a poetical one, 
of anything dishonourable or false uttered 
against another person. 

PALISA'DES, or PALISA'DOES (palis- 
sade: Fr.; from palus, a stake: Lat.), in 
Fortification, an enclosure of stakes, or 
posts sharpened and set firmly in the 
ground, used to fortify the avenues of open 
forts, &c. They are generally nine or ten 
feet long, and sloped outwards from the 
work. Sometimes they cannot be seen by 
the enemy until he reaches them. 

PALISSE' (Fr.), in Heraldry, a bearing 
like a range of palisades before a fortifica¬ 
tion, represented on a fesse, rising up a 


considerable height, and pointed at the top, 
with the field appearing between them. I 

PAL'ISSY WAKE, a species of pottery 
originally made in France about 1555 by 
Bernard Palissy. The old ware is much 
prized by collectors, and is distinguished 
by the high relief of the figures and orna¬ 
ments. It has been successfully imitated 
of late years. 

PALL, in Heraldry, the pallium, or archie- 
piscopal ornament sent from Rome to the 
metropolitan bishops. 

FAL'LA (Lat.), in Antiquity, a long kind 
of mantle or upper garment worn by the 
Roman females, part of which was thrown 
over the left shoulder, and held fast under 
the arm. Tragic actors also wore the palla. 

PALLA'DIUM, a Trojan statue of the 
goddess Pallas, which represented her as 
sitting with a spear in her right hand, and 
in her left a distaff or spindle. On this 
statue the fate of the city was supposed to 
depend; for while this sacred image was 
retained, Troy was supposed to be invin¬ 
cible. Hence anything that affords effec¬ 
tual protection and security to our liber¬ 
ties, as the trialby jury, is called a palladium. 

-Palladium, in Mineralogy, a metal 

obtained in very small grains, of a steel- 
grey colour and fibrous structure, found 
associated with platina or in auriferous 
sand. When native, it is alloyed with a 
little platina and iridium. It is ductile and 
very malleable, superior to wrought iron in 
hardness; its spec. grav. is 1P8. It is 
oxidized and dissolved by nitric acid; its 
fusibility is intermediate between that of 
gold and platina. On exposure to a stiong 
heat, its surface undergoes a tarnish, and i 
becomes blue. 

PAL'LET, among Gilders, a tool for tak¬ 
ing up the gold leaf from the cushion, and 

applying or extending it.-In Heraldry, 1 

the diminutive of a pale, being one-half of 

its breadth.-In Horology, the pieces 

connected with tho pendulum or balance, 
which receive the immediate impulse of 
the swing-wheel or balance-wheel. They 
are-of various forms, according to the kind 
of escapement. -Among Mariners, a parti¬ 
tion in a hold.-Among Painters, a small 

oval tablet of wood or ivory, on which a 
painter plactes the several colours he has 
occasion to use. The middle serves for 
mixing the colours and making the tints 
required. It is held by putting the thumb 

through a hole made at one end of it.- 

Among Potters, crucible-makers, &c., a 
wooden instrument for forming and round¬ 
ing their works. 

PAL'LIUM (a cloak: Lat.), an upper gar¬ 
ment or mantle worn by the Greeks, as the 
toga was by the. Romans. Each of these 
was so peculiar to the respective nations, 
that Palliatus is used to signify a Greek, and 
Togatus a Roman. The pallium or pall was 
also the woollen mantle which the Roman 
emperors were accustomed, from the 4th 
century, to send to the patriarchs and pri¬ 
mates of the empire, and which was worn 

as a mark of ecclesiastical dignity.-The 

ornament sent by the pope to the arch¬ 
bishops of the Roman Catholic church, to 
the four Latin patriarchs, and sometimes 




























djc J'ltcnttfic anti 


52» 


pall-mall] 


to simple bishops. It consists of a collar, 
having a narrow flap edged with lead, 
covered with black silk, falling down be¬ 
fore and behind, and decorated with small 
crosses. It is made of the wool of the ten 
white lambs blessed at Rome on the fes¬ 
tival of St. Agnes. Formerly, archbishops 
were obliged to visit Rome for the purpose 
of being invested with it—a custom intro¬ 
duced by Gregory VII., when the papacy 
was at the height of its power; but now it is 
sent to them. All the Greek bishops wear 
the pallium. 

PALL-MALL, or PALLE MAILLE (Fr.), 
an ancient game, in which an iron ball was 
struck with a mallet, through a ring or arch 
of iron. It was formerly practised in St. 
James’s Park, and gave its name to the 
street called Pall-Mall (pronounced (Pell- 
Mell). 

PAT/MATED (palmatus: Lat.), shaped 
like a hand with spreading fingers. 

PALM'ER, a pilgrim who returned from 
the Holy Land, bearing branches of palm; 
he was distinguished from other pilgrims 
by his profession of poverty, and living on 
alms as he travelled. 

PALM'ER-WORM, a name given to the 
larvae of various species of coleoptera. 

PAL'MIPEDES {Lat: from palma, the 
palm of the hand ; and pes, a foot), in Or¬ 
nithology, a name given by Cuvier to an 
order of web-footed birds, corresponding 
to the Anseres of Linnaeus, and the Nata- 
tores or swimming birds of Illiger. 

PALM'ISTRY {palma, the palm of the 
hand : Lat.), a mode of telling fortunes by 
the lines of the hand ; a trick of imposture 
much practised by gipsies. 

PAL'MITIN, the principal constituent of 
fresh palm-oil. To obtain it, the liquid 
portions of the oil are separated from it 
by pressure; the solid part is then boiled 
with alcohol, to remove by solution any 
fat acids present; and the residue, which 
is palmitin, is purified by repeated crystal¬ 
lizations with ether. It is a mass of small 
crystals, which, when fused and cooled, is a 
semi-transparent mass that may be rubbed 
to powder. It is nearly insoluble, except 
in boiling ether. 

PALM'-OIL T REE, an African palm, the 
Flats gidneenzis, from the kernels of whose 
fruit is obtained a rich oil, which is brought 
to this country as a reddish-yellow solid, 
and is used in the manufacture of soap, 
candles, &c. 

PALM-SUN'DAY, the sixth Sunday in 
Lent, the next before Easter. The Roman 
Catholic church lias a festival on this day 
in commemoration of Christ’s triumphal 
entry into Jerusalem, when palm branches 
were strewn on the way. 

PALM'-WINE, a liquor obtained in the 
East Indies by the incision of a species of 
the palm. It is called toddy before it is 
fermented. 

PALMS {palma: Lat.), an order of endo¬ 
genous trees chiefly inhabiting tropical re¬ 
gions ; Linnaeus styled them the princes of 
the vegetable world, and Lindley avers that 
they are without doubt the most interesting 
plants in the vegetable kingdom, ‘if we 
consider the majestic aspect of their tower¬ 


ing stems crowned by a still more gigantic 
foliage; the character of grandeur which 
they impress upon the landscape of the 
countries they inhabit; their immense 
value to mankind as affording food and 
raiment and numerous objects of economi¬ 
cal importance ; or finally, the prodigious 
development of those organs by which their 
race is to be propagated.’ With regard to 
the last point he refers to the 12,000 male 
flowers of the Date palm, the 000,000 flowers 
upon a single individual of another, and 
the fruits borne by every bunch of the Seje : 
palm on the Oronoco. Their flowering j 
parts are arranged in threes, or one of the 
multiples of that number. The calyx has 
six divisions ; the stamens are six in num¬ 
ber ; and the fruit consists of a berry or 
drupe, composed of a substance sometime* 
hard and scaly, but of tener fleshy, or fibrous, 
surrounding a one-seeded nut. Though 
some species grow to a very great height, 
in others the stem rises only a few inches 
above the surface of the ground. Among 
the most useful of the palms may be men¬ 
tioned the cocoa-nut, the sago, and the 
date, the last of which occasionally reaches 
the height of 100 feet, sometimes growing 
spontaneously, and sometimes cultivated 
with great care. The caleu, or palm-wine 
of India, is made of its juice. At certain 
times of the year, they ascend the trees, by 
meansof a strap passed round the back, and 
a rope round the feet; and bruise the 
fiower-bud, between two pieces of flat stick, 
to prevent its opening; this is done for 
three successive mornings ; on each of the 
four following, a thin slice is cut from the ; 
top, to prevent the spathe from bursting ; 
and on the eighth morning, a clear sweet 
liquor begins to flow. This, in its fresh | 
state, is toddy ; and is a favourite beverage 
with both natives and Europeans. It soon 
ferments of itself, and acquires intoxicating 
properties. Sago is obtained from the in- j 
terior of the trunks of several palms, but 
particularly from the Sagus farinifera. The 
Areca Catechu, called also the betel-nut, is 
remarkable for its intoxicating power. The 
rattans of the shops are the flexible stems 
of a species of the genus Calauius. Darwin 
has described a palm common in Chili 
which has a large stem thicker at the 
middle than above or below. In the spring 
of the year many are cut down, and when 
the trunk is lying on the ground the crown 
of leaves is lopped off. The sap immedi¬ 
ately flows from the upper end, and con¬ 
tinues flowing for several mouths; it is, 
however, necessary that a thin slice should 
be shaved off from that end every morning, 
so as to expose a fresh surface. A good 
tree will give 90 gallons, and all this must 
have been contained in the vessels of the 
apparently dry trunk. The sap is concen¬ 
trated by boiling, and is then called treacle, 
which it much resembles in taste. The 
handsomest palm of India is the Caryota 
urens, which derives its specific name 
(burning) from the sensation caused by an 
application of the rind of its fruit to the 
skin. Its pith yields an excellent sago,and 
a great quantity of toddy is obtained from 
the tree in the hot season. The U brissu {Ma- 























629 ftttfrarjj 


nicariasaccifera),n Brazilian palm; liaserect I 
leaves 25 feet long and 6 feet wide, which ! 
i grow round the summit of a stem only four 
feet high, and give to the tree the appear¬ 
ance of a shuttle-cock. Fan Palms belong 
to many widely scattered genera, and are 
so called from the resemblance of their 
leaves to fans. The only European species 
of palm, the Chamasrops humilis, a common 
plant In the south of Spain and Portugal, 
has fan leaves. Of another species ( Mauritia 
flexuosa ), growing in the country of the 
Amazons, Mr. H. W. Bates thus writes : 

‘ The palms which clothed nearly the entire 
islet had huge cylindrical smooth stemsthree 
feet in diameter and about a hundred feet 
high. The crowns were formed of enormous 
clusters of fan-shaped leaves, the stalks 
alone of which measured seven to ten feet 
in length. Nothing in the vegetable world 
could be more imposing than this grove of 
palms. There was no underwood to obstruct 
the view of the long perspective of tower¬ 
ing' columns. The crowns which were 
densely packed together at an immense 
height overhead shut out the rays of the 
sun; and the gloomy solitude beneath, 
through which the sound of our voices 
seemed to reverberate, could be compared 
to nothing so well as a solemn temple.’ 
Another Chammrops, a native of Ceylon, 
Malabar, and the East Indies, attains the 
height of 60 or 70 feet, with a straight 
cylindrical trunk, crowned at the summit 
by a tuft of enormous leaves, which separ- 
: ate near the outer margin into numerous 
: leaflets, and are usually 18 feet long, exclu¬ 
sive of the leaf-stalk, and 14 broad ; a single 
one being sufficient to shelter 15 or 20 men 
j from the rain. When this palm (sometimes 
called the talipot-tree, or the great fan-palm) 
has reached the age of 35 or 40 years, it 
flowers; producing a long, conical, scaly 
spadix rising to the height of 30 feet from 
the midst of the crown of leaves, and se¬ 
parating into single alternate branches, 
which, at the base, extend laterally some¬ 
times 20 feet—the whole covered with 
whitish flowers, and presenting a most 
beautiful appearance. The fruit, which is 
very abundant, is globose, about an inch 
and a half in diameter, and requires 14 
months to ripen, after which the tree soon 
perishes, flowering but once in the whole 
course of its existence. The Indians use 
the leaves for umbrellas, tents, and cover¬ 
ing for their houses; the pith, after being 
pounded, is made into a kind of bread, 
which is of great use in times of scarcity. 
The Palmetto is a fan palm growing in the 
southern states of America, and attaining 
the height of forty or fifty feet.. The sum¬ 
mit of the stem is crowned with a tuft of 
large palmatc-d leaves, varying in length 
and breadth from one to five feet, and sup¬ 
ported on long foot-stalks, which give it a 
beautiful and majestic appearance. At 
their base and in the centre of the stem are 
three or four ounces of a white, compact, 
and tender substance, which is eaten with 
oil and vinegar.- Palm, an ancient mea¬ 

sure, taken from the extent of the hand. The 
greatpalm, or length of the hand, was equal 


Crcarfttrj). [pancratium 


to about eight inches and a half; the small 
palm, or breadth of the hand, to about three 
inches. The modern palm is different in dif¬ 
ferent places.- Palm, the broad triangular 

part of an anchor at the end of the arms. 

PAL'SY, or PARAL'YSIS (paralusis, 
from paraluo, I relax : Gr.), in Medicine, a 
nervous disease, known by the loss or de¬ 
fect of the power of voluntary muscular 
motion in the whole body, or in a particu¬ 
lar part. It appears under different forms; 
and may be a loss of the power of motion 
without a loss of sensation, or a loss of 
sensation without loss of motion, or a loss 
of both. Sometimes it attacks the whole 
system ; at others, it affects one side of the 
body, when it is called hemiplegia; and at 
others only a single member. It frequently 
produces a distortion of the mouth, an in¬ 
distinctness of speech, and an impaired in¬ 
tellect. A paralysis of any of the vital 
organs is attended with immediate death. 

PA'LY, or paleways, in Heraldry, is when 
the shield is divided into four or more equal 
parts, by perpendicular lines from top to 
bottom. 

PAM'PAS, vast plains in the southern 
parts of Buenos Ayres, which extend from { 
the foot of the eastern ridge of the Andes 
to the River Plata, stretching southwards I 
as far as Patagonia. They cannot bo called 
deserts, since they are covered with her¬ 
bage, and inhabited by vast herds of wild 
cattle and droves of horses. 

PAMPE'ROS, violent winds so called, 
which come from the west or south-west; 
and sweeping over the Pampas, often do 
much injury on the coast. 

PANACE'A (po.nakeia: from pan, every¬ 
thing; and akeomai, I heal: Gr.), a re¬ 
medy which professes to cure all kinds of 
diseases. 

PANAMA' HATS; these are made of the I 
young leaves of a palm-tree by the natives 
of the eastern parts of Peru. They are an 
article of commerce in Brazil, and the cost 
of the finer qualities varies from 12s. to 61. 

PANATHEN/E'A (Panathenaia: Gr.), in 
Grecian Antiquity, an ancient Athenian ! 
festival, in honour of Minerva, who was 
the protectress of Athens,and called Athena. 
There were two solemnities of this name, 
one of which was termed the greater Pana- 
tliencea, and celebrated every fourth year. 
It was distinguished from the less, which 
was celebrated every year, not only by its 
greater splendour and longer continuance, 
but more particularly by the solemn pro¬ 
cession in which the peplus w T as carried 
from the Acropolis into the temple of the 
goddess. The peplus was a sacred garment 
with which the ivory statue of Minerva 
was covered; it was made of white wool, 
was embroidered with gold, and consecra¬ 
ted by young virgins. This festival was so 
holy, that criminals were released from the 
prisons on the occasion of its celebration, 
and men of distinguished merit were re¬ 
warded with gold crowns. The exhibitions 
at these festivals were races by torchlight, 
gymnastic exercises, musical and poetical 
contests, and sacrifices. 

PANCRA'TIUM ( pankration ; from pan, 
M M 



























pancreas] CT!)C <g>cte»ttCtc any 


all; and kratos, power: Gr.), among the 
ancients, a kind of exercise, which con¬ 
sisted of wrestling and boxing. In these 
contests it was customary for the weaker 
party, when he found himself pressed by 
his adversary, to fall down,and fight rolling 
on the ground. In Botany, a genus of bul¬ 
bous rooted plants with handsome flowers, 
nat. order Amaryllidacece. 

PAN'CREAS (pan, all; and Ureas, flesh : 
Gr.), in Anatomy, a flat glandular viscus of 
the abdomen ; in animals it is called the 
sweetbread. It secretes a fluid resembling 
saliva, and pours it into the duodenum, to 
dilute the bile and render it more miscible 
with the food. 

PAN'DECTS (pandelctai: from pan, all ; 
and deletes, a receiver : Gr.), the name of a 
volume of the civil law, digested by order 
of the emperor Justinian. 

PANEGYR'IC (panegurikos, fit for a pub¬ 
lic assembly : Gr.), in Oratory, an harangue 
or eulogy, written or spoken in praise of an 
individual or a body of men. Panegyrics 
were much used by the ancients; and in 
modern times they are delivered in France, 
where they are termed eloges, in certain 
literary and scientific institutes, on the 
decease of one of the members. 

PAN'EL, in Law, a schedule or roll of 
parchment on which are written the names 
of the jurors returned by the sheriff. Im¬ 
panelling a jury is returning their names 
in such schedule. In Scotland, the accused 
person in a criminal action, from the time 
I of his appearance, is termed ‘the panel.’ 

j -Pankp, in Joinery, a square of thin 

I wood, framed or grooved in a large piece 
between two upright pieces and two cross 
j pieces; as the panel of a door. 

PAN'IC ( panique: Fr.; from panikos, 

> groundless fear—literally belonging to Pan: 

Gr.), an ill-grounded terror inspired by the 
| misapprehension of danger. The word is 
; said to be derived from Pan, the name of 
one of the captains of Bacchus, who with a 
few men routed a numerous army, by a 
noise which his soldiers raised in a rocky 
valley, and which was augmented by a great 
number of echoes. Hence all il’-grounded 
fears have been called panic fears. 

PAN'ICLE (panicula, the dipi. of panus, 

\ a thread wound on a bobbin: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany a sort of inflorescence, in which the 
primary axis developes secondary ones, and 
the secondary tertiary. It is therefore a 
branching raceme. 

PAN'ICUM (hat., from panis, bread), in 
Botany, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Gra- 
minacece. ■ The species are annuals and con¬ 
sist of various kinds of panic-grass. 

PAN'NAGE (Fr.), in Law the feeding of 
swine upon mast in woods; also the money 
paid for the license to have pannage. 

PANNIC'ULUS CARNO'SUS (a fleshy 
tunic: Lat.), in Comparative Anatomy, a 
strong fleshy substance, situated in beasts 
between the hide and the fat, by means of 
which they can move their skin in whole or 
in part; it is altogether wanting in the hu¬ 
man frame. 

PANORA'MA (pan, everything; and 
orama, a sight: Gr.), a picture on a very 
large scale, fixed around a room specially 


constructed for the purpose, so that from 
the centre a spectator may have a com¬ 
plete view of the objects represented. The 
artist must take an accurate plan of the 
whole surrounding country, as far as the 
eye can reach from a high point. Truth of 
representation and closeness of imitation 
are the great objects to be aimed at in pa¬ 
noramas, and the deception must be pro- J 
moted by the manner In which the light is 
admitted. When it is well executed, the , 
panorama produces a complete illusion. The 
diorama differs from it chiefly in being flat 
instead of circular, and therefore, like any 
other painting, presenting only a particular 
view, in front of, instead of all round, the 
spectator. [See Diorama.] 

PANSTEREORA'MA (pan, all; stereos, 
solid; and orama, a sight: Gr.), the model 
of a town or country in cork, wood, paste¬ 
board, &c. 

PAN'SY ( pensile, a thought: Fr.), the gar¬ 
den varieties of the Viola tricolor, and other 
flowers usually termed heartsease. 

PANTALOON' (pianto leone, ‘ I plant the 
lion,’ the old Venetiau war-cry : Ital.), one 
of the chief characters in a pantomime. 
His dress originally included the article 
known by his name. The pantaloon was 
introduced by the Venetians, and, with 
them, was a burgher. The name is an allu¬ 
sion to the boastful language indulged in 
by the Venetians regarding themselves. 

PANTECH'NICON (pan, all; and techni- 
kos, belonging to art: G>\), a repository or 
warehouse where every kind of manufac¬ 
tured article is exposed for sale. 

PAN'THE ISM (pan, every; and Tlicos, 
God: Gr.), the belief that the universe is 
not distinct from God ; in other words, that 
it is both natura nalurans and natura 
naturata. 

PANTHE'ON (pantheion, literally com¬ 
mon to all the gods ; from last), in Roman 
Antiquity a temple of a circular form, dedi¬ 
cated to all the heathen deities. It was 
built on the Campus Martius, by Agrippa, 
son-in law to Augustus, and is now a church 
dedicated to the Virgin Mary and all the mar¬ 
tyrs. It is called the rotunda, on account of 
its form, and is one of the finest edifices in 
Rome. Its hemispherical dome is 142 feet 
in diameter, and 144 feet in extreme height 
from the pavement; it has an opening in 
the centre, by which alone the building is 
lighted—the rain which falls through being 
conveyed away by a sewer under the marble 
pavement. The well-preserved portico of 
this edifice seems to be of a later period 
than the temple itself; it consist's of six¬ 
teen columns of oriental granite, each of 
which is 15 feet in circumference. The in¬ 
terior was formerly adorned with vast quan¬ 
tities of bronze, and with the most beauti¬ 
ful statues of the various deities, but they 
were removed by Constantine to Constanti¬ 
nople ; at present there are, in the eight 
niches, eight fine columns, placed there by 
the emperor Adrian. It is very remarkable, 
and shows the alteration which has taken 
place at Rome, that the entrance is now 
twelve steps below, though formerly it was 
twelve steps above, the surface of the 
ground. 





























Ettcravy Crorttttg* 


[pater 





PANTHER (panther: Or.), in Zoology, 
tlie Felis Pardus, a. ferocious quadruped, of 
the size of a large dog, with short hair, of 
a yellowish colour, diversified with round¬ 
ish black spots. It is a native of Africa, 
and has the general habits of the leopard, 
from which it is only to be distinguished 
by the larger spots which usually form 
rings. Naturalists now believe that both 
belong to the same species, LeopardiLsvarius. 

PAN'TOGRAPH (pan , all; grapho, I write, 
Gr.), an instrument by which drawings may 
be copied on a reduced or on an enlarged 

PANTOM'ETER (pas, all; and metreo, I 
measure : Gr.), an instrument used to take 
all sorts of angles, distances, and elevations. 

PANTOMIME (pas, all; and mimos, an 
imitator: Gr.), a theatrical representation 
consisting entirely of gestures and actions, 
assisted by scenery and machinery. For¬ 
merly,Harlequin.Columbine, Pantaloon, and 
the Clown were sufficient, but now-a-days 
something much more elaborate is placed 

on the stage.- Pantomimes, among the 

ancients, were persons who could imitate 
all kinds of actions and characters by signs 
and gestures. Scaliger supposes they were 
first introduced upon the stage to succeed 
the chorus and divert the audience with 
apish postures and antic dances. In after 
times their interludes became distinct en¬ 
tertainments, and were separately exhi¬ 
bited. 

PA'PACY, the office of pope, or the suc¬ 
cession of popes. The word papa Is used in 
the eastern church to signify any priest; in 
the west it was not, at first, applied exclu¬ 
sively to the bishop of Rome. The earliest 
appearance of substantial power in the 
papacy is discovered in the 4th century, 
when Theodosius gave to the patriarch of 
Constantinople the second rank. The au¬ 
thority of the Roman bishop was augmented 
first by his see being the capital of the 
world, and then by the very removal of the 
scat of empire from it, which left him to a 
certain extent independent of the imperial 
sway. The donations, by Pepin and Charle¬ 
magne, of the territories which constitute 
what is called the patrimony of St. Peter, 
gave to the popes the position of temporal 
sovereigns ; and they availed themselves of 
every opportunity of extending their domi¬ 
nions. But it was in the pontificate of 
Gregory VII. that the temporal power of 
the papacy received its complete develop¬ 
ment. This ambitious pontiff sought to 
reduce all Christendom into feudal subjec¬ 
tion to the holy see, and claimed the prero¬ 
gative of appointing the various sovereigns 
of Europe. This authority, though gene¬ 
rally disputed by the emperors and other 
potentates, was more than once reluctantly 
admitted by them. The degradation to 
which John of England submitted is a 
proof of the power which the popes had 
succeeded in acquiring, and of the humi¬ 
liations to which kings were sometimes 
obliged to submit. The reformation, how¬ 
ever, in depriving the papacy of one-third 
of its subjects, caused a gradual decline of 
authority, so that in modern times it has 
had but little political influence. 


PA PAW', the Carica Papaya, a tree 
growing in warm climates to the height of 
13 or 20 feet, with a soft stem, naked nearly 
to the top, where there is a crown of large 
lolied leaves on long foot stalks; it bears ? 
large pear-shaped succulent fruit, of little 
value, but its acrid milky juice is said tc 
possess the singular property of making 
tough meat tender in a very short timo 
Nat. order Papayacece. 

PA'PER (papier: Fr.; from papyrus. 
Lat.), the well-known substance on which 
letters and figures are written or printed 
The ancients were obliged to have recourse 
to a variety of substitutes for our parer— 
stone, wood, lead, skins, &c., but chiefly tc 
papyrus. The latter was manufactured in 
Egypt, with great success, up to the 5th 
century, when its use began to decline in 
Europe, and it was gradually superseded by 
parchment and by paper, which was made 
from cotton at least as early as the 10th cen- 
tury. The Chinese and Persians were ac¬ 
quainted very early with the mode of manu¬ 
facturing paper. It must formerly have been 
made by a different process from that now 
employed, since, in the old specimens, there 
are no marks of the wires through which 
the water is drained at present. Various ma¬ 
terials have been latterly employed besides I 
linen and cotton, and with great success— 
among others, straw; in fact, any substance 
will answer if it contains woody fibre, 
which is indispensable to a serviceable 
paper. The substance used is first reduced 
to a pulp, the quality of which is of the j 
greatest importance; size is mixed with l 
the pulp, except in the manufacture of j 
writing paper, to which it is generally ; 
added when in sheets. The pulp is poured i 
in moulds having wire bottoms, through 1 
which the fluid passes off; the marks caused 
by these wires are called ‘ water marks,’ 
but they are now avoided in wove paper by 
the use of a wire cloth. The paper is trans¬ 
ferred from the mould to a felt or woollen j 
cloth, and when the quantity has reached a 
post or six quires.it is subjected to great 
pressure; this removes a large amount of i 
the remaining moisture, after which it is 
placed in the drying rooms ; and when dry 
it is, if not sized before, dipped in a mixture 
of size and alum. After being dried, 
sorted, and pressed, it is made up into 
quires. Paper is distinguished, as to its use, 
into writing paper, drawing paper, cartridge 
paper, copy, chancery, &c.; as to its size, 
into foolscap, post, crown, demy, medium, 
royal, imperial, &c. Some of these terms, 
thus foolscap, are due to the water marks 
formerly used by manufacturers a's a means 
of distinguishing their paper from that of 
others. Water marks prevent frauds with 
regard to bank notes, &c.; and they have 
sometimes, in courts of law, been the 
means of detecting forgeries of documents 
pretended to be of an earlier date than what 
was evinced by the water mark in the paper. 
Paper is made either by hand or by ma¬ 
chinery ; and perhaps none of the useful 
arts have received more attention in order 
to bring them to perfection than the pa¬ 
per manufacture. In whiteness, fineness, ■ 
and firmness, the paper made in England 










































paper] 'Ctjc £>cienttftc anti 


532 


excels all others; the French manufac¬ 
ture some of a very fine quality; the 
Italians and Germans are noted more for 
the durability of their paper than for its 
fineness. The demand for paper is so 
enormous that recourse is had, of necessity, 
to machinery, which is of a most ingenious 
description. France claims, and perhaps 
with justice, the honour of its first inven¬ 
tion ; but almost every good automatic paper 
mechanism at present mounted in France, 
Germany, Belgium, Italy, Russia, Sweden, 
and the United Slates, has either been made 
m Great Britain, and exported to those 
countries, or has been constructed in them 
upon the English models. Many and various 
have been the improvements introduced, 
till at length the art has so completely 
triumphed over every difficulty that a con¬ 
tinuous stream of fluid pulp is now passed 
round the cylinders with unerring preci¬ 
sion, and not only made into paper, but 
j actually dried, pressed smooth, and every 
separate sheet cut round the edges, in the 
brief space of a very few minutes. 

PA'I’ER-MONEY, or PA'PER CUR'- 
RENCY, bank notes or bills issued on the 
credit of government, and circulated as the 
representative of coin. In a more exten¬ 
sive sense, these terms may denote all kinds 
of notes and bills of exchange. 

PA'PER-MUL'BERRY, a Japanese tree, 

| hardy enough to grow in the open air in 
England. It is the Dronssonetia papyri/era 
of botanists, nat. ord. Moracece. The inner 
bark of the young shoots is separated by 
maceration in water, and after having been 
j beaten into a pulp, some of this is spread 
j in sufficient quantity over a small tray with 
a slightly raised rim. Thus a sheet of pa¬ 
per is prepared by the Japanese, which is 
made ready for use by being dried in the 
sun. 

PA'PIER LINGE (linen paper: Fr.), a 
kind of paper made to resemble damask and 
other linen so ingeniously, that it is impos¬ 
sible,without careful examination, to detect 
the difference. Even to the touch, articles 
made from the papier linge are very much 
like linen; and they can be used for every 
purpose to which linen is applicable, with 
the exception, of course, of those in which 
strength and durability are required, and 
of those in which it is necessary to subject 
the material to the action of water or mois¬ 
ture. 

PA'PIER MA'CHE (chewed paper: Fr.), 
the composition of which superior tea-trays, 
snuff-boxes, and many other light and ele¬ 
gant articles, as well as a variety of toys, 
&c., are manufactured. It is made of cut¬ 
tings of white or brown paper, boiled in 
water, and beaten until they are reduced to a 
pulp, and then boiled in a solution of gum- 
arabic, or of size, to give consistency to the 
pulp, which is afterwards formed into dif¬ 
ferent shapes, by pressing it into oiled 
moulds. When dry, it is coated with a 
mixture of sizs and lamp-black, and after¬ 
wards varnished. Another article, some¬ 
times known by this name, consists of 
sheets of paper glued and powerfully press¬ 
ed together, so as, when dry, to possess the 
hardness of board, and yet, while moist, to 


be capable of being forced into almost any 
shape. Tea-trays, snuff-boxes, &c., are 
manufactured from it; and, after being 
varnished, are often exquisitely ornamented 
with figures, landscapes, gilding, &c. Papier 
mdeM is rendered, to a great extent, water¬ 
proof by mixing sulphate of iron, lime, 
glue, or white of egg, with the pulp; and 
almost fire-proof, by borax and phosphate 
of soda. 

PAPIL'IO ( Lat. ), in Entomology, a genus 
of butterflies of which there is only one re¬ 
presentative in this country, the swallow¬ 
tailed butterfly, the Papilio Machaon. It is I 
coloured yellow and black, and makes its 
appearance in May and June. The cater¬ 
pillar feeds on fennel and carrot, and is of 
a green colour with black cross bands. 

PAPILIONA'CEOUS (same deriv.), in Bo¬ 
tany, an epithet for the corolla of plants 
which bear some resemblance in shape to a 
butterfly; such as that of the pea. The pa¬ 
pilionaceous corolla is usually flve-petalled, 
having an upper spreading petal called 
the banner or standard, two side petals 
called icings or alee, and two lower petals 
frequently united and forming the keel or 
carina. 

PAPIL'LiE (Lat), the nipples of the 
breast. Also, the terminations of the 
nerves in that form which constitutes the 
sense of feeling in the true skin, and of 
taste. They are prominent on the palmar 
surface of the fingers and plantar surface 
of the toes, where they are arranged along 
curved lines, in double rows. Also, any 
small nipple-like prominences. 

PAPIL'LOSE (papilla, the nipple: Lat.), in 
Botany, covered with fleshy dots or points, 
or with soft tubercles. 

PA'PIST(papa, the pope : Lat.), one that 
adheres to the doctrines and ceremonies of 
the church of Ronfe; a Roman Catholic. 

PAPPOOS', the name given to a young 
child by the natives of New England. 

PAPTUS (Lat.; from pappos, Gr ;, in Bo¬ 
tany, a sort of feathery or hairy crown with 
which many seeds, especially those of com¬ 
posite plants, are furnished, and which aids 
in their dissemination. Structually the 
pappus is the limb of the calyx, elongate 
and divided. 

PAP'ULOSE (papula, a pimple : Lat), in 
Botany, an epithet for a leaf, &c., covered 
with vesicular points or with small blisters. 

PAPYROG'RAPHY (papuros, papyrus; 
and graphe, a writing: Gr.), a lately-invented 
art, which consists in taking impressions 
from a kind of pasteboard covered with a 
calcareous substance (called lithographic 
paper), in the same manner a3 from stones 
in the process of lithography. 

PAPY'RUS (tat.; from papuros: Gr.), a 
sedge-like plant, the Papyrus antiquorum of 
botanists (nat. ord. Cyperacece), famous for 
having furnished the ancients with a mate¬ 
rial for writing upon. In former times it 
grew abundantly in the marshy ground of 
the Nile Delta, where it is now almost ex 
tinct, and also near Syracuse, where it is 
still plentiful. Its roots are tortuous, and 
in thickness about four or five inches ; its 
stem, which is triangular and tapering, 
rises to the height of ten feet, and is terini- 
































533 


Ettcranj SCrcatftirg. 


Dated by a number of wide spreading tow¬ 
ering spikes, surrounded with an invo¬ 
lucre composed of eight large sword-shaped 
leaves. Other species of cyperaceous plants, 
called by the general name of Papyrus, 
were,and are, used extensively in Egvpt for 
other purposes. The inhabitants of the 
countries where they grow, even to this 
day, manufacture them into sail-cloth, cord¬ 
age, and sometimes wearing apparel. Boats 
are made by weaving the stems compactly 
together, and covering them externally 
with a resinous substance, to prevent the 
admission of water. The papyrus was pre¬ 
pared for use by cutting the interior of the 
stalks, after the rind had been removed, 
into thin slices in the direction of their 
length ; laying these, in succession, on a flat 
board ; placing similar slices over them, at 
right angles; cementing their surfaces 
together by a glue, subjecting them to pres¬ 
sure, and drying. The size of the sheet was 
variable in length, to any desired extent. 
This material, in pliability, durability, and 
cheapness, exceeded every other employed 
by the ancients as we employ paper, the 
skins of the Ionians, the linen of the Ro¬ 
mans, the cotton stuff and palm-leaves of 
the Indians, and the parchment of Mysia. 
Many of the papyri still existing exhibit a 
great difference in texture ; they are fragile, 
and difficult to uurol till exposed to steam 
or the damp of a moist climate. They are 
chiefly found in Egypt and Herculaneum. 
But as yet no work of any value has been 
discovered in them, though their decipher¬ 
ing has cost much trouble and ingenuity. 
Papyrus was in general use until the end of 
the 7th century, after which it was gradu¬ 
ally superseded by parchment and paper. 
We possess papyri written more than 2000 
years before the Christian era. 

PAR (equal: Lot.'), in Commerce, a term 
applied to any two things equal in value. In 
money matters, it indicates the equality of 
one kind of money or property with an¬ 
other. Thus, when 100?. stock is worth ex- 
; actly 100?. specie, the stock is said to be at 
par; that is, the purchaser is required to 
giveneither morenorlessof the commodity 
with which he parts, than the nominal 
equivalent of that which he acquires. Thus, 

| too, the par of exchange is the value of 
I money in one place equal to a given sum in 
I another. In the exchange of money with 
| foreign countries, the person to whom a bill 

I is payable is supposed to receive exactly the 
same amount as was paid to the drawer by 
the remitter; but this is not always the case 
with respect to the intrinsic value of the 
coins of different countries, which is owing 
to the fluctuation in the rates of exchange 
among the several countries and great tra¬ 
ding cities. In fine, bills of exchange, stocks, 
&c., are at par when they sell for their 
nominal value; above par when they sellfor 
more; and below par when they sell for less. 

PA'RA, a Turkish coin, very small and 
thin. It is of copper and silver, and is the 
fortieth part of a Turkish piaster. It is 
worth rather less than a halfpenny. 

PAR'ABLE ( parabole , from paraballo, I 
set side by side—that is, compare: Gr.), a 
fable or allegorical representation of some¬ 


[PARACHUTE 


thing real or apparent in life or nature, 
from which a moral is drawn for instruc¬ 
tion. 

PARAB'OLA (same, because its axis is 
parallel to the side of the cone), in Conic 
Sections, a curve produced by cutting a 
cone by a plane parallel to one of its sides. 
The peculiar property of the Apollonian pa¬ 
rabola is, that each point in it is at the 
same distance from its focus as from a line 
termed the linen directrix, which perpendi¬ 
cularly intersects the axis—a line passing 
through the focus. There are other kinds 
of curve which are termed parabolas. Theo¬ 
retically, projectiles describe the Apollonian 
parabola. 

PARABOL'IC AS'YMPTOTE, a parabolic 
line approaching to a curve, so that they 
never meet; yet, by producing both indefi¬ 
nitely, their distance from each other be¬ 
comes less than any given line. 

PARABOL'IC CO'KOID, a solid generated 
by the revolution of a parabola about its 
axis. Its contents are equal to half those 
of a circumscribed cylinder, and once and a 
half those of a cone having the same base 
and altitude. 

PARABOL'IC SPIN'DLE, a solid formed 
by the revolution of a parabola about its 
base, or double ordinate. 

PARABOL'IFORM, having the form of a 
parabola. 

PARAB'OLISM (paraballo , I compare one 
thing with another: Go-.), in Algebra, the 
division of the terms of an equation by a 
known quantity that is involved or multi¬ 
plied in the first term. 

PARAB'OLOID ( parabole, a parabola; and 
eidos, form : Gr.), in Geometry, a parabola 

of a higher order.-Also, another term for 

the parabolic conoid. 

PARACEL'SIANS, the followers of Para¬ 
celsus, who, it is probable, was the most 
celebrated quack that ever existed. His 
system of medicine successfully opposed 
those of Hippocrates and Aristotle. He 
mingled cabalistic speculations and his pe¬ 
culiar notions of theology with medical 
and chemical knowledge. He died in 1541, 
but his followers exercised considerable in¬ 
fluence over medicine, physics, and mysti¬ 
cal science in Germany, for more than a 
century after. 

PARACEN'TRIC MO'TION (para, along¬ 
side of; and kentron, the centre: Gr.), in 
Astronomy, denotes the rate at which a 
planet approaches nearer to, or recedes 
from, the sun or centre of attraction. 

PARACH'RONISM (para, past; and chro- 
nos, time: Gr.), an error in Chronology, by 
which an event is related as having hap¬ 
pened at alater period than its true date. 

PAR'ACHUTE (para, against: Gr.; and 
chute, a fall: Fr.), in Aerostation,a machine 
in the form of a large umbrella, intended 
to enable a person to descend from a bal¬ 
loon. While attached to the lower end of 
the balloon, it is closed, but it expands 
itself immediately when beginning to de¬ 
scend, on being liberated from that ma¬ 
chine. Its violent oscillations greatly en¬ 
danger the safety of the aeronaut; and it 
was supposed that these might be prevent¬ 
ed by using a parachute in the form of an 






























paraclete] 


Cijc Jbctsultftc aufr 


634 


inverted, umbrella, with an aperture in the 
centre; but when the experiment was tried, 
the hoop broke, the parachute collapsed, 
and the unfortunate experimentalist was 
killed. 

PAR'ACLETE (parakletos, from parakaleo, 
I call to aid : Gr.), the Comforter , a term ap¬ 
plied in the sacred volume to the Holy 
Spirit. In the early times of the church, 
the opinion wasnot uncommon, that Christ 
was to send the promised Paraclete corpo¬ 
really ; and hence several impostors, Simon 
Magus, Manes, Montanus, and others, pre¬ 
tended to be this expected Comforter. 

PARACROS'TIC [para, alongside of; 
akros, the outermost; and stichos, a line : 
Gr.), a poetical composition in which it is 
necessary that the first verse should contain 
in order all the letters with which the suc¬ 
ceeding verses commence. 

PAR'ADIGM ( paradeigma , from paradei- 
knumi, I hold up to view: Gr.), in Gram¬ 
mar, an example of a verb conjugated in 
the several moods, tenses, and persons. 

PAR'ADISE (paradeisos: Gr.; from par- 
des: Heb.), a region of supreme felicity; 

generally meaning the garden of Eden.- 

When Christians use the word, they mean 
that celestial paradise, or place of pure and 
refined delight, in which the souls of the 
blessed enjoy everlasting happiness. 

PAR'ADISE, Birds of, a tribe of birds 
belonging to the conirostral group of the 
l'asseres, the same group to which the 
crows and finches belong. They exclu- 
i sively inhabit the island of New Guinea, 
and some adjacent islets. About thirteen 
species are known, all remarkable for the 
great beauty of the plumage. It was atone 
time generally believed that they had no 
legs (the people who sold their skins to the 
traders always removing the legs), that 
they spent their lives on the wing, feeding 
upon dew, and that the females laid their 
eggs in a cavity on the backs of the males, 
where they were hatched. Even now such 
is the rarity of some species, and the inac¬ 
cessibility of the places where all reside, 
that little is known of their habits. Speci¬ 
mens of one or two species have been 
brought alive to England, but they are be- 
i coming every day more rare in their native 
J woods. That persevering traveller and 
naturalist, Mr. Wallace, made five voyages 
i to different parts of the district they inha- 
■ bit, each occupying in its preparation and 
] execution the larger part of a year, and yet 
j he only obtained specimens of five species. 

: Nature seems, he says, to have taken every 
precaution that these her choicest trea¬ 
sures may not lose value by being too 
easily obtained. First we find an open, har- 
; bourless, inhospitable coast, exposed to the 
j full swell of the Pacific Ocean; next a 
rugged and mountainous country covered 
I with dense forests, offering in its swamps 
j and precipices aud serrated ridges an al- 
' most impassable barrier to the central 
regions; and lastly a race of the most 
savage and ruthless character, in the very 
lowest stage of civilization. In such a 
country, and among such a people, are 
found these wonderful productions of na- 
i ture. In those trackless wilds do they 


display that exquisite beauty and that 
marvellous development of plumage calcu¬ 
lated to excite admiration and astonish¬ 
ment among the most civilized and most 
intellectual races of men. A feather is 
itself a wonderful and beautiful thing. A 
bird clothed with feathers is almost neces¬ 
sarily a beautiful creature. How much, 
then, must we wonder at and admire the 
modification of simple feathers into the 
rigid polished wavy ribbons which adorn 
one species, the mass of airy plumes on 
another, the tufts and wires of a third, or 
the golden buds borne upon airy stems that 
spring from the tail of a fourth ; while 
gems and polished metals can alone com¬ 
pare with the tints that adorn the breast of 
two others, and the immensely developed 
shoulder plumes of a seventh. 

PAR,'AD OX (paradoxos , contrary to 
opinion: Gr.), in Philosophy, a tenet or 
proposition seemingly absurd, or contrary 
to received opinion, yet true in fact. 

PAR'AFFINE ( parum , little ; and a finis, 
connected with: Lot. —on account of its 
weak affinities), in Chemistry, one of the 
products obtained by the destructive dis¬ 
tillation of coal, petroleum, &c. It is a soft 
white substance without taste or smell, 
composed of carbon and hydrogen. It has 
a specific gravity of about - 87, and its melt¬ 
ing point is about 112°, is not decomposed 
by distillation, burns with a clear white 
flame without smoke or residuum, and does 
not stain paper. It dissolves easily in 
warm fat oils; also in cold essential oils, 
and in ether, but it resists the action of 
chlorine, strong acids, and caustic alkalis. 
This substance is manufactured into can¬ 
dles. Paraffine oil is the rectified product 
of the distillation of bituminous coal at a 
low temperature. It is very fluid, has a 
pale yellow colour, and is lighter than 
water. It has come into extensive use for 
illuminating purposes. Solid paraflane can 
be obtained from it by the application of 
cold and pressure. 

PARAGO'GE ( paragCge, from parago, I 
move beside : Gr.), a figure in Grammar, by 
which the addition of a letter or syllable is 
made to the end of a word. It is used in 
forming the diminutives of most lan¬ 
guages. 

PAR'AGON (para, past; and agon, a con¬ 
test : Gr.), a model by way of distinction, 
implying superior excellence or perfection; 
as, a paragon of beauty or eloquence. 

PAR'AGRAM (paragramma , from para¬ 
graph, I compare by writing alongside of: 
Gr.), a play upon words. Hence paragram- 
matist, an appellation for a punster. 

PAR'AGRAPH (paragraph, a thingwrit- 
ten beside: Gr.—on account of the mark 
used in referring to a paragraph), any sec¬ 
tion or portion of a writing which relates 
to a particular point, whether consisting of 
one sentence or many. Paragraphs are ge¬ 
nerally distinguished by a break in the lines; 
when a large quantity of matter is intended 
to be compressed into a small space, they 

nfay be separated by a dash, thus _. A 

paragraph is also sometimes marked bv’a nr 

PARALETPOM'ENA (things to be omit¬ 
ted : Gr.), in matters of Literature, denotes 




















535 Ettcrari) 


a supplement of things omitted in a preced¬ 
ing edition of any work. The two books of 
the Old Testament, called by us, after St. 
Jerome, the Chronicles, are also termed 
Paraleipomena. 

PARALEIP'SIS ( paraleipsis , a passing 
over: Gr.), a figure in Rhetoric, by which 
the speaker pretends to pass by what at 
the same time he really mentions. 

PAR'ALL AX (parallaxis , from paralasso, 
I go aside : Gr.), in Astronomy, a change of 

place or aspect. - Diurnal Parallax, 

the difference between the places of any 
celestial objects as seen from the surface 
and from the centre of the earth at the 

same instant.- Annual Parallax, a 

change in the apparent place of a heavenly 
j body, caused by its being viewed from the 
earth in different parts of its orbit. The 
annual parallax of the planets is consider¬ 
able, but that of the fixed stars has, till very 
recently, been considered as altogether im¬ 
perceptible. The latter has, however, been 
detected in a few instances by the distance 
between two stars being found to vary at 
different periods of the year. When the 
parallax of a celestial body is determined, 
its distance can be ascertained. The dis¬ 
tance of the star known to astronomers as 
a eentauri, having a parallax of about one 
second, has been calculated at twenty bil¬ 
lions of miles, through which its light will 
travel to us in 3J years. Diurnal parallax 
Increases the zenith distance of a celes¬ 
tial body, by depressing it in the vertical 
circle. If it is on the meridian, only its de¬ 
clination is affected ; if not on the meridian, 
both declination and right ascension are al¬ 
tered.- Parallax, in Levelling, denotes 

the angle contained between the line of the 
true and that of the apparent level. 

PAR'ALLEL (parallelos , from para, be¬ 
side, and allelois, one another: Gr.), in Geo¬ 
metry, an appellation given to lines and 
planes everywhere equidistant from each 

other.-The word parallel is also often 

used metaphorically to denote the con¬ 
tinued comparison of two objects, par- 
I ticularly in history. Thus, we speak 
| of drawing an historical parallel between 

ages, countries, or men.- Parallel 

op Altitude, in Geography, a small 
circle of the sphere parallel to the horizon: 

called also an almacantar. -Parallel 

Circles, or circles of latitude, are small 
circles of the sphere, conceived to be drawn 
through all the points of the meridian, com¬ 
mencing from the equator, to which they 
are parallel, and terminating with the poles. 
They are called parallels of latitude, because 
all places lying under the same parallel have 
the same latitude.- Parallel op De¬ 

clination, in Astronomy, a small circle of 
the celestial sphere parallel to the equator. 

_Parallel Lines, in sieges, are those 

trenches which generally run parallel with 
the outlines of the fortress. They serve as 
places for concentrating the forces to be 
directed against the fortress, and aro usual¬ 
ly three feet deep, from nine to twelve feet 
I wide, and of a length adapted to thc> cir¬ 
cumstances of the case.- Parallel JIo- 

tion, a name given to various contrivances 
consisting of jointed combinations of link- 


Cvcn^uvij. [paramagnetic 


work, for guiding parts of machines that 
have a back and forward motion, such as 
the piston-rod of a steam-engine, with a 
view to get rid of the friction attending 
straight guides. One of the contrivances 
that have given celebrity to the name of 
JamesWattwas a parallel motion,which how¬ 
ever was only approximate, not exact.— Par¬ 
allel Passages are such passages in a book 
as agree in import; as, for instance, certain 

passages in the Bible.- Parallel Planes 

are such planes as have all the perpendicu¬ 
lars drawn betwixt them equal to each 

other.- Parallel Rays, in Optics, are 

those which keep at an equal distance 
while passing from the visible object to 
the eye, which is supposed to be infinitely 

remote from the object.- Parallel 

Ruler, a mathematical instrument, con¬ 
sisting of two equal rulers, so connected 
together by cross-bars and moveable joints 
that parallel lines may thereby be drawn at 
any required distance from each other, 
within the limits through which they can 
be opened.- Parallel Sailing, in Navi¬ 

gation, the sailing on or under a parallel 

of latitude, or parallel to the equator.- 

Parallel Sphere, in Astronomy, the 
situation of the sphere when the equator 
coincides with the horizon, and the poles 
with the zenith and nadir. The sphere 
would have this appearance to a spectator 
placed at the poles; to him the stars would 
neither rise nor set, but would move con¬ 
stantly in circles parallel to the horizon, and 
the sun would rise and set only once a year. 

PAR'ALLELIS.M ( parallelismo, a compar¬ 
ing of parallels: Gr.) op the Earth’s Axis, 
in Astronomy, the situation of the earth’s 
axis in its progress through its orbit. It is 
such, that if this axis is parallel to a given 
line in any one position, it will be parallel 
to the same line in any other position. This 
parallelism is the result of the earth’s dou¬ 
ble motion, viz. round the sun and round its 
own axis, or of its annual and diurnal mo¬ 
tion; and we owe to it the vicissitudes of sea¬ 
sons and the inequality of day and night. 

PARALLEL'OGRAM ( parallelogravivios , 
from parallelos, parallel; and gramme, a 
line: Gr.), in Geometry, a plane figure 
bounded by four right lines, of which each 
opposite pair are parallel and equal to one 

another.-In common use, this word is 

applied to quadrilateral figures of a greater 
length than breadth. 

PARALLELOPI'PED (parallelopipide: 
Fr.; from parallelos, parallel: Gr.), in Geo¬ 
metry, a regular solid comprehended with¬ 
in six parallelograms, the opposite ones of 
which are similar, parallel, and equal to 
each other; oritisaprism whose base is a 
parallelogram. 

PARAL'OGISM (paralogismos, from para - j 
logizomai, I reckon wrong: Gr.), in Logic 
and Rhetoric, a reasoning false in point of 
form—that is, in which a conclusion is 
drawn from premises which do not logi- j 
cally warrant it. It is the opposite to a 
syllogism. 

PARAL'YSIS (paralusis, from paraluo, I 
relax : Gr.) [See Palsy.] 

PARAMAGNET'IO (para, beside : Gr.), an ! 
epithet applied to those bodies which when 























parameter] 


placed between the poles of a magnet tend 
to pass bodily from weaker to stronger lines 
of force, and if the bodies are elongated 
they set along the lines of force, whilst 
those that are diamagnetic set across them. 

PARAMETER (parametreo, I measure 
with : Gr.), in Conic Sections, a constant 
line, otherwise called the latus rectum. In 
the parabola, it is a third proportional to 
the absciss and its corresponding ordinate. 
In the ellipse and hyperbola, the parameter 
of a diameter is a third proportional to 

that diameter and its conjugate.-The j 

terra also denotes the constant quantity 
which enters into the equation of a curve. 

PAR'AMOUNT (Fr.), in Law, the supreme 
lord of the fee. Lords of those manors 
that have other manors under them are 
styled lords-paramount; and the king, who 
in law, is chief lord of all the lands in 
England, is thus the lord-paramount. 

I PAR'ANYMPH (paranumphos, fro in para, 
j beside; and numphe, the bride: Gr.), among 
J the ancients, the person who waited on the 
bridegroom and directed the nuptial solem¬ 
nities. As the paranymph officiated only 
on the part of the bridegroom, a woman 
j called pronuba officiated on the part of 

the bride.-In Poetry, the term para- 

nympli is still occasionally used for the 
brideman. 

PAR'APEGM ( parapegma , from parape- 
gnumi, I fix beside: Gr.), in Classic An¬ 
tiquity, signified a brazen tablet fixed to a 
pillar, on which laws and proclamations 
were engraved. Also, a tablet set in a pub¬ 
lic place, containing an account of the 
rising and setting of the stars, eclipses, 
seasons, &c. 

PAR'APET (parapetto, a breastwork: 
Ttal.), in Fortification, a wall, rampart, or 
elevation of earth, for screening soldiers 
from an enemy’s shot. It means, literally, 
a wall breast high. 

PAR'APH (para , alongside of ; and apto, 
I touch: Gr.), in Diplomatics, the flourish 
of a pen at the conclusion of a signature. 
In the middle ages, it formed a rude provi¬ 
sion against forgery, somewhat like the 
flourishes, &c., engraved on the bank-note. 
The paraph is still usual in Spain. 

PARAPHERNA'LIA (para, beside ; and 
pheme, a dower: Gr.), in Law, the goods 
which a wife brings with her at her mar¬ 
riage, or which she possesses beyond her 
dower or jointure, and which remain at her 
disposal after her husband’s death. They 
consist principally of apparel, jewels, and 
personal ornaments suited to her degree. 
Nor can the husband bequeath such, though, 
during his life, he has power to dispose of 
them. 

PARAPHRASE (paraphrasis, from para- 
phrazo, I say the same thing in other words: 
Gr.), an explanation of some text or pas¬ 
sage in an author, in terms more clear and 
ample than in the original. He who per¬ 
forms this is termed a paraphrast. A free 
translation is sometimes, though impro¬ 
perly, termed a paraphrase. 

PAItAPHRENI'TlS (Gr,: from para, be¬ 
side ; and phren, the midriff : Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, an inflammation of the diaphragm. 

PARAPHROS'YNE ( paraphrusune, from 


paraphron, wandering from reason: Gr.), a 
term used by medical writers to express a 
temporary delirium or alienation of mind 
in fevers, or from whatever cause. 

PARAPLE'GIA (a stroke on one side: 
Gr.), in Medicine, the loss of sensation and 
voluntary motion in the lower part of the 
body, in consequence of destructive disease 
in or injury to a part of the spinal cord. 

PAR'ASANG (parasanges: Gr.; from 
pharsang: Pers.), a Persian measure of 
length, varying in different ages and in 
different places, from thirty to fifty stadia 
or furlongs. 

PARASCE'NIUM (paraskenia, from para, 
beside; and slcene, a scene : £?r.),in the Gre¬ 
cian and Roman theatres, the side entrances 
to the stage; the side scenes. 

PARASCE'VE (paraskeue, a getting ready: 
Gr.), a word signifying preparation, applied 
to the sixth day of the Jewish week, 
or Friday, because, not being allowed to 
prepare their food on the sabbath-day, they 
provided and prepared it on the day pre¬ 
vious. It is used to express Good Friday, 
because that day was the parasceve of the 
passover. 

PARASELE'NE (para, beside; and se- 
lene, the moon : Gr.), a mock-moon or phe¬ 
nomenon in the form of a luminous ring en¬ 
compassing or adjacent to the moon. Some¬ 
times it consists of one, two, or more bright 
spots, bearing considerable resemblance to 
the moon. The paraselenes are formed 
after the same manner as the parhelia, or 
mock-suns. 

PARASITES (parasitos, from parasiteo, 
I eat with: Gr.), among the Greeks, were 
an order of priests, or at least ministers of 
the gods, resembling the Epuloncs at Rome, 
j Their business was to collect and take care 
of the sacred corn destined for the service 
of the temples and the gods; to see that 
sacrifices were duly performed, and that no 
one withheld the first fruits, &c., from the 
deities. In every village of the Athenians, 
certain Parasiti in honour of Hercules, 
were maintained at the public charge ; but 
to ease the commonwealth of this burden, 
the magistrates at last obliged some of the 
richer citizens to take them to their own 
tables, and entertain them at their indi¬ 
vidual expense; hence the word parasite, 
used by the ancients in a sense very similar 
to that in which it is understood by our¬ 
selves. Those termed parasites were sup¬ 
posed to be either poor confidential friends, 
or guests who were expected to pay for 
their entertainment by the amusement they 
afforded, and which sometimes degenerated 
into buffoonery, and even the grossest flat¬ 
tery.—-In Zoology, animals which reside 
in or upon other animals, deriving nourish¬ 
ment from their bodies. 

PARASIT'ICAL PLANTS (parasitilcos, 
like a parasite: Gr.),in Botany, such plants 
as grow upon other plants, and receive their 
nourishment from them. Of this class are 
the mistletoe, broom-rape, and among 
exotics, the gigantic Raffiesia, They have 
no proper roots. The term is often applied 
also to mosses, &c., growing on the bark of 
trees, but deriving their food from the air 
by means of their own roots. 


J?ricntt(ic anti 


536 



































I PARASTREM'MA {parastreplio, I twist 
from its proper place : Or.), in Medicine, a 
convulsive distortion of the mouth, or any 
part of the face. 

PARATAX'IS (Gr., from paratasso, I ar¬ 
range side by side), in Grammar, the arrang¬ 
ing of propositions, one after another, as 
they present themselves to the mind, with¬ 
out consideration of their dependence on 
each other ; it is opposed to syntax. 

PARATH'ESIS (a putting beside : Gr.), a 
term used by some grammarians for appo¬ 
sition, or the placing of two or more nouns 
in the same case. 

PARAVA'IL (par, by; and avail, profit: 
Fr.—' because it was he who was supposed 
to make profit from the land), in Feudal 
Law, the lowest tenant holding under a 
mediate lord, as distinguished from a 
tenaut in capite, who holds immediately of 
the king. 

PAR'BUCKLE, in Naval Language, the 
rolling of a cask, or any cylindrical body, 
by means of ropes which, having been fast¬ 
ened where the cask, &c., is to go, are laid 
along the ground, then over the ends of 
the cask, and back to where they start 
from. 

PAR'CiE (Lot., from parcus, sparing), or 
the Fates, in the Heathen Mythology, 
three goddesses who were supposed to 
preside over the accidents and events, and 
to determine the date or period, of human 
life. They were called Atropos, Clotho, and 
Lachesis, and are variously represented— 
sometimes as spinning the thread of human 
life ; in which employment Clotho held the 
distaff, Lachesis turned the wheel, and 
Atropos cut the thread. It lias been sup¬ 
posed that, until the Augustan age, when 
Greek and Roman mythology became 
mingled, the Romans had but one parca, 
who was equivalent to the goddess Mors, 
the third of the fates. 

PAR'CENER, or CO-PAR'CENER, (parso- 
nier: Fr. ; from persona, a person : Lat.— 
because all of them form, as it were, but one 
individual), in Law, a co-lieir, or one who 
holds lands by descent from an ancestor in 
common with others. The holding or oc¬ 
cupation of lands of inheritance by two or 
more persons, differs from joint tenancy, 
which is created by deed or devise, whereas 
parcenary is created by the descent of lands 
from a common ancestor. No right of sur¬ 
vivorship exists among co-parceners; but 
they may agree, or any one may force the 
rest, to make a partition. 

PARCH'MENT (parchemin: Fr.), the skins 
of sheep or goats, prepared in such a man- 
ner as to render them proper for writing 
I upon. Vellum is a similar preparation from 
’ the skins of calves, kids, and lambs. The 
parchment used for drums is obtained 
from the skin of asses, calves, and wolves; 
I that for battledores from the skin of asses, 
and that for sieves from the skin of goats. 
Parchment is made by preparing the skins 
as if for tanning; shaving down and purnic- 
I ing them ; then stretching and carefully 
drying them. When intended for the book- 
| binder, it is sometimes dyed green with 
verdigris. The use of parchment is very 
P ancient; the Hebrews had books written 


[parenthesis 


on the skins of animals in David’s time, 
and Herodotus relates that the Ionians, 
from the earliest period, wrote upon goat 
and sheep-skin, from which the air had 
been merely scraped off. It was used by 
Eumenes, king of Pergamus, 250 n.c. He 
could not obtain enough papyrus for the 
library he was establishing, and employed 
it as a substitute—whence pergamena, its 
Latin name. In the beginning of the 8th 
century, it had entirely superseded papyrus: 
and all the public documents, under Charle¬ 
magne, were written upon it.- Vege¬ 

table Parchment, a tough and durable 
paper possessing many of the qualities of 
parchment, prepared by immersing ordinary 
unsized paper for a short time in strong 
sulphuric acid, and then washing it free of 
every trace of the acid. 

PARD ( pardus: Lat.), the leopard or ! 
panther. ‘ A soldier bearded like the pard.’ | 
—Shakspere. 

PAREGOR'IC (paregorikos, soothing: j 

Gr.), that which assuages pain.- Pare- | 

gorxc Elixir, a camphorated tincture of 
opium, flavoured with oil of aniseed. • 

PAREM'BOLE {Gr., from paremballo, I 
put in between), a figure in Rhetoric, by i 
which a paragraph is inserted in the middle 
of a sentence, for the purpose of explana¬ 
tion. It is called also paremptosis, and it 
maybe considered a species of parenthesis, 
which see. 

PA RENCII Y'MA (para, between ; cheuma, 
anything effused : Gr.), the cellular tissue 
of vegetables in which the cells are not 
very elongate, nor very firmly adherent to 
each other. The pith of plant stems and 
the soft interior of leaves are examples, of 
parenchyma. 

PA'RENT {parens, from pario, I bring 
forth : Lat.), a term of relationship appli¬ 
cable to those from whon'. wc Immediately 
receive our being. Parents, by the law of 
the.land, as well as by t.be law of nature, 
are bound to educate, maintain, and defend 
their children, over whom they have a 
legal as well as a natural power ; they like¬ 
wise have interests in the profits of their 
children’s labour, during their nonage, in 
case the children live with and are provided 
for by them; yet the parent has no interest 
in the real or personal estate of a child, 
otherwise than as his guardian. The laws 
relating to the mutual rights and duties of 
parents and children are a very important 
part of every code, and have a very intimate 
connection with the state of society and 
with civil institutions. In ancient times, 
when paternity was a great foundation of 
civil authority, the parental rights were 
much more absolute than in modern, ex¬ 
tending, in some countries, to the power 
of life and death, and continuing during 
the life of the two parties. 

PAREN'THESIS {Gr.), from parentithemi, 

I put in beside), in Rhetoric, a figure, by 
which a few words are inserted in a sen¬ 
tence to explain some portion of it. All 
kinds of parentheses may be removed, 
without rendering the sentence grammati¬ 
cally incorrect. The ancients placed in 
parentheses many things which we put in 
explanatory notes. 


537 


Hfterarji Creatfurg. 





























pargasite] £TIjc &ctcnftftc autf 


533 


PAR'GASITE, in Mineralogy, a variety 
of AcUnolite, from Pargas, in Finland. 

PAR/GET, in Architecture, the plaster 
formed of lime, hair, and cowdung, used in 
coating a chimney. The use of earthenware 
pipes in chimneys renders this unnecessary, 
and is a great improvement. 

PARHE'LION (para , heside; and helios, 
the sun: Or.), in Astronomy, a mock sun, 
or meteor, having the appearance of the 
sun itself, and seen by the side of that 
luminary. Parhelia are sometimes double, 
sometimes triple, and sometimes even 
more numerous; and they are always con¬ 
nected with one another by a white hori¬ 
zontal circle. They are formed by the 
rellection of the sun’s beams on a cloud 
suitably situated: and are accounted for 
by supposing an infinity of small particles 
of ice floating in the air, which multiply 
the image of the sun by refraction or re¬ 
flection. Parhelia, which appear on the 
same side of the circle with the true sun, 
and sometimes are part of the circle itself, 
are tinted with prismatic colours ; which is 
never the case with those on the opposite 
side; hence it is supposed that the former 
are produced by reflection, the latter by 
refraction. 

PA'RIAN MAR'BLE, a sort of white 
marble, so called from the island of Paros, 
where it was first found.- Parian Chro¬ 

nicle. [See Arundelian Marbles.] 

PA'RIAHS, a degraded tribe of Hindoos, 
who live by themselves in the outskirts of 
towns, and, in the country, build their 
houses apart from the villages, or rather 
have villages of their own; they possess, 
strictly speaking, no caste. They dare not, 
in cities, pass through the streets where 
the Brahmins live, nor enter a temple of 
the superior castes. They are prohibited 
from all approach to anything pure, and 
are doomed to perform all kinds of menial 
work. 

PARI'ETAL BONES (parietalis , pertain¬ 
ing to walls: Lat.), in Anatomy, two arched 
bones situated on each side of the superior 
part of the cranium. They are thicker above 
than below; but are somewhat thinner, and 
at the same time more equal and smooth, 
than the other bones of the cranium. In 
new-born infants the ossa parietalia are 
separated from the middle of the divided 
csfrontis by a portion of the cranium then 

unossified.- Parietal, in Botany, a term 

applied to the placentas (the parts of an 
ovary to which the seeds are attached) when 
theygrow from the walls of the ovary. When 
the placenta is unconnected with the walls, 
it is styled a free central placenta, but this 
seldom occurs. 

PAR IMPAR (even, odd: Lat.), in An¬ 
tiquity, a game of chance practised among 
the Greeks and Romans. It was identical 
with the game of ‘even or odd’ practised 
by the boys of modern times. 

PAR'IS, Plaster of, gypsa m or sul¬ 
phate of lime, found in abundance near 
Paris. The moisture having been expelled 
by heat from gypsum or alabaster, and the 
resulting substance ground, it becomes 
plaster of Paris. This powder has the pro¬ 
perty, when a certain quantity of water is 


added to it, of becoming very rapidly solid, 
heat being evolved—a fact known to the 
ancients. If, during calcination, it be 
raised to a temperature which is too high, 
it will assume the characters of anhydrite, 
and will not set on adding water. Plaster 
of Paris is used for casts, stucco work, 
and for mixing with lime to form a 
plaster which will harden quickly. Hot 
water, or salt and water, hasten the set¬ 
ting of plaster of Paris; size, beer, or 
wine mixed with the water, retards it four 
or five hours. 

PAR'ISH ( paroisse: Fr.; from paroikia, a 
neighbourhood : Gr ), in England a district 
assigned to a church either from time im¬ 
memorial or by act of parliament. Some 
parishes are, however, so large and popu¬ 
lous, that they contain one or more chapels 
of ease. At first parish and diocese seem 
to have been synonymous; afterwards the 
diocese was formed into several parishes. 
England was divided into parishes at 
least as early as 970. Their boundaries 
generally coincided with those of manors, 
for a manor seldom extended over more 
than one parish, though the latter might 
contain several manors. Besides parishes, 
there are other places termed extra-paro¬ 
chial, that is, not within the limits of any 
parish. They were formerly the site of 
religious houses, or of castles, whose 
owners would not permit any interference 
with their rights. There are in England 
and Wales about 10,700 parishes, and nearly 
2500 in Ireland. 

PARK (pearruc: Sax.), a large quantity of 
ground, enclosed and privileged for beasts 
of the chase. To constitute a park, three 
things are required—a royal grant or li¬ 
cense; enclosure by pales, a wall, or a hedge; 
and beasts of chase, as deer, &c. There 
are parks in reputation, and not erected by 
warrant. At present, any considerable ex¬ 
tent of pasture and woodland surrounding 
the country residence of a person of rank, 
devoted to the purposes of recreation, but 
chiefly to the support of a herd of deer, 
and sometimes of cattle and sheep, is called 
a park.— Park also signifies a large net 
placed on the margin of the sea, with only 
one entrance, which is next the shore, 

and is left dry by the ebb of the tide.- 

Park of Artillery, a place in the rear of 
an army for encamping the artillery, which 
is formed in lines, the guns in front, the 
ammunition-waggons behind the guns, and 
the pontoons and tumbrils constituting 
the third line. The phrase is also applied to 
denote the whole train of artillery belong¬ 
ing to an army or division of troops.- 

Park of Provisions, the place where the 
sutlers pitch their tents and sell provisions, 
and that where the bread-waggons arc sta¬ 
tioned. 

PAR'LIAMENT (parlemer.t, from parler, 
to speak: Fr.), the grand assembly of the 
three estates in Great Britain, or the great 
council of the nation, consisting of the sove¬ 
reign , lords, and commons, which forms the 
legislative branch of the government. The 
word parliament was introduced into Eng¬ 
land under the Norman kings. In France 
it was used to signify the principal judisia 1 


I 































539 Ettcrrm) CiTaSui'y* [parliament 

i courts of the country, as well as deliberative 
assemblies. The supreme council of the 
nation was called by our Saxon ancestors 
the wittenagemote, or meeting of wise men 
or sages. A parliament is called by a writ or 
letter from the sovereign, directed to each 
lord, summoning him to .appear; and by 
writs sent by the lord chancellor, under the 
great seal, commanding the sheriffs of each 
county to take the necessary steps for the 
election of members for the county and 
the boroughs contained in it. Parliament 
must be held at least once every three 
years ; but as the mutiny act, land-tax and 
malt act, are passed only for a single year, 
its meetings arc of necessity annual. On 
the day appointed for the opening of par¬ 
liament, the sovereign sits in the house of 
lords under a canopy, dressed in robes, as 
are all the lords in theirs,and thecommons 
being summoned to the bar of that house, 
the sovereign addresses both houses on the 
state of public affairs. The commons are 
then required to choose a speaker, which 
officer being presented to and approved by 
the sovereign, the latter withdraws, the 
commons retire to their own house, and 
the business of parliament begins. In the 
house of lords, the seat of each member is 
prescribed according to rank ; though, ex¬ 
cept in the presence of the sovereign, this 
formality is almost wholly dispensed with. 
The princes of the blood sit on each side 
of the throne ; the two archbishops on the 
sovereign’s righthand; the bishops of Lon¬ 
don, Durham, and Winchester, below the 
former; and the otherbishopsaccordingto 
priority of consecration. On the left hand 
of the sovereign, above all the dukes ex¬ 
cept those of the blood-royal, sit the lord- 
treasurer, lord-president, and lorcl-privy- 
seal ; then the dukes, marquises, and earls, 
the individuals of each class taking prece¬ 
dence according to the date of their crea¬ 
tion. Across the room are woolsacks, con¬ 
tinued from ancient custom ; and on the 
first of these, immediately before the 

1 throne, sits the lord-chancellor, as speaker 
of the house. On the other woolsacks are 
seated the judges and queen’s counsel who 
are serjeants-at-law, who only give their 
advice on points of law. There are sixteen 
representative peers for Scotland, who are 
elected for a single parliament, and twenty- 
eight for Ireland, who are chosen for life. 
There are 2 archbishops, and 24 bishops 
from England and Wales, with 1 arch¬ 
bishop and 3 bishops from Ireland by rota¬ 
tion of session. Three peers constitute a 
house. Peers may vote by proxy, and enter 
on the journals of the house their dissent 
and reasons for it, called a protest. The 
house of peers has a jurisdiction both in 
civil and criminal cases ; and appeals lie to 
it from the highest tribunals in the land. 
It consists of about 460 members—namely, 

3 peers of the blood-royal, 2 archbishops, 
20 dukes, 20 marquises. 111 earls, 22 
viscounts, 24 bishops, 210 barons, 16 re¬ 
presentative peers for Scotland, 28 repre¬ 
sentative peers for Ireland, and 4 Irish 
representative prelates. In the house of 
commons there arc no peculiar seats for 
any members. The speaker only has a 

chair appropriated to him at the upper end 
of the house, and at a table before him sit 
the clerk and his assistant. When the 
parliament is thus assembled, no member 
is to depart without leave. Upon extra¬ 
ordinary occasions all the members are 
summoned; otherwise three hundred of 
the commons is reckoned a full house. 
Clergymen, peers, Scotch peers, the judges 
of England, the Scotch judges, and barons of 
the Scotch exchequer, are ineligible to the 
house of commons, also persons holding 
many offices supposed to cause a direct in¬ 
fluence by the government, and pensioners 
during pleasure. Irish peers cannot be 
elected for places in Ireland, nor the eldest 
sons of Scotch peers for places in Scotland. 
The acceptance of any post of profit from 
the crown causes a member to vacate his 
seat; likewise the acceptance of the stew¬ 
ardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that 
of the manor of East Uendrcd, to which 
there are no profits attached; officers of 
the army obtaining new commissions, and 
persons receiving foreign appointments, 
such as the post of ambassador, &c., are 
excepted. The acceptance of the steward¬ 
ship of the Chiltern Hundreds is the usual 
mode of vacating a seat in the house of 
commons. Bankruptcy prevents a member 
from taking his seat for a year; and if, 
within that time, the commission is not 
superseded, or the creditors are not paid, 
he loses his seat. In the commons, there 
is no house, nor committee of the whole 
house, if 40 members are not present. The 
speaker of the house of commons cannot 
speak in the house, but the speaker ef the 
house of lords may. When there is a call 
of the house, a member absent without 
leave may be taken into custody. Every i 
year the order for the sergeant-at-arms to i 
take into custody strangers who are in the 
gallery is repeated, so that, by a kind of 
fiction, the house of commons issupposedto 
sit with closed doors. When the speaker’s 
mace is on the table, it is a house; when 
under the table, a committee. When the 
speaker is out of the house, no business can 
be done. Members can speak only once, 
except in committee, or in explanation. All 
private bills affecting the peerage must be¬ 
gin with the lords : all others may begin in 
eitherliouse. A bill for a general pardon be¬ 
gins with neither house, but with the crown. 

All money bills must begin with the house 
of commons, and the lords can make no : 
amendments in a bill which are likely to 
bring a charge on the people, nor can they 
insert or alter pecuniary penalties or for¬ 
feitures. The house of commons consists 
of 658 members—namely, 500 from England 
and Wales, 105 from Ireland, and 53 from 
Scotland. The method of making laws is 
much the same in both houses. In each 
the act of the majority binds the whole; 
and this majority is declared by votes 
openly given, not privately or by ballot. 

To bring a bill into the house of commons, 
if the relief sought by it is of a private 
nature, it is first necessary to prefer a peti¬ 
tion, which must be presented by a mem¬ 
ber, and usually sets forth the grievance 
desired to be remedied. In public mattei , 





































the hill is brought in upon motion made to 
the house without any petition. A com¬ 
mittee of the whole house is composed of all 
the members ; to form it, the speaker quits 
the chair (another member being appointed 
chairman), and he may then join in the de¬ 
bate like any other member. In such com¬ 
mittees, lihe bill is debated clause by clause, 
amendments made, the blanks filled up, and 
sometimes the bill entirely new-modelled. 
After a bill has gone through the commit¬ 
tee, the chairman reports it to the house, 
with such amendments as the committee 
have made: then the house reconsiders 
the whole bill, and the question is put upon 
every clause and amendment. When the 
house has agreed or disagreed to the 
amendments of the committee, and some¬ 
times added new amendments, the bill is 
ordered to be engrossed. As soon as this 
is finished, it is read a third time, and 
amendments are sometimes then made to 
it; and if a new clause be added, it is 
done by tacking a separate piece of parch¬ 
ment on the bill, which is called a 
rider. The speaker then again opens it, 
and, holding it up in his hands, puts the 
question whether the bill shall pass. If 
this be agreed to, the title is then settled, 
and one of the members is directed to 
carry it to the lords for their concurrence. 
When both houses have done with any bill, 
it is always deposited in the house of peers, 
to await the royal assent, except in the case 
of a money bill, which, after receiving the 
concurrence of the lords, is sent back to 
the house of commons. The answer to the 
question put by the speaker, or the chair¬ 
man, in the house of commons, is Ay or No, 
and, in the house of peers, Content or Not 
Content. The royal assent to bills may be 
given, either in person (when the sovereign 
appears on the throne in the house of 
peers, regally attired), or by letters-patent 
under the great seal, and duly signed. And 
when the bill has received the royal assent 
in either of these ways, it is then, and not 
before, a statute or act of parliament. Par¬ 
liament is 'prorogued from one session to 
another by royal authority; committees 
are not dissolved by prorogation, but are 
merely adjourned to the next time of 
meeting. It is dissolved by the sovereign’s 
will, by the demise of the crown, or by lapse 
of time—at the end of the seventh year, 
should it not have been dissolved sooner. 

PARLIAMENTARIANS, an epithet for 
those who sided with the English repub¬ 
lican parliament in opposition to king 
Charles I. 

PAR'ODY (parodia, from parddeo, I sing 
with certain changes : Or.), a kind of writ¬ 
ing in which the words of an author or his 
thoughts are. by some slight alterations, 
adapted to a different purpose ,* or it may be 
defined, a poetical pleasantry in which 'the 
verses of some author are, by way of ridi¬ 
cule, applied to another object; or a serious 
work is turned into burlesque by affecting 
to observe the same rhymes, words, and 
cadences. 

PAR'OL ( parole: Fr.), in Law, an epithet 
for what is done by oral declaration, as 
parol evidence, which is testimony by the 


written evidence. 

PAIIO'LE (Fr.), in Military affairs, a pro¬ 
mise given by a prisoner of war, when 
suffered to be at large, that he will return 
at a time appointed, unless he shall have 
previously been discharged or exchanged. 

-Parole also means the watchword 

given out every day in orders by a com¬ 
manding officer, in camp or garrison by 
which friends may be distinguished from 
enemies. 

PAROMOI/OGY (paromologia, from parc- 
mologeo, I pretend to admit: Or.), in Rhe¬ 
toric, a figure of speech by which an orator 
concedes something to his adversary, in i 
order to strengthen his own argument. 

PARONOMA'SIA (Gr„ from paronomazo, 

I slightly change a word), a Rhetorical 
figure by which the same word is used in 
different senses ; orw r ords similar in sound 
are put in opposition to each other, so as to 
produce the effect of antithesis. 

PARONY'CHIA ( paronuchia , from para, '■ 
beside; and onux, the nail: Or.), in Medi- i 
cine, a whitlow, or abscess formed near the j 
nails or tips of the fingers. 

PAROQUET'S, or PAIIRA'KEETS (per- 1 
roquet, a parrot: Fr.), a tribe of parrots 
usually of a small size, and differing from 
other parrots in the form of the feet. They ■ 
are natives of India and Australia. 

PAROT'ID GLAND (jparutis, the gland 
beside the ear: Or.), in Anatomy, a large 
conglomerate and salivary gland, situated 
under the ear, between the maxillary pro¬ 
cess of the temporal bone and the angle of 
the lower jaw. The excretory duct of this 
gland opens in the mouth, and is called, 
from its discoverer, the Stenonian duct. 

PAROTI'TIS (from same), inflammation 
of the parotid gland ; the mumps. 

PAR'OXYSM (paroxusmos, from paroxn- 
no, I make violent: Or.), in Medicine, a fit 
of higher excitement or violence in a dis¬ 
ease that has remissions or intermissions; 
as the paroxysm of a fever or the gout. 

PAR'REL, among seamen, a collar of 
greased rope, which confines the yard to 
the mast while it is hoisted up. 

PAR'RICIDE (parricida, from patncida: 
Lat.), strictly signifies the murder or mur- j 
derer of a father, as matricide does of a 
mother; yet this word is ordinarily taken 
in both senses, and is also extended to the 
murder of any near relation. The word 
parricide is also applied to one who fatally 
injures any of those to whom he owes par¬ 
ticular reverence, as his country or patron. 
By the Roman law parricide was punished 
in a severer manner than other kinds of 
homicide. After being scourged, the delin 
quent was sewed up in a leathern sack,with 
a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and 
then cast into the sea. Solon made no law 
against parricide, supposing it impossible 
that any one should be guilty of so unna¬ 
tural a crime; nor had the Romans any law 
against it originally. We treat it as any 
othermurder; but, in some German states, 
the parricide is put to death with exquisite 
tortures. 

PARRICI'DIUM (Lat., from same), a 
name given by a decree of the Ilomau 


parliamentarians] CIjc Jrctcnltfic antf 


540 

















541 


Ettcrary Emtfttrg. 


senate to the Ides of March, which was the 
anniversary of Caesar’s assassination. Dola- 
hella the consul proposed a law to change 
its name to Natalis Urbis, as he looked on it 
as the birthday of Roman liberty. 

PAR'ROTS ( perroquet, a parrot :Fr.), a large 
family of scansorial birds, the Psittacidce of 
ornithologists. They abound in tropical cli¬ 
mates. There are several divisions or subfa¬ 
milies, viz., the parrakeets, macaws, lories, 
cockatoos,owl-parrots,and trueparrots. The 
last are the best known species, on account 
of their docility in captivity, and their 
power of articulating words in imitation of 
the human voice. Their hooked bill is very 
serviceable to them in climbing. They 
breed in hollow trees, subsist on fruits and 
seeds, and often attain a great age. The 
common grey parrot, a native of Africa, is 
the most remarkable for its loquacity, 
docility, and distinctness of articulation. 
The green parrot of South America is also 
remarkable in these respects. The pretty 
little love birds fall into this division. 

PARSEE'S (pars, the ancient name of 
Persia), those who profess the religious 
system of Zoroaster, the dominant reli¬ 
gion in Persia until expelled by Mahomme- 
danism. Those who refused to renounce 
their ancient faith fled from the country. 
The modern Parsees are chiefly resident in 
Bombay, where several of them are persons 
of great wealth. 

PAR'S ING (pars, a part: Lat.), in Gram- 
i mar, the resolving a sentence into its ele- 
! ments, by showing the several parts of 
speech of which it is composed, and their 
relation to each other according to gram- 
: matical rules. 

PAR'SLEY (petra, a rock; and selinon, 
{ parsley: Gr.), a well known umbelliferous 
i plant, the Petroselinum sativum of bota- 
j nists. Among the Greeks, parsley was used 
; for decorating tombs, and consequently 
I was regarded as a vegetable not much 
calculated to contribute to agreeable sensa¬ 
tions. It was, however, the herb of which, 
in the Isthmian and Nemean games, the 
crowns of the victors were composed. 
Among the Romans, parsley was considered 
a necessary ingredient in their festive 
garlands, because it retains its freshness a 
long time, affords a grateful smell, and was 
supposed to absorb the inebriating fumes 
of wine, and by that means prevent intoxi¬ 
cation. 

PARS'NEP (pastinaca: Lat), a well- 
known culinary vegetable, the Pastinaca 
scitiva of botanists, the root of which is 
deemed a valuable esculent. Besides their 
use for the table, parsneps are often culti¬ 
vated on an extensive scale as fodder for 
cattle. The milk of cows is improved in 
quality and increased in quantity by them ; 
and they give the butter a fine saffron- 
yellow colour, as well as excellent flavour. 
Since the roots are not liable to injury from 
frosts, they may remain in the ground all 
the winter, and be taken up as required. 

PAR'SON (persona, a person: Lat.), the 
rector or incumbent of a parish, who has 
the parochial charge or cure of souls; one 
who possesses all the rights of a parochial 
church; in his person (whence the name), 


[PARTICEPS 


the church he occupies is represented. He 
has the freehold of the parsonage, glebe, 
the tithes, and other dues. He must be in 
holy orders, presented, instituted, and in¬ 
ducted. A parson has a right to all the 
ecclesiastical dues of the parish ; a vicar 
has generally an appropriator over him, 
who is entitled to the best part of the 
profits, and to whom, in fact, he is perpe¬ 
tual curate. In common language, any 
clergyman is called a parson. 

PAR'SONAGE (last), ordinarily, a rectory 
endowed with a house, glebe, lands, tithes, 
&c.,for the maintenance of the incumbent; 
but there may be a parsonage without 
either glebe or tithes, and with only annual 
payments. 

PARTE'RRE (Fr.), in Gardening, a system 
of beds of various shapes and sizes, in which 
flowers are grown, with intervening spaces 
of gravel or turf for walking upon. The 
beds are very often bordered with dwarf 
box, kept low by clipping. This kind of 
parterre was in use among the Romans. 

- Parterre, in France, the pit of a 

theatre. 

PARTHE'NOGENESIS ( parthSnos, a vir¬ 
gin ; genesis, generation: Gr.), a term ap¬ 
plied by naturalists to cases amongst 
animals and plants where a perfect embryo 
is alleged to be formed in the absence of 
male organs. 

PAR'TIIENON (Parthenon, from parthe- 
nos, a maiden—one of the names of Minerva: 
Gr.), the name given to the celebrated 
Grecian temple of Minerva, erected in the 
Acropolis of Athens, during the splendid 
era of Pericles. It was built of marble upon 
a spot elevated on all sides above the town 
and citadel; and was of the Doric order. 
It was a peripteral octostyle, with seven¬ 
teen columns on the sides, each 6 feet 2 
inches in diameter at the base, 34 feet in 
height; and was elevated on three steps. 
Its height was 65 feet; and its area was 233 
by 102 feet. It was decorated with magni- 1 
fleent groups and statues, and its cost has 
been estimated at a million and a half ster- ' 
ling. This magnificent temple, which had 
been in turn converted into a Christian ; 
church and a Turkish mosque, had resisted 
all the ravages of time; but in the year j 
1687, when the Venetians besieged the | 
citadel of Athens, under the command of 
General Konigsmarck, a bomb fell most 
unluckily upon it, setting fire to the powder 
which the Turks had stored up within it. 
This destroyed the roof, and reduced the 
whole building almost to ruins. It is still 
magnificent, though greatly dilapidated. 
The chief portion of its sculptures are now 
in the British Museum, and form, with 
some other remains of antiquity, the col¬ 
lection termed the Elgin marbles. 

PARTHEN'OPE, one of the small planets 
belonging to the group between Mars and 
Jupiter, and the eleventh in the order of 
discovery. 

PAR'TIAL (pars, a part: Lat), in Botany, 
an epithet for subordinate; as, a partial 
umbel, a partial peduncle. A partial in¬ 
volucre is placed at the foot of a partial 
umbel. 

PAR'TICErS CRIM'INIS (a sharer in the 
















ET)C J^ctcitltfic mitt 5-12 


pa.rticipleJ 

crime : Lat.), In Law, an accomplice, or one 
wlio participates in the guilt. 

PAR'TICIPLE (partidpium, from parti- 
ceps, sharing; Lat.), in Grammar, a word so 
called because, in certain languages, it par¬ 
ticipates in the nature both of a noun and a 
verb ; being variable through the genders, 

; numbers, and cases, like the former, and rc- 
I garding time, action, &c., like the latter. 
Participles sometimes lose the properties 
of a verb, and become adjectives: as, she is 
a girl of engaging manners; that man is an 
accomplished orator. 

PARTICLE (particula, the dim. of pars, a 
part: Lat.), in Physics, one of those minute 
portions of a body, the aggregation or col- 
I lection of which constitutes the whole mass. 
Sometimes the word is used in the same 

sense as atom. - Particles, in Grammar, 

such parts of speech as are incapable of any 
inflection: as the preposition, conjunction, 
&c. The term is, however, more accurately 
applied to those minor words, which give 
clearness and precision to a sentence, but 
respecting whose exact use grammarians 
are not agreed. Thus, in Greek, ge, ara, de, 
&c.; in German, ja, ivohl, &c.; in English, 
now, then, truly, &c. It is also used to in¬ 
dicate those words which are termed en¬ 
clitics, and which cannot be used separately, 
j but must be joined with another word: as 
j the que, in virumque, in Latin. 

PARTITE ( partitus, from partio, T divide: 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for divided; 
thus, a partite leaf is a simple leaf separated 
down to the base. 

PARTNERS (from part), in a ship, strong 
pieces of timber bolted round the mast, at 
the deck, to support the latter against its 
pressure; also similar supports round the 
capstan and pump. 

PARTNERSHIP, the association of two 
or more persons for the prosecution of any 
trade, manufacture, or commercial enter¬ 
prise, at their joint expense. In this case 
the connection is formed by contract; each 
partner furnishing such a part of the capital 
stock, and being entitled to such a propor¬ 
tional share of profit, and subject to such 
a proportional share of loss as may be 
agreed upon ; or one or more of the partners 
furnishing money or stock, and the others 
contributing their services. A partnership 
or association of this kind is a standing or 
permanent company, and is denominated a 
firm or house. By a recent act of parlia¬ 
ment, persons simply lending money to a 
firm, and receiving in return a share of the 
profits instead of interest, are protected 
from liability for the debts of the firm. 
There is no particular form of contract 
necessary for partnership, nor even a 
writing. If no period has been fixed forits 
dissolution, any one partner may dissolve 
it; and if a period has been fixed, it will be 
dissolved, in the absence of a proviso to 
the contrary, by the bankruptcy, attain¬ 
der, death, or, in the case of a female, the 
marriage of a partner; but, as far as the 
public is concerned, notice must be given 
that it has been dissolved. The partnership 
will be bound by the engagements of any 
partner, acting with reference to the joint 
business. By means of the act called incor¬ 


poration, or by registration as a ‘limited 
company, the shareholders in a joint-stock 
company may protect themselves’from all 
liability beyond the amount of their shares. 

PART'RIDGE ( perdrix: Fr.; from per- 
dix: Gr.), the Perdix cinerca, a well-known 
bird. The common partridge is found all 
over Europe. The places in which par¬ 
tridges most delight are corn-fields, espe¬ 
cially whilst the corn is growing, for under 
cover of it they shelter and breed; and 
these are frequented by them when the 
corn is cut down, for the sake of the grain 
scattered over them. The red-legged Par¬ 
tridge, a bird less esteemed both by sports¬ 
men and epicures, is the Perdix rufa of 
ornithologists. 

PARTY (partie: Fr.), in Politics, a num¬ 
ber of persons, united for the purpose of 
promoting, by their joint endeavours, their 
own views, according to some principles on 
which all of them are agreed. From the 
earliest times, mutual co-operation has been 
adopted for the execution of favourite de¬ 
signs. But there is a tendency, in party, to 
generate narrow, false and illiberal princi¬ 
ples—a thorough follower of a party is, in 
some sense, a sla re. Free governments are 
the hotbeds of party, and probably, without 
the existence of opposing parties in a state, 
civil freedom would no longer exist. Party ; 
differs from faction in implying a less dis¬ 
honourable association of persons, or more 

justifiable designs.- Party, in Heraldry, 

the division of a field by a line running in 
the direction of an ordinary: thus, party 

per pale, party per fesse, &c. -Party, in 

Military affairs, a small detachment or 
number of men sent upon any particular 

duty, as a recruiting party, &c.- Party- 

walls, when houses are built in contact 
the law requires that each shall have its 
own wall in order to prevent the spread of 
fire, and these walls arc called party-walls. 

- Party-jury, in Law, a jury consisting 

of half foreigners and half Englishmen. 

PARU'LIS (paroulis : from para, beside ; 
and oula, the gums : Gr.), in Medicine, an 
inflammation, boil, or abscess in the gums : 
a gum-boil. 

PAS'CHAL CY'CLE, the cycle which 
serves to show when Easter occurs. It is 
formed by multiplying together 28, the cy¬ 
cle of the sun, and 19, the cycle of the moon. 

PA'SHA, the name of officers in the 
Turkish empire who, when appointed to pro¬ 
vinces, are at once military commanders, 
judges, and receivers of taxes. They are di¬ 
vided into three classes, viz., pashas of one, 
two, and three tails. The vizirs and serasker, 
or commander-in-chief, are pashas of three 
tails. The word is derived from the Persian, 
and signifies ‘ the foot of the Shah.’ It had 
been usual from an early period to style the 
ministers of the Persian king his feet, 
hands, eyes, &c.; the governors of provinces, 
as the chief supporters of the empire, being 

PfillPll ljia fppf 

PASIG'RAPHY Q)as, all; and greepho, I 
write : Gr.), a system of universal writing, 
or a mode of writing what may be under¬ 
stood and used by all nations. Numerous 
attempts have been made to construct a uni¬ 
versal language, particularly by the philoso- 
































5i3 Httcrarg 


pliic and persevering Germans; but hitherto 
all their efforts have been fruitless. 

PASQUINADE' ( Fr .), a satirical writing, 
directed against one or more persons. A 
mutilated statue, which was dug up at Rome 
nearly 300 years ago, and which now lies in 
the court of the Capitol, was named Pasquin, 
after an eccentric barber, nearwhose house 
it was at first set up. To this, and another 
statue near it, named Marfofio, satirical pla¬ 
cards, some of which were Very severe, and 
reflected on the highest personages, were 
affixed at night. Sixtus V. was greatly 
offended when one of them demanded ‘ why 
his shirt was so soiled,’ and was answered 
by the other that‘his washerwoman’ (by 
whom was meant the pope’s sister) ‘had 
become a princess.’ All satirical composi¬ 
tions in Rome have long been attributed to 
Pasquin, or pasted upon it. Hence the word 
pasquinade for a lampoon. The difference 
between a pasquinade and a satire is, that 
the end of the latter is to correct and reform, 
while that of the former is only to ridicule 
and expose. 

PASS (pas: Fr.), in Military affairs, a 
narrow passage, which renders the entrance 

into a country difficult for an army.- 

Pass, among Miners, a frame of boards set 

sloping for the ore to slide down.- Pass 

; op Arms, in Chivalry, a, bridge, road, &c., 
which the ancient knights undertook to 
defend. They who held a pass hung tip 
their arms on trees, pales, columns, &c., 
erected for that purpose; and such as were 
disposed to dispute the pass touched one 
| of the pieces of armour with his sword, 
j a challenge which the other was obliged 
to accept.- Pass-parole, in Military af¬ 

fairs, a command given at the head of an 
army, and communicated by word of mouth 

to the rear.- Pass-word, a secret word 

or countersign, which enables any person 
to pass through military stations. 

PASSAD'E, or PASSA'DO (a push : ltal .), 
in Fencing, an advance or leap forward upon 
the enemy. Of these there are several kinds, 
as passes within, above, beneath, to the 
right, the left, and passes under the line, 

&c.- Passade, in the manege, a turn or 

course of a horse, backwards or forwards, 
on the same spot of ground. 

PAS'SAGE ( Fr .), in Music, a succession 
of sounds, forming a member or phrase in 

a composition.- Birds op Passage, those 

birds which at certain seasons migrate, or 
pass from one climate to another. [See 

Migratory Birds, &c.] -Right op 

Passage, in Commerce, ah imposition or 
duty exacted by some princes, either by 
land or sea, in certain confined or narrow 
portions of their territories, on all vessels, 
and even sometimes on passengers, coming 
in or going out of them. 

PAS'SANT (Fr.), in Heraldry, a term ap¬ 
plied to a lion or other animal in a shield, 
appearing to walk leisurely. When walk¬ 
ing with his head affronts, or looking full- 
faced, it is termed passant gardant. 

PASSE-PARTOUT (Fr.), a master-key, or 
a key that answers for several locks belong¬ 
ing to the same house or apartment. 

PAS'SERES (Lat.), in Ornithology, the 
name given to an order of birds which 


&rca£urj). [passive 


exhibit neither the violence of birds of j 
prey nor the fixed regimen of the terres- ! 
trial birds, but which feed on insects, fruit 
or grain, and even small birds. They form 
the largest and least recognizable order. 
The females are generally smaller, and have 
less brilliant plumage than the males; they 
live in pairs, and build their nests in trees 
with great ingenuity. Power of flight, 
melody of voice, and brilliancy of plumage, 
are found in the highest perfection in one 
group or another of this extensive and 
varied order. As their beak varies accord¬ 
ing to the nature of their food, it has 
caused their classification into Dentirostres, 
having a notch and tooth-like process on 
each side of the margin of the upper man¬ 
dible, as in the thrushes and flycatchers. 
Conirostres, having a thick, robust, conical 
beak, as amongst the crows and finches. 
Tenuirostres, having a long and slender 
bill, as amongst the humming birds and 
creepers; and Fissirostres, having a beak 
opening widely, as amongst the swallows 
and goat suckers. 

PAS'SIM (Lat.), a word of reference in 
books, signifying here and there; through¬ 
out ; in many different places. 

PAS'SING-BELL, the bell that is tolled 
immediately after death. The passing-bell 
was, at first, superstitiously intended to 
drive away any demon that might seek to 
take possession of the soul of the dying, on 
which account it was sometimes called the 
soul-bell. 

PAS'SION-FLOWERS, a genus of climb¬ 
ing plants: nat. ord. Passijfloracece; con¬ 
taining numerous species, remarkable for 
the elegance and singular form of their 
flowers. They are all natives of warm 
countries, and only one of them is suffl- 1 
ciently hardy to succeed well here in the 
open air, the others requiring shelter and 
heat. Their stems are woody, or, more 
frequently, herbaceous, provided with ten¬ 
drils, and bearing alternate simple or lobed 
leaves; the flowers are axillary, and sup¬ 
ported on peduncles; the calyx is widely 
spreading, and divided into ten parts. To 
the base of the calyx is attached an inte¬ 
rior crown, composed of a great number of. j 
filaments. The Passiflora ccerulea, or blue- 
rayed common palmated passion-flower, has 
long slender stalks, ascending, upon any 
support by their claspers, thirty or forty 
feet high, with one large palmated leaf at 
each joint, and at the axillas large spread¬ 
ing flowers, with whitish-green petals, and 
a blue radiated nectarium—succeeded by 
large, oval, yellowish fruit. It flowersfrom 
July until October; the flowers are very 
large and conspicuous, and their compo¬ 
sition is exceedingly curious and beautiful; 
but they are only of one day’s duration, 
generally opening about 11 or 12 o’clock 
and gradually closing the next day, when 
they assume a decayed appearance, and new 
flowers succeed. In some Roman Catholic 
countries, this flower is greatly venerated, 
because the instruments of Christ’s passion 
are supposed to be represented by the parts 
of fructification, &c. 

PAS'SIVE (passivus: Lat.), in Grammar, 
a term given to a verb which expresses 




























— 


patina] 


Elje J^cumtttfc rcntt 


546 


PAT'INA (a broad dish: Lat.), in the 
Roman Catholic church, the cover of the 
chalice, used for holding particles of the 
consecrated wafer.-Also, in Numisma¬ 

tics, the line rust with which coins become 
covered by lying in peculiar soils, and 
which not only preserves, but ornaments 
them. 

PAT'OIS ( Fr .), the dialect spoken by the 

10W6r classes 

PA'TltES CONSCRIP'TI. [See Conscript 
Fathers.] 

PATRIARCH (patriarchs: from patria, 


a race; and archo, I govern: Gr.) properly 


signifies the head or chief of a family. The 
nameyof patriarchs is.generally confined to 
the progenitors of the Israelites who lived 
before Moses, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, &c.; 
or to the heads of families before the flood, 
as the antediluvian patriarchs. The ap¬ 
pellation has from hence been transferred 
to the bishops of the first churches of the 
Fast; as, the patriarchs of Antioch, Alex¬ 
andria, Jerusalem, Constantinople.- Pa¬ 

triarchal Cross, in Heraldry, a cross ap¬ 
propriated to the dignity of a patriarch, as 
the triple crown was to that of the pope. 
The shaft of this cross is twice crossed, the 
lower transverse arm being longer than tho 
upper. 

PATRI'CIAN (patricius , from patres, fa¬ 
thers : Lat.), in Roman History, a title 
given at first to the descendants of the se¬ 
nators whom Romulus was .said to have 
created, and called patres, ‘fathers.’ It was 
afterwards enjoyed by those who became 
senators by other means than hereditary 
right. But the dignity of the patricians 
was lessened by the fall of the republic, the 
civil wars, and the establishment of the im¬ 
perial dignity. The word patrician, in its 
general and modern acceptation, signifies 
noble; senatorial; not plebeian. 

I’AT'RICK, St., Order of, an Irish order 
of knighthood, instituted by George III. in 
1783 ; and the only one belonging to Ireland. 
It consists of the sovereign, a prince of the 
blood-royal, a grand master, and fifteen 
knights. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland for 
the time being is grand master. 

PATRIS'TIC {pater, a father: Lat.), in 
Theology, that which belongs to the fathers 
of the church : as patristic theology, litcror 
ture, &c. 

PAT'ROL, or PATRO'LE (patrouille: Fr.), 
in Military language, a detachment, which 
usually consists of from four to eight men, 
under a corporal. They are drawn from the 
posts of a garrison town, and march, at the 
hour appointed by the commandant, through 
the streets to repress disorder. On the 
continent, the patrol is generally accom¬ 
panied by an officer of police. 

PA'TRON {Fr.; from patronus, a protec¬ 
tor : Lat.), in its most general sense, sig¬ 
nifies one that specially countenances and 
supports another, or lends his aid to ad¬ 
vance the interests of some undertaking ; 
as, a patron of the fine arts; the patrons of 

a charitable institution, &c.- Patron, 

among the Romans, any person in power, 
under whose protection inferiors placed 
themselves, on certain conditions of obedi¬ 
ence and personal service. Those protected 


were called clients. The duty of the patrons 
was to be their clients’ counsellors in diffi¬ 
cult cases, their advocates without payment 
in legal proceedings, their advisers in mat¬ 
ters of doubt, &c. After the fall of the 
commonwealth, the term patron was still 
applied to the advocate who defended his 

client’s cause for hire.- Patron was also 

a title conferred on a master who had freed 
his slave, the relation of patron commenc¬ 
ing when that of master expired. The 
patron was legal heir to his freed-men, if 
they died intestate, or without lawful issue 
born after their freedom commenced. By 
the Papian law, if a freed-man’s fortune 
amounted to ten thousand sesterces, and 
he had three children, the patron was en¬ 
titled to a child’s portion.- Patron, in 

the Canon and Common Law, a person who, 
having the advowson of a parsonage, vicar¬ 
age, or other spiritual office, belonging to 
his manor, has the gift and disposition of 
the benefice, and may present to it when¬ 
ever it becomes vacant.- Patron, in the 

church of Rome, a guardian or saint, whose 
name a person bears, or under whose pro¬ 
tection lie is placed, and whom ho invokes; 
or a saint, in whose name a church or order 

is founded.- Cardinal Patron, the 

prime minister of the pope. 

PATRONAGE (from same), the right of 

presentation to livings.- Lay patronage, 

a right attached to a person either as 
founder or as heir of the founder, or as 
possessor of the fee to which the patronage 
is annexed. Ecclesiastical patronage is that 
which a person is entitled to by virtue of 
some benefice which he holds. In the 
church of Scotland, the right of presenta¬ 
tion to livings has been at various times 
the source of serious disputes; and disre 
gard, in one or two instances, of the ex¬ 
pressed wish of the parishioners, was the 
cause of the great secession from the Scot¬ 
tish kirk, which took place in 1843. But, by 
Lord Aberdeen’s act, the right of the mem¬ 
bers of the church to have, within certain 
limits, a voice in the nomination of their 

pastors, was acknowledged.- Arms on 

Patronage, in Heraldry, those arms on the 
top of which are some marks of subjection 
and dependence. 

PATRON YM'IC (patronumilcos, from 
pater, a father; and onoma, a name: Gr.), 
a term applied to such names of men and 
women as are derived from those of their 
parents or ancestors; as Tydides, the son 
of Tydeus. 

PAULIC'IANS, in Ecclesiastical History, 
a branch of the ancient Manichees, so called 
from their founder, Paulus, an Armenian. 
For several centuries they suffered great 
persecution, and were at length wholly 
exterminated. 

PAUL’S, ST. This beautiful cathedral, 
built upon an eminence in London to the 
north of the Thames, was completed in 
thirty-five successive years, under one ar¬ 
chitect, Sir Christopher Wren ; one master 
mason, Thomas Strong; and one bishop of 
London, Dr. Henry Compton. The first ca¬ 
thedral which occupied this site is, without 
much authority, supposed to have been 
built on the foundation of a temple of 


































547 £(t«arj> 


Diana. It was burned down in 1086. The 
structure which succeeded was commenced 
immediately; and, its choir having been 
consumed by fire in 1135, it was consecrated 
in 1240, and entirely completed in 1315, 
having been 225 years in building. Its 
steeple was destroyed by lightning in 1443, 
but was rebuilt; and the church was, to a 
great extent, burned in 1631; repairs were 
commenced in 1663, but were interrupted 
by the civil wars; and it was totally con¬ 
sumed by the conflagration of 1666. The 
first stone of the present building was laid 
June 2l6t, 1675, and it was finished in 1710; 
having cost 736,752 l. 2s. 3f d. It is of Port¬ 
land stone, in the form of a cross; its length 
is 500 feet from east to west; its width, 223 
feet from north to south ; and its height, 
340 feet. The weight of the ball is 5600 lbs., 
and that of the cross 3360 lbs. The height 
to the cross from the centre of the floor is 
404 feet., and the ascent to the cross is by 
616 steps. It stands on a plot of more than 
two acres, and the iron balustrade round the 
church-yard is three furlongs and one-flftli 
In length. Two rows of massy piers divide 
the interior into a nave and side aisles. The 
west front towards Ludgate-street, forming 
the grand entrance, has an elevated portico 
of twelve Corinthian columns, with an up¬ 
per portico of eight pillars of the Com¬ 
posite order, supporting a triangular pedi¬ 
ment, having an entablature representing, 
in relief, the conversion of St. Paul. The 
dome is the most remarkable object in the 
view of London. 

PAU'PERISM (pauper, a poor man : Lat.). 
See Poor Laws.] 

PAUSE (pauo , I make to cease: Or.), in 
Music, a character denoting a cessation of 
sound. It is longer than a common rest, 
which is, in length, equal to some note; 
and lasts during the time of one, two, or 
more bars. 

PA VAN' ( pavo , a peacock: Lat.), a slow 
and stately dance, which was formerly prac¬ 
tised in England, but is now confined to 
Spain. It derived its name from the pecu¬ 
liar dresses of the dancers, which produced 
afancied resemblance tothetailof apeacock. 

PA'VEMENT ( pavimentum, from pavio, I 
strike; Lat.), a floor or covering consisting 
of stones, bricks, or other suitable material, 
laid on the earth in such a manner as to 
make a hard and convenient surface for 

norses, carriages, or foot-passengers.- 

Pavements of lava, with elevated side-walks, 
are found at Herculaneum and Pompeii; but 
the earliest paved streets of which any 
account has come down to us are those of 
Cordova, in Spain, which was paved with 
stones so early as the middle of the 9th 
century. London, it is said, was not paved 
till the 12th century, and then only very 
partially; nor was it until five more cen¬ 
turies had passed away that this kind of 
street accommodation was by any means 
general. Experiments have been tried with 
metal, wood, asphaltc, &c., but stone pave¬ 
ment has yet retained its place, where 
macadamizing has not superseded it. If 
the traffic is very great, it seems superior 
in durability and economy to every other 
contrivance. 


SDreatfurj). [peacock 


PAYIL'ION ( pavilion: Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a kind of turret or building, usually 
insulated and contained under a single 
roof, which is often in the form of a dome. 
Sometimes a pavilion is a projecting part in 
front of a building, and sometimes it flanks a 
corner; it is usually higher than the other 
portions. Summer-houses in gardens are 
often called by this name; but improperly. 
-In Military affairs, a tent raised on poles. 

PA'VO (a peacock: Lat.). [See Pea- 

COCK.] 

PAYMASTER OF THE FOR'CES. The 
office of this functionary was formerly very 
lucrative, as he had the interest of large 
sums left in his hands for a considerable 
time. He was, ex officio, a privy councillor, 
and sometimes in the cabinet; but the 
duties were annexed, a few years ago, to 
another post, and the office no longer 
exists. 

PEA (pisa: Sax.; from pisum: Lat.), in 
Botany, a plant and its fruit, of the genus 
Pisum ; cultivation has produced many va¬ 
rieties. It has been cultivated from remote 
antiquity, and forms one of the most valu¬ 
able of culinary vegetables, being nutri¬ 
tious, especially when green, in which state 
it forms an agreeable article of food. This 
plant has a papilionaceous flower, and the 
pericarp is a legume, called in popular lan¬ 
guage a pod. Peas are sometimes ground 
into flour, and mixed with that obtained 
from wheat, but the bread is rendered 
heavy and unwholesome. In the plural we 
write peas for two or more individual seeds, 
but pease for an indefinite number in 
quantity or bulk. 

PEACE (paix: Fr.), in a political sense, 
freedom from war with a foreign power, or 
from internal commotion. Also that quiet, 
order, and security which is guaranteed by 
the laws. This latter is termed the peace 
of the king, and consists in that security, 
both of life and goods, which the sovereign 
promises to all his subjects, or others who 
are under his protection; such is the peace 
of the king’s highways, which consists in 
freedom from all annoyance and molesta¬ 
tion. 

PEACH (pSclie: (Fr.), in Botany, a tree 
aud its fruit, of the genus Amygdalus. There 
are several species, and by cultivation a 
great number of varieties have been ob¬ 
tained. It belongs to the natural family 
Jtosacece; the leaves are alternate, simple, 
lanceolate, acute, and finely serrated; the 
flowers appear before the leaves, are very 
beautiful, and diffuse an agreeable odour. 
The fruit is a large downy drupe, contain¬ 
ing a stone that is deeply furrowed and 
rough externally, which character distin¬ 
guishes it both from the almond and the 
apricot. It originally came from Persia, 
but it was not introduced into England till 
about the year 1560. 

PE'ACOCK, a beautiful genus of gallina¬ 
ceous birds, originally natives of India. It 
includes only the common peacock (Pavo 
cristatus), and the Javanese peacock (Pavo 
Javanicus). The name properly belongs to 
the male, but it is popularly applied to the 
species in general; though the female is, 
for distinction’s sake, called a peahen. Like 




















Q\)z Jrctaittfu antf 


548 


pear] 


other domesticated birds, the common pea¬ 
cock exhibits several varieties. The ordi¬ 
nary length of this splendid bird, from the 
tip of the bill to that of the full-grown fan- 
expanded tail, is about four feet. The 
female is rather less; and her train is not 
only very short, but destitute of those 
brilliant hues and striking beauties which 
adorn the male; her crest, too, is less de¬ 
veloped, and her whole plumage partakes 
of a cinereous hue. When pleased, the pea¬ 
cock erects his tail, unfolds his feathers, 
and frequently turns round, as if to catch 
the sunbeams in every direction, accom¬ 
panying this movement with a hollow 
murmuring. At other times his cry is very 
disagreeable, and often repeated, especially 
before rain. Every year he sheds his 
plumes, and courts the most obscure re¬ 
treats till the returning spring renews his 
lustre. The Javanese peacock resembles 
the common kind, but has a larger crest. 

PEAR (jpera: Sax.), the fruit of the Pyrus 
domestica, a tree growing wild in several 
parts of Europe, but of which many kinds 
are cultivated in all temperate climates. 

PEARL (perle: Fr.), in Natural History, a 
hard, white, shining body, usually of a glo¬ 
bular, but sometimes of a pyriform shape. 
It is formed by certain bivalve molluscs, 
belonging to different genera. The oriental 
pearls of commerce are obtained from the 
Meleagrina margaritifera, and other species 
of shellfish called ‘pearl oysters.’ Pearls 
consist of concentric layers of a fine com¬ 
pact nacre, or substance identical with 
that which lines the inside of the shell, the 
layers being alternately membrane and car¬ 
bonate of lime. It is this structure which 
occasions the play of light called pearly 
iridescence. They are sometimes found 
free, and detached from the lobes of the 
mantle ; but are most usually adherent to 
the nacrous coat of the shell, which, on that 
account, is termed mother of pearl. They 
are the consequence of a disease in the fish, 
caused by the introduction of foreign bodies 
within the shells. Pearls were held in the 
highest estimation by the ancients, with 
whom they were of an enormous price. In 
modern times their value is greatly lessened 
—it is probable, by the very beautiful imita¬ 
tions which may be obtained at a trifling 
cost. When pearls are very small, they 
are termed seed-pearls. The seas about the 
East Indies and America yield pearl-fish in 
great abundance; and they are found with 
good pearls in several parts of Europe. In 
the east, the coasts of the island of Ceylon 
and the Persian gulf are the localities most 
celebrated for pearl fisheries; and in the 
west, the coast of Terra-firma and the gulf 
of Mexico. The European pearls are chiefly 
found in rivers of Scotland and Bavaria. 
These are the produce of mollusca belong¬ 
ing to the genus Unio. The worth of a 
pearl is in proportion to its magnitude, 
roundness of form, polish, and clear lustre. 
Sometimes, but very rarely, a pearl is found 
as large as a nutmeg. One of the most 
j remarkable pearls of which we have any 
authentic account is that mentioned by 
Tavernier; it was obtained at Catifa, in 
Arabia, a fishery famous in the days of 


Pliny, and cost the enormous sum of 
110,4001. It was pear-shaped, regular, and 
without blemish ; it was from two to three 
inches long, and nearly one inch in dia¬ 
meter. Even in antiquity, pearls were an 
object of luxury. One worth about 84,0001. 
of our money is said to have been dissolved 
by Cleopatra at a banquet, and drunk off 
to Antony’s health. The largest known 
pearl now in existence is in the Hope col¬ 
lection. It is two inches long and four in 

circumference, and weighs 1800 grains.- 

Artificial pearls are small globules or pear- 
shaped spheroids of thin glass, perforated 
with two opposite holes, through which 
they are strung, and mounted into neck¬ 
laces, &c., like real pearl ornaments. The 
liquor employed to imitate the pearly lustre 
is called essence d'orient, which is prepared 
by throwing into water of ammonia the 
brilliant lamellae separated, by'washing and 
friction, from the scales of the bleak, a 
small river fish. The ammonia renders 
them sufficiently soft and flexible to adhere 
closely to the inner surface of the glass, 
and passes off by the drying. The French 
are particularly successful in this manufac¬ 
ture. There are various other methods of 
imitating pearls, in which also the French 
are said to excel. 

PEARL'-ASH, a fixed alkaline salt, pre¬ 
pared chiefly in America, Germany, Russia, 
and Poland, by dissolving out the salts 
contained in the ashes of burnt wood, 
evaporating the solution to dryness, and 
calcining the residue for a considerable 
time in a furnace moderately hot. Pearl- 
ashes are much used in the manufacture of 
glass, and, for that purpose, require no 
preparation, except when very great trans¬ 
parency is desired. 

PEAT {pyt: Isl.), a congeries of decayed 
vegetable matter, generally including 
trunks of trees, leaves, fruits, stringy 
fibres, and the remains of aquatic mosses. 
In most cases, the plant which chiefly forms 
the peaty matter is a small moss, the Sphag- 
numpalustre. It continues growing upwards 
from the points of the shoots, while decay 
is advancing in a similar manner from their 
lower extremities, a thick close mass of 
vegetable substance, which rots below as it 
forms above, being produced. The rotten 
part is peat or turf. It occurs in extensive 
beds, called peat-mosses, occupying the sur¬ 
face of the soil, or covered to the depth of 
a few feet with sand, gravel, &c. It is the 
common fuel of large districts of Wales 
and Scotland, and of some parts of Eng¬ 
land where coals are very dear. It consti¬ 
tutes the fuel of a large part of Ireland, 
where it covers thousands of acres. When 
powerfully compressed, it forms a dense 
and excellent fuel, the more valuable for 
many purposes since it contains no sul¬ 
phur. 

PEB'BLES (pcebol: Sax.), round nodules, 
particularly of siliceous minerals, such as 

rock-crystal, agates, &c.-The term is 

used by opticians to express the trans¬ 
parent and colourless rock-crystal or quartz, 
used as a substitute for glass in spectacles ; 
its hardness makes it little likely to be 
scratched. 

























549 Uttetavg Crottfurg. [pedometer 

PEC'CARY, the name of two South 
American animals allied to the hog, hut 
distinguished by the absence of the outer 
toe of the hind foot, and the presence of a 
peculiar gland, which exudes its secretion 
by an orifice situated in the back : whence 
Cuvier devised the name of Dicotyles (two 
navels) for the genus. The collared peccary 
{Dicotyles torquatus), and the white-lipped 
peccary {Dicotyles labiatus ), are the only 
known species. 

PECH'BLEND, or PITCH'BLEHD, in 
Mineralogy, ore of uranium; a metallic 
substance of a blackish or deep iron-grey 
colour, sometimes spotted with red ; it is 
found in masses in Swedish and Saxon 
mines, and is generally stratified with other 
minerals. 

PECK, a dry measure of eight quarts, 
being the fourth part of a bushel. The 
imperial peck contains 554 - 55 cubic inches. 

PEC'TEN (a comb: Lat.), a large genus 
of Conchifera, bivalve mollusca, whose 
shells have a hinge like that of the oyster, 
but usually marked with ribs which radiate 
from the summit of each valve to the cir¬ 
cumference, and furnished with two pro¬ 
cesses called ears. Pectens obtain their 
name from the ribs or ridges of their 
shells running in straight lines like the 
teeth of a comb. They are commonly called 
clams. The scallop {Pecten maximus ) and 
quin (P. opercularis ) are esteemed delica¬ 
cies ; the latter covers extensive banks, 
especially on the N. and W. of Ireland. The 
body of the scallop is bright orange or 
scarlet; the shell is used for ‘scalloping’ 
oysters; formerly it was used as a drinking 
cup, and celebrated as such in Ossian’s ‘Hall 
of Shells.’ An allied species has received 
the name of St. James’s shell (P. Jacobceus ); 
it was worn by pilgrims to the Holy Land, 
and became the badge of several orders of 
knighthood. 

PEC'TIN (pelctos , thick, as opposed to 
liquid: Or.), the gelatinizing principle of 
certain vegetables, such as currants, ap¬ 
ples, &c. It may be obtained abundantly 
from some esculent roots—carrots, for ex¬ 
ample, which, on this account, are so useful 
as ingredients in soup. Pectin, or pectic 
acid, is in the form of a jelly, which affords 
insoluble compounds with the earths and 
several other metallic oxides. 

PEO'TINATED, or PEC'TINATE ( pecti- 
natus, from pecten, a comb: Lat.), in Natu- 
1 ral History, an epithet for anything which 

| is toothed like a comb.-A mineral is said 

to be pectinated, when it presents short 

1 filaments, crystals, or branches, nearly 
parallel and equidistant. 

PEC'TORAL {pectoralis, from pectus, the 
breast: Lat.), an epithet for whatever re¬ 
lates to the breast; hence pectoral fins, the 
anterior and lateral fins, which represent, 
in fishes, the fore-legs or anterior mem¬ 
bers of other vertebrates. 

PEC'ULATOR {Lat.), in Roman Law, a 
public officer who embezzled the public 

money. . . , _ 

PECU'LIAR (peculians, special : Lat.), 
in Ecclesiastical Law, an exempt jurisdic¬ 
tion, which is not under the ordinary of 
the diocese. Peculiars are royal, of which 

the king is ordinary : those of archbishops, 

bishops, deans, chapters, &c.- Court of 

Peculiars, a branch of the court of arches 
belonging to the archbishop of Canterbury, 
which takes cognizance of matters relating 
to parishes that have a peculiar jurisdiction. 

PED'AGOGUE {paulagOgos: from pais, a 
child; and agdgos, a leading: Or.), a slave 
of a superior order, to whom a child was 
intrusted from about the age of seven till 
he became a youth, by the Greeks and 
Romans, particularly the former. To him 
was committed the charge of giving in¬ 
struction in the inferior branches of edu¬ 
cation, and he accompanied his pupil to the 
masters who taught the other branches. 

PED'ALS (pedalis , pertaining to the 
foot: Lat.), in Music, the keys which are 
played by the feet, and by which the 
deepest bass pipes of an organ are sounded. 

It is worthy of notice that England, which 
was the first to introduce the organ into 
churches generally, was the last to adopt 
the obvious improvement of pedals. A 
pedal is also attached to a piano to strength¬ 
en and prolong the tones. In a harp, the 
pedal serves to elevate the notes half a 
tone; and it is used for a variety of other 
purposes in musical instruments, such as 
coupling and drawing stops, swelling, blow¬ 
ing a bellows, &c. 

PED'ATE (pes, a foot: Lat.), in Botany, 
an epithet applied to a palmate leaf, having 
the two lateral lobes divided into smaller 
segments, the midribs of which do not run 
directly into the common central point. 

PED'ESTAL ( piedcstal: Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, the lowest part of a Avail or column, 
being that which serves as its stand. It 
consists of three parts, a trunk or dye, 
which forms the body; a cornice, which 
forms the head ; and a base, which forms 
the foot. 

PED'ICLE {pediculus, the dim. of pes, a 
foot: Lat.), in Botany, the ultimate division 
of a common peduncle. 

PEDIC'ULUS (Lat.), in Entomology, a 
genus of parasitic apterous insects, com¬ 
monly termed lice in the order Anophera. 
There are many species, some of which 
infest quadrupeds, some birds, and some 
human beings. 

PED'IMENT, in Architecture, a kind of 
low pinnacle, which serves to complete a 
frontispiece, and which finishes the fronts 
of buildings, or is placed as an ornament 
over gates, doors, windows, or niches. The 
pediment is ordinarily angular, but some¬ 
times it forms the arc of a circle, or some 
other curve. The parts of a pediment are— 

1. the tympanum, or central triangular 
part; 2. the cornice, which crowns it; and 

3 . the entablature, which serves as its base. 
The tympanum is often decorated with 
sculpture. 

PEDOM'ETER (pes, a foot: Lat.; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument by 
which paces are numbered, and the distance 
from place to place ascertained. It also 
marks the revolutions of carriage-wheels. 
This is done by means of wheels with teeth 
and a chain or string fastened to the foot, 
or to the carriage-wheel; and the wheels 
advance a division at every step, or at every 



















peduncle] Cf)e Jbctcnttft'c ruitf 550 

revolution. The instrument is generally in 
the form of a watch. 

PEDUN'CLE (a dim. from pes, a foot: 
Lat.), in Botany, the stem or stalk that sup¬ 
ports the fructification of a plant, and of 
course the fruit. A pedunculate flower is 
one which grows on a peduncle. 

PEER (pair: Fr.; from par, equal: Lat.), 
a nobleman of the realm. The lords of 
parliament are the peers of each other; 
for, whatever formality or precedence may 
attach to the title of duke, marquis, earl, 
or viscount, it is a barony which conveys 
the right to a seat in parliament, and con¬ 
fers every privilege annexed. It is as a 
baron, not as a duke, bishop, &c., that a peer 
sits in parliament; and the parliamentary 
rights are, at the present day, the essence 
of nobility. In compliance with an ancient 
practice, peers are sometimes still created 
by titles which convey the idea of local 
rights to which they have in reality no pre¬ 
tension ; but though this is a mere form, 
the rank they gain is not an empty one; it 
is that of an hereditary legislator of the 
realm. A peer is not to be put upon any 
inquest, even though the cause have a rela¬ 
tion to two peers; and where a peer is de¬ 
fendant in a court of equity, he is not to be 
sworn to his answer, which is to be received 
upon the faith of his honour; but when he 
is to answer to interrogatories, or to make 
an affidavit, or to be examined as a witness, 
he is to be sworn. A peer is free from arrest, 
in civil cases, at all times. [See Parlia¬ 
ment.] Trial of a Peer. It is a maxim of 
the first importance, that those public men 
who, in a free country particularly, will 
always be liable to the dangers of political 
animosity, should be secured against pos¬ 
sible popular injustice; and for this reason, 
as well as because, with the rest of his 
fellow-subjects, he claims to be tried by his 
equals, a peer must be arraigned, whether 
on a charge of treason or of felony, before 
the house of which he is a member. After 
the evidence for the prosecution and the 
answer have been heard, the lord liigli-stew- 
ard openly demands of each lord whether 
the prisoner, calling him by his name, is 
guilty of the crime forwhicli heis arraigned; 
and each lord, laying his right hand upon 
his left breast, separately answers, ‘Guilty,’ 
or ‘Not Guilty, upon my honour.’ If, by 
a majority of votes, the prisoner be found 
guilty, he is brought to the bar again ; the 
high-steward acquaints him with the ver¬ 
dict of his peers, and passes sentence and 
judgment accordingly; or, acting as he 
does by commission, tho high-steward may 
take time to advise upon the judgment, and 
his office continues till that is passed. The 
appointment of a high-steward only takes 
place when the parliament is not sitting; 
and the trial is said to be in the court of the 
high-steward of England. The peers officiate 
at once as jurors and judges ; their speaker 
collects the votes : and the trial is said to 
be in the high court of parliament. In mere 
misdemeanors, a peer is tried, like a com¬ 
moner, by a jury. There are two peculiari¬ 
ties attending the trial of a peer : 1st, the 
number of jurors is greater than ordinary, 
every peer having a right to sit; 2ndly, 

unanimity is not required, but the decision 
depends upon the majority .which, however, 
must amount to twelve. 

PEER'ESS, a woman who is noble by 
descent, creation, or marriage. If a peeress 
by descent or creation marries a person 
under the degree of nobility, she still con¬ 
tinues noble; but if she has obtained the 
dignity by marriage only, she loses it by a 
subsequent marriage with a commoner, 
though, by tho courtesy of England, she al¬ 
ways retains her;titlc. A peeress,though she 
cannot sit in parliament, has the privileges 
of a peer ; she cannot be arrested for debt 
or trespass, and must be tried by her peers. 

PEG'ASUS (Lat.), in Astronomy, a con¬ 
stellation in the northern hemisphere. It 
derives its name from Pegasus, the winged 
horse, which, according to some, sprang 
from the blood of the Gorgon Medusa, after 
Perseus, a son of Jupiter, had cut off her 
head. Tho Greeks probably derived the 
idea of a winged horse from the Assyrians, 
amongst whose sculptures the figure has 
been found. 

PEINE FORTE ET DURE (violent and 
severe pain : Fr.). [See Question.] 

PELA'GIANS, a Christian sect who ap¬ 
peared about the beginning of the 5th 
century. Pelagius, the founder of it, was 
born in "Wales, and his real name was Mor¬ 
gan, which in the "Welsh language signifies 
sea-born; whence tho Latin name Pelagius. 
Augustine gives him the character of a 
very pious man, and a person of superior 
birth. Among other peculiarities, the Pe¬ 
lagians denied original sin, maintaining 
that Adam would have died whether he 
had sinned or not; that we derive no Cor¬ 
ruption from his guilt; that our own 
powers are sufficient for our justification ; 
that by free will we fall into sin, and by 
the voluntary exercise of the same will we 
may repent and reform, the immediate 
operation of the Holy Spirit not being 
necessary to awaken a religious feeling, or 
to assist us towards perfection. Augustine 
strongly opposed the teaching of Pelagius, 
and succeeded in having it rejected by the 
great majority of the church. But there 
afterwards arose another sect, the Semi- 
Pelagians, which spread much more widely. 
This was originated byCassianus, an eastern 
monk, who taught that man has no need 
of internal preventing-grace; that the 
natural powers of man are sufficient to 
begin the renovation of his soul, and that 
he can have faith and a purpose of living 
holily, although he requires divine assist¬ 
ance and grace to enable him to persevere. 
Controversies concerning the nature and 
mode of divine grace necessary for salva¬ 
tion then commenced, and have never 
ceased to agitate the church. 

PEL'ICAN (pelelcan: Gr.), a web-footed 
bird larger than a swan, inhabiting marshy 
and uncultivated places, particularly islands i 
and lakes where sedges abound. The bill 
is straight, except at the point, and it has 
a skin reaching down the neck, which forms 
a pouch capable of being distended so as 
to be very capacious. There are several 
species ; the common pelican is an inhabit¬ 
ant of the eastern part of Europe and Africa, 

























551_ Ettcrrcni 

Tlic female pelican has a peculiar tender¬ 
ness for her young, and feeds them with 
fish that have been macerated for some 
time in her pouch; hence has arisen the 
fabulous story of her feeding them by draw¬ 
ing blood from her breast. Pelicans are 
gregarious, very fond of flsh, and, when 
harassed or pursued, readily reject the con¬ 
tents of their stomach, like the gull tribe. 

PELLA'GRA (pella , the skin; and agra, 
a catching: Gr.i, in Medicine, the name 
given to a disease, or complication of dis¬ 
eases, common to the inhabitants of the 
Lombardo-Venetian plains. It is a species 
of elephantiasis; it begins by an erysipela¬ 
tous eruption of the skin, and is frequently 
accompanied by remarkable lassitude, me¬ 
lancholy, moroseness, and hypochondriasis, 
with an evident propensity to suicide. It 
is almost confined to the agricultural popu¬ 
lation and the poorest classes. 

PEL'LICLE (pellicula, the dim. of pellis, a 
skin : Lat.), any thin skin, whether animal 
or vegetable; also the skin which forms on 
the surface of some evaporating liquids. 

PEL'LITORY, the name of several plants 
of different genera. Of these the root of 
the Anthemis Pyrethrum, a composite plant, 
termed Pellitory of Spain, has a pungent 
flavour; when chewed it promotes the flow 
of saliva, and is often useful in the tooth¬ 
ache. The Pellitory of the wall is a species 
of Parietaria, a common weed on walls. 

PELLS ( pellis, a skin: Lat. — from the 
parchments used), Clerk of the, an ofll- 
cer of the English exchequer, who enters 
every teller’s bill on the parchment rolls, 
the roll of receipts, and the roll of dis¬ 
bursements. 

PEL'TA (Lat.; from pelte: Or.), in An¬ 
tiquity, a small, light, and manageable 
buckler.-In Botany, a term used in de¬ 

scribing lichens, to denote a flat shield, 
without any elevated rim, as in the Peltidece. 

PEL'TATE (from last), in Botany, a leaf 
or any other organ fixed to a stalk by the 
centre, or by some point distinctly within 
the margin. 

PEL'Tlt Y (pelz: Ger.; from pellis, a skin: 
Lat.), the skins of different kinds of wild 
animals found in high northern latitudes, 
such as the beaver, sable, wolf, &c., before 
they have received any preparation. If 
the inner side has been tanned by an alu¬ 
minous process, they are termed furs. 

PEL'VIS (Lat.), the cavity formed by the 
hip bones. Each side of the pelvic arch is 
: composed of three bones,which are soldered 
together in the adult, and form the os inno- 
minatum of the anatomist. The largest of 
; these is the ilium, which is united to that 
portion of the vertebral column called the 
sacrum; the middle bone is the ischium, 
and the lowest the pubis, which joins its 
| fellow on the opposite side, and forms as it 
were the crown of the arch, 
j PEM'ICAN, a preparation of rein deer yeni- 

i eon used by traders and hunters in British 
North America. The meat is first dried, 
and after being pounded is mixed with fat, 
generally the suet of the bison. It is then 
| sewed up in a bag of undressed hide with 
I the hairy side outwards. 

PEN( penna, feather: Lat.), an instru- 


CVSfttfttrjh [penance 


ment used for writing, made either of the 
quill of some large fowl, of metal, or of any 
other material. In ancient times, reeds 
were split and shaped to a point similar to 
our pens; and quills are supposed not to 
have been employed for writing till the 
6th century. Metallic pens were first made 
in 1803, but they were not used to any 
extent until about tho year 1830. In manu¬ 
facturing them, the steel is pressed into 
thin sheets, then cut into slips, annealed 
for fourteen hours, and again passed under 
the roller. By means of a peculiar cutt ing- 
machine, the pens are formed in a falchion 
shape. The preparation for making the 
slit then takes place. An extremely fine- 
edged chisel is brought down upon each pen 
separately, and is allowed to penetrate two- 
thirds through its substance. A piece is 
next cut out at the upper end of the slit, 
which is called piercing. The proper shape 
is given by means of a punch fitting into 
a corresponding concavity. The pens are 
then heated red-hot and dipped into oil, and 
afterwards polished by a peculiar apparatus, 
in which they are placed, and to which a 
motion is given resembling that required 
in shaking together materials in a bag. 
After this they are tempered in a box, and 
brought to a blue colour, being carefully 
watched, and the heat being lessened 
whenever a shade of yellow is observed on 
their surface. The slit is now completed 
by touching its side with a pair of pincers. 
The process varies a little in different 
manufactories, but the principles on which 
it is conducted are very similar in all. 
Pens are sometimes made or tipped with 
other metals, to prevent rapid corrosion or 
wear; but the mode of manufacture re¬ 
mains almost the same. -Fountain Pen, 

a pen made of silver, or other metal, so 
contrived as to contain a considerable 
quantity of ink. This, flowing out by gen¬ 
tle degrees, supplies the writer a long time 
without his being under the necessity of 
taking fresh ink. 

PE'NAL LAWS (pcenalis, belonging to 
punishment: Lat.), laws made for the pu¬ 
nishment of criminal offences. The term 
is understood specially to comprehend those 
which were enacted to prevent the practice 
of the Roman Catholic religion, in con¬ 
sequence of its being considered incom¬ 
patible with civil and religious liberty. 
After many of them had been from time to 
time relaxed or repealed, all restrictions 
and disabilities, except those regarding a 
few offices with which the safety of tho 
established church is intimately connected, 
were removed by the relief bill passed in 1829. 

PEN'ALTY (poena, punishment: Lat.), a 
fine or forfeiture, by way of punishment; 
it includes imprisonment, whipping, &c. 

PEN'ANCE (same deriv.), in Ecclesiastical 
Law, the infliction of some pain or bodily 
suffering, as fasting, flagellation, &c.; or 
an exercise of repentance for some sin, 
either voluntary or imposed. It relates 
more especially to sufferings of the body, as 
penitence or repentance does to the regrets 
and sorrows of the mind. Penance is one of 
the seven sacraments of the Roman Catho¬ 
lic church. 



























penates] Jktcitttftc antr 552 


PENA'TES ( Lat .), in Roman Antiquity, 
tutelar deities, either of countries or of 
particular houses, in which last sense they 
were the same with the Lares. 

PEN'CIL (penicillum: Lat.), asmalibrush 
used by painters for laying on their colours. 
Pencils are of various kinds, sizes, and 
materials; the larger kinds are made of 
swine’s bristles, the thick ends of which 
j are bound to a stick or handle, and, when 
! very large, are called brushes. The finer are 
made of the hair of camels, badgers, and 
squirrels, and of the down of swans ; these 
| are tied at the upper end, and enclosed in a 
quill. All of the latter kind, when good, on 
i being drawn between the lips, come to a fine 

point.- Black-lead Pencils, slips of 

black lead (plumbago or graphite), enclosed 
j in cylindrical or prismatic pieces of cedar, 

| and pointed at one end. They are of dif¬ 
ferent sizes and qualities, according to the 
purposes for which they are intended. Ever- 
pointed pencils are merely very slender 
cylinders of black lead so placed in metallic 
or other cases, that they can be screwed out 
at pleasure: the points being protected 
when out of use, and never requiring to be 
cut.- Pencil of Rays, in Optics, a num¬ 

ber of rays diverging from some luminous 
point, which, after falling upon, or passing 
through a leii3, converge again to a point. 

PEN'DANT (pendo, I suspend : Lat.), in 
Gothic Architecture, an ornamental poly¬ 
gonal piece of stone or timber, hanging 
down from a vault or the roof of abuilding. 
Some exquisite pendants of this kind are 
to be seen in the chapel of Henry YII. at 
"Westminster. The springers of arches, 
which rests on shafts or corbels, are also 

sometimes called pendants. -In Heraldry, 

a part hanging from the label, resembling 

the drops in the Doric frieze.- Pendant, 

in Nautical language, a long narrow flag 
or streamer displayed from the ship’s mast¬ 
head, and usually terminating in two points. 
It denotes that a ship is in actual service. 
The broad pendant is a flag that serves to 

distinguish the chief of a squadron.-The 

rudder pendant is a rope made fast to the 
j rudder by a chain, to prevent the loss of the 

j rudder when unshipped.-Also, an orna- 

I meat or jewel hanging at the ear. 

PEN'DENTIVE (pendens, hanging down : 
Lat.), in Architecture, that portion of a 
vault which descends into an angle between 
the arches, when a dome springs from a 
straight-sided area. A circular dome may, 
by means of pendentives, be formed over 
any regular polygon. 

PEN'DULUM ( pendulus , hanging down: 
Lat.), in Dynamics, a ponderous body so 
suspended that it may vibrate, or swing 
backwards and forwards, from some fixed 
point, or axis of suspension. The vibra¬ 
tions of a pendulum are called its oscilla¬ 
tions, and depend on the force of gravity. 
From the precision of its motions, it is 
employed in measuring time and space. 
The origin of the pendulum is traced to 
Galileo’s observation of a hanging lamp in 
a church at Pisa continuing to vibrate 
long, and with singular uniformity, after 
any accidental cause of disturbance. He 
was induced to investigate the laws of this 


phenomenon, which led to results in the 
highest degree important. To render a 
pendulum perfectly isochronous, it must 
he made to vibrate in a cycloidal arc; but, 
practically, it is sufficient if the arc of vibra¬ 
tion is small, and the pendulum heavy. A 
common clock is merely a pendulum, with 
wheel-work attached to it, to record the 
number of the vibrations; and with a 
weight or spring, having force enough to 
counteract the retarding effects of friction 
and the resistance of the air. The wheels 
show how many swings or beats of the 
pendulum have taken place, because, at 
every beat, a tooth of the last wheel is 
allowed to pass. Now, if this wheel has 
sixty teeth, as is common, it will just turn 
round once for sixty beats of the pendu¬ 
lum, or seconds ; and a hand fixed on its 
axis, projecting through the dial-plate, will 
be the second-hand of the clock. The 
other wheels are so connected with this 
first, and the numbers of the teeth on 
them so proportioned, that one turns sixty 
times slower than the first, to fit its axis 
for carrying a minute hand; and another, 
twelve times lower still, to fit its axis for 
carrying an hour-hand. The pendulum has 
been successfully used to measure the 
force of gravity at different parts of the 
earth ; the greater this is, the greater the 
length of a pendulum which will vibrate at 
a given rate. At Spitzbergen, the length 
of a pendulum vibrating seconds is39'21469 
English inches; at the Cape of Good Hope, 
39'078. The pendulum is affected by tempera¬ 
ture. [See Compensation Pendulum.] 
PEN'DULUM EXPER'IMENT. M. Fou¬ 
cault,of Paris, pointed out a mode of render¬ 
ing the rotation of the earth perceptible, by 
means of a pendulum. A simple pendulum, 
if made to oscillate, may be carried in any 
direction round a room, without the jdanes 
in which the oscillations take place ceasing 
to be parallel to themselves. Hence, if a 
pendulum were made to vibrate at either 
pole, the terrestrial meridians would suc¬ 
cessively pass under it, and it would appear 
to describe an entire circle in 24 hours. 
When the experiment is made in any place 
between the pole and equator, the effect is j 
similar, though modified ; and the time of 
rotation will be increased, by the ratio of 
the cosecant of the latitude to radius. The ! 
experiment may be made in a rude, but 
sufficiently satisfactory manner, by sus- ! 
pending a ball of metal, or other heavy | 
body, from the ceiling of a lofty room, by a 
cord long enough to make it almost touch 
the floor, and setting it in vibration, a line 
having been previously chalked immedi¬ 
ately imder the plane of vibration. This 
pendulum will soon leave the chalked line, 
and the line over which it vibrates will 
seem to revolve on its centre. 

PENETItA'LE (Lat.), a sacred room or 
chapel in private houses, set apart for the 
worship of the household gods among the 
Romans. In temples also there were pene¬ 
tralia, or apartments of particular sanctitv, 
where the images of the gods were kept, 
and certain solemn ceremonies performed 
PEN'GUIN ( pinguis, fat: Lat.), the name 
of web-footed birds belonging to the Auk 
















553 Etteravj) Cwaiurjj, [pentagon 


family. They are found only in southern 
latitudes, and have very remarkable pecu¬ 
liarities. They have very short legs, with 
four toes, three of which are webhed ; the 
body is clothed with short feathers, set as 
compactly as the scales of a fish ; the wings 
are small, like fins, and covered with short 
scale-like feathers, so that they are useless 
in flight. When on land, penguins stand 
erect, but some species when moving use 
their little wings as front legs, crawling on 
all fours so rapidly that seen from a distance 
they may be mistaken for a quadruped. 
They are tame, and may be driven like a 
flock of sheep; but they seldom go on shore, 
except in the breeding season. In water 
they swim with rapidity, their fln-iike 
wings greatly assisting them. Their name 
is derived from their extreme fatness. 

PENIN'SULA (Lett.; from pene, almost; 
and insula, an island), a portion of land, 
surrounded by the sea, except where it 
joins the mainland by a narrow neck 
called an isthmus. In Europe it is common 
to designate Spain and Portugal by the 
appellation of the peninsula; and when we 
speak of the contest maintained by the Bri¬ 
tish and native troops against the French, 
we accordingly term it the peninsular ivar. 

PENITENTIARY (pcenitentia, repent¬ 
ance : Lat.), a prison where convicts are 
subjected to instruction and discipline. 
Imprisonment for crime may be either for 
prevention and punishment only, or for the 
reformation of the offender also. An 
attempt to reform can scarcely have place 
when the period of incarceration is short. 
It is usual not to commence the system of 
reformation until the criminal has suffered 
in this country one, and in other countries 
two years’ punishment. Great evils have 
been found to arise from prisoners feigning 
reformation, where no reformation has 
occurred, and the authorities in such cases 
allowing themselves too easily to be im¬ 
posed upon; and from punishments being 
relaxed or altogether terminated, with too 
great facility, in cases of pretended reforma¬ 
tion. The penitentiary at Millbank is fitted 

up for 800 males and 400 females.- Grand 

Penitentiary, at the court of Rome, an 
officer appointed to absolve in cases reserv¬ 
ed to the pope ; also to grant secret bulls, 
&c., in cases of conscience. Roman Catholic 
bishops appoint penitentiaries in their dio¬ 
ceses, for the absolution of cases otherwise 
reserved to themselves. 

PEN'ITENTS (pcenitentes, persons repent¬ 
ing : Lat.), an appellation given to certain 
fraternities in Roman Catholic countries, 
distinguished by their different habits ; 
! and of which there arc a great variety in 
France, Spain, Italy, &c. 

PEN'NON (Fr.), in Heraldry, a small 
jj pointed flag, borne in former times by a 
gentleman. When knighthood was con- 
! ferred upon him, the point was cut off, and 
! the square flag that remained obtained the 
name of banner. 

PEN'NY {pfennig: Ger.), an ancient sil¬ 
ver coin, which was the only one current 
among our Saxon ancestors; but now a 
copper coin, twelve of which are equal to a 
shilling. In Ethelred’s reign the penny 


was the twentieth part of an ounce troy: 
hence the denomination pennyweight. Till 
the time of Edward I. the penny was struck 
with a cross so deeply sunk into it that it 
might, if required, be easily broken, and 
parted into halves and quarters; hence the 
terms half-pence, and farthings (fourth- 
thin gs) or quadrantes. Edward I. required 
that the silver penny should weigh the 
twentieth part of an ounce. Queen Eliza¬ 
beth reduced it to the sixty-second part. 

PEN'NYWEIGHT, a troy weight, con¬ 
taining 24 grains, each of which is supposed 
to be equal in weight to a grain of wheat 
gathered out of the middle of the ear, and 
well dried. It was the weight of a silver 
penny in the time of Edward I. 

PEN'SIONER ( pensio, a payment: Lat.), 
one who receives an annuity from another; 
whether in consideration of service past or 
present, or merely as an act of kindness. 
In the university of Cambridge the pen¬ 
sioners form the great body of the students; 
they pay for their commons and chambers, 
and usually enjoy no pecuniary advantages 
from their colleges.- The Band of Gentle¬ 

men Pensioners, the former designation of 
the Band of Gentlemen-at-arms, a body of 
forty gentlemen who attend the sovereign 
at levees, drawing-rooms, and other state 
occasions. It was instituted by Henry VII., 
and their duty is to guard the royal person 
to and from the chapel royal, &c.; for 
which each receives a pension or annual 

allowance of 1001.- Pensions of the Inns of 

Court, annual payments made by each 
member to the society. 

rENTACAP'SULAR (pentc, five: Gr.; 
and capsula, a small box: Lat.), in Botany, 
an epithet for a plant having five capsules 
or seed-vessels. 

PENTACHORD ( pente, five; and chord?, 
a string: Gr.), a musical instrument with 
five strings. 

PENTACRI'NTTS (pente, five ; and krinon, 
a lily: Gr.), a genus of marine animals, 
allied to the star-fishes, of which only a 
single living species is known, viz. the P. 
Caput-Medicsce, of which a few specimens 
have been found in the West Indies. On 
the top of a long column formed of a num¬ 
ber of calcareous plates, held together by 
animal matter, is a disk that has ten arms, 
each of which branches into three. The 
mouth is placed at the middle of the disk. 
In the lias formation several species have 
been found fossil, and these are called 
Encrinites or stone lilies. The skeleton of 
one of these contained 150,000 pieces. 

PEN'TACOCCOUS (pente, five; and kok- 
kos, a kernel: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet 
implyingthat the plant has flve united cells, 
with one seed in each. 

PENTAGON (pente, flve; and gdnia, an 
angle: Gr.), in Geometry, a plane figure 
having flve sides and flve angles. If the 
five sides are equal, it is called a regular pen¬ 
tagon. Its area is equal to flve times the 
sine of 36° multiplied by the cosine of the 
same; and the square of the side of a regular 
pentagon is equal to the sum of the squares 
of the sides of the hexagon and decagon 
inscribed in the same circle.-In Fortifi¬ 

cation, a fort with flve bastions. 

















£!jc ^ctenttftc aits 


55 4 


PENTAC RAPH J 


PEN'TAGRAPH (pente, five; and graplio, 
I write: Gr.) [See Pantagrapil] 

PENTAGY'NIA (pente , five; and gune, a 
female : Gr.), in Botany, an order of plants 
in the Linnsean system, comprehending 
such as have five pistils in an hermaphro¬ 
dite flower. 

PENT ATIE'DRON (pente, five ; and hedra, 
a base : Gr.), in Geometry, a solid having 
five equal sides. 

PENTAIIEXAHE'DRAT; (pente, five ; hex, 
six ; and liedra, a base : Gr.), in Crystallo¬ 
graphy, exhibiting live ranges of faces one 
above another, each range containing six 
faces. 

PENTAM'ETER ( pentametros, consisting 
of five measures : Gr.), in Latin and Greek 
Poetry, a verse consisting of two parts, each 
composed of two feet and a long syllable, 
which must either be a single word or a 
terminating syllable. The feet may be 
either dactyls or spondees. A pentameter 
verse alternating with an hexameter con¬ 
stitutes what is called elegiac verse, a verse 
in which Ovid excelled. 

PENTAN'DRIA (pente, five ;• and aner, a 
male: Gr.), in Botany, the fifth class of the 
Linnnean system, containing those plants 
which have hermaphrodite flowers with five 
stamen s« 

’ PENTANGULAR (pente, five: Gr.; and 
angulus, an angle : Lat.), in Geometry, hav¬ 
ing five corners or angles. 

PENTAPET'ALOUS (pente, five : and pe- 
talon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet 
given to flowers that consist of five petals 
or flower-leaves. 

PENTAPHYL'LOUS (pente, five; and 
phullon, a leaf : Gr.), in Botany, consisting 
of, or having five leaves. 

PENTAP'OLIS (Gr., from pente, five; 
and polls, a city), a name given by the 
ancient Greeks to certain countries having 
live very important cities; the most re¬ 
markable of these was the Pentapolis Cyre- 
naica, or that of Egypt, the cities of which 
were Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolemais, Cyrene, 
andApollonia. 

PEN'TASTICH (pentastichos, from pente, 
five; and sticlios, averse; Gr.), in Poetry, 
a composition consisting of five verses. 

PEN'TASTYLE (pente, five ; and stulos, a 
column : Gr.), in Architecture, a building in 
which there are five columns in front. 

PEN'TATEUCII (pentateuclios: from 
pente, five; and teuchos, a book: Gr.), an 
appellation given to the first five books of 
the Old Testament—Genesis, Exodus, Levi¬ 
ticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. 

PENTATH'LGM (pentathlon, from pente, 
five ; and atlilos, a contest: Gr.), an appella¬ 
tion given'by the Greeks to the five prin¬ 
cipal bodily exercises—running, leaping, 
throwing the quoit or discus, hurling the 
javelin, and wrestling. They were termed 
; quinquectium by the Romans, 
j PEN'TECOST (pente-koste, from pentekos- 
tos, the fiftieth: Gr.), a solemn festival of 
the Jews, instituted in memory of the pro¬ 
mulgation of the law, and so named be- 
1 cause it was observed on the fiftieth day 
after the feast of unleavened bread. It 
| was also called the Feast of Weeks. It is re¬ 
tained in the Christian church, under the 


name of Whitsuntide, on account of the 
miraculous descent of the Holy Ghost on 
tho apostles, which happened on one of the 
annual returns of its celebration. 

PENT'-ROOF, a roof of any building or 
shed, formed like an inclined plane, the 
slope being all on one side. 

TENTEL'ICAN MAR'BLE, a stone much 
employed by the ancient Greek sculptors 
and quarried on Mount Penteles near 
Athens. It was of fine grain and occasion¬ 
ally marked with greenish spots. 

PENUL'TIMA, PENULT', or Penul'TI- 
jiate Syllable ( penultimus, from pane, 
almost; and ultimus, tho last: Lat.), in 
Grammar, the last syllable but one of a 
word; and hence the antepenultimate syl¬ 
lable is the last but two, or that imme¬ 
diately before the penultima. 

PENUM'BRA (pene, almost; and umbra, 
a shadow: Lat.), in Astronomy, a partial 
shade or obscurity in an eclipse ; observed 
between the perfect shadow, where the 
light is entirely intercepted, and the full 
light. It arises from the magnitude of tho 
sun, and is that portion of space behind 
the object causing the eclipse, in which the 
illuminated body is enlightened by only a 
part of the disc of the illuminating body. 
The nearer to the umbra the darker the 
penumbra; and hence it is difficult, in 
eclipses of the moon, to determine by ob¬ 
servation the exact time at which the 
eclipse begins and ends. Penumbras must 
be constant attendants of all eclipses, 
whether of the sun or moon, or planets 
primary or secondary. 

PEPERI'NO, the name given in Italy to a 
volcanic tufa quarried in the neighbourhood 
of Rome and employed as a building stone 
a >■ d for works of art. 

i ’E'PO (pepon, a pumpkin : Gr.), in Botany, 
the name given to the fruit of cucurbita- 
ceous plants, such as the gouial and melon, 
in which under the adherent calyx there is 
a fleshy rind, and the placentas are parietal 
and at least three in number. 

PEP'PER (piper: Lat.), the fruit of trop¬ 
ical plants belonging to the genus Piper, 
nat. ord. Piperacem. We have three kinds 
of pepper—the white, the black, and the 
long. Black pepper is the fruit of a creeping 
shrub (Piper nigrum) growing in Java, 
Sumatra, Ceylon, and other Asiatic coun¬ 
tries. The berries arc produced in clusters, 
and change as they ripen from green to 
red, and afterwards to black. White pep¬ 
per differs from the black only in being 
stripped of its corticle or covering. To ef¬ 
fect this, the black berries are steeped in 
salt water, and after they have been exposed 
to the sun for several days the chaff i3 I 
rubbed off with the hands. In this opera¬ 
tion the pepper loses much of its original 
hot taste. Long pepper consists of the 
half-ripe flower-heads of Piper longum. Red 
pepper is the ground fruit of various spe¬ 
cies of Solanum, which see. 

PEP'PERMINT, in Botany, a plant of the 
genus Mentha. It is highly aromatic and 
pungent. Also, an essential oil distilled 
from the plant. 

PEP'PEllMTNT-TREE, the Eucalyptus 
piperita, a native of New South Wales. 























555 


Ettcrarji Emtfurg. 


[FERIHELI02$ 


PER, a Latin preposition, signifying by ; 
used in many phrases, as per force, per an¬ 
num, per cent. &c.-In Chemistry.it is a 

contraction for hyper, and is employed as a 
prefix to denote very or fully, or to the ut¬ 
most extent: as in peroxide, which indicates 
a substance oxidized in the highest degree. 

PERAM'BULATOR (pcrambulo, I walk 
through: Lat.), an instrument for measur¬ 
ing distances, otherwise called a pedometer, 
which see. 

PERBISUL'PHATE, in Chemistry, a sul¬ 
phate which contains two proportions of 
sulphuric acid, and is combined with an 
oxide at the maximum of oxidation. 

PER CEN'TUM, or PER CENT, (by the 
hundred: Lat.), the rate of interest, or so 
much for every hundred; as five per cent., 
that is, five pounds for every hundred 
pounds, five dollars for every hundred dol¬ 
lars, &c. 

PERCEPTION (perceptio: Lat.), in Logic, 
the first act of the mind, which consists in 
the reception of ideas concerning external 
objects, through the medium of the senses. 
It has been well observed that the first 
objects which strike our senses give us our 
first ideas; and our wants are the cause of 
our attention; the repetition of these ideas, 
and the development of new wants, give 
birth to our sentimonts and thoughts. The 
eyes convey the ideas of colour, the ears 
those of sound, the nostrils those of odour, 
and the palate those of taste. These have 
i no connection with each other—they arc 
separate ideas of different qualities of bo- 
! dies; but the sense of touch unites the 
; whole in one object, which may happen to 
be at the same time coloured, sonorous, 

! odorous, and savoury. 

| PERCH (perche: Fr.; from perke: Or.), 

; in Ichthyology, a freshwater fish of the 
! genus Perea, with rough scales and sharp 
| incurvate teeth ; its llesh is very delicate. 
The sea perch belongs to the genus Scrra- 
nus. Both these genera fall into the large 

I acanthopterygian family of Percidce. - 

| Pekch, or Pole, a measure of five yards and 
! a half, or sixteen feet and a half. The word 
, rod is much more generally used than either 
! pole or perch, though they all signify the 
same thing. The Irish perch is seven yards, 
and the measures founded on it are in pro¬ 
portion. 

j PERCHLO'RIC A'CID, in Chemistry, 
! ■ chlorine converted into an acid by combi¬ 
nation with a maximum of oxygen. A com¬ 
pound of this acid with a base is termed a 
perchlorate. 

PERCUS'SION (percussio, from percutio, I 
strike: Lat.), in Mechanics, the effect which 
I a body produces in falling or striking upon 
/ another; or the shock of two bodies, one of 
which is in motion. If both bodies are in 

[ motion, the shock is termed a collision. 

PERCUS'SION LOCKS, those which, in 
I firearms, have superseded the flint locks, 
which succeeded matchlocks, and remained 
in use for so considerable a period. Per¬ 
cussion locks ignite the charge by first ex¬ 
ploding a detonating mixture contained in 
a copper cap by means of the code, a kind of 
hammer. These caps act far more certainly 
ttan the oil priming, which was so liable to 


derangement, and which caused firearms so 
often to miss fire. 

PER'DU (lost : Fr.), in Military affairs, a 
term applied to any soldier who is in a 
dangerous post; whence enfants perdus, in 
the plural, for the forlorn hope of an army. 

PERE LA CHAISE, the namo of the cele¬ 
brated cemetery at Paris, laid out as such in 
1804. It was formerly the chief seat of the 
Jesuits’ establishment in France, which was 
presided over by Pere la Chaise, confessor 
of Louis XIV. [See Cemetery]. 

PEREN'NIAL (perennis, literally, that 
which lasts through the whole year : Lat), 
in Botany, a plant which lives or continues 
more than two years, whether it retains its 
leaves or not. 

PER'FECT NUM'BER ( perfectus, com¬ 
plete : Lat.), in Arithmetic, one equal to the 
sum of all its aliquot parts or divisors. Thus 
6, 28, &c. [See Number.] 

PERFO'LIATE (per, through; and folia- 
tus, leaved: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a 
leaf the base of which entirely surrounds i 
the stem transversely, so that the stem 
seems to have been driven through the 
middle of the leaf. 

PERGUN'NAH, a name given to districts 
in India. 

PE'RI. In Persian Mythology, the peris 
are the descendants of fallen spirits, ex¬ 
cluded from paradise until their penance is 
accomplished. 

PER'IANTH ( peri, around ; and antlios, a 
flower: Or.), in Botany, a calyx and corolla, 
the limits of which are undefined, so that 
they cannot be distinguished from each 
other : as in the iris and lily. The perianth 
is termed also periyonium. 

PERIB'OLOS (Or.; from periballo, T sur¬ 
round), in Architecture, an enclosure round 
a temple, surrounded by a wall. The great 
temple of Palmyra is encompassed by a 
wall, with two rows of interior columns, 
each side of which is from 700 to 800 feet 
long. 

PERICAR'DIUM (periJcardion, from peri, \ 
around ; and kardia, the heart: Gr.)), in 
Anatomy, a membrane which surrounds I 
the whole substance of the heart. It con- i 
tains a fluid which prevents the surface of 
the heart from becoming dry by its con- ; 
tinual motion. Inflammation of this mem- i 
brane is termed pericarditis. 

PER'ICARP (perikarpion, from peri, ' 
around ; and Icarpos, fruit: Gr.), in Botany, 
the fruit of a plant; usually separable into 
thi'ee layers, the epicarp, the skin of a peach 
for example, the mesocarp, the fleshy part 
of the peach, and the endocarp, of which the 
stone of the peach is an example. In some 
fruits, such as the filbert, these three parts 
are blended together. 

PERICRA'NIUM ( perikranion, from peri, 
around; and kranion, the skull: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, the membrane that closely in' j 
vests the skull. 

PEIl'IGEE (peri, near; and ye, the earth . 
Gr.), an Astronomical term. [See Apogee.] 

PERIG'YNOUS (peri, near; and gune, the 
female: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet for a 
flower in which the stamens originate from 
the sides of the calyx. 

PERTIIE'LION (peri, near; and hellos. 



































tsn )t J^ctcuttftc airtf 


556 


perihexahedral] 


the sun: Gr.), in Astronomy, that point of 
a planet’s orbit in which it is nearest to the 
sun ; opposed to aphelion. 

PERIHEXAHE'DRAL (peri, around; hex, 
six; and hedra, a base: Gr.), in Crystallo¬ 
graphy, a term designating a crystal, whose 
primitive form is a four-sided prism, which 
in the secondary form is converted into a 
prism of six sides. 

PERIM'ETER ( perimetron , from perime- 
treo, I measure all round : Gr.), in Geo¬ 
metry, the line which bounds a figure, 
whether circular, rectilinear, or mixed. 
In circular figures instead of perimeter we 
generally use the word circumference or peri¬ 
phery. 

PERIOCTAHE'DRAL (peri, around ; okto, 
eight; and hedra, a base : Gr.), in Crystallo¬ 
graphy, a term designating a crystal whose 
jjrimitive form is a four-sided prism, which 
in its secondary form is converted into a 
prism of eight sides. 

PE'RIOD ( periodos, literally a going 
round: Gr.), in Arithmetic, three places or 
digits, separated from the rest by commas; 
and, in extracting roots, two places or 
digits for the square root, three for the 

cube root, &c.-In Astronomy, the time 

which is taken up by a planet in making 
its revolution round the sun ; or the dura¬ 
tion of its course till it returns to the point 
of its orbit where it was supposed to begin 
its motion.-In Chronology, the revolu¬ 

tion of a certain number of years, as the 

Julian period. -In Grammar, a full stop 

at the end of any sentence.- Period also 

means an indefinite portion of any con¬ 
tinued state, existence, or series of events; 
as, the first period of life, the earliest periods 

of history, &c.- Period of a disease, in 

Medicine, the time between the access of 
one fit, or paroxysm, and that of the next, 
including the entire exacerbation, decline, 
intermission, and remission.-In Physio¬ 

logy, periods designate the various stages 
in the development and decay of the animal 
organization, which are distinguished by a 
marked character, as the period of child¬ 
hood, of puberty, &c. 

PERICE'CI (perioilcoi, from peri, around : 
and oilceo, I inhabit: Gr.), in Geography, 
such inhabitants of the earth as live under 
the same parallel of latitude, but differ in 
longitude by 180°. Their seasons are at the 
same times; but when it is noon with one, 
it is midnight with the other. 

PERIOS'TEUM (peri, around ; and osteon, 

■ a bone: Gr.), in Anatomy, a nervous vas- 
j cular membrane, endued with acute sensi- 
j bility, immediately surrounding both the 
i internal and external surfaces of the bones; 

| it is hence divided into the external and in- 
ternal periosteum; and where it externally 
surrounds the bones of the skull, it is usu¬ 
ally called the pericranium. The seeming 
sensibility of the bones is that of this 
membrane; and its use appears to be to 
; distribute the vessels on their external sur- 

f cl CCS. 

PERIPATET'ICS (peripatetikoi, from peri- 
pat eo, I walk about: Gr.), the followers of 
Aristotle,whose doctrines are distinguished 
by the name of the Peripatetic philosophy. 
j He was called the Peripatetic, because he 


delivered his lectures walking in the Ly¬ 
ceum at Athens. The peripatetics were so ( 
shackled by respect for their great master, J 
that no men of much note have appeared 
among them. 

PE RIPH'ERY (periphereia, from periphero, 

I carry round: Gr.), the circumference of a 
circle, ellipsis, or other regular curvilinear 
figure. 

PERIPH'RASIS, or PER'IPHRASE (peri¬ 
phrasis, from peri, round about; and 
phrazo, I speak : Gr.), in Rhetoric, circumlo¬ 
cution, or the use of more words than are 
necessary to express an idea. 

PERTPLUS (periplous, from peripleo, I 
sail round: Gr.), the title of some fragments 
which remain of the accounts of ancient 
voyages. 

PERIPNETI'MONY, or PNETTMO'NIA.(pe- 
ripneumonia, from peri, around; and pneu- 
mon, the lungs : Gr.),in Medicine, an inflam¬ 
mation of the lungs, attended with acute 
fever, purulent expectoration, and difficult 
respiration. 

PERIP'TEROTJS ( peripteros, from peri, 
around; and pteron, a wing: Gr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, an epithet for a place surrounded 
by a wing, aisle, or passage. 

PERIS'CII, or PERIS'CIANS (perisJcioi, 
from peri, around; and skia, shadow : Gr.), 
in Ancient Geography, the inhabitants cf 
either frigid zone. The sun, when in the 
summer signs, moves only round about 
them, without setting; and consequently 
their shadows, in the course of the day, turn 
to every point of the compass. 

PER'ISPERM (peri, around; and sperma, 
the seed: Gr.), in Botany, a thick farina¬ 
ceous, fleshy, or horny part of the seeds of 
plants, either entirely or only partially sur¬ 
rounding the embryo, and enclosed within 
the investing membrane; the albumen. 

A 1 flip 

PERISTALTIC MOTION (peristaltikos, 
from peristello, I compress: Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, a spiral or vermicular spontaneous 
motion of the intestines, performed by the 
contraction of the circular and longitudinal 
fibres composing their fleshy coats. By 
means of it the chyle is driven into the 
orifices of the lacteal veins, and the excre¬ 
ments are extruded. 

PER'ISTYLE ( peristulos, from peri, | 
around; and stulos, a column : Gr.), in Ar¬ 
chitecture, a court, square, or cloister, with 
columns on three sides. The term is evi¬ 
dently incorrect. The Rhodian peristyle 
had columns on the four sides; those to¬ 
wards the south being frequently higher I 
than the rest. 

PERISYSTOLE (peri, near; and sustole, 
the contraction of the heart: Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, the pause or interval between the sys¬ 
tole or contraction, and the diastole or dila¬ 
tation of the heart. 

PERITON/E'UM (peritonaion, from peri, 
around ; and teino, I stretch : Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a thin smooth, lubricous membrane, 
investing the whole internal surface of the 
abdomen, and containing, more or less com¬ 
pletely, all the viscera comprised within the 
latter. Inflammation of this membrane is 
termed peritonitis. 

PER'JURY (pexjurium: Lat.), in Law 














557 


the crime of wilful false swearing, in any 
judicial proceeding. The common law takes 
no notice of any false swearing, except such 
as is committed in some court of justice 
having power to administer the oath, or 
before some officer or magistrate invested 
j with.similar authority, in some proceeding 
relative to a civil suit or criminal prosecu- 
I tion; for the law esteems all other oaths 
unnecessary, at least, and hence will not 
punish the breach of them. Voluntary 
oaths are now prohibited, a certain form of 
declaration being substituted for them, and 
a false declaration is a misdemeanor. The 
penalties of perjury have been extended to 
false oaths by electors, bankrupts, insolvent 
debtors, &c., by numerous statutes.- Sub¬ 

ornation of perjury is the offence of indu¬ 
cing a person to commit perjury. At the 
common law, perjury, and the suborna- 
j tion of it, are punishable by fine and im¬ 
prisonment. The Greeks are said to have 
imagined that no person could swear falsely 
by Styx, without some remarkable punish¬ 
ment ; and that no one guilty of perjury 
could enter the cave of Palasmon at Corinth 
without being made a memorable example 
of divine justice ; yet, notwithstanding the 
general abhorrence in which perjury was 
held by them, and the credit they gave to 
such accounts of divine inflictions, perjury 
was much practised by them. 

PER,'MIAN, a term applied by geologists 
to a series of strata in the earth’s crust in¬ 
tervening between the carboniferous and 
the triassic systems, and forming a natural 
group characterized by community of or¬ 
ganic remains in various parts of Europe. 
They form the uppermost number of the 
great Palasozoic series, and they received 
| their designation from being largely deve¬ 
loped in the government of Perm, Russia. 
In England Permian beds are found in 
Cumberland, some of the Midland counties, 
and in Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. 

PER'MIT (permettre, to allow: Fr.), a note 
I given by the officers of the excise allowing 
: the conveyance of spirits, wine, tea, coffee, 

1 or other excisable articles, from one place 
to another. 

PERORATION (pcroratio: Lat.), the 
concluding part of an oration, in which the 
speaker recapitulates the principal points of 
his discourse or argument, and urges them 
with greater earnestness and force, with a 
view to make a deep impression on his audi- 
i ence. The main excellence of a peroration 
1 consists in vehemence and brevity. 

PEROX'IDE, in Chemistry, a substance 
containing the largest quantity of oxygen, 
compatible with its simple oxidation. 

PERPENDIC'ULAR (perpendicularis : 
Lat.), hanging or extending in a right line 
from any point towards the centre of the 
earth or of gravity, and therefore at right 

i angles with the plane of the horizon.-In 

Geometry, a line making two equal angles, 
called right angles, with the line to which 

It is perpendicular.-In Gunnery, a small 

instrument used for finding the centre line 
of a piece in the operation of pointing it at 
any object. , 

I PERPET'UAL MOTION (perpetualis: 

I Lat.). The problem of a perpetual motion 


[persistent 


consists in the invention of a machine 
which has the principle of its motion within 
itself; and the means proposed to solve 
this problem have been as various as the 
laws of mechanics, and of matter, which 
show its solution to be impossible. The 
greater number of ingenious men have at 
some time of their lives made the experi¬ 
ment ; but it is rather a reproach than a 
merit to have tried it. In the attempt, all 
natural agents, such as heat, atmospheric 
changes, &c., must be excluded; the inertia 
of matter, its attractive forces, and combi¬ 
nations of the mechanical powers, being 
alone admissible. The resistance of the air 
and the friction of the parts which neces¬ 
sarily retard a machine, and finally stop it, 
render perpetual motion an impossibility ; 
since no machine, however ingeniously con¬ 
trived, can possibly give out a motion 
which it does not receive, or which is great¬ 
er in total amount than what it receives. 
Machinery modifies but it cannot produce 
motion—that being the office of a prime 
mover. 

PERPETU'ITY (perpetuitas: Lat.), in the 
doctrine of annuities, a sum which will pur¬ 
chase an annuity for ever. It is equal to 
the product of the annuity and the num¬ 
ber of years in which the simple interest 
will be equal to the principal. Thus, at 5 
per cent,, the interest will in twenty years 
amount to the principal; and at this rate, 
the value of a perpetuity of 1001. is equal 
to 1001. x 20, or 20001. 

PERPHOS'PHATE, in Chemistry, a phos¬ 
phate in which the phosphoric acid is com¬ 
bined with an oxide at the highest degree 
of oxidation. 

PEItQUADRISUL'PHATE, in Chemistry, 
a sulphate with four proportions of sul¬ 
phuric acid combined with a peroxide. 

PER'RY (poire, from poire, a pear: Fr.), 
the fermented juice of pears prepared in the 
same way as cider from apples. 

PERSECUTION (persecutio, from perse- 
quor, I pursue hostilely: Lat.), the unjust 
infliction upon others of pain, punishment, 
or death; more especially when it is on ac¬ 
count of religious creed or mode of wor¬ 
ship. The history of the world is full of 
persecutions; and there is scarcely any do¬ 
minant sect or party, religious or political, 
which has not at times disgraced humanity 
by inflicting unjust punishment or penal¬ 
ties upon their fellow-men, for adhering to 
principles which their conscience dictated 
and their judgment approved. 

PER/SIAN WHEEL, in Mechanics, a 
contrivance for raising water above the 
level of a stream. It consists of a water¬ 
wheel, to the rim of which are fixed a 
number of strong pins supporting buckets. 
As the wheel revolves, the buckets, which 
are filled below, are carried up ; and when 
tney reach the highest point, they strike 
against something which empties them into 
a trough, whence the water is carried by 
a pipe to where it is wanted. It is evident 
that this contrivance will not raise the 
water to a height greater than the diameter 
of the wheel. 

PERSISTENT (persisto, I persevere: Lat.), 
in Botany, continuing without withering : 


Ettcrary treasury. 






























ipEiiso*,] (Efjc S'ttcnttftc rmfr 55b 

as a persistent calyx, which lasts alter the 
corolla is withered. 

PEIt'SON (persona: Lat.), iu Grammar, a 
term applied to such nouns or pronouns as, 
whether expressed or understood, are the 
nominatives in all inflections of a verb. I, 
thou or you, and he, she, or it, are called the 
first, second, and third persons. Hence we 
apply the word person to the termination or 
modified form of the verb used in connec¬ 
tion with the persons. 

PEIt'SONAL (personalis: Lat.), in Law, 
belonging to the person; any moveable 
thing, whether living or dead : as personal 
chattels, goods, money, or moveables, op¬ 
posed to real property or estates; personal 
action, an action in which a man seeks to 
recover goods of which he has been de¬ 
prived, or in which he claims satisfaction 
in damages for any injury to his person or 
property—the specific recovery of lands, 
tenements, and hereditaments, only ex¬ 
cepted.- Personal Identity, in Meta¬ 

physics, sameness of being, of which con¬ 
sciousness is the evidence.- Personal 

Verb, in Grammar, a verb that has in¬ 
flections or endings to express the three 
persons of each number. 

PERSONIFIOA'TION (persona, a person ; 
and facio, I make: Lat.), the giving to an 
inanimate object the sentiments and lan¬ 
guage of a rational being; or the represen¬ 
tation of an inanimate being with the af¬ 
fections and actions of a person. The more 
the imagination prevails among a people, 
the more common are personifications; 
and as reflection acquires the ascendency, 
personifications are less used. 

PERSPEC'TIVE (perspectif: Fr.; from 
perspicio, I look at: Lat.), that branch of 
optics which teaches the art of represent¬ 
ing objects on a plane surface as they 
appear under the peculiarities incident to 
distance and height. Consequently, it is 
a science of the first importance to the 
painter. In a practical sense, perspective 
is the art of drawing, according to the 
principles of geometry, the true represen¬ 
tations of real objects; and is divided into 
lineal perspective, which relates to the 
position, form, magnitude, &c., of the 
several lines or contours of objects, and 
aerial perspective, which has principally a 
reference to the colouring and shading of 
distant objects. Suppose we view a point 
situated beyond an upright transparent 
plane, such as a glass window; the spot 
where a straight line from the eye to this 
point will go through the window is the 
perspective representation of it; for the eye 
views all objects by means of rays of light, 
which proceed to it, from the different 
points of the object, in straight lines. Let 
us then imagine a spectator to be looking 
at a prospect without doors, from within, 
through a glass window ; he will perceive 
not only the vast extent which so small an 
aperture will admit to be seen by his eye, 
but also the shape, size, and situation of 
every object upon the glass. If the objects 
are near the window, the spaces which they 
cover upon the glass will be proportion¬ 
ally larger than when they arc at a greater 
distance; if they are parallel to the win-| 

dow, then their shapes upon the glass will 
be parallel also; but if they are oblique, 
then their shapes will be oblique, and so on. 
And he will always perceive, that as he 
alters the situation of his eye, the situation 
of the objects upon the window will be 
altered also if he raises his eye, the 
objects will seem to keep pace with it, 
and rise higher upon the window; and the 
contrary, if he lowers it. And so, in every 
situation of the eye, the objects upon the 
window will seem to rise higher or lower; 
and consequently the depth of the whole 
prospect will be proportionally greater or 
less, as the eye is elevated or depressed; 
and the horizon will, iu every situation of 
the eye, be upon a level with it; that is, 
the imaginary line which parts the earth 
and sky will seem to be raised as far above 
the ground upon which the spectator stands 
as his eye is. Now suppose that the person 
at the window, keeping his head steady, 
draws the figure of an object seen through 
it upon the glass with a pencil, as if the 
point of the pencil touched the object; he 
would then have a true representation of 
the object in perspective, as it appears 
to his eye. For as vision is produced by 
pencils of rays coming in straight lines to 
the eye from every point of the visible 
object, it i3 plain that, by joining the 
points in the transparent plane through 
which all those pencils of rays respec¬ 
tively pass, an exact representation must 
be formed of the object, as it appears to 
the eye in that particular position and at 
that determined distance. And were pic’ 
tures of things to be always first drawn on 
transparent planes, this simple operation, 
with the principle on which it is founded, 
would comprise the whole theory and prac¬ 
tice of perspective. But what is called the 
art of perspective, which comprises certain 
rules deduced from optics and geometry, 
constitutes a study too intricate for its 
thorough development in a work of this 
kind, and forms a branch of knowledge 
which can be attained only from systematic 
works on the subject. Some idea, however, 
may be conveyed of the meaning of the 
principal terms employed.—The pane of 
glass just mentioned would constitute what 
is called the perspective plane, or plane of the 
picture. Planes passing through the eye can 
be seen on the perspective plane only as a 
line; two of these are very important— 
that which is horizontal, and that which is 
vertical—the former termed the horizontal 
plane, and the latter the vertical plane. The 
line in which the former intersects the per¬ 
spective plane is called the horizontal line; 
and that in which the latter intersects it, 
the vertical line. The ground plane is a plane 
on which the spectator stands, and is 
parallel to the horizontal plane; its inter¬ 
section with the perspective plane is termed 
the ground line. All lines parallel to the 
horizontal and vertical planes converge to 
the point of sight, the point at which the 
horizontal and vertical lines intersect each 
other on the perspective plane ; and that is 
their vanishing point. When objects are to 
be represented, whose surfaces are oblique 
to the perspective plane, every system of 












6y9 Ettcntrj? Cmgttri?. [petition 

parallel lines Issuing from them 1ms its own 
vanishing point, on the horizontal line, but 
at some distance, at one side or the other 
of the vertical line. The vanishing point of 
any oblique system of parallel lines may be 
easily found, since it is that point where a 
line from the eye parallel to them cuts the 
horizontal line. And the position of this 
point may be determined by drawing a 
ground-plan of the building, &c., and mark¬ 
ing, on the same paper, &c., the positions 
of the eye, of the ground line, and of the 
vertical line ; then noting where a line 
from the eye, parallel to that surface of the 

1 building whence the system of lines are 
supposed to proceed, cuts the ground line. 
This will give the distance of the required 
vanishing point to the right or left of the 
i vertical line. Aerial 'perspective teaches 
how to judge of the degree of light which 
objects reflect in proportion to their dis¬ 
tance, and of the gradation of their tints in 
proportion to the amount of intervening 
air. Only the nearest objects appear in 
their true colours and full light ; in the 
casciof the more distant, their light and 
colour become blended with the colours of 
the vapours which fill the air, in proportion 
to their distance, until at last the objects 
become lost, in an indistinct mass of a 
bluish tinge, in the horizon. A painter, 
therefore, who would succeed in aerial per¬ 
spective, ought carefully to study the ef¬ 
fects which distance in its different degrees, 
or accidental lights, have on each particu- 
) lar colour ; and in order to give any tint its 

1 proper effect in proportion to its distance, 
it ought to be known what the appearance 
of that tint would be were it close to the 
i eye, regard being had to that degree of 
light which is chosen as the principal light 
! of the picture ; for if any colour is made 
too bright for another, or for the general 

1 colouring of the picture, the brightness of 
! that colour, to use a technical phrase, will 
kill the rest. In short, the harmony of a 
picture, and that captivating charm which 
we find more particularly in good landscape 
painting, depend greatly upon a correct ap¬ 
plication of aerial perspective. 

PERSPIRATION (perspiro, I breathe 
through : Lat.), a term applied to the eva- 
porable exudations from the skin. That 
; part which disappears without being no¬ 
ticed is styled insensible perspiration ; the 
■ sensible perspiration or sweat collects in 
drops on the skin, and is commonly mingled 
with the sebaceous secretion and other 
matters deposited on the surface. Perspi¬ 
ration is chiefly composed of water and 
carbonic acid. It has been calculated that 
the average amount ox cutaneous exhala¬ 
tion proceeding from an adult person in 
twenty-four hours is about 2i lbs. For the 
due exercise of the functions of the skin 
it is necessary that it should be frequently 

washed. . , 

PERTU'SED (pertusus, perforated : Lat.), 
in Botany, full of hollow dots on the sur¬ 
face, as npertused leaf. 

PERUVIAN BARK. [See BABE, PERU¬ 
VIAN.] , _ 

PESA'DE (peser, to weigh : Fr.— because 
j he throws all his weight on bis haunches), 

in Horsemanship, the motion of a horse 
when he raises his fore quarters; keeping 
his hind feet on the ground, without advan¬ 
cing. 

PET'AL (petalon , a leaf: Or.), in Botany, 
a leaf of a flower, as a sepal is a leaf of a 
calyx. "When the corolla consists only of 
one leaf, that is, forms a tube around the 
stamens and pistils, it is termed monopeta- 
lous; if divided into separate leaves it is 
said to consist of two, three, or more pe¬ 
tals. 

PET'ALISM (petalismos, from petalon, a 
leaf : Gr.), in Antiquity, a form of proscrip¬ 
tion or banishment practised at Syracuse, 
by writing the person’s name on a leaf ; 
whence the name. It differed from the 
Athenian ostracism merely in being for 
five years instead of ten, and the name 
being written on leaves instead of shells 
or tiles. 

PET'ALITE (petalon , a leaf ; and lithos, 
a stone : Gr.), a Swedish mineral of a folia¬ 
ted texture, and a grey or reddish colour. 

It is a silicate of alumina and lithia. 

PET'ALOID (petalon, a leaf ; and eidos, 
form : Gr.), having the form of a petal. 

PETARD' (Fr.), in Gunnery, an engine 
formerly used for breaking down gates, 
barricades, &c. It resembled a high-crown¬ 
ed hat, was made of gun metal, and being 
charged with gunpowder, it was screwed 
by the leaf to a thick plank, and was then 
suspended before the gate which was in- 
tended to be blown open. It is found that ! 
loose bags of gunpowder are just as effeo- ! 
tive. 

PET'ASUS (petasos, from petanmimi, I 
spread out : Gr.), in Antiquity, a covering 1 
for the head, similar to a broad-brifnmed 
hat, and used to keep off the heat of the sun. 
Mercury is represented with a winged peta- i 

sus.-In Architecture, the cupola of a‘ 

house, in the form of a petasus. 

PETE'CHIiE (peteccliie : Ital.), small red 
spots, caused by the effusion of drops of 
blood immediately under the cuticle. They 
resemble flea-bites, and indicate an impure 
state of the blood. Also the purple spots 
which appear on the skin in malignant 
fevers. Hence the term petechial fever. 

PE'TER’S PENCE, an impost, called also 
‘the fee of Rome,’ and in Saxon‘Rome- 
scot ; ’ at first a voluntary offering to the 
see of Rome, but afterwards levied from 
every house or family. It was discontinued 
in this country by Edward III., when the 
popes resided at Avignon ; was afterwards 
revived ; but was finally abolished in the 
reign of Henry VIII. 

PE'TIOLE (petiolus, the dim. of pes, a 
foot : Lat.), in Botany, the leaf-stalk, or the 
stem which supports the leaf. Hence the 
epithet petiolate for a leaf growing on a 
petiole. 

PETITION (petitio : Lat.), a formal suppli¬ 
cation or request made by an inferior to a 
superior, especially to one having some 
jurisdiction. Also a paper containing a 
supplication or solicitation. The right of 
the British subject to petition parliament 
is founded on the bill of rights; but it is a 
misdemeanor punishable by fine and impri¬ 
sonment, without the consent of three or 































PETITIO PRINCIPIl] 


&f)t J^ctenttfic autr 


560 


more justices, or a majority of the grand 
jury at assizes or sessions, to solicit or pro¬ 
cure the signatures of more than twenty 
to a petition for alterations in church or 
state, or for more than ten to repair with 
it to the sovereign or parliament. 

PETI'TIO PRINCIP'II (a requesting of 
the principle : Lat.), in Logic, the taking a 
I thing for true, and drawing conclusions 
from it as such; when it is either false, or 
at least requires to he proved before any 
inferences can be deduced from it. In com- 
| mon parlance, this is called ‘ begging the 
question.’ 

PETONG', the Chinese name of a species 
of copper, of a white colour. It differs from 
tutenag, though it is sometimes confounded 
with it; being an alloy of copper and nickel, 
while the latter is an alloy of copper, zinc, 
and nickel. 

PET'REL, a genus of birds, the Procel- 
laria of ornithologists, including the bird 
(P. pelagica ) well known to seamen by the 
name of ‘ Mother Carey’s chickens,’ whose 
appearance is dreaded by them as a sure 
prognostic of a storm. They breed in rocks 
adjoining the sea, forming their nests in 
cavities. They seem to repose in a common 
breeze; but upon the approach or during 
the continuance of a gale, they surround a 
ship, and catch up the small animals which 
the agitated ocean brings near the surface, 
or any food that may be dropped from the 
vessel. Whisking like an arrow through 
the deep valleys of the abyss, and darting 
away over the foaming crest of some moun¬ 
tain wave, they attend the labouring bark 
in all her perilous course. When the storm 
subsides, they retire to rest, and are seen 
no more. Their name signifies ‘little 
Peter,’ and is due to their seeming to walk 
on the waves. Another species is the Ful¬ 
mar Petrel (P. glacialis), which breeds at the 
Hebrides. This bird is in the habit of fol¬ 
lowing whale ships, as it is extremely fond 
of the fat of the whale. 

PETRIFAC'TION petra , a stone; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), a term applied to fossil 
organic remains [see Fossils], and also to 
articles which having been subjected to 
water charged with carbonate of lime have 
become impregnated or coated with it. 

PETRO'LETJM petrce oleum, oil of the 
rock : Lat.), in Mineralogy, rock-oil, a com¬ 
bustible fluid which exudes from the earth 
in various parts of the world. Large quan¬ 
tities have been obtained of late years by 
sinking wells in Canada and Pennsylvania. 
Petroleum varies greatly in colour and 
consistence, being sometimes thin and pale, 
at others thick and dark coloured. The 
substances which mineralogists have distin¬ 
guished by the names asphaltum, maltha, 

I petroleum, and naphtha, are thought by 
some naturalists to be mere varieties of one 
species. They may be thus distinguished : 
—Asplialtum forms the connection with 
bituminous coal, and is found in veins and 
in small masses, and also sometimes on the 
surface of lakes. Maltha is softer, has a 
degree of tenacity, and a strong bituminous 
smell. Petroleum is semi-liquid, semi-trans¬ 
parent, of a reddish-brown colour and foetid 
odour. Naphtha is of a lighter colour, more 


or less transparent, perfectly liquid, light, 
odoriferous, volatile, and inflammable. 

PET'ROLINE, a liquid hydrocarbon now 
extensively consumed in lamps, obtained 
by distilling petroleum. _ It closely re¬ 
sembles paraffine oil, obtained by the dis¬ 
tillation of coal, but unless carefully pre¬ 
pared it is apt to inflame at a temperature 
too low for safety. 

PETROL'OGY (petra, a rock; logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), that branch of knowledge 
which refers to the mineral composition of 
rocks. 

PETROMY'ZON (petra, a rock; and muzo, 
I suck: Gr.), in Ichthyology, a genus of 
fishes wdiose form and motion resemble 
those of the eel, and of which there are 
several species. The skeleton is rudi¬ 
mentary, the spine being simply cartila¬ 
ginous not bony. The mouth is circular, 
and the fish can use it as a sucker and 
anchor itself to a stone—whence the name. 
There are seven gill openings at each side. 
The Petromyzon marinus, or great lamprey, 
is usually of a brown olive colour tinged 
with yellowish white. It frequently grows 
to the length of three feet; and is an in¬ 
habitant of the sea, but ascends rivers early 
in the spring for a few months. It is vivi¬ 
parous, and supposed to subsist almost en¬ 
tirely on worms and fishes. The petromyzon 
is very tenacious of life, and various parts 
of the body continue to move long after it 
is separated from the head. The Petromyzon 
fluviatilis, or little lamprey, is very abun¬ 
dant in the Thames. 

PETRO'SA OSSA (rocky bones : Lat.), in 
Anatomy, the inner process of the bones 
of the temples; so named on account of its 
hardness and roughness. 

PETROSI'LEX (petra, a rock; and silex, 
flint: Lat.), in Mineralogy, a genus of sili¬ 
ceous earths, consisting for the most part 
of silica, with a portion of alumina and car¬ 
bonate of lime. It has no lustre, and melts 
before the blowpipe. 

PET'TY petit, small: Fr.), a word of very 

common use, particularly in Law.- Petty 

Treason, the crime of killing a person to 
whom duty or subjection is due. Thus the 
crime of murder, when a wife kills her hus¬ 
band, or a servant his master, has this ap¬ 
pellation. Such crimes are now considered 
murder only.- Petty Larceny, the steal¬ 

ing of goods of the value of twelve pence, 
or under that amount. The distinction 
between grand and petty larceny has been 
abolished.- Petty Constable, an in¬ 

ferior civil officer, subordinate to the high 

constable.- Petty Jury, a jury of twelve 

freeholders who are empanelled to try 
causes in a court; so called in distinction 
from the grand jury, which tries the truth 
of indictments, [See Jury.] 

PETUNS'E, or PETUN'TSE, a kind of clay 
used by the Chinese in the manufacture of 
porcelain or chinaware. It consists of 
quartz reduced to a fine powder. 

PEW'TER peautre: Nor. TV.), a factitious 
metal, consisting of tin and lead, or of tin 
with a little antimony and copper, in pro¬ 
portions suited to the purposes for which 
it is intended. There are three kinds of 
English pewter: plate pewter, tlie finest 

















561 Efterarg &m£urji* [pharmacopoeia 


kind, consisting of tin, antimony, bismuth, 
and copper; trifle, which should consist of 
tin and antimony, hut generally contains a 
considerable quantity of lead; and ley pewter, 
consisting of tin and lead. Britannia metal, 
of which teapots arc made, is composed of 
equal parts brass, tin, antimony, and bis¬ 
muth ; queen's metal, also used for teapots, 
&c., of tin, antimony, bismuth, and lead. 
The pewterer fashions almost all his articles 
by casting them in moulds of brass or 
bronze, which are made in various pieces 
nicely fitted and locked together. But a 
process called spinning is very commonly 
employed in Birmingham ;■ it consists in 
bringing a sheet of pewter against a rapidly 
revolving tool, by which, with a little dex¬ 
terity, it is gradually brought into the re¬ 
quired form. 

PHHSNOG'AMOUS, a botanical term. [See 
Phanerogamous.] 

PHAGEDiE'NIC ( phagedainikos, from 
phagedaina, a cancer; phago, I eat: Gr.), a 
medicine or application that eats away 
proud or fungous flesh. Any wound or 
ulcer that corrodes or eats away the flesh is 

also termed phagedtenic.- Phagedjenic 

Water, a mixture of quick lime and corro¬ 
sive sublimate. 

PHAL.ZE'NA (phalaina: Gr.), in Entomo¬ 
logy, Linnaeus’s name for a genus of moths ; 
but so many new forms have been disco¬ 
vered since his time that a tribe containing 
many genera has been substituted for the 
I old genus. 

PHAL'ANGER, the name of some kan¬ 
garoos forming the genus Petaurus. The 
skin is expanded between the fore and 
hind legs, and this enables them to make 
long leaps from tree to tree. Hence they 
have been called flying squirrels in New 
South Wales. 

PHAL'ANX (Gr.), among the Greeks, a 
square, or oblong, and compact body of sol¬ 
diers, having their shields joined, and pikes 
crossing each other. At first the phalanx 
consisted of 4000 men, but it was afterwards 
doubled and even quadrupled. The Macedo¬ 
nian phalanx is thus described by Polybius. 
It was a square (or rather a parallelogram) 
of pikemen, consisting of sixteen in flank 
and five hundred in front; the soldiers 
stood so close together that the pikes of the 
fifth rank extended three feet beyond the 
front; the rest, whose pikes -were not ser¬ 
viceable owing to their distance from the 
front, couched them upon the shoulders of 
those that stood before them, and, so lock¬ 
ing them together in file, pressed forward 
to support and push on the former rank; 
by which means the assault was rendered 

more violent and irresistible.-The word 

phalanx is likewise used for any combina¬ 
tion of people distinguished for firmness or 
solidity of union.. 

PHAL'AROPUS, a genus of wading birds, 
allied to the snipes, and inhabiting the 
northern latitudes of Europe and America. 
They live on the sea-coasts, fly well, and 
swim expertly, resisting the heaviest waves; 
but they never dive. Their flesh is oily and 
unpalatable. 

PHANEROG'AMOTTS (phancros, conspi¬ 
cuous ; gamo s, marriage: Gr.), a terra ap¬ 


plied by botanists to those plants which 
possess flowers, in contradistinction to 
cryptogamic {kruptos, concealed: Gr.) 
plants, or those destitute of flowers, such 
as ferns, mosses, sea-weeds, and lichens. 
Pbffinogamous ( phaino , I am plainly visible: | 
Gr.) is another term applied to flowering 
plants. 

PHANTASMAGO'RIA ( phantasma , a | 
phantom ; and agora, an assembly : Gr.), an 
optical exhibition very similar to the magic 
lantern; but the images are thrown on a 
transparent screen. They are magnified 
and diminished at pleasure, and are made 
to have the appearance of moving by caus¬ 
ing the magic lantern to approach to or 
recede from the screen. All light is ex¬ 
cluded, except that which passes through 
the figures; the rest of the slides being 
perfectly opaque. The focus of the lens i3 
adjusted by the very motion of the lantern, 
so as to continue in focus. 

PHAR'ISEES (pharas, separated: Heh.), 
a sect among the Jews, who distinguished 
themselves by their zeal for the traditions 
of the elders, which they derived from the 
same fountain with the written word it¬ 
self ; pretending that both were delivered 
to Moses on Mount Sinai, and were there 
fore of equal authority. From theirrigorous 
observance of these traditions they con 
sidered themselves more holy than otliei 
Jews, and therefore separated themselves 
from them; on which account they ob 
tained their name. The Pharisees num¬ 
bered in their ranks the most distinguished 
lawyers and statesmen in Judea; and as 
persons of all conditions were admitted 
into their society, they gained a political 
influence which often decided the fate of 
the Jewish nation, under the Maccabees; 
and brought into their hands whatever 
power had been left to the great council 
by the Romans, in the time of Christ. 
They believed in a resurrection from the 
dead, and the existence of angels; but, 
according to Josephus, their belief ex¬ 
tended to no more than a Pythagorean 
resurrection—that is, of the soul only, 
which they supposed to enter into another 
body and be born anew with it. From this 
resurrection they excluded all who were 
notoriously wicked, being of opinion that 
the souls of such persons were doomed to 
a state of everlasting woe. 

PHARMACEUTICS (pharmakeutikos , me¬ 
dical ; from pharmaJcon, a drug: Gr.), Phar 
macy, or the art of preparing and ad¬ 
ministering medicines. 

PHARMA'COLITE (pharmakon, a medi 
cine; and litlios, a stone: Gr.), in Minera¬ 
logy, arseniate of lime, which is either milk- 
wbite, or inclining to a yellowish white; 
and occurs in small reniform, botryoidal, 
and globular masses, with a silky lustre. 

PHARMACOL'OGY (pharmakon , a medi¬ 
cine ; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), t’he 
science or knowledge of drugs, or the art 
of preparing medicines. One who writes on 
this science is called a pharmacologist; and 
he who sells the medicines so prepared, a 
pharmacopolist, or apothecary. 

PHARMACOPCE'IA (pharmakopoiia, from 
pharmalcon, a medicine; and poieo, I make: 


























pharmacy] EIjc Scientific aifif ^62 J 

Gr.), a Dispensatory, or book of directions 
for the composition of medicines, approved 
by medical practitioners, or published by 
authority. 

PHAR'MACY ( pharmalceia, from phar- 
makon, a medicine : Gr.), in its most ex¬ 
tensive sense, signifies the art of preserv¬ 
ing, preparing, compounding, and combin¬ 
ing whatever substances may be necessary 
for medical purposes. And as these may be 
mineral, vegetable, or animal, to under¬ 
stand the theory of pharmacy requires a 
knowledge of chemistry, botany, zoology, 
and mineralogy, in order to determine the 
properties of the materials employed, and 
the laws of their composition and decom¬ 
position. In a narrower sense, pharmacy is 
merely the art of compounding and mixing 
drugs according to_ the prescription of the 
physician. 

PliA'ROS, a lighthouse, or lofty building 
near the sea, where a fire or light is kept 
burning during the night, to serve as a 
beacon to vessels. The lighthouse built 
by Ptolemy Soter, on the small island of 
Pharos, opposite to Alexandria, was the 
most celebrated structure of the kind in 
ancient times, and gave its name to all 
others. It is said that it was 500 feet high, 
and that its light could be seen at the dis¬ 
tance of 42 British miles. This lighthouse 
was considered one of the wonders of the 
world. 

PHARYNGOT'OMY (phantnx, the wind¬ 
pipe; and temno, I cut: Gr.), in Surgery, 
the operation of making an incision into 
the pharynx, to remove a tumour or any¬ 
thing that obstructs the passage. 

PHA'RYNX ( pharunx: Gr.), in Anatomy, 
the muscular bag at the back part of the 
mouth. It is shaped like a funnel, adheres 
to the fauces behind the larynx, and ter¬ 
minates in the oesophagus. Its use is to re¬ 
ceive the masticated food, and to convey it 
into the oesophagus. 

PHASCOLARC'TOS (phasMos , a wallet; 
and arktos, a bear: Gr.), or Koala, a marsu¬ 
pial animal, closely allied to the plialangcrs. 
Its dentition resembles that of the kan¬ 
garoo rats. It has four hands with naked 
palms, and crooked pointed nails; but no 
tail. 

PHASCO'LOMYS (phaskolos, a wallet; and 
mus, a mouse: Gr.), a marsupial genus in¬ 
cluding a single species, the wombat,which 
is of the size of a badger. It is a vegetable 
feeder. 

PHA'SES (phasis, an appearance: Gr.), in 
Astronomy, the various appearances of the 
moon at different ages ; being first a cres¬ 
cent, then a semicircle, then gibbous, and 
lastly full. She returns by the same 

gradations to the state of a new moon.- 

In Natural Philosophy, the state, at any 
particular instant, of a phenomenon which 
undergoes periodic change ; increasing to a 
given point, and then diminishing regu¬ 
larly; thus, the phase of a tide, of an eclipse, 
&>c» 

PHASlA'NUS (relating to pheasants: 
from phasis, a pheasant: Lat.), in Ornitho¬ 
logy, a genus of gallinaceous birds, in¬ 
cluding the different species of pheasant. 

PHEAS'ANT ( Phasis , a river in Asia), a 

beautiful bird of the genus rhasianus, a 
great favourite with both the sportsman 
and the epicure. The true pheasant ( Phasi - 
anus Colcliicus), which is said to have been 
brought into Europe from the banks of the 
Phasis, a river of Colchis, is distinguished 
by having a long tail, the feathers of which 
are of different lengths and overlay each 
other. In their wild state these birds feed, 
like the rest of the gallinaceous tribe, upon 
vegetable food. The female constructs her ; 
nest of leaves in some retired spot; and if 
any of her eggs are taken away, she con- , 
tinues, like the common hen, to lay an 
additional number. There are several varie¬ 
ties, produced by climate and domestication. 
The golden pheasant ( Phasianus pictus), a ' 
native of China,is remarkable for the beauty 
of its plumage ; the prevailing colours are 
red, yellow, and blue, and it is characterized 
by a crest upon the head,which can be raised 
at pleasure. The iris, bill, and legs are 
yellow; the tail long and richly tinted, 
and from above it arise a number of long 
straight feathers, of a varied hue of scarlet 
and yellow. Another fine Epecies found in 
China is the silver pheasant (Phasianus 
Nycthemerus) ; it is of a silvery white co¬ 
lour, with very delicate black lines on each 
feather, and black under the belly. But 
the most splendid bird of this genus is the 
argus pheasant ( Phasianus Argus). This 
species, which is of a large size, is found on 
the mountains in Sumatra and some other 
of the Indian isles. It is distinguished by 
its long tail, large wing-fcatliers, and a 
profusion of ocellate spots, which give this 
bird an extraordinary and most beautiful 
appearance. 

PHELLOPLAS'TTCS ( pliellos, a cork tree; 
and plastikos, skilful in moulding : Gr.), the 
art of representing works of architecture, 
on a reduced scale, in cork. It affords very 
fine models, which are cheaper than those 
in wood, stone, gypsum, &c. 

PRENAKIS'T [SCOPE (phenakismos, illu¬ 
sion ; and skopeo, I view : Gr.), a philoso¬ 
phical toy, which exhibits the persistence of 
impressions on the retina. It consists of a 
circular disc, from six to twelve inches in 
diameter, with rectilinear apertures on its 
margin, in the direction of its radii. A 
scries of figures—those of a horse and his 
rider, for instance, leaping over a gate—is 
drawn on the circumference of a circle 
parallel to the rim of the disc. The first re¬ 
presents the horse standing before the gate; 
the second, just leaving the ground ; and the 
others, its successive positions—the last 
being that he assumes when he has reached 
the ground, having completed the leap. The 
observer stands in front of a looking-glass, 
holding the disc by a handle in his left 
hand, whirling it rapidly round by a simple 
means provided for the purpose, and look¬ 
ing at the images in the glass through the 
apertures in the margin. The horse and 
his rider are seen only when the apertures 
pass his eye ; and the impression last pro¬ 
duced on the retina is not obliterated by 
that which precedes or succeeds it. All 
the attitudes, therefore, of the horse and 
his rider, are thus blended into one action 
—that of a leap; and the velocity with 




























63 


iUterani Cveasurji. 


[philosophy 


■which this is accomplished depends both on 
the velocity -with which the disc revolves, 
and the proportion existing between the 
number of figures painted upon it and the 
number of apertures. 

PHEN'GITE (phengos, splendour : Gr.), in 
Mineralogy, a beautiful species of alabaster. 

PHENOM'ENON (phainomenon, from 
pliainomai, I appear: Gr.), in Physics, what¬ 
ever is presented to the eye by observation 
or experiment, or whatever is discovered to 
exist; as, the phenomena of heavenly bodies 
or terrestrial substances; the phenomena of 
heat, colour, vision, &c. 

PIIE'ON ( pheOs , a prickly plant: Gr.), in 
Heraldry, the barbed head of a dart, arrow, 
or other weapon. 

PHIDI'TIA (Gr., from pheidomai, I spare), 
in Antiquity, the principal meals of the 
Lacedaemonians ; they were taken in public, 
and in the open air, and were remarkable 
for their frugality. Those who attended 
them made contributions of flour, wine, 
cheese, and figs. Rich and poor assisted 
alike at them, and were upon the same 
footing; the design of the institution being, 
1 ike that of the Roman Charistia, to reconcile 
differences, and to cultivate peace, friend¬ 
ship, and a good understanding among all 
the citizens, of every rank and degree. 

PHIGA'LIAN MAR'BLES, part of the 
collection, in the British Museum, known 
as the Elgin marbles. They were discovered 
near the site of Pliigalia, a town of Arcadia, 
and consist of a series of sculptures in alto 
relievo. They originally formed a frieze 
round the interior cella of the temple of 
Apollo the Deliverer, and represent the 
combat of the Centaurs with the Lapith®, 
as also that of the Greeks with the Amazons. 
From their similarity to the decorations of 
the Parthenon, they are supposed to be the 
work of the same artists. 

PHILADEL'PHUS (philadelphos: Gr.), in 
Botany, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Phila- 
delphacece, including the deciduous shrubs 
known as syringas. 

PnILAN'THROPY (philanthrdpia: from 
1 phileo, I love ; and anthrOpos, a man : Gr.), 
good will and benevolence towards the 
1 whole of mankind. It differs from friend- 
! ship, inasmuch as it has no limits to its 
sphere of action, whereas friendship may 
1 be confined to an individual; but a true 
philanthropist so loves his fellow-men, that 
he is continually exerting himself for their 
welfare. 

PHILTP'PIC, a word used to denote any 
discourse or declamation full of acrimoni¬ 
ous invective. It derives its name from ora¬ 
tions made by Demosthenes against Philip 
1 of Macedon, in which the orator bitterly 
attacked the king a3 the enemy of Greece. 

PHILLYR'EA (phillurea: Gr.), in Botany, 
a genus of plants, nat. ord. Olcacecc, includ¬ 
ing the mock privet, a well-known evergreen 
shrub. 

PHILOL'OGY (philologia: from phileo, I 
love; and logos, language: Gr.), in its usual 
acceptation, is that branch of literature 
which comprehends a knowledge of the 
etymology or origin of words, and whatever 
relates to the history, afllnity, and present 
state of languages. In a wider -sense, it 


signifies an assemblage of sciences, con¬ 
sisting of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, anti¬ 
quities, history, criticism, &c., usually un¬ 
derstood by the French term belles lettres. 

PHILOS'OPHER’S STOKE, the object of 
alchemy, a long sought-for preparation, by 
which, as was pretended, the baser metals 
might be converted into gold. 

PHILOS'OPHY (pliilosophia: from phileo, 

I love ; and sophia, wisdom : Gr.), the love 
and pursuit of knowledge or wisdom. In a 
general sense, the term includes observa¬ 
tion and reflection on every subject; or an 
investigation of the causes of all phenome¬ 
na, both of mind and of matter. The term 
philosopher originated with Pythagoras, 
who declined the title of the IKise, which 
had been given to his predecessors, and con¬ 
tented himself with the name of a ‘ friend 
or lover of wisdom.’ The object of philo¬ 
sophy is the ascertainment of generalized 
truth. Philosophy, in general, w-as so im¬ 
perfect in the earliest ages of antiquity, 
and even in the more polished times of 
Greece and Rome, that it appears, when 
looking down from the high pinnacle of 
modern improvements and of late discove¬ 
ries, but little removed from solemn trifling 
and puerile affectation. Yet some of the 
ancients, it must be confessed, approached 
so near to the truth, in matters of high 
importance, that we are led to wonder how 
they failed of making its discovery. In 
ethics and in politics thay have left behind 
them some excellent works; but the solu¬ 
tion of the phenomena of nature was re¬ 
served for a Bacon and a Newton. Their rea¬ 
sonings were hypothetical, for they never 
thought of arguing by induction—the only 
chain ty which truth can be draw'n from 
many of her deep recesses. The reader will 
And, under their proper heads, the several 
parts of philosophy, natural and experi¬ 
mental, separately noticed. On a subject 
so vast and comprehensive, it w-ouhlbe vain 
indeed for us to attempt a complete trea¬ 
tise, or to endeavour to write a continuous 
history ; but we may, not inappropriately, 
introduce in this place a brief sketch of the 
leading systems which prevailed at different 
periods of antiquity, and conclude by a few 
observations on the progress of philosophy ' 

during more recent times.- Pythagorean 

philosophy, the system taught by Pytha¬ 
goras, who flourished 500 years before the 
Christian era. His followers were great 
mathematicians, and sought to explain the 
system of the universe by mathematical 
reasoning. "We have no absolute certainty 
of the real doctrines of Pythagoras. He is 
said to have described the Deity as one in¬ 
corruptible, invisible being; and to have 
differed from some of the ancients, Epicu¬ 
rus, for example, in conceiving a connection 
between God and man—that is, in teaching 
the doctrine of a superintending provi¬ 
dence. He asserted the immortality of the 
soul; but in the peculiar sense which ap¬ 
pears to have been adopted by Plato, and in 
which it is used, in part, at this day by the 
Hindoos. In the cosmogony of Pythago¬ 
ras, spirit, however, diffused through all 
animals, was part of the Divinity himself 
separated only by the gross forms of mat- 






















philosophy] 


CTTje ;§>rtc»ttfitc rttttf 


564 


ter, and ready, whenever disengaged, to 
unite itself with the kindred essence of 
God. But God was only purity; and the 
mind recoiled from the idea of uniting with 
him a portion of spirit soiled with the cor¬ 
ruption of a sinful Jife; the soul, there¬ 
fore, once tainted, could never return to 
the Deity whence it emanated, till it had 
again recovered its innocence. After hav¬ 
ing animated a human body by which 
crimes had been committed, it was denied 
the great object of its desire, a union with 
its God, and forced to enter into other 
bodies, till at length it lived a righteous 
life. To this theory was added another, 
by means of which punishments, propor¬ 
tioned to offences, were awarded ; the soul 
of a negro-driver must pass into the body 
of an infant negro ; and that which in one 
existence plied the whip, in theotherwould 
receive the lash; the soul of the wicked 
would occupy the body of some animal ex¬ 
posed to suffering; and that of a being of 
few foibles undergo a sentence proportion- 
ably mild.—Such is the doctrine of the me¬ 
tempsychosis or transmigration of souls, a 
leading feature in the Pythagorean system. 
But it is by no means certain that the 
genuine Pythagoreans held it in the literal 
sense.- Socratic philosophy, or the doc¬ 

trines of Socrates, who flourished at Athens 
about 400 years B.O., and died a martyr in 
the cause of natural religion against pagan¬ 
ism. He is believed to have been the 
founder of moral philosophy in Greece, 
where he preceded Plato, from whose writ¬ 
ings his philosophy is chiefly known, as he 
wrote nothing himself. While other philo¬ 
sophers boasted of their knowledge, he is 
said to have laid the greatest stress upon 
his ignorance, asserting that he knew 
nothing but this, that he knew nothing. 
Socrates led men from the contemplation 
of universal nature to that of themselves— 
a branch of philosophy which was incul¬ 
cated in that famous inscription, Know 
thyself 1 The Socratic method of argument 
was that of leading an antagonist to ac¬ 
knowledge a proposition by dint of repeated 
questions, in preference to that of laying 
it down authoritatively. In a more general 
sense, Socratic philosophy includes all the 
sects from Socrates down to the Neo- 
Platoriists, since they all affected to teach 

his doctrines.- Platonic philosophy, a 

system of theology and morals, delivered 
by Plato about 350 years before Christ. 
Plato, it is said, laboured to re-establish 
natural religion by opposing paganism. 
The existence of one God was zealously in¬ 
culcated by him ; and also the immortality 
of the soul, the resurrection of the dead, 
the everlasting reward of righteousness, 
and punishment of sin. It was Plato, too, 
who taught that the world was created by 
the Logos or Word ; and that through 
knowledge of the Word men live happily 
on earth, and obtain eternal felicity here¬ 
after. Prom him, also, came the induce¬ 
ments to monastic life; for he pressed upon 
his disciples that the world is filled with 
corruption; that it is the duty of the right¬ 
eous to fly from it and to seek a union with 
God, who altme is life and health; that in 


the world the soul is continually summndec 
with enemies ; and that, in the unceasing 
combat through which it has to struggle, il 
can conquer only with the assistance ol 
God or of his holy angels. ‘A happy im¬ 
mortality,’ said Plato, ‘ is a great prize set 
before us, and a great object of hope, which 
should engage us to labour in the acquire¬ 
ment of wisdom and virtue all the time of 
our life.’ In morals, he taught that there 
is nothing solid and substantial but piety, 
which is the source of all virtues and the 
gift of God ; that the love of our neighbour, 
which proceeds from the love of God as its 
principle, produces that sacred union which 
makes families and nations happy; that 
self-love causes the discord and division 
which reign among mankind, and is the 
chief source of our sins; that it is better to 
suffer wrong than to do it; that it is wicked 
to hurt an enemy or to revenge an injury 
received; that it is better to die than to 
sin; and that man ought continually to 
learn to die, and yet to endure life with all 
patience and submission to the will of God, 
-The Aristotelian philosophy, which suc¬ 
ceeded the Platonic, is characterized by a 
systematic striving to embrace all the ob¬ 
jects of philosophy by cool and patient re¬ 
flection.-The Epicurean philosophy, or 

the system of Epicurus, an Athenian. This 
teacher laid down, as the basis of his doc¬ 
trine, that the supreme good consists in 
pleasure—a proposition that soon suffered 
a twofold abuse. On the one hand, by 
misconstruction, it was regarded as a bare¬ 
faced inculcation of sensuality; on the 
other, it was adopted by the luxurious, the 
indolent, and the licentious, as a cloak and 
authority for their conduct; and hence it 
has happened that the name Epicurean is 
now used in an absolute sense to designate 
one anxiously and luxuriously attentive to 
his food. Epicurus is reported to have 
written a great number of works, but of 
these none are extant; and the particulars 
of his philosophy, which have come down 
to us, are chiefly found in the writings of 
Lucretius, Diogenes Laertius, and Cicero 
His system, for which he is said to have 
been almost wholly indebted to Democritus, 
consisted of three parts: canonical, physical, 
and eilierial. Soundness and simplicity of 
sense, assisted with some natural reflection, 
constituted all the method of Epicurus. His 
searoh after truth proceeded only by the 
senses, to the evidence of which he ascribed 
so great a certainty that he considered 
them as the first natural light of mankind. 
It is in the meanings allowed to the words 
pleasure and pain that everything which is 
important in the morals, and doubtful in 
the history, of the Epicurean system is con¬ 
tained. According to Gassendi, the pleasure 
of Epicurus consisted in the highest tran¬ 
quillity of mind, united with the most per- 
'fect health of body—blessings enjoyed only 
through habits of rectitude, benevolence, 
and temperance; but Cicero, Horace, Plu¬ 
tarch, and several of the fathers of the 
Christian church represent his system from 
a very different point of view. The dis¬ 
agreement, however, is easily reconciled, if 
we believe one side to speak of what Epi* 
































565 Hftcrarj) 

I curus taught, and the other of what many 
of his followers, and still more of those who 
took shelter under his name, were accus¬ 
tomed to practise. -To the foregoing we 

must add the Stoic philosophy, or the doc¬ 
trines of Zeno, whose morality was of a 
magnanimous and unyielding kind, formed 
to resist temptation to evil, and to render 
men callous to adversity. Titus the Stoics 
maintained, among other things, that a 
man might be happy in the midst of the 
severest torturesthe Cynic philosophy, 
the followers of which affected a great 
contempt of riches and of all sciences ex¬ 
cept moralityand the Sceptical philo¬ 
sophy, under Pyrrho, who pretended to 

doubt everything.-In glancing at the 

history of philosophy, the student has abun¬ 
dant opportunities of observing its gradual 
development as a science, and tracing the 
progress and aberrations of the human 
mind—in themselves subjects most im¬ 
portant and instructive. Departing from, 
or only partially retaining, the conflicting 
dogmas of the Greek and Roman philo¬ 
sophers, we find the scholastics of the 
middle ages engaged in a struggle for the 
attainment of intellectual excellence, under 
the influence of principles derived from the 
Christian faith and doctrine; yet the pro¬ 
gress of philosophic truths "was for a long 
time feeble, irregular, and vacillating. Dur¬ 
ing the 15tli century there arose a freer 
and more independent spirit of inquiry, 
penetrating deeper into ultimate causes; 
till, at length, the cool and searching 
energy of Bacon enabled him to produce 
his Novum Organon, and to give a more 
substantial basis to the efforts of the in¬ 
tellect, by making observation and experi¬ 
ence the foundations of philosophy. Some 
there were, however, who disputed his 
iaws, and hence new theories occasionally 
obtained a temporary distinction; but his 
doctrines, in a great measure, ultimately 
prevailed; and at no distant period, the 
calm reasoning of Locke introduced into 
the study of the human mind the method 
of investigation which his great predeces¬ 
sor had pointed out. 

PHLEBOT'OMY (phlebotomia : from 

phleps, a vein ; and temno, I cut: Gr.), in the 
Medical art, the opening of a vein for the 
purpose of letting blood. 

PHLEGM ( plilegma, literally inflamma¬ 
tion ; from phlego, I burn: Gr.), bronchial 
mucus, a thick tenacious matter secreted in 
the throat. 

PHLOGISTON ( phlego, I burn : Gr.), a 
word formerly used to denote the principle 
of inflammability; or pure Are fixed in com¬ 
bustible bodies, in distinction from fire in 
action, or in a state of liberty. But the 
theory having proved to be false, the term 
is abandoned. 

PHCENI'CIAN LAN'GUAGE, a Semitic 
dialect allied to the Hebrew, and spoken by 
the people inhabiting the seacoast of Syria, 
the cities of Tyre, Sidon, &c., and the co¬ 
lonies they founded, Carthage, &c. The 
remains of this language are very scanty, 
and consist chiefly of inscriptions on coins, 
vessels, stones, pillars, and tablets ; espe¬ 
cially an altar of the fourth century B.fj., 


Crcatfurg. [PHOSPHORESCENCE 


recently discovered at Marseilles, and a ! 
royal sarcophagus, which has still more re ! 
cently come to light at Sidon. There are 
also a few words of this language quoted 
by old writers, such as the names of persons 
and places. 

PHCE'NIX (phoinix, literally belonging 
to Phoenicia: Gr.), in Fabulous History, a 
wonderful bird which the ancients de¬ 
scribe as of the size of an eagle; its head 
finely crested with a beautiful plumage, its 
neck covered with feathers of a gold colour, 
its tail white, and its body purple. By some 
authors he was said to come from Arabia 
to Egypt every five hundred years at the 
death of his parent, bringing the body with 
him, embalmed in myrrh, to the temple of 
the sun, where he buried it. According to 
others,when he found himself near his end, 
he prepared a nest of myrrh, and precious 
herbs, in which lie burned himself; but he 
revived from his ashes in the freshness of 
youth. The several eras when the phoenix 
has been seen are flxed by tradition. The 
first was said to have been in the reign of 
Sesostris ; the second in that of Amasis;,and ( 
in the period when Ptolemy, the third of the 
Macedonian race, was seated on the throne 
of Egypt, another Phoenix directed its flight 
towards Heliopolis. It is conjectured that 
the phoenix is a symbol of a period of 500 
years, of which the conclusion was cele 
brated by a solemn sacrifice, in which the 

figure of a bird was burnt.- Phcenix, in 

Astronomy, one of the new southern con¬ 
stellations. 

PHONET'IC WRIT'ING (phonetilcos, be¬ 
longing to sound: Gr.), that in which sounds 
are represented, in opposition to ideogra¬ 
phic, in which objects are represented ac¬ 
cording to their appearance, and abstract 
ideas symbolically—as in the figurative part 
of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 

PHON'ICS {phone, sound: Gr.), the doc¬ 
trine or science of sounds ; otherwise called 
acoustics. 

PHONOL'OGY {plwne, a sound; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), that branch of science 
concerned with the elementary sounds ut¬ 
tered by the human voice, including its 
various degrees of intonation. 

PHOS'GENE GAS (plws, light; and gen- 
nao, I produce : Gr.), in Chemistry, a com¬ 
pound of chlorine and carbonic oxide,which 
will unite under the influence of light, but 
not in the dark. 

PHOS'PHATE. [See Phosphoric Acid.] 

PHOSPHORES'CENCE {phos, light; and 
phero, I bear: Gr.), the emission of light 
by substances at common temperatures or 
below a red heat. Phosphorescence can bo 
artificially produced in inorganic matter 
which contains not a particle of phos¬ 
phorus. What is called the Bolognian stone 
is a native sulphate of barytes which has 
been calcined, and afterwards exposed to 
the sun’s rays. Wheii cold it will shine in 
the dark. In the vegetable world, it is well 
known that certain fungi exhibit this 
phenomenon, but it is doubtful whether 
living flowers ever emit luminosity not¬ 
withstanding the statements to that effect. 
Wood in a state of decay is frequently 
phosphorescent. This is thought to be a 


























phosphoric acid] dTf)c antt 566 

vital phenomenon, and due to the mycelium 
(spawn) of a fungus. Decaying fish is lu¬ 
minous in the dark, possibly from the same 
cause. In warm latitudes the sea at night 
often presents a brilliant spectacle in the 
neighbourhood of a vessel in motion, from 
the innumerable sparklings of the agitated 
water, caused, it is generally thought, by 
the presence of minute animals of low or¬ 
ganization, many such being known to 
emit light when irritated. Several mol¬ 
luscs are phosphorescent under such cir¬ 
cumstances, as well as some small crusta¬ 
ceans ( Entomostraca ). Some medusae give 
out vivid luminosity, and certain Sertula- 
rian zoophytes. Amongst insects there are 
the wellknown cases of the Glow-worm 
and the Fire-fly. Other insects also are 
known to give out light. 

PHOSFHOR'IC A'CID, in Chemistry, an 
acid formed by a saturated combination of 
phosphorus and oxygen. When phospho- 
l rus undergoes combustion in oxygen gas, a 

1 great quantity of white fumes are produced 
and deposited in white flakes, and to this 
substance the name of ’phosphoric acid is 
given. It is generally manufactured from 
hones, which consist of phosphate of lime; 
but there are also other processes for ob¬ 
taining it. Its component parts are one 
atom phosphorus, and five atoms oxygen. 
It unites with alkalis, earths, and metallic 
oxides, forming with them salts denomina¬ 
ted phosphates. Phosphate of lime is a 
constituent of bone, to which it gives 
; rigidity. The value of guano and; copro- 
lites as manure depends in a great measure 
on the phosphates they contain. Phospho¬ 
rous acid, which contains a smaller propor¬ 
tion of oxygen than phosphoric, consists of 

1 one atom phosphorus, and three atoms oxy¬ 
gen. It forms compounds with alkalis, 
earths, and metallic oxides, which are 
known under the name of phosphites. 

PHOS'PHORITE, in Mineralogy, a native 
phosphate of lime. 

PHOS'PHORUS ( phos, light; phoreo, I 
bring: Gr.'i, in Chemistry, a yellowish 
semi-transparent substance of the consist¬ 
ence of wax, but brittle in frosty weather. 
It is obtained by calcining bones, so as 
to destroy the animal matter ; powdering, 
mixing them with water, and then add¬ 
ing half their weight of strong sulphuric 
acid. The resulting superphosphate of 
lime, which remains in solution, is poured 
off, and then evaporated to dryness ; the 
residue is mixed with about half its weight 
of charcoal ; and, being raised to a high 
temperature, in a well-luted retort, the 
beak of which is immersed in water, the 
phosphorus distils over, and is condensed 
| in the liquid. It is purified by remelting 
under water and straining through chamois 
leather. This substance is luminous in 
atmospheric air, at common temperatures, 
without producing any perceptible heat, 
but emitting the odour of garlic. It is spar¬ 
ingly soluble in the fixed and volatile oils, 
and in ether and alcohol, but is insoluble 
; in water. Its 6pec.grav. is 177 ; it melts at 
108°, takes fire in pure oxygen at 80°—but in 
the atmosphere at 148°—and boils at 550°. 
Its slow combustion in common air is pre- 

vented by olefiant gas, the vapour of ether, i 
or oil of turpentine. Placed on blotting- 
paper with soot, it takes fire spontaneously, 
the oxygen of the air being condensed by 
the soot. It may be inflamed under water 
by a current of chlorine, or, if the water is 
warm, by a current of oxygen. Its solution 
in ether, on exposure to the air, is luminous, 
as also the hands, &c., if rubbed with it. 
When some of the ethereal solution is 
dropped on a piece of loaf sugar, and the 
latter is thrown into hot water, the ether 
and phosphorus will ascend and inflame on 
the surface of the liquid. A great quantity 
of phosphorus is now consumed in the lu- 
cifer match manufacture. An allolropic 
state of phosphorus exists. It is then 
amorphous, opaque, and reddish ; it is non- 
luminous in the dark, and is not ignited by 
friction or percussion at a less temperature 
than about 482° Fahr. Combined with 
chlorate of potash, &c., it is highly inflam¬ 
mable. If used in the manufacture of lucifer 
matches [see Lucifers], unlike the ordi¬ 
nary phosphorus, it is not injurious to the 
workmen ; matches made with it are not 
poisonous, nor do they emit a disagreeable 
smell ; they are not hygrometric, nor liable 
to be inflamed by accident. The amorphous 
state is produced by keeping ordinary 
phosphorus for some time at a temperature 
of from 450° to 46CP. A higher heat would 
cause explosion, or reduction to ordinary 
phosphorus. 

PHOS'PHURET, in Chemistry, a combi¬ 
nation of phosphorus with a metal, or 
other elementary substance, as phosphuret 
of iron, &c.- Phosphuretted Hydro¬ 

gen, a compound of one atom phosphorus, 
and three atoms hydrogen. It is obtained 
by filling a retort containing a small quan¬ 
tity of phosphorus, with a solution of caus¬ 
tic potash—no vacant space being left for 
atmospheric air, which would cause ex¬ 
plosion ; placing the retort in a solution of 
common salt, to secure a proper tempera¬ 
ture, and prevent danger if it should break; 
and applying beat. Pkospliuretted hydro¬ 
gen is evolved, and spontaneously inflames 
on issuing from the water in which the beak 
of the retort has been immersed. As each 
bubble of the gas takes fire, a ring of 
smoke ascends from it, revolving rapidly 
on axes the planes of which are perpen- 1 
dicular to that of the ring. When the gas 
is transmitted into oxygen, the effect is 
very brilliant, but the experiment is dan¬ 
gerous. 

PHO'TOGEN (phos, photos, light; gennao, 

I produce : Gr.), one of the liquid hydro¬ 
carbons used in lamps, and obtained by the 
distillation of bituminous shale, lignite, 

^PHOTOGRAPH'IC ENGRAVING. Expe¬ 
riments on this subject were tried in 1827 
and others at various times since that - 
period. The most effective of all the pro¬ 
cesses proposed is probably that of Fox i 
Talbot. Steel, copper, or zinc plates, such 1 
as are used by engravers, are cleaned ex- i 
tremcly well, then covered with a gela¬ 
tinous substance, sensitive to light • and 
when this is become dry, the lace, or’other 
object which is to be engraved, is placed 

























667 mterarg snrrajSuq). 


upon it, and it is exposed to sunlight for 
a certain time. On removing the object, 
a faint image of it will be perceived on the 
plate, which Is to be slightly covered with 
a little finely powdered gum copal, very 
carefully scattered over it; and is then to 
be heated just long enough to melt the 
copal. When the plate is cold, the etching 
liquid, which is of various kinds, is poured 
upon it. This penetrates the gelatine, 
where the light has not acted upon it; 
and the details of the picture appear with 
great rapidity. As soon as it is perceived 
that the etching will no longer improve, 
the fluid is wiped off with cotton wool; 
the plate is well washed with a stream of 
cold water; and, having been cleaned with 
soft whiting and water to remove the gelar 
tine, the etching is complete. 

PHOTOG'RAPHY, or PHOTOGEN'IC 
DRAW'ING (phos , light; and graplio, I 
write, or gennao, I produce: Gr.), pro¬ 
cesses for the production of pictures by 
means of light. There is reason to believe, 
.however, that the effect is due to other 
than the luminous rays of the spectrum. 
We have already given an account of the 
Daguerreotype process [which see]. The 
principles of the photographic process, 
properly so called, may be understood by 
experimenting with a piece of paper which 
has been dipped in a solution ofiwiitrate of 
silver and cautiously dried ; if the light is 
carefully excluded, it remains white ; but 
if it is exposed to light, it gradually dark¬ 
ens, until it at last becomes black. If, 
while it is white, any opaque or translu¬ 
cent object is laid upon it, so as wholly 
or partially to intercept the rays, a re¬ 
presentation of the object is obtained on 
the paper. Where the rays have been 
totally intercepted, it remains white; where 
none of them have been intercepted, it is 
dark; and where they have been partially 
intercepted, it'is darkened to an extent 
dependent on the amount of light to which 
it has been exposed. To fix this picture, it 
must be washed in the solution of a hypo¬ 
sulphite, to remove the unaltered salt of 
silver, and prevent further darkening. In¬ 
stead of paper containing only nitrate of 
silver, one which, after having been im¬ 
pregnated with that substance, has been 
dipped in a solution of common salt—to 
change the nitrate of silver into chloride— 
is employed; having been found more sen¬ 
sitive to the action of light. Photographic 
papers have been prepared also with other 
substances, which improve their delicacy, 
colour, &c. If some of the prepared paper is 
put into the camera obscura, a negative pic¬ 
ture will be produced ; and if this is printed 
from —that is, if it is placed between another 
portion of the prepared paper and the light 
—a positive picture will result. Collodion 
[which see], carefully spread on glass, and 
rendered sensitive by some of the salts 
usually employed for the purpose, is found, 
in many cases, more convenient, than paper. 
And, by varying the process a little, cither 
a positive or negative picture can bo had 
at pleasure. Albumen may be used instead 
of collodion, also waxed paper, &c._ There 
are other methods, termed the catalissotypc, 


[phrenology 

the ferrotype, &c.; but they vary chiefly in 
the materials adopted to produce sensitive¬ 
ness, colour, &c. The advantage of a nega¬ 
tive picture is that a number of copies 
may be made from it without repeating the 
original process, whereas good copies can¬ 
not be obtained from a positive picture. 

PHOTOM'ETER (phds , light; and metron, 
a measure : Gr.), an apparatus for measur¬ 
ing the intensity of light; or an instrument 
intended to indicate the different quantities 
of light on cloudy and bright days, or re¬ 
ceived by bodies illuminated in different 
degrees. Instruments for this purpose 
have been invented by ltumford, De Saus- 
sure, Leslie, and others. In Leslie’s pho¬ 
tometer, the essential part is a glass tube, 
like a reversed siphon, whose two branches 
are equal in height, and terminated by 
balls of equal diameter; one of the balls is 
of black enamel, and the other of common 
glass, into which is put some liquid. When 
the instrument is exposed to the solar rays, 
those which are absorbed by the dark 
colour heat the interior air, which causes 
the liquid to descend with rabidity in the 
corresponding branch, thus marking the 
intensity of the light; while no effect is 
produced by the light upon the transparent 
ball. Various contrivances have been de¬ 
vised for comparing the lights of two hea¬ 
venly bodies ; but one that is both simple 
and accurate is yet to be discovered. 

PHOTOZINCOG'RAPHY, a method of 
copying ancient documents, &c., recently 
invented. Paper, after ha ving been washed 
over with a solution of the bichromate of 
potash and gum, and then dried, is placed 
under a collodion negative, which is a 
reduced picture of the document, obtained 
by the photographic process. After it has 
been exposed to light, its whole surface is 
coated over with lithographic ink; and a 
stream of hot water is then poured upon it. 
As that portion of the coating which was 
exposed to light is insoluble, while the 
other portions are easily washed off, a 
picture of the document, &c., is obtained on 
the paper, and is ready for transference 
either to stone, zinc, or a copper plate. 

PHRASE (phrasis, from phrazo, I speak : 
Gr.), a short sentence or expression, said 
to be complete when it conveys complete 
sense, as ‘ to err is human,’ and incomplete 
when it consists of several words without 
affirming anything. Any peculiar sen¬ 
tence or short idiomatic expression is also 

denominated a phrase. -In Music, any 

i-egular symmetrical course of notes which 
begin and complete the intended expres¬ 
sion. 

PHRENI'TIS (.Gr ., from phrSn, the 
mind), in Medicine, inflammation of the 
brain, attended with acute fever and 
delirium. 

PHRENOL'OGY (phrSn, tlio mind ; and 
logos, a description: Gr.), a modern science, 
which professes to teach, from the con¬ 
formation of the human skull, the particu¬ 
lar characters and propensities of men, 
presuming that the powers of themiudand 
the sensations are dependent on peculiar 
parts of the brain; the front portions 
governing the intellectual, the middle por- 























568 


fheyganea] El )t J^ctcnttftc anti 


tions the sentimental, and the hinder por¬ 
tions the animal propensities; the degree 
of which is dependent on the projection 
or hulk of the parts. It was long ago 
observed by physiologists, that the charac¬ 
ters of animals were determined by the 
formation of the forehead', and that their 
intelligence, in most cases, rose or fell in 
proportion to the elevation or depression of 
the skull. But it was reserved to Drs. Gall 
and Spurzheim to expand this germ of 
doctrine into a minute system, and to map 
out the whole cranium into small sections, 
each being the dwelling-place of a certain 
faculty, propensity, or sentiment; all these 
sections amounting to thirty-five, and 
having certain names given to them to 
mark their specific qualities, their uses 
and abuses. Were phrenology an estab¬ 
lished science, and were it possible to draw 
unerring deductions from the data which 
it lays down, its discovery would be the 
greatest step ever made in mental philoso¬ 
phy, and its application the most beneficial 
means ever used for the amelioration of 
the human race. By revealing individual 
| character, it would give security to social 
intercourse, and make communication 
prompt and easy. It would disclose real 
merit and expose unworthiness. The truly 
( wise and good would at last attain their 
proper station in society, while the ignorant 
and vicious would be known and shunned. 
But neither is phrenology an established 
science, nor, if it were, can it ever be ap¬ 
plied with certainty to the illustration of 
individual character. Many of the organs 
are so heterogeneous in their natu re, Ujg.t 
they may indicate faculties or dispositions 
diametrically opposite, while others are 
furnished with compensating organs which 
balance their good or evil tendencies, 
and so render both ineffective. Tlius you 
may have the organ of destructiveness de¬ 
veloped largely, and yet be a peaceable and 
good man. How is this accounted for? 
Your organs of cautiousness and benevolence 
are brought to bear upon it, so that it be¬ 
comes harmless. It is tolerably certain, 
that the division of the brain, generally, 
into intellectual, sentimental, and animal 
portions, is well founded; perhaps also the 
existence of some very marked organs— 

I destructiveness, for example—can scarcely 
j be denied ; and, were it divided internally 
into thirty-five cells, phrenologists might 
I be justified in marking out its exterior 
i divisions. But it consists of one mass; 
there is no kind of inward separation or 
distinction of structure corresponding to 
the outward boundaries of the phrenologi¬ 
cal organs; and the interior hollows of the 
skull do not always correspond with the 
prominences on the exterior. The science, 
however, if not carried too far, is not 
unreasonable, since we generally find a 
peculiar form of skull to accompany pe¬ 
culiarities of disposition ; and the ancient 
sculptors, though, as a science, phrenology 
was unknown to them, do not appear to 
have been regardless of its principles. 

PHRYGA'NEA ( phruganon, a dry stick : 
Gr .—on account of the case, formed of bits 
of wood, in which the larva encloses itself;, 


a genus of trichopterous insects. [See 
Caddice Worm.] 

PHTHI'SIS (Gr., from phthio, I decay), 
in Medicine, a consumption occasioned by 
ulcerated lungs. [See Consumption.] 

PHYLAC'TERY(p7iiiZafc?eri<m, an amulet; 
from iriiulasso, I defend: Gr.), among the 
Ancients, a general name given to all kinds 
of spells, charms, or amulets, which they 
wore about them, to preserve them from 
disease or danger. It is more particularly 
used to signify a slip of parchment, on 
which was written some text of scripture, 
especially of the Decalogue, which the more 
devout Jews wore on the forehead, breast, 

or neck, as a badge of their religion.- 

Among the primitive Christians, a phylac¬ 
tery was a case in which they enclosed the 
relics of the dead. 

PIIYLLO'DI UM (phullon, a leaf; eidos, 
form : Gr.), a flattened and dilated leafstalk 
In several species of Australian acacias 
the true pinnate leaves are only seen when 
the plants are young. Afterwards they 
cease to be developed, and their phyllo- 
dia are then frequently mistaken for true 
leaves. 

PHYS'ALITE (phusalis, a bubble: Gr — 
sometimes called pyrophysalite, because it 
intumesces with heat), a mineral of a green¬ 
ish-white colour, a sub-species of prismatic 

topaz. 

PHYSE'TER (phuseter, from phusao, I 
blow : Gr.), a genus of Mammalia of the 
cetaceous order. The Pliyseter macroce- 
plialus, orcaehal'ot, the spermaceti whale, 
growiawfecffbe length of sixty feet, and the 
head is nearly one-third of the whole bulk 
of the animal. Of all the whales it is one 
of the most difficult to be taken, and it 
survives for several days the deepest 
wounds given it by the harpoon. Its skin, 
oil, and tendons are all converted by the j 
Greenlanders to some valuable purpose; 
spermaceti is found in its head, and amber¬ 
gris in its intestines. 

PHYS'ICAL ( ph-usikos, belonging to na¬ 
ture : Gr.), an epithet denoting that which 
relates to nature and natural productions, as 
opposed to things moral or imaginary. We 
speak of physical force or power, with refe¬ 
rence to material things; whereas know¬ 
ledge, skill, &c., constitute moral force. - 

A physical body or substance is a material 
body or substance, in distinction from a 
spirit or metaphysical substance. - Phy¬ 

sical Education, a course of training 
which has for its object the imparting of 
health and vigour to the bodily organs and 
powers. 

PHYSICIAN (same deriv.), one whose 
profession is to prescribe remedies for dis¬ 
eases, and who is consequently relied on as 
being skilled in the art of healing. Phy¬ 
sicians were held in high estimation in 
Greece, and the name of Hippocrates is an 
honour to the profession. The study of 
physic, indeed, being looked upon as a 
branch of philosophy, it was sure to com¬ 
mand respect in a land where philosophy 
was in such high repute. 11 was not exactly 
so in Rome. As long as the Romans led a 
hardy and laborious life, physicians were 
dispensed with, and even totally unknown 


























IUtcnu*|i Cvcasiury* [picrotoxinb 


amongst them, without any had conse¬ 
quence ensuing. But the luxury of the 
table, and the excesses with which it was 
attended, introduced diseases; and dis¬ 
eases introduced physic, to which there had 
been before so much repugnance. In the 
535th year of Home, some physicians came 
from Greece to that city, but they had no 
fixed establishment there till a.u.c. 600 . 
Physic at that time included pharmacy and 
surgery ; for physicians not only compound¬ 
ed medicines, but performed all surgical 
j operations themselves, though they had 
I then but a very imperfect knowledge of 
anatomy. During the commonwealth there 
were no physicians or surgeons in the 
army, but the older citizens, who had al¬ 
most all served in it, administered medi¬ 
cines, and the soldiers dressed each other’s 
wounds with some well-known remedies 
used in the city. The emperors, however, 
having a particular regard for their own 
health, took physicians with them upon 
| every expedition. The art of healing was 
not held in high estimation at Home, and 
was sometimes professed by slaves. Crnsar 
granted physicians, as a singular favour, 
the freedom of the city; and their reputa¬ 
tion increased with the luxury of the 
! people. 

! PHYSTCO-THEOL'OGY, theology or di¬ 
vinity illustrated or enforced by physics or 
natural philosophy. 

PH YS'ICS ( phusikos , belonging to nature : 
Or.), or Natural Philosophy, a term 
applied to the study of the phenomena of 
material attraction and those terrestrial 
phenomena which are studied in the se¬ 
parate sciences of mechanics, acoustics, 
optics, thermotics, electricity, and meteoro¬ 
logy, but not chemistry or physiology. 

PHYSIOGNOM'ICS ( phusis , constitution ; 
and gnOmonikos, fit to give judgment: Or.), 
among Physicians, signs in the countenance 
tvhich serve to indicate the state, disposi- 
j tion, &c., both of the body and mind; and 
| nence the art of reducing these signs to 
practice is termed physiognomy. 

PHYSIOGN'OMY (phusis, disposition; 

1 and gnome, a means of knowing: Gr.), the 
art of discovering the predominant temper 
or other characteristicqualities of the mind, 
Dy the features of the face or external 
signs of the countenance. 

PHYSIOL'OGY (phusiologia: from phusis, 
nature ; and logos, a discourse : Gr.), that 
j Dranch of science which treats of the pecu¬ 
liar functions and properties of living bodies, 
that is, of bodies w r hich grow and reproduce 
their kind—a definition which includes both 
vegetables and animals. It is distinct from 
physics in general, inasmuch as it regards 
organized bodies alone; and from meta¬ 
physics, inasmuch as it does not treat of 
mind. It ik divided into animal physiology 
and vegetable physiology. The functions of 
animal life are not only more complicated 
in the same individual than those of vege¬ 
tation, but also more diversified in the 
different classes into which animals are di¬ 
vided ; so that the physiology of each class 
of animals has its peculiar laws, which is 
not the case with regard to vegetables. 

PPA MATER (the sacred mother: Lat.), 


in Anatomy, the third tunic or membrane 
of the brain, which not only extends over 
its whole surface, but insinuates itself into 
all its cavities. [See Mater.] 

PIAN'OFORTE (piano, and forte: Ital.), 
a well-known musical stringed instrument, 
the strings of -which are extended over i 
bridges rising on the sounding-board, and 
are made to vibrate by means of small 
covered hammers, which are put in motion 
by keys. It has been gradually improved, 
till it has become one of the most important 
instruments in all domestic musical enter¬ 
tainments. 

PIASSA'YA, fibres largely imported into j 
this country, and employed in the manu¬ 
facture of brooms. They are obtained 
from the stem of a Brazilian palm, a species 
of Lcopoldinia. ‘It grows in moist places, i 
and is about 20 or 30 feet high, with the 
leaves large, pinnate, shining, and very- 
smooth and regular. The whole stem is 
covered with a thick coating of the fibres 
hanging down like coarse hair, and growing 
from the bases of the leaves which remain 
attached to the stem. Large parties of men, ! 
women, and children go into the forests to ; 
cut this fibre. It is extensively used for ( 
cables and small ropes for all the canoes 
and larger vessels on the Amazon.’ (A. R. 
Wallace.) 

PIAZ'ZA, an Italian name for a portico 
or covered walk. The word literally signi¬ 
fies a broad open place or square ; whence j 
it came to be applied to the walks or porti- | 
coes which sux-round it. 

PIC'AItESQUE (Fr., from picaresco, \ 
roguish : Span.), a term applied to a class 
of novels once very popular in Spain, in 
which the adventures of rogues and thieves 
arc related. The amusing story of Lazarillo 
de Tonnes (first printed in 1586) is the 
earliest specimen of this style, and is men¬ 
tioned in ‘ Don Quixote,’ by a rank picaro 
or rogue, who is made to say that he had 
written his own history, wherein he related 
truths so ingenious and entertaining that 
no fictions could come up to them. 

PI'CIDiE, in Ornithology, a family of 
birds in the order of Scansores, Including 
the woodpeckers. 

PICK'ET or PIC'QUET (Fr.), in Military 
affairs, a certain number of men, horse or 
foot, who do duty as an outguard to prevent 

surprises.- Pickets, in Fortification, 

sharp stakes, sometimes shod with iron, 
used in laying out ground, or for pinning 
the fascines of a battery. In the artillery, 
pickets five or six feet long are used to pin 
the park lines; in the camp, pickets about 
six or eight inches long are used to fix the 
tent cords, or five feet long in the cavalry ; 
camp to fasten the horses. 

PIC'ROLITE (pikros, bitter; and lithos, a 
stone: Gr.), fibrous serpentine, a green- 
coloured mineral, composed chiefly of car¬ 
bonate of magnesia. 

PIC'ROMEL (pikros, bitter; and rneli, 
honey: Gr.), the characteristic principle of 
bile. The name contains allusion to its 
sharp, bitter, and sweet taste. 

PICROTOX'INE or PIOROTOX'IA (pi* 
leros, bitter; and toxikon, poison: Gr.), in 
Chemistry, the bitter and poisonous prin- I 




































mots’ wall] ^ctcnttft'c iiixXf 570 

ciple of the Cocculus Indicus. It crystal¬ 
lizes in small white needles or columns. 

PICTS’ WALL, an ancient wall begun by 
the emperor Adrian, a.d. 123, on the northern 
ooundary of England, from Carlisle to New¬ 
castle, to prevent the incursions of the 
Piets and Scots. It was first made only of 
turf, strengthened with palisades, till the 
emperor Severus, coming in person into 
Britain, caused it to be built with stone ; 
and Actius, the Homan general, rebuilt 
it with brick, A.D. 430. Some remains 
of this wall are still visible in parts of 
Northumberland and Cumberland. 

• PICTURES'QUE (pittoresque: Fr.), a term 
usually applied to such beautiful objects as 
are suitable for the artist. In the theory 
of the flue arts, the word picturesque is 
used as contradistinguished from poetic 
aud plastic. The poetical has reference to 
the fundamental idea to be represented—to 
] the painter’s conception of lii3 subject ; 
whilst the picturesque relates to the mode 
of expressing the conception, the grouping, 
and the distribution of objects, persons, 
aud lights. The poetical part of a picture, 
as well as its mechanical execution, may be 
without fault, and yet the picture be atotal 
failure as regards the picturesque. 

! PI'CUL, a Chinese and Japanese weight 
equivalent to about 133 lbs. avoirdupois. 

‘ PIECE (Fr.), in the Military art, any kind 
of cannon or mortar. Large guns are called 
| battering-pieces, smaller guns are called 
field-pieces. Wo also say a fowling-piece. 

-In Heraldry, the honourable pieces of 

the shield are the chief, fosse, bend, pale, 
bar, cross, saltier, chevron; and, in general, 
all those which may take up one-third of the 
field. 

PIETOUDRE (piccl pnudreux, dusty- 
footed : Old Fr.), an ancient court of re¬ 
cord, incident to every fair or market, and 
of which the steward of the person who had 
the toll of the market was the judge. Ac¬ 
cording to the derivation, the term implies 
that the court was that of petty dealers or 
chapmen who assembled on those occa¬ 
sions. It was instituted to administer jus¬ 
tice for all commercial injuries committed 
in that very fair or market, and not in any 
preceding one; so that it was necessary 
that the injury should be done, complained 
of, heard, and determined within the com¬ 
pass of one and the same day, unless the 
fair continued longer. This court has now 
fallen into disuse. 

PIER ypverre, stone: Fr.), a very strong 
stone wall, or mass of solid stone-work, run¬ 
ning into the water, to resist the force of 
the sea, and to withstand the dashing of 
waves. The term is also applied to the con¬ 
structions used to support the arches of a 
bridge or the quay of a wharf, and to that 
part of the wall of a house which is between 
windows. 

PIE'RIAN, an epithet given to the 
Muses, from Pieros, a mountain of Thessaly 
which was sacred to them; or from their 
: victory over the nine daughters of Pieros, 
the Macedonian king. 

PIETA (Ital.), a name given by Italian 
painters to the subject of the dead Christ 
with weeping women or attendant angels. 

PI'ETISTS (piStiste: Fr.; from pielas, 
piety: Lat.), a sect of Protestants which 
sprang up in Germany in the latter part of 
the 17th century. They professed great 
strictness and purity of life; affecting to 
despise learning and ecclesiastical polity, 
as also forms and ceremonies in religion, 
and giving themselves up to mystic theo¬ 
logy. 

PIEZOMETER (piezo, I squeeze; and 
metron, a measure : Gr.), an instrument for 
ascertaining the compressibility of water, 
and the degree of such compressibility 
under any given weight. 

PIGEONS (Fr.), birds of the order Colum- 
bidee. There are many domesticated varie¬ 
ties, powters, shakers, tumblers, croppers, 
runts, &c., names which are indicative of 
their respective peculiarities. In the wild 
state the pigeon tribe live on high trees, 
generally in flocks. Pigeons feed principally 
on seed, retaining their food in the crop 
for some time. The greater proportion of 
the species build on elevated situations ; 
forming a loose nest of small twigs, and 
wide enough to contain both the parent 
birds; the female lays two eggs, several 
times a year. They pair for life ; assemble 
in flocks; and have no song, their note 
being a simple cooing. They walk well, 
and fly with great swiftness, continuing 
on the wing for a long time. Of all the 
varieties of the pigeon, the most remark¬ 
able for its attachment to its native place 
is the carrier, which is distinguished from 
the others by a broad circle of naked white 
skin round the eyes. This species has for 
ages been used for carrying messages of 
importance where expedition aud secresy 
were required. When a letter is tied under 
the carrier's wing, and the bird is set at 
liberty, from some inconceivable instinct, 
it directs its flight, in a straight line, to the 
very spot from whence it has been taken. 
In America there is a species of pigeon 
called the passenger or wild pigeon, which is 
extremely prolific, and is of a bluish slate- 
colour with a white belly. These birds 
visit the different states In vast multitudes, 
but are beyond measure abundant in the 
western states ; where, according to Wilson, 
the ornithologist, some of their ‘ breeding- 
places,’ as they are termed, extend over a 
distance of thirty or forty miles. They 
are taken by means of clap-nets, managed 
by a person concealed in a hut composed 
of brushwood, who in this way will some¬ 
times take from ten to forty or fifty dozens 
at a sweep. Audubon, in speaking of these 
immense flocks of pigeons, and their extra¬ 
ordinary powers of flight, remarks, that 
they have been killed in the neighbourhood 
of New York, with their crops still filled 
with rice, collected by them in the fields 
of Georgia and Carolina, the nearest point 
at which this supply could possibly have 
been obtained ; and as it is well ascertained 
that, owing to their great power of diges¬ 
tion, they will decompose food entirely in 
twelve hours, they must have travelled 
between 300 and 400 miles in six hours, 
making their speed at an average about 
one mile in a minute; and this would enable 
one of these birds, if so inclined, to visit 






















S ' 1 Ettmry Cmtfttry. [pillar 


the European continent, as swallows un¬ 
doubtedly are able to do, in a couple of 
days. Such, indeed, are their numbers, 
that the air is described as ‘literally filled 
•with pigeons; tho light of the noon-day 
becoming dim, as during an eclipse.’ Only 
four species of pigeon are found wild in 
Europe ; from one of which are descended 
all the varieties which arc domesticated. 
The great-crowned pigeon, or gonza, bears 
the greatest resemblance to the Gallium in 
size; it is a native of New Guinea, and 
j. various isles of the Eastern Archipelago. 
The Nicobar 'pigeon is distinguished for its 
brilliant plumage; it runs along the ground 
and builds its nest like that of a partridge; 
it inhabits Sumatra, Nicobar, and other 
islands in the east. [See Dove.] 

PIG'MENTS (pigmentum, paint: Lat.), 
preparations of various kinds, used in 
painting and dyeing, to impart the colours 
required. They are obtained from animal, 
vegetable, and mineral substances. 

PIKE (piic: Sax.), the name of a malacop- 
terygious flsli of the family of the Esocidce, 
distinguished by having only one dorsal 
flu, a long slender body compressed later¬ 
ally, and the lower jaw projecting beyond 
the upper. The common pike ( EsoxLucius ) 
abounds in most of the lakes of Europe. 
It is remarkable for its voracity, and also for 

its longevity.- Pike, in Military Affairs, 

a long slender staff with a kind of spear¬ 
head at the end. Its use among soldiers 
has been superseded by that of the bayonet. 

PILAS'TER (pilastro: Ital.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a square column, sometimes in¬ 
sulated, but more frequently placed against 
a wall, and projecting only one quarter of 
its depth. The pilaster is different in dif¬ 
ferent orders; it borrows the name of each, 
and has the same proportions, and the same 
capitals, members, and ornaments, as the 
columns themselves. 

PIL'CHARD, the Clupea Pilcardus, a flsli 
resembling the herring, but rounder and 

i thicker. Pilchards appear on the Cornish 
coast about the middle of July, in immense 
numbers, and constitute a considerable 
article of commerce. 

! PILE (pil: Sax.), a large stake or beam, 
pointed and driven into the earth, as at the 
bottom of a river, or in a naroour, for the 
support of a bridge or other superstructure. 

__Pile (Nr.), in Artillery, a heap of shot 

or shells, either triangular or otherwise. 
-Pile ( pilum , a rammer: Lat.), in Coin¬ 
age, a kind of punch, which, in the old way 
of coining with the hammer, contained the 
arms, or other figure and inscription, to be 
struck on the coin. The arms side of a 
piece of money is yet sometimes called the 
pile: and the head the ctoss, because, in 
ancient coins, a cross usually took the plaoe 

of the head.-In Heraldry, one of the 

minor ordinaries, resembling the pile first 

described.- Pile (pilus, hair: Lat.), the 

fine hairy substance on the surface of cloth, 

velvet, &c.- Pile-driver, or Monkey, a 

machine for driving pointed beams of wood 
into beds of rivers or soft foundations, on 

which to raise bridges and buildings.-- 

To pile arms, in Military tactics, is to place 
three muskets, with or without fixed bayo¬ 


nets, in such a relative position that the 
butts shall remain firm upon the ground, , 
and the muzzles be close together in an 
oblique direction. 

PILES (jnlulce, little balls : Lat.), or Hae¬ 
morrhoids, in Medicine, a diseased condi- [ 
tion of the luemorrhoidal veins. Two forms 
are commonly recognised; the external or 
blind, and tho internal. The latter is the 
more serious, as hamiorrliage frequently 
takes place from the diseased veins. Any¬ 
thing which retards the portal circulation 
favours the development of piles. 

riL'EUS (Lat, from pilus, hair—literally, 
made of hair or wool), in Antiquity, a hat 
or cap worn by the Homans, during any 
indisposition which prevented them from 
appearing safely with their heads uncover¬ 
ed, as was the general custom. The pileus 
was also worn by such as had lately re¬ 
ceived their freedom, because, on having 
their liberty granted, they were shaved ; 
the pileus, therefore, being necessary on 
this account, was also esteemed a badge of 
liberty; hence pileo donari signifies to be 
made free.— —Pileus, in Botany, the cap 
of a mushroom or toadstool, expanding 
horizontally, and covering the fructifica¬ 
tion. 

PIL'GRIM (Ger.; from peregrinus, a 
strauger: Lat.), one that travels to a dis¬ 
tance from his own country to visit a holy i, 
place for devotional purposes. In the J 
middle ages, kings, princes, bishops, and j 
others made pilgrimages to visit the holy 
sepulchre at Jerusalem. This was permitted 
while Palestine was held by the Saracens; ; 
but when the Turks obtained possession of j 
that country, the Christian pilgrims were 
visited with the greatest indignities, and I 
their repeated complaints occasioned the 
excitement which led to the crusades. In 
subsequent times pilgrimages to Home, 
Compostella, Loretto, Tours, and other 
places where the relics, either real or ficti¬ 
tious, of martyrs and saints attracted the 
notice of devotees, have been common. 

To this day pilgrims who travel to Home j 
are provided for in establishments founded 
especially for their reception and entertain¬ 
ment. The Mahonunedans make an annual 
pilgrimage to Mecca, the place of their pro¬ 
phet’s tomb. The Hindoos also have their 
holy places, which are visited by pilgrims. 

PIL'LAR (pilar: Spa7i.), a kind of column, 
either too massive or too slender for regular 
architecture ; the ijarts and proportions of 
which, not being restricted to any rules, are 
arbitrary. The following are the heights 
and the dates of erection of some of the 
most remarkable of those erected as monu¬ 
ments :— 


Date. 

Column. 

Place. 

Height 

of 

Capital. 

118 

Trajan’s 

Rome 

115 ft. 

162 

Autonine’s 

Rome 

123 

1072 

The Monument 

London 

172 

1806 

Napoleon’s 

Paris 

115 

1832 

Duke of York’s 

London 

109 

18 

Nelson’s 

London 

162 






































f£Ijc ^ctcnttftc antr 


572 


pillory] 


Any kind of column is sometimes, though 
| Improperly, termed a pillar. 

PIL'LORY (pilori, from pilier, a pillar: 
( Fr.), an instrument of punishment, consist- 
j ing of a frame of wood erected on posts, 
j made co confine the head and hands of a 
criminal, in order to expose him to view, 
and to render him publicly infamous. Ac¬ 
cording to Sir Henry Spelman, it was at 
first specially intended for the punishment 
of bakers who should be found faulty in 
the weight or fineness of their bread. In 
J 1816, this mode of punishment was re- 
I stricted to cases of perjury, and it has 
sincebeenabolishedaltogether. The French 
punishment of a similar description is 
) termed carcan, from the iron collar by 
which the neck of the criminal is attached 
j to the post. 

j PI'LOSE (pilosiis, from pilus, hair: Lat.), 

I in Botany, hairy; a pilose leaf is one covered 
I with long distinct hairs. A pilose receptacle 
has hairs between the florets. 

PI'LOT ( pilote: Fr.), one who has the care 
of a ship and superintends the navigation, 
either along the seacoast or upon the main 
ocean. In a stricter sense, a pilot is one 
whose profession it is to direct a ship’s 
course, when near the coast, into and out of 
theharbours, bays, roads, rivers, &c., within 
his peculiar district. The captain neglects 
or opposes the directions of the pilot at his 
own risk. 

PI'LOTAGE, the compensation made or 
allowed to a pilot. 

PI'LOT-FISH, the Naucrates Ductor, a Me¬ 
diterranean fish, belonging to the Scom- 
heridce, about a foot long. It is of an oblong 
shape, and the body is marked by six dark 
cross bands. It derives its name from 
sailors, who suppose that it acts as a guide 
to sharks. One or two of them will accom¬ 
pany vessels for many days. The ancients 
regarded it as sacred, believing that it in¬ 
dicated the true direction to voyagers 
doubtful of their course. 

PI'LUM ( Lat.), a missile weapon used by 
the Roman infantry when charging the 
enemy. It was thick and strong; its shaft, 
often made of cornel, was four and a half 
J feet long, and the barbed iron, which ex- 
] tended half-way down the shaft, was of the 
I same length. It was used either to throw 
| or thrust with. 

PIM'ELITE ( pimele , fatness : Or.), in 
j Mineralogy, an earthy substance of an ap- 
! pie-green colour, unctuous, soft, and not 
fusible by the blowpipe. It is a variety of 
steatite, and is a silico-aluminous mineral, 
containing oxide of nickel. 

PIMEN'TA or PIMEN'TO, Jamaica pep- 
i per, popularly called all-spice. The tree 
j producing it (Myrtus Pimento) grows 
spontaneously in Jamaica in great abun¬ 
dance ; its flower consists of five petals, and 
its fruit is a roundish berry, containing a 
pulpy matter about the seeds. The fruit is 
gathered when green, and exposed to the 
sun for many days on cloths; being fre¬ 
quently shaken, and turned until thoroughly 
dry. Pimenta abounds with a fragrant 
essential oil, which is separated in great 
quantity by distillation, and is so heavy 
that it sinks in water. 


PIM'PERNEL, the name of several plants 
of different genera. The principal are the 
water pimpernel, of the genus Veronica; 
the scarlet pimpernel, of the genus Anagal- 
lis; and the yellow pimpernel, of the genus 
Lysimacliia. 

PIN (pinn: Sax.), a well-known small 
pointed instrument made of brass wire and 
headed; used chiefly by females for fastening 
and adjusting their dress. The perfection 
of pins consists in the stiffness of the wire 
and its whiteness, in the heads being well 
turned, and in the fineness of the points. 
In making this little article, there are no 1 
fewer than fourteen distinct operations: 1. 
straightening the icire ; 2. pointing, which is 
executed on two iron or steel grindstones, 
by two workmen, one of whom roughens 
down, and the other finishes ; 3. cutting into 
pin lengths; 1. twisting of the wire for the pin 
heads; 5. cutting the heads, 12,000 of which 
may be cut by a skilful workman in an 
hour; 6. annealing the heads, by putting 
them into an iron ladle, making them red- 
hot over an open fire, and then throwing 
them into cold water; 7. shaping and fixing | 
on the heads, which operations are performed 
by the same workman, who can complete 
1500 an hour; 8. yellowing or cleaning the 
pins, by boiling them for half an hour in 
wine lees, sour beer, or solution of tartar; 

9. whitening or tinning, which is effected 
by laying alternate strata of grain-tin and 
pins in a copper pan, and heating them all 
together for about an hour ; 10. washing the 
pins, in pure water; 11. drying and polishing 
them, in a leathern sack filled with coarse 
bran, which is agitated to and fro by two 
men; 12. winnowing, or separating them from 
the bran ; 13. pricldng the papers for receiv¬ 
ing the pins ; and 14. papering them, which 
is done by children, each of whom by practice J 
is able to put up 36,000 a day. Well indeed 
may it be said, that the pin manufacture is 
one of the greatest prodigies of the division 
of labour. It furnishes 12,000 articles for 
the sum of three shillings, which have re¬ 
quired the united diligence of fourteen 
skilful operatives. The above is a brief 
outline of the hand manufacture; but it 
must not be forgotten that several inven¬ 
tions have been employed to make pins, in ! 
part at least, by machinery. The head is 
now made solid, from a portion of the ex¬ 
tremity of the pin—a great improvement. 
The quantity required for home sale and 
export amounts to 15,000,000 of pins daily, 

for this country alone!-The name of pin 

is given to any piece of metal or wood 1 
sharpened or pointed in the shape of a pin, i 
which serves to fasten anything: as, the | 
linch-pin, which locks the wheel to the axle. 

In shipbuilding, the larger pins of metal \ 
are usually called holts, and the wooden pins, | 
treenails. A very small wooden pin i 3 ! 
called a peg. 

PINA'CIA ( pinakion, the dim. of pinax, a ; 
tablet: Gr.), among the Athenians, were i 
tablets of brass inscribed with the names of 
all the citizens in each tribe, who were duly 
qualified and willing to be judges of the 
court of Areopagus. These tablets were 
cast into one vessel provided for the pur¬ 
pose, and the same number of beans, a 




































5 ?3 _ Ettcrarn Cmrrfitrjn [pinnate 


hundred being white and all the rest black, 
were thrown into another. The names of 
the candidates and the beans were then 
drawn out one by one; and they whose 
names were drawn together with white 

beans were elected judges or senators.- 

Also, the tablets on which the judges wrote 
their verdict of gxdlty or not guilty. 

I’INAC'OTHEK ( pinax, a painting; theke, 
a repository : Gr .), a name sometimes given 
to a picture gallery—e.g., the Pinacothek 
at Munich, designed by Yon Klenze, and 
opened in 1836. 

PIN'CIiRS ( pincette: ( Fr .), a very useful 
implement, employed by carpenters, smiths, 
and other artisans: being a double lever, 
the fulcrum of which is in the joint. 

PINCH'BECK, In Metallurgy, an alloy, 
containing four parts of copper and one of 
zinc. 

PINDAR'IC, an ode in imitation of the 
odes of Pindar, the prince of Greek lyric 
poets. [See Ode.] 

PINE (pinus: Lat .), the name of many 
coniferous trees belonging to several 
genera. Those belonging to the genus 
Pinus are natives of northern climates. 
Canada produces the red pine ( Pinus re- 
einosa ) which attains the height of 80 feet 
with a straight trunk two feet in diameter. 
It affords a strong and durable wood, 
which is much used in architecture; also 
the yellow pine (P. mitis ), which grows to 
the height of 60 feet with a straight trunk 
two feet in diameter. The timber is much 
used in ship-building and all kinds of archi¬ 
tecture. The white pine ( Pinus Strobus) is 
the loftiest tree in Canada, and its timber, 
though not without defects, is used in 
much greater quantities, and for a far 
greater variety of purposes, than anyother. 
It attains the height of 150 feet, or more, 
with a trunk five feet in diameter. Trees 
220 feet high, with trunks 22 feet in circum¬ 
ference and 120 to the first limb, are some¬ 
times found. It is imported into Britain 
under the name of Weymouth Pine. The 
Pinus Lanibertiana is a species which attains 
a gigantic size; the trunk rises from 150 to 
upwards of 200 feet in height, and is from 
seven to nearly twenty feet in diameter. 
The timber is white, soft, and light, and 
produces an abundance of a pure amber- 
coloured resin, which, when the trees are 
partly burned, acquires a sweet taste, and 
in this state is used by the natives as a 
substitute for sugar. The seeds are eaten 
either roasted, or pounded into coarse 
cakes for use during the winter season. 
The Scotch fir ( Pinus sylvestris ) is an¬ 
other very important species. The trunk 
is often eighty feet in height, and four or 
five in diameter ; the timber is applied to 
a great variety of uses, and is especially 
suited for masts. These, together with 
the timber in other forms, are exported 
from Riga, Memel, Dantzic.and other parts 
of the north to the various maritime states 
of Europe, and particularly to Great Britain. 
Large vessels have been constructed of this 
pine; and though they last a shorter time 
than those built of oak, they come next to 
It in durability. In those districts where it 
abounds,.houses as well as furniture are 


generally constructed of it, and its lightness 
and rigidity render it superior to any other 
material for beams, girders, joists, rafters, 
&c. It also furnishes excellent charcoal 
for forges; but a more important product 
is the resinous matter, consisting of tar, 
pitch, and turpentine, of which articles it 
supplies four-fifths of what is consumed in 
the European dockyards. The Norfolk Is¬ 
land Pine, the Araucaria excelsa of botanists, 
has a peculiar aspect when young, and 
forms when old a noble tree. The Brazilian 
Pine belongs to the same genus. 

PIN'EAL GLAND (pinea , a pine cone: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, a small heart-shaped 
substance, about the size of a pea, situated 
at the base of the brain. It was anciently 
supposed to be the seat of the soul. 

PI'NE-APPLE, the fruit of species of 
Ananassa, herbaceous plants of South 
America with leaves somewhat resembling 
those of the aloe. Many varieties are in cul¬ 
tivation. The fruit resembles, in shape, the 
cone of the pine-tree, whence it has derived 

its name.-The place where pine-apples 

are specially raised is called a pinery. 

PINE'TUM, in Gardening, the place where 
pines and other coniferous trees are grown. 

PIN'ION ( pignon: Fr.), in Mechanics, a 
spindle, in the body of which are several 
notches, which catch the teeth of a wheel 
with which it is in connection. Also, a 
small wheel which drives or is driven by a 

larger.-That joint of a bird’s wing which 

is most remote from the body. 

PIN'ITE, a mineral found in prismatic 
crystals of a greenish-white colour, brown, 
or deep red; it holds a middle place be¬ 
tween steatite and mica, and consists of 
alumina, silex, and oxide of iron. 

PINK (pince: Fr.), 'a well-known flower 
belonging to the genus Dianthus, nat. ord. 
Caryophyllacece. 

PIN'NA (Gr.), a genus of conchiferous 
molluscs, usually called wing-shells. The 
shells of some species occasionally grow to 
the length of two feet. They are remark¬ 
able for the size of the byssus, by which 
they adhere to rocks, and which is manu¬ 
factured into gloves, &c., by the natives of 

Sicily.- Pinna {Lat.), in Botany, though 

it signifies literally a wing, is applied to 
plants to denote the leaflet of some com¬ 
pound leaves. 

PIN'NACE (pinnasse: Fr.), a small vessel 
navigated with oars and sails, and having 
generally two masts, which are rigged like 
those of a schooner. Also one of the boats 
belonging to a man of war, having gene¬ 
rally eight oars, and used to carry the offi¬ 
cers to and from shore. 

PIN'NACLE ( pinnaculum: Lat.), in Ar¬ 
chitecture, the top or roof of a building 
terminating in a point. Among the ancients 
the pinnacle was appropriated to temples, 
their ordinary roofs being all flat. It was 
from the pinnacle that the pediment origi¬ 
nated. 

PIN'NATE or PIN'NATED ( pinnatus, 
winged-: Lat.), in Botany, a term applied to 
compound leaves formed of leaflets on each 
side of a leafstalk. Accordingly, as there are 
one, two, or many pairs of leaflets, the terms 
unijugate, bijugate, or multijugate aro 




























f finnatifid] 


®T)C Scientific antJ 



- - — — —-- 

employed. If tlie leaf ends with an odd 
leaflet it is said to he imparipinnate; hut 
if the leaf ends with a pair of leaflets it is 
paripinnate. If the leaflets avo attached 
to stalks which branch from the primary 
stalk the leaf is termed hipinnate; and if the 
leaflets are attached to a tertiary division 
of the stalk it is a tripinnate or decomposed 
leaf. An alternately pinnate leaf is one in 
which the leaflets are not opposite; and 
when the leaflets are of different sizes it is 
said to he interruptedly pinnate. 

PINNAT'IFID (pinna, a wing; and Undo, 
I divide: Lat .), in Botany, an epithet for a 
kind of simple leaf, divided transversely hy 
ohlong horizontal segments or jags, not 
extending to the middle rib. 

PINNAT'IPED (pinna, a fln ; and pes, a 
foot: Lat.), in Ornithology, an epithet for 
birds whoso toes are bordered hy mem¬ 
branes. 

PIN'NULATE ( pinnula, a small wing: 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a leaf in 
which each pinna is subdivided. 

PI'NUS (Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
gymnospermous exogenous plants, nat. 
ord. Coniferce. They are distinguished 
from the firs hy their leaves, always ever¬ 
green and needle-shaped, growing in pairs, 
threes, fours, or fives, surrounded hy a 
membranous sheath at their base. [See 
Pines.] 

PIONEE'R ( pionier: Fr.), a military 
labourer, or one whose business is to at¬ 
tend an army in its march to clear the 
tvay, by cutting down trees and levelling 
roads; as also to work at entrenchments 
or form mines for destroying an enemy’s 
works. 

PIP (pippe: Belg.), a disease in young 
birds, particularly in those of the domestic 
kind. It consists in a white skin or film 
near the tip of the tongue, and which if not 
removed proves fatal, as it hinders their 
feeding. 

PIPE (Fr.), a long tube or hollow body, 
used as a conductor of water or other fluids. 
The pipes used underground were formerly 
of wood, but are now almost always, in 
these countries, of metal. They are, when 
large, of cast iron, with a socket at one 
extremity, into which the end of the next 
pipe is inserted. The joints thus formed 
are rendered tight, either by filling the 
interstices with lead, or by driving in a 
small quantity of hemp, and filling the re¬ 
mainder of the space with iron cement, 
made of sulphur, muriate of ammonia, and 
chippings of iron. Copper pipes are ex¬ 
tremely durable, and are formed of sheet 
copper, with the edge turned up and sol¬ 
dered. Lead pipes are much employed on 
account of the facility with which they can 
be soldered and bent in any direction ; but 
they ought not to be used for conveying 
waiter or other liquids intended to be drunk. 
Stone pipes preserve the water contained in 
them in a very pure state, but are generally 
very expensive on account of the labour of 
working them. Earthen pipes made of 
common pottery ware, and glazed on the 
inside, are more liable to be broken than 
most other kinds, and cannot therefore be 
relied on. - Pipe, in Music, a wind instru¬ 


ment, smaller than a flute. The word is not 
now the proper technical name of any par¬ 
ticular instrument.- Pipe, a wine mca 

sure, usually containing 105 imperial, or 
120 ivine gallons. But, in commerce, the 
size of the pipe varies according to the 
description of wine it contains. Thus, a 
pipe of port is about 123 wine gallons ; of 
sherry, 130 ; Lisbon and Bucellas, 140; Ma¬ 
deira,* 110; and Vidonia, 120. - Pipe, in 

Law, a roll in the exchequer, otherwise 

called the great roll. - In Mining, the ore 

when it runs forward endwise in a hole, 
and docs not sink downward or in a vein. 

-Pipe-office, in Law, an office in which 

a person, called the clerk of the pipe, made 
out leases of crown lands by warrant from 
the lord-treasurer, the commissioners of 
the treasury, or the chancellor of the ex¬ 
chequer. He alsomade out all accounts of 
the sheriffs, &c. The pipe-office has been 

abolished.- Pan-pipes, a rude musical 

instrument, formed of a range of short pipes 
bound together side by side, and diminish¬ 
ing in length from one end to the other. 

PI'PE-CLAY, a white argillaceous earth, 
found in great quantities at the isle of Pur- 
beck in Dorsetshire, and at Teignmouth in 
Devonshire, in lumps, which are purified 
by diffusion in water. It is a silicate of 
alumina. The clay, when prepared, is 
spread on a board and beaten with an iron 
bar to temper and mix it; it is then divided 
into pieces of a proper size to form a to¬ 
bacco-pipe, which, being shaped in a mould 
and baked in a moderately heated furnace, 
is ready for use. In Germany there are 
many kinds of smoking pipes, with bowls of 
wood, meerschaum, porcelain, &c. A Ger¬ 
man pipe generally consists of four chief 
parts—the mouth-piece, the tube, the bowl, 
and a part which connects the two latter, 
and also serves to collect the juice descend¬ 
ing from the tobacco, so as to prevent it 
from getting into the tube. The Eastern 
hookah is a very curious instrument, the 
essential feature of which is that the 
smoke passes through water, loses the par¬ 
ticles which give it a disagreeable flavour, 
and becomes cool before it reaches the 
mouth. 

PIPE FISHES, curious fishes of which 
several species have been taken on our 
coasts. The jaws are united and form a 
long tube. The bodies are slender, and 
are covered with hard plates instead of 
scales. They belong to the genus Syngnn- 
thus, which is placed among the Lophobran- 
chii, on account of the gills being separated 
into small rounded tufts. 

PITER (Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Piperacece, including the 
Peppers [which see]. 

PIP'ERINE, a crystallizable principle ex¬ 
tracted from black pepper by means of al¬ 
cohol. It is colourless, has scarcely any 
taste, fuses at 212°, is insoluble in water, but 
is soluble in acetic acid, ether, and particu¬ 
larly in alcohol. The pungency of pepper 
resides in a peculiar fixed oil. 

PIPIS'TREL, the common bat or flilter- 
mouse. 

PIP'PIN (puppynglie: Put.), the name 
given to several kinds of apples; as the 












I 



















575 


3£(tn*an> (Erfarfurg. 


goldenpippin, the lemon pippin, the Kentish 
pippin, &c. Pippins take their names from 
the small spots or pips that usually appear 
on their sides. 

PI'PUL, the sacred Fig-tree of India, 
known ky its rootless branches and its 
evergreen heart-shaped leaves with long 
narrow points. It is the Ficus religiosa of 

botanists. 

I PIQUET' (Fr.), a game at cards played by 
two persons, with only thirty-two cards ; all 
the deuces, threes, fours, fives, and sixes 
being set aside. 

PI'RACY C pcirates, from pcirao, I at¬ 
tempt : Gr .), the crime of robbery or taking 
of property from others by open violence 
on the high seas. It includes all acts of 
plunder and depredation committed at sea, 
which. If occurring on land, would amount 
to felony. The word pirate signifies lite¬ 
rally an adventurer. Formerly the offence 
of piracy was only cognizable by the admi¬ 
ralty courts ; but as it is inconsistent with 
the liberties of the nation that any man’s 
life should be taken away, unless by the 
judgment of his peers, an act was passed in 
the reign of Henry VIII., establishing a 
new jurisdiction for this purpose which 
proceeds according to the course of com¬ 
mon law. During the anarchy of the middle 
ages, when every baron considered himself 
a sort of independent prince, entitled to 
make war on others, piracy was universally 
practised; nor was the nuisance finally 
abated in Europe till the feudal system had 
been subverted, and the ascendency of the 
law everywhere secured. In more modern 
times, some of the smaller 'West India 
islandshave been the great resort of pirates; 
latterly, however, they have been almost al 1 
driven from their haunts in that quarter. 

- Piracy is also a word very generally 

used to express an infringement of the law 
of copyright. 

PIROUETT'E (Fr.), in Dancing, a rapid 
circumvolution upon one foot, which, on 
the stage, is repeated by the dancers many 

times in succession.-In Riding, a short 

turn of a horse, which brings his head sud¬ 
denly in an opposite direction. 

PIS'CARY (piscarius, pertaining to fish : 
Lot.), in our ancient statutes, the right or 
liberty of fishing in another man’s waters. 

i - Piscatory and piscine, whatever relates 

to fishes or fishing; piscivorous, feeding or 
subsisting on fishes; piscation, the act or 
1 practice of fishing. 

PIS'CES (Fat.), in Natural nistory, the 
lowest class of the subkingdom vertebrata. 
[See Ichthyology.] - riscES, in Astro¬ 

nomy, the twelfth sign or constellation 
i in the zodiac. It is represented by two 
I fishes; which are fabled by the Greeks to 
/ have been those into which Venus and 
Cupid were changed, in order to escape the 
\ giant Typhon. According to the Egyptian 
mythology, the Pisces were emblematical 
of the spring season when the season com- 

I H16DCGS. 

I PIS'CIS VO'LANS (the flying fish: Lat.), 
In Astronomy, a small constellation of the 
southern hemisphere. 

PIS'IFORM ( pisum , a pea; and forma, a 
form : Lat.), granular iron ore, called pisi- 


[PISTON 


form iron-ore, from its containing small 
rounded masses resembling peas in size. 

PIS'OLITE (pison, a pea; and lithos, a I 
stone: Gr.), a carbonate of lime, slightly 
coloured by the oxide of iron. It occurs in i 
small globular concretions of the size of a 
pea or larger, containing each a grain of i 
sand as a nucleus. 

PISSASPHAT/TUM ( pissa , pitch ; and as- ' 
phaltos, bitumen: Gr.), Earth pitch, a fluid 
opaque mineral substance, of a thick con¬ 
sistence, a strong smell, readily inflamma¬ 
ble, but leaving a residuum of greyish 
ashes after burning. 

PISSELTE'UM IN'DICUM (pisselaion, ; 
from pissa, pitch ; and elaion, oil: Gr.), Bar- 
badoes Tar, a mineral fluid resembling the 
thicker bitumens, and approaching nearer 
than any other, in appearance, colour, ami 
consistence, to the true pissasphaltuvi, 
though differing from it in other respects. 

It is very abundant in many parts of Ame¬ 
rica, where it is found trickling down the 
sides of mountains in large quantities, and 
sometimes floating on the surface of the 
water. [See Petroleum.] 

PISTA'CHIA (pistacia: Lat. ; from pis- 
takia: Gr.), in Botany, a genus of plants 
belonging to the nat. ord. Anacardiacece. 
The Pistachia Terebinthus, or Turpentine- 
tree, affords the pistachio nut, a kernel of a 
pale green colour, flavoured like an almond, 
and yielding a pleasant oil. It is wholesome j 
and nutritive. It grows in Syria, Arabia, i 
and Persia. 

PIS'TIL ( pistillam , a pestle: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, the female organ of flowers, which in 
due time is changed into the fruit. It is in 
the centre of the flower; and, when per¬ 
fect, consists of the germ or ovary, at the 
base ; the style and the stigma, at or near 
the summit. From the stigma exudes a 
viscous fluid, which retains the grains of 
pollen that fall upon it. 

PISTILLA'CEOUS, growingon the germ 
or seed-bud of a flower. 

PISTILLIF'EROUS, having a pistil, usu¬ 
ally applied to unisexual flowers that have a j 
pistil but no stamens. 

PIS'TOL (pistolet: Fr.), the smallest kind 
of firearms, and consequently the most 
portable. Pistols are of various lengths, 
and Dome by horsemen in cases at the 
saddle bow; their management forms a part 
of the manual exercise of the cavalry. | 

PIS'TOLE, a Spanish gold coin,'but cur- | 
rent also in the neighbouring countries. 

It is worth nearly 16?. sterling.-Also a 

gold coin, current in many parts of Ger- 
many, and worth about 8s. 6d. 

PIS'TON (piston: Fr.), a short cylinder 
of metal or other solid substance, fitted j 
exactly to the cavity of the barrel of the 
pump, or other machine to which it is ap¬ 
plied. There are two kinds of pistons used in 
pumps, the one with a valve, and the other 
without one, called a plunger. -The pis¬ 

ton of the steam-engine is a circular disc, 
which moves up and down the cylinder; 
being connected by a piston rod, which 
works steam-tight through a stufling-box, 
with the external machinery. Great care is 
taken to render and keep it steam-tight, 
as any leakage would bo both a waste of ; 



































PITA FLAX] 


Efje &rtcntt(tc airtf 


576 


steam and a loss of power. This is effected 
very ingeniously hy what is called a metal¬ 
lic packing, which is so constructed that 
the more it works the more perfect it be- 
! comes. In the early days of the steam- 
j engine, hemp packing was used, which re- 
! quired readjustment or renewal very fre¬ 
quently. 

PITA FLAX, a fibre obtained from the 
leaves of the American aloe, Agave Ameri¬ 
cana. It is not so strong as hemp or flax, 
but it is employed in the manufacture of 
various articles in the countries where the 
plant grows. 

PITCH (peek: Ger.; from pissa: Gr.), a 
thick, tenacious, oily substance, the resi¬ 
duum of inspissated tar, obtained by in¬ 
cision from pines and firs, and used to pre¬ 
serve wood from the effects of water, and 
far other purposes. It consists chiefly of 
carbon and hydrogen, and is, therefore, 
very combustible. The smoke of pitch 

condensed forms lamp-black.- Pitched 

shirts were made use of by the Romans to 
punish incendiaries. They were wrapped 
up in a garment daubed over with pitch 
and other combustibles, and then set on 

fire.- Pitch, in Architecture, the angle 

at which the roof of a building is set. It is 
usually designated by the ratio of its 

height to its width.- Pitch, in Music, 

the degree of elevation of the key-note of 
a tune. The instruments used for deter¬ 
mining this are called a-pitch-pipe, &c. 
—In w T heel-work, the distance between 
the centres of two contiguous teeth. Pitch¬ 
line, a circle, concentric with the curve 
which passes through the centres of all the 
teeth. 

PITCH'BLENDE. [See Pechblende.] 

PIT'CHER PLANTS, curious climbing 
herbs, which grow in swamps in China and 
the East Indies. The midrib of the leaf is 
prolonged and enlarged into a capacious 
vessel furnished with a lid. These vegeta¬ 
ble pitchers contain water. They form the 
genus Nepenthe of botanists. 

PITCH'ING, in Sea language, the move¬ 
ment by which a bhip plunges her head and 
afterpart alternately into the hollow of the 
sea. This motion may proceed from two 
causes: the waves which agitate the vessel, 
and the wind which acts upon the sails, so 
as to make her bend to every blast. 

PITCH'STONE, in Mineralogy, a sub-spe¬ 
cies of quartz, which, in lustre and texture, 
resembles pitch. It occurs in large beds, 
and sometimes forms whole mountains. 
Its colours are green and black; or brown 
tinged with red, green, or yellow. It is also 
called obsidian and resinite. 

PITH (Sax.), the soft spongy substance in 
the centre of the stems of plants. It con¬ 
sists of minute cells closely packed toge¬ 
ther, sometimes of a rounded or oval shape, 
but usually angular. The young pith 
abounds with fluid, which serves to nourish 
the plant. Afterwards it becomes-dry, and 
often disappears altogether. 

PITU'ITARY GLAND (pituita, a clammy 
moisture, as that from the nostrils, &c.: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, a small oval body on the 
lower side of the brain, supposed by the 
ancients to secrete the mucus of the 


nostrils.- Pituitary Membrane, the 

mucous membrane that lines the nos¬ 
trils and sinuses communicating with the 

nose. 

PITYRI'ASIS (from pitura, bran: Gr.), in 
Medicine, scurvy of the head and adjacent 
parts. 

PIU, in Music, an Italian word, signify¬ 
ing a little more. It is used to increase the 
force of other words; as piU allegro, a little 
brisker; piU piano, a little softer, &c. 

PIY'OT (pivot: Fr.), in Mechanics, a pin 

on which anything turns.-In the Military 

art,the officer, sergeant, corporal, orprivate, 
upon whom the different wheelings are 
made in military evolutions. 

PIZZICATO (Ital., from pizzicare, to 
pinch), a Musical term, signifying that the 
notes are to be produced by pinching the 
string of the violin with the fingers. 

PLAC'ARD (Fr.), a printed or written 
paper, posted in a public place, intended to 
notify some public measure. It was origi¬ 
nally the name of a proclamation issued by 
authority. 

PLACE (Fr.), in Physics, that part of 
space which a body occupies. It is either 
absolute or relative—the latter signifying 
position with relation to other objects. 

‘ Place is to space or expansion,’ says 
Locke, ‘ as time is to duration. Our idea 
of place is nothing but the relative posi¬ 
tion of anything with reference to its dis¬ 
tance from some fixed and certain points ; 
whence we say, that a thing has or lias not 
changed place, when its distance either is 
or is not altered with respect to those 
bodies with which we have occasion to 

compare it.’-In Astronomy, the word 

place has various significations: the phy¬ 
sical place is that in which the centre of a 
celestial body lies; the optical place is that 
point on the surface of the sphere to which 
the spectator refers the centre of the star, 
&c. The heliocentric place of a planet is that 
point of its ort>it in which it would appear 
if seen from the sun. The geocentric place \ 
is that point of the ellipse to which a planet 
viewed from the earth is referred. 

PLACENTA (a cake: Lat.), the After-birth, 
an organ through which the blood of the ; 
mother passes during circulation before it 
reaches the foetus. It is variously modi¬ 
fied in the different orders of animals in 
which it is found. Amongst the mammalia 
the Macropidce (the kangaroo family) are 
the only animals destitute of a placenta. 

-In Botany, that part of the ovary to 

which the seeds are attached. 

PLA'COID (plax, a plate : Gr.), in Ich¬ 
thyology, a term applied to the outward coat 
of fishes when it consists of hard, bony 
plates. Such plates never overlap, and they 
frequently bear a spinous projection at the 
middle. Sharks afford examples of placoid 
scales, and many fossil fishes were furnished 
with them. 

PLAGUE (plaga, a blow: Lat.), a malig¬ 
nant and contagious disease, that often 
prevails in Egypt, Syria, and Turkey. It 
generally proves fatal; and is due to a want 
of cleanliness, or exposure to the effluvia of 
putrid fermentations, of which especially it 
seems to be a result. I)r. Madden, who paid 



















577 


Siterarg Crcas'ury. 


great attention to the nature, causes, and 
effects of the plague, observes, in Ills Travels 
in Turkey, Egypt, &c., 4 1 am thoroughly 
persuaded that the plague is both conta¬ 
gious and infectious; atone period epide¬ 
mical, at another endemical—in plain Eng¬ 
lish, that the miasma may be communicated 
by the touch or by the breath ; that at one 
period it is confined to a particular district, 
and at another is disseminated among the 
people ; but if plague have one form more 
decided than another, it is the endemic.’ 
He adds, ‘ I have given the plague the 
name of typhus gravissimus. The symp¬ 
toms, from the first, are general debility, 
congestion about the heart, not depending 
on inflammation, but on the putrescent 
state of the circulation. It differs little 
from putrid typhus, except in its duration 
and eruptions. In every stage of plague 
nature appears to lie prostrate under the 
influence of the poisonous miasma; and 
when the patient sinks at last, it is from 
the want of force in the constitution to 
drive out the eruptions on the surface.’ 

PLAICE (jdatessa: Lat.), a flat-fish, the 
Pleuronectes Plutessa of ichthyologists, con¬ 
stituting an article of wholesome food. It 
rarely exceeds seven or eight pounds in 
weight; but some twice as heavy have 
been taken occasionally on our coasts. In 
ordinary circumstances, it swims slowly 
and horizontally; but if suddenly fright¬ 
ened it darts upwards with great velocity. 

PLAIJS'TIFF (plaintif, from plaindre, to 
complain: Fr.), in Law, the person who 
commences a suit before a judicial tribunal; 
opposed to defendant. 

PLAN (Fr.; from planus, flat: Lat.), the 
representation of something drawn on a 
I plane ; as a map, chart, or ichnography. It 
is, however, more particularly used for the 
draft of a building, as it appears, or is in¬ 
tended to appear, on the ground ; showing 
the extent, division, and distribution of 
the area which it occupies into apartments, 

rooms, passages, &c.-A geometrical plan 

is one in which the solid and vacant parts 
are represented in their natural propor¬ 
tions. The raised plan of a building is 
otherwise called an elevation or orthography\ 
A perspective plan is that which is exhi¬ 
bited according to the rules of perspective. 
[See Perspective.] 

PLANE ( planus: Lat.), in Geometry, a 
surface without curvature, one that lies 
evenly between its boundary lines ; arid as 
a right line is the shortest extension from 

I one point to another, so a plane surface is 
the shortest extension from one line to an¬ 
other.-In Astronomy, the term plane is 

used for an imaginary surface, supposed to 
pass through any of the curves described 
on the celestial sphere; as, the plane of 
the ecliptic, the plane of a planet’s orbit, 
&c.-In Joinery, &c., a plane is an instru¬ 

ment consisting of a smooth piece of wood, 
with an aperture, through which passes 
obliquely a sharp-edged tool. It is used 
in paring and smoothing wood, and is of 
various forms and sizes adapted to the na¬ 
ture of the work. 

PLANE SAIL'ING, in Navigation, the 
art of determining a ship’s place, on the 


[planet 


supposition that she is moving on a plane 
instead of a spherical surface. For short 
distances this leads to no great error, and 
it has great conveniences. The ship’s 
place is found by merely calculating a 
plane triangle, of which the part of the 
meridian between the ship and the paral¬ 
lel of latitude of the place whence she 
departed forms the perpendicular; the 
distance on the parallel between the place 
of departure and the foot of the perpendi¬ 
cular is the base—technically termed the 
departure; and the distance sailed is the 
liypothenuse. The angle at the ship is the 
course, and the other acute angle the com¬ 
plement of tlie course. Any two of these 
four things being given, the triangle can 
be laid down on the chart, and the others 
found. 

PLAN'ET ( planetes, from planao, I 
wander: Or.), a celestial body revolving 
round the sun as a centre, and continually 
changing its position with respect to the 
fixed stars; wlience'the name. The planets 
are distinguished into primary and secon¬ 
dary. The primary planets are those which 
revolve round the sun as a centre; and the 
secondary, more usually called satellites or 
moons, those which revolve about a pri¬ 
mary planet.as a centre, and constantly 
attend it round the sun. The primary 
planets are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, 
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel or Uranus, 
Neptune, and the smaller planets, or aste¬ 
roids, which have been discovered between 
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. [See 
Asteroids.] Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, and 
Uranus, being without the earth’s orbit, 
are sometimes called the superior plauets ; 
Venus and Mercury,being within the earth’s 
orbit, the inferior planets. These bodies are 
opaque, and receive their light from the 
sun ; and they are distinguished from the 
fixed stars, not only by their motion or 

revolution, but by their not twinkling.- 

Motion of the planets. The primary plauets 
all revolve about the sun, and are accele¬ 
rated in their motions as they approach to 
him, but retarded as they recede from him, 
in such a manner that a ray, drawn from 
any one of them to the sun, always de¬ 
scribes equal spaces or areas in equal 
times: from which it follows, that the 
power which bends their course into a 
curve line must be directed to the sun. 
This power is no other than that of gravi¬ 
tation, which increases according as the 
square of the planet’s distance from the sun 
decreases, and vice versd. The universality 
of this law still further appears by compar¬ 
ing the motions of the different planets; 
for the power which acts on a planet near 
the sun is manifestly greater than that 
which acts on a planet more remote, both 
because it moves with greater velocity and 
because it moves in a less orbit, which has 
more curvature, and separates further from 
its tangent in arcs of the same length 
than in a greater orbit. To convey some 
idea of the space occupied by the planetary 
system—if, indeed, the idea of space so vast 
be capable of comprehension sufficiently 
clear to have its due effect on the mind—it 
must be observed that the sun, which occu- 
P P 



















planet] Cijc ^aenttftc antr 578 


pies so small a portion, of that space, is 
1,400,000 times larger than the earth. 
Huygens, one of the most expert astro¬ 
nomers of the last century, calculated the 
time in which a cannon-ball would traverse 
the space between the earth and the sun, 
and between the sun and the upper planets, 
and thence to the fixed stars. Hd deduced 
from experiments, that it passes through 
the first hundred fathoms in a second; 
continuing to move with the same velocity, 
it will traverse three leagues In a minute, 
180 in an hour, and 4320 in a day; and 
therefore, judging upon astronomical prin¬ 
ciples of the several distances required, 
and dividing them by the space so run 
over in a given time, this philosopher con¬ 
cluded that the ball must take up twenty- 
five years in passing from the earth to 
the sun, 125 in passing from the sun to 
Jupiter, and 250 in reaching Saturn. But 
how astonishing soever these distances may 
be, they are trivial compared with that of 
the fixed stars. Those bodies, which ap¬ 
pear only as points in the firmament, and of 
which millions escape our sight, are con¬ 
sidered the centres of systems—suns 
round which planets revolve. What then 
must be their distance, since all this multi¬ 
tude of suns shed so small a portion of 
light on the planet to which we belong! 
Sometimes the motion of the planets is the 
same as the apparent motion of the sun, 
from east to west; their course is then said 
to be direct: when they move in the op¬ 
posite direction, it is retrograde: between 
each change, they remain for a few days 
stationary. The ancient astronomers found 
it extremely difficult to explain these phe¬ 
nomena, as they supposed the planets to re¬ 
volve about the earth; but they are easily 
understood, on the supposition that they 
revolve about the sun; in which case they 
must necessarily present these appearances 
to a spectator on the earth. Mercury and 
Venus, and Mars to a certain extent, ex¬ 
hibit phases, like the moon, and for a similar 
reason [see Moon and Phases] ; and all the 
planets would do so, but for their distance 
from the sun being very great, compared 
with the distance of the earth from that 
luminary. The periodic times of the prin¬ 
cipal planets, and their mean distances 
from the sun, are as follows—Ceres being 
given as a type of the group between Mars 
and Jupiter :— 


Planet. 

Mean 

sidereal 

period. 

Distance 
from the sun. 


Days. 

Miles. 

Mercury . . 

87-969258 

37,000,000 

Venus . . . 

224-700787 

68,000,000 

The Earth . 

S65-256361 

95,000,000 

Mars . . . 

686-979646 

142,000,000 

Ceres . . . 

1681-393100 

262,000,000 

Jupiter . . 

4332-584821 

> 485,000,000 

Saturn . . . 

10759-219817 

890,000,000 

Uranus . . 

30686-820830 

1,800,000,000 

Neptune . . 

60120-710000 

2,800,000,000 


The following are the excentricities of their 
orbits, and their inclination to the eclip¬ 
tic :— 


Planet. 

Excen- 

tricity. 

Inclination. 

Mercury . 



0-205515 

7 

/ 

0 

// 

9-1 

Venus. . 



0 006861 

3 

23 

28-5 

The Earth 



0-0 J 6784 

0 

0 

o-o 

Mars . . 



0-093307 

1 

51 

6-2 

Ceres . . 

• • 


0-078439 

10 

37 

26-2 

Jupiter . 

• • 


0-048162 

1 

18 

513 

Saturn 

• • 


0-056151 

2 

29 

35-7 

Uranus . 



0-046679 

0 

46 

28-4 

Neptune . 

• • 


0-008720 

1 

46 

59-0 


The following are the diameters and vo¬ 
lumes of the planets in terms of those of 
the earth :— 


Planet. 

Diameter. 

Volume. 

Mercury .... 

0-398 

0-063 

Venus . 

0-975 

0-927 

The Earth .... 

1-000 

1-000 

Mars. 

0-517 

0-139 

Ceres. 

— 

— 

Jupiter. 

10-860 

1280 900 

Saturn . 

9-982 

995 000 

Uranus . 

4332 

80-490 

Neptune. 

5236 

143-500 


The planets and satellites move in the same 
direction, that is, from west to east (with 
the very curious exception of the satellites 
of IJranus, which move in their orbits from 
east to west); and, as far as known, they 
all revolve about their axis, from west to 
east also. 

PLA'NE-TABLE, an instrument used in 
land surveying, by means of which a plan is 
made on the spot, without protraction or 
measurement of angles. 

PLANETA'RIUM (jplaneta , a planet: 
Lat.), an astronomical machine for show¬ 
ing the relative motions of the planets, and 
their positions with regard to the sun. 

PLA'NE-TBEES ( plane: Fr. ; from pla- 
tanos: Gr.), a species of the genus Plata- 
nus, nat. ord. Platcmaceoe. The oriental 
plane-tree (P. orientalis ), a native of Asia, 
rises with a straight, smooth, branching 
stem, to a great height, with palmated 
leaves and long pendulous peduncles sus¬ 
taining several heads of small flowers. The 
seeds are downy, and collected into round, 
rough, hard balls. There is also a downy 
pubescence which coats the young leaves 
and branches of plane-trees. The occiden¬ 
tal plane-tree (P. occidentalis ), which grows 
to a great height, is a native of North 
America, where it is also called button- 
wood. 

PLANIFO'LIOUS ( planus , flat; and fo¬ 
lium, a leaf: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
for a flower made up of plain leaves or pe- 































































579 


tals, set together in .circular rows round 
the centre. The word planipetalous is also 
used for the same. 

PLANIM'ETRY (planus, a flat surface: 
Lat.; and metron, a measure: Gr.), the men¬ 
suration of plane surfaces, or that part of 
geometry which regards lines and plane 
ilgures, without considering their height 
or depth. 

PLAN'ISPHERE ( planus, a plane surface; 
and sphcera, a sphere: Lat.), a sphere and its 
i various circles projected on a plane, as in 
maps, &c.; hut more particularly, a projec¬ 
tion of the celestial sphere upon a plane, 
representing the stars, constellations, &c. 

PLA'NO ( planus, flat: Lat.), a prefix to 
several words: as piano-conical, plane or 
flat on one side, and conical on the other; 
plano-convex, flat on one side and convex 
tin the other; piano-horizontal, having a 
level horizontal surface or position ; piano- 
subulate, smooth and awl-shaped. 

PLANT ( plante: Fr.; from planta: Lat.). 

[See Botany.]- Plants used in food and 

medicine. Notwithstanding accident first 
directed attention to the cultivation of 
culinary vegetables, very few of these are 
now found in a natural state, and they are 
then so modified as to escape the notice of 
any except expert botanists. And it may 
almost be taken as a general rule, that, in 
proportion as the nutritive qualities of the 
plant are improved by cultivation, its me- 
i dicinal properties are deteriorated. It is 
also remarkable that a very large proportion 
of plants employed as food are not now 
known in a wild state, particularly the 
different varieties of corn which have fol¬ 
lowed man in his migrations, and are only 
met with under the hands of the cultivator. 

- Spontaneous plants. Few things are 

more extraordinary than the unusual ap¬ 
pearance and development of certain plants 
in certain circumstances. Thus, after the 
great fire of London in 1660, the entire sur¬ 
face of the destroyed city -was covered with 
a vast profusion of a species of cruciferous 
plant, the Sisymbrium Irio of Linnaeus. 
"When a lake happens to dry up, the surface 
is immediately usurped by a vegetation 
which is quite different from that which 
flourished on its former banks. 

PLAN'TAIN-TREE, the Musa paradi- 
siaca, a tropical plant congeneric with the 
Banana tree. In external appearance the 
two closely resemble each other, but the 
plantain-fruit requires cooking before being 
eaten, whereas the banana is eaten as it 
comes from the tree. It has a soft false 
stem about 15 feet high, composed of the 
! stalks of the great leaves which spread from 
the top. 

PLANTATION (plantutio: Lat.), in the 
I West Indies, and also in the United States 
. of America, an estate or tract of land occu¬ 
pied and tilled, either for the culture of the 
1 sugar cane, or for tobacco, rice, indigo, or 
cotton.-In Politics, a colony or settle¬ 

ment of people in a foreign country. 

PLANT'-OANE, in the West Indies, sugar 
canes of the first growth, in distinction 
from the ratoons, or sprouts from the roots 
! of canes which have been cut. 

PLASH (from plisser, to plait: Fr.), the 


[plating 


branch of a tree partly cut and bound to 

other branches.- Plashing, bending the 

boughs of hedges, and interweaving them, 
so as to thicken them. 

PLAS'MA (an image, from plasso, I 
mould : Gr.), in Mineralogy, a translucent 
chalcedony, of a greenish colour and a glit¬ 
tering lustre. It was formerly used for 
ornamental purposes, but is now in little 

esteem.-Also the fluid of the blood in 

which the red particles are suspended. 
It consists of serum holding fibrine in 
solution. 

PLAS'TER ( pldtre: Fr. ; from emplastron, 
cmplasso, I daub over: Gr.), in Medicine, 
an external application to the body, spread 
on linen or leather.- Plaster, in Ma¬ 

sonry, a composition of lime, water, and 
sand, well mixed into a kind of paste, 
and used for coating walls of houses, 
&c.; when dry it becomes hard, but still 

retains the name.- Plaster op Paris, 

a preparation of gypsum. [See Paris, 
Plaster op.] 

PLASTIC ART ( plastilcos, fit for mould¬ 
ing : (fr.), a branch of sculpture, being the 
art of forming figures of men and animals 
in plaster, clay, &c. 

PLAT'BAND (plate bandc, a border : Fr.), 
in Architecture, a square moulding having 

a projection less than its height.-Also, 

though improperly, the fillets between the 
flutes of a column. The lintel of a door. 

PLATE (plata , silver: Span.), vessels or 
utensils of gold or silver. Strictly speaking, 
the expression gold plate is erroneous, and 

that of silver plate pleonastic.- Plate 

(platte: Fr.), in Architecture, a piece of 
timber, lying horizontally on a wall, to re¬ 
ceive the ends of girders, rafters, &c.- 

Plate Armour, that which is composed of 
broad pieces, and thus distinguished from 
mail armour. 

PLAT'FORM (plateforme: Fr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a plane level surface, used for the 
reception of a foundation, building, &c. 

-Also, any erection consisting of boards 

raised above the ground for an exhibition 
or any other temporary purpose.- Plat¬ 

form, in the Military art, an elevation of 
earth on which cannon are mounted for 

the purpose of being fired on an enemy.-■ 

Platform, in a ship of war, a place on the 
lower deck; the orlop. 

PLATING, the art or operation of cover¬ 
ing baser metals with a thin plate of silver, 
so as to form what is termed plated goods. 
It is said to have been invented by a spur- 
maker, not for show, but a purpose of real 
utility. The more elegant spurs were made 
of solid silver, and, from the flexibility of 
that metal, were liable to be bent by the 
slightest accident. To remedy this defect, 
the workman alluded to, who resided at 
Birmingham, contrived to make a pair of 
spurs hollow, and to fill the space with a 
slender rod of steel or iron. Finding this a 
great improvement, and being desirous to 
add cheapness to utility, he made the hol¬ 
low larger, and of course the iron thicker, 
till at length he discovered the means of 
coating an iron spur with silver, in such a 
manner as to render it equally elegant with 
those which were made wholly of that 


' Ettmrj) Ercns'uru. 





























platinum] 


<&rtenttftc autf 


580 


metal. The invention was quickly applied 
to other purposes ; and numberless vessels 
have now the strength and cheapness of 
copper or iron, with the appearance of sil¬ 
ver. With the old method, plating was 
effected by dissolving silver in nitric acid, 
dipping the copper in the solution, and de¬ 
pending on the affinity of the metals, by 
which a very slight coating was produced. 
But at Sheffield and Birmingham, plate is 
now manufactured by rolling ingots of 
copper and silver together. About the 
eighth of an inch in thickness of silver is 
united by heat to copper an inch thick, and 
about the size of a brick. It is then flat¬ 
tened by steel rollers worked by a steam 
engine. The malleability of the silver 
causes it to spread equally with the copper 
into a sheet of any required thickness, ac¬ 
cording to the nature of the article for 
which it is wanted. The plated metal is 
thus greatly extended in surface, and the 
plating would still be perfect, though the 
rolling had reduced it to the thinness of 
silverpaper. Thisprocesssecurestomodern 
plate a durability notjpossessed by any that 
is silvered by immersion. Hence plated 
goods are now in general use, and, if fairly 
used, are nearly as lasting as silver itself; 
particularly since the introduction of silver 
edges instead, of plated ones, which must 
be considered the greatest improvement 
that has taken place in this branch of in¬ 
dustry. Manufacturers now avail them¬ 
selves also of the electrotype process for 
the purpose of plating. And nothing would 
be more-perfect, but that the purity, and 
therefore the softness, of the silver depo¬ 
sited on the article, renders it less durable 
than silver put on in the older way. 

PLA'TINUM or PLA'TINA (plata, silver: 
Span .—on account of its resemblance to 
that metal), a white metal, extremely duc¬ 
tile and malleable. Its spec. grav. is 21 - 5; 
it Is therefore the heaviest substance 
known. It is not affected by air, moisture, 
or any of the pure acids, but is dissolved 
by aqua regia, and is thrown down from the 
resulting solution by sal ammoniac. It is 
oxidized at high temperatures by pure 
potassa and litliia. Platinum is found in 
South America, Ceylon, and the Uralian 
mountains—generally in small grains, com¬ 
bined with palladium, rhodium, iridium, and 
osmium. The flame of the oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe easily melts thick platinum; 
otherwise the metal is scarcely fusible, but 
welds like iron, and can be drawn into an 
extremely fine wire. Vessels made of it 
are very valuable to the chemist; but they 
must be heated with great caution, and 
scarcely in an open fire, as various sub¬ 
stances eat it into holes. In a state of 
minute division, when it is termed spongy 
platinum, it has a curious effect upon some 
gases. If placed in a mixture of hydrogen 
and oxygen the gases combine, and the 
metal immediately becomes red hot. In 
the state of further division called platinum 
black it possesses strongly the power of 
condensing gases into ics pores; alcohol 
dropped upon it is at once converted into 
acetic acid, with an elevation of tempera¬ 
ture; formic acid in contact with it is 


converted into carbonic acid with effer- 

vescence. 

PLATON'IC, pertaining to Plato, his 
school, philosophy, opinions, &c. [See 
Philosophy.] Platonic love signifies a 
pure spiritual affection, subsisting between 
persons of opposite sex, and regarding no 
object but the mind and its excellences. It 
Is also sometimes understood as a sincere 
disinterested friendship between persons 
of the same sex, abstracted from any selfish 
views, and regarding no other object than 

the individual so esteemed.- Platonic 

Solids, five regular geometrical bodies, 
described by Plato. They are the tetrahe¬ 
dron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahe¬ 
dron, and icosahedron. Except these, no 
solids can be bounded by like, equal, and 
regular plane figures, whose solid angles 

are all equal.- Platonic or Great Year, 

a period of time determined by the revolu¬ 
tion of the equinoxes, or the space of time 
in which the stars and constellations return 
to their former places with respect to the 
equinoxes. This rexmlution, which is cal¬ 
culated by the precession of the equinoxes, 
is accomplished in about 25,800 years. 

PLA'TONIST, one who adheres to the 
philosophy of Plato. 

PLATOO'N ( peloton: Fr.), in the Military 
art. a small square body of forty or fifty 
musketeers, drawn out of a battalion of 
foot, and placed between the squadrons of 
horse to sustain them. Or a small body act¬ 
ing together, but separate from the main 
body ; hence the expression, to fire by pla¬ 
toons. 

PLATS, flat ropes belonging to a ship, 
made of rope yarn. They are used to pre¬ 
serve the cable from galling in the hawse, 
and are wound about the flukes of the an¬ 
chors to keep the pennant of the fore-slieet 
from rubbing against them. 

TL AT'YPUS ( platns , flat; and pous, a foot: 
Or.), a name of the Ornithorhynchus [which 
see]. 

PLAY ( plegan , to play: Sax.). [See 
Drama.] 

PLEA, in Law, that which is alleged by a 
party in court, in a cause there depending; 
but In a more limited sense, the defendant’s 
answer to the plaintiff’s declaration in a 
common law court. That which the plain¬ 
tiff alleges in his declaration is answered, 
and repelled or justified, by the defendant’s 
plea. The word plea anciently meant also a 
suit or action. Pleas of the crown, all suits 
in the king’s name, or in the name of the 
attorney-general on his behalf. Common 
pleas, those carried on between subjects in 
civil cases. This is the name of one of the 
superior courts of common law, also called 
the court of common bench. 

PLEAD'ING ( plaider , to plead: Fr.), in 
Law, a preparatory allegation, in writing, 
which intervenes between the commence¬ 
ment of a cause and its trial. The first 
thing to be done, in deciding a dispute, is 
to ascertain w'hat it is about. The plain¬ 
tiff, having brought the defendant into 
court, makes his first statement, termed a 
declaration. The defendant’s answer may 
be that there is a defect in substance, or a 
defect inform, in the plaintiff’s proceeding ; 




























----- 

581 Httevarg {£r?a£ury* [plesiosatthui? 

ho may controvert his facts, or allege new 
ones. In the former case he demurs to the 
declaration ; in the latter he answers by one 
or more pleas. A demurrer may he made 
either by plaintiff or defendant, any time 
during the proceedings; and it is either 
general to substance, or special to form. 
The defendant may answer, or traverse, by 
the general issue: a form which originally 
implied an absolute denial of the plaintiff’s 
facts, but which at present allows the de¬ 
fendant to bring forward other facts— 

! though these more properly form the sub¬ 
ject of special pleas. When the defendant 
admits all or part of the plaintiff’s facts, 
but relies on other facts to exonerate him, 
these latter are to be stated. This is termed 
a plea by way of confession and avoidance. 
The plaintiff may reply in a second state¬ 
ment, called a replication, either by denying 
the defendant’s facts, that is, by way of tra¬ 
verse, or alleging fresh ones. The defend¬ 
ant may deny these, or allege fresh ones, in 
his rejoinder ; and a surrejoinder, a rebutter, 
and a surrebutter may Joe added ; and, by the 
gradual exclusion of superfluous facts, one 
or more issues in law or fact are gradually 
produced, the decision of which settles the 
dispute. Many defences, which might for¬ 
merly have been given under the general 
[ issue, must now be pleaded specially. The 
attorneys for the parties give in their re¬ 
spective pleadings, on paper, to the officers 
| of the court. When issue is joined, the 
pleadings are entered on a parchment roll, 
and also the issue—in the form of appoint¬ 
ing a day for the hearing of the demurrer, if 
the issue be in law; or in the form of a pre¬ 
cept to the sheriff of the county named in 
the pleadings, to summon twelve men for the 
trial of the issue, if it be in fact. This roll 
is termed the record, and is preserved as a 
memorial of the proceedings, the verdict 

and judgment being entered on it.- 

Pleading, amongst the Greeks and Romans, 
was limited as to its duration by a clepsydra 
or hour-glass of water ; and an officer was 
appointed to see that the orators had justice 
done them in this respect, and to distribute 
the proper quantity of water to each. 

PLEBE'IAN ( plebeius, pertaining to the 
common people : Lat.), a person in the lower 
ranks of society. Amongst the Romans, a 
free citizen, belonging to that class which 
was distinguished from the senatorian and 
equestrian orders. The plebeians at first 
were employed in cultivating the lands, 
and in the exercise of trades and mechani¬ 
cal professions; but in time they broke 
through this illiberal restraint, and claimed 
a participation with the other orders in 
places of trust, dignity, and emolument. 
Their power, from the first appointment of 
tribunes, in the year of the city 260, gradu¬ 
ally increased, till it became an overmatch 
for that of the senate. 

PLEBIS'CITUM (plebis-scitum, a decree 
of the people : Lat.), in Roman History, an 
enactment made by the plebs, comitia, or 
assembly of the tribes, on the rogation of 
a tribune. In course of time plebiscita ob¬ 
tained the force of laws. 

PLEDGE (pleige: Fr.), something left in 
pawn ; that which is deposited with another 

as security for the repayment of money 
borrowed, or for the performance of some 

agreement or obligation.-In Law, bail; 

surety given for the prosecution of a suit, 
for the appearance of a defendant, or for 
restoring goods taken in distress and re¬ 
plevied.-To pledge, in drinking, is to un¬ 

dertake that a person shall receive no harm 
while drinking, or from the draught—a 
practice which originated with our ances¬ 
tors in their rude state, and which was in¬ 
tended to assure him that he would not be 
stabbed while drinking, or poisoned by the 
draught. 

PLEDG'ET (plegglic: Belg.), in Surgery, a 
small tent of lint, applied to a wound to 
absorb the matter discharged from it, and 
keep it clean. 

PLEI'ADsj orPLEI'ADES ( Gr.), in Astro¬ 
nomy, a cluster of 60 or 70 stars in the 
constellation Taurus, of which six or 
seven may be seen by the naked eye. They 
were supposed by the ancients to be the 
seven daughters of -Atlas and Pleione, 
changed into stars. Only six are visible in 
ordinary circumstances; and it vras thought 
that the seventh concealed herself, from 
shame at having loved a mere mortal. 
They were called by the Latins Vergilice 
(from ver, spring), because of their rising 
about the vernal equinox. 

PLEIST'OCENE (pleistos, most; kainos, 
recent: Gr.), in Geology, the later of the 
two divisions of the pliocene series of ter- 
tiriry strata 

PLENIPOTENTIARY (plenus , full; and 
potentia, power: Lat.), a person having full 
power to transact any business; generally 
an ambassador from a prince, invested 
with full authority to negotiate a treaty 
or conclude peace with another prince or 

PLE'NUM ( Lat.), in Physics, an old terrr^ 
denoting that every part of space or exten¬ 
sion is full of matter, as maintained by the 
Cartesians. Those philosophers who do 
not admit the idea of a vacuum are called 
plenists. 

PLE'ONASM (pleonasmos, from pleonazo, 

I abound: Gr.), in Rhetoric, a redundancy 
of wmrds, used, though improperly, to ex¬ 
press a thought with greater energy or 
perspicuity; such as, ‘ I saw it with my 
own eyes.’ 

PLEONAS'TE (pleonastikos , redundant: 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, a variety of the spinellb 
ruby : so called from its having sometimes 
four facets on each solid angle of the octa¬ 
hedron. 

PLESIOMOR'PHISM ( plesios, near; and 
morphe, shape: Gr.), the state of crystal¬ 
lized bodies in which the forms are nearly 
identical. 

PLE'SIOSAURTTS ( plesios , near; and sau- 
ros, a lizard: Gr.), the name of an extinct 
genus of marine Saurians, remarkable prin¬ 
cipally for their length of neck. Cuvier, says 
Dr. Buckland, asserts the structure of the 
plesiosaurus to have been the most hetero- 
elite, and its characters altogether the most 
monstrous, that have been yet found amid 
the ruins of a former world. To the head 
of a lizard it united the teeth of a crocodile, 
a neck of enormous? length resembling the 





















plethora] 


(S3 )t antf 


582 


body of a serpent; a trunk and tail haying 
the proportions of an ordinary quadruped, 
the ribs of a chameleon, and the paddles of 
a whale. The remains of several species 
have been found in the lias. 

PLETHO'RA ( plethore, from plethuo, I be¬ 
come full: Or.), in Medicine, excess of 
j blood, or an overloaded state of the blood¬ 
vessels of the human body. 

PLEU'RA (Gr.; literally a rib), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a membrane which covers all the 
inner surface of the thorax and its viscera. 
It forms two portions or bags, which are 
placed beside each other, and form the 
partition called the mediastinum. 

PLEURI'TIS, or PLEU'RISY (pleuritis: 
Gr.), in Medicine, an inflammation of the 
pleura or membrane that covers the inside 
of the thorax. It is accompanied with 
fever, pain, difficult respiration, and cough. 

PLEURONEC'TES (jpleura, a side; and 
nektes, a swimmer: Gr.), in Ichthyology, a 
genus of flat Ashes, including the plaice, 
dab (P. limanda), flounder (P. flcsus ), and 
many other species. The genus gives its 
name to the family Pleuronectidce, which in¬ 
cludes all the flat fishes distributed amongst 
several genera. 

PLI'CA POLON'ICA (the Polish plait: 
Lat.), a disease of the hair, peculiar to Po¬ 
land and the neighbouring countries. In 
this disease the hair is matted or clotted 
by means of an acrid humour which exudes 
from it. 

PLINTH ( plinthos, a brick: Gr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a flat square member. It is used 
as the foundation of columns, being the flat 
square table under the moulding of the 
base and pedestal at the bottom of the order. 
The abacus of a Tuscan capital is sometimes 

called its plinth.- Plinth of a wall, two 

or three rows of bricks projecting from the 
wall in form of a platband ; and, in general, 
any flat broad moulding that serves in a 
front wall to mark the floors, &c. 

PLI'OCENE ( pleion, more; and kainos, 
recent: Gr.), in Geology, the name given to 
the most modern of the divisions of the 
tertiary epoch. From 90 to 95 per cent, of 
the fossil shells discovered in the newer 
pliocene or pleistocene division belong to 
existing species ; whilst only from 30 to 35 
per cent, of those found in the older plio- 
; cene strata appertain to species still liv¬ 
ing. The glacial drift or boulder formation 
of Great Britain, the ochreous gravel of the 
valley of the Thames, the Norwich crag, 
and the cave deposits with their bones, be- 
I long to the newer division ; whilst the Red 
Crag and Coralline Crag of Suffolk represent 
the older pliocene. [See Geology.] 

PLOT (plat: Sax.), any stratagem or plan 
of a complicated nature, adapted to the ac¬ 
complishment of some mischievous pur¬ 
pose; as a plot against the government, or 

against the life of a sovereign. -Plot, in 

dramatic writings, the tissue of events in a 
tragedy or comedy, but more particularly 
the knot or intrigue, comprising a compli¬ 
cation of incidents which is ultimately un¬ 
folded.- Plot, in Surveying, the plan or 

draft of any field, farm, &c.,made by means 
of instruments, and laid down in the proper 
figure and proportions. 


PLOUGH (plog: Sax.), in Agriculture, an 
important implement for turning over the 
exhausted soil and bringing up the fresh 
and fertile parts; so contrived as to save 
the labour of digging. Ploughs are of 
different forms, according to the nature of 
the soil, &c„ and are generally worked by 
horses, though in some places by oxen, and 
even, in some few instances, by steam. 
Ploughs without wheels are termed swing 
ploughs; with them, wheel ploughs. Each 
kind has a beam, by which it is drawn ; stilts 
or handles, by which it is guided ; a coulter, 
by which the furrow slice is cut; a share, by 
which the slice is turned up; and a mould- 
hoard, by which it is turned over. The 
subsoil plough is a strong swing plough, 
without coulter or mould-board: its use is 
to follow the common plough and loosen the 
subsoil. It is one of the greatest improve¬ 
ments of modern times. Draining ploughs 
are of various kinds; the mole plough 
merely leaves in its track an opening, 
formed by a small iron cylinder attached to 
the lower extremity of the coulter; other 
kindsof drainingplougbs cut the soil. The 
application of steam to the wmrking of 
ploughs and other agricultural imple¬ 
ments is rapidly extending amongst agri¬ 
culturists. 

PLO'VER (pluvier: Fr.), in Ornithology, 
the name of several species of birds of the 
genus Charadrius: as the green plover, 
which is about the size of the common lap¬ 
wing; and the grey plover, which has a 
black beak and green legs, and is a very 
beautiful bird. Plovers are allied to the 
waders, but, generally partaking of the na¬ 
ture of land birds, are classed with them. 

PLUM (Sax.), the fruit of trees belonging 
to the genus Primus, of which many varie¬ 
ties are in cultivation. 

PLUMB, PLUMB'-LTNE, or PLUM'MET 
( plumbum, lead : Lat.), a leaden weight at¬ 
tached to a string, by which depths are 
sounded perpendicularly, and perpendicu¬ 
lars are taken by carpenters, masons, &c. 
Sometimes the string descends along a 
wooden, ruler, &c.., raised perpendicularly i 
on another; in which case it becomes a j 
level. The plumb-line was formerly much ' 
used in arranging astronomical instru¬ 
ments; but it has been almost entirely 
superseded by the spirit level. 

PLUMBA'GO (Lat.), Ghafhite (grapho, 

I write : Gr.). [See Black Lead.] 

PLUM'BUM (Lat.), le.qd'; whence Plumb¬ 
er, a worker in lead. [See Lead.] 

PLUME-AL'UM(pZttwm, a feather: Lat.), 
in Mineralogy, a kind of Asbestos. 

PLU'MIPED (pluma, a feather ; and pcs, 
a foot: Lat.), in Ornithology, a bird that 
has feathers on its feet. 

PLUM'MING, among miners, the opera¬ 
tion of finding by means of a mine-dial the 
place where to sink an air-shaft, or to 
bring an adit to the work, or to find which 
way the lode inclines. 

PLU'MOSE (plumosus, covered with fea¬ 
thers: Lat.), a term applied to anything 
formed in the manner of feathers, with a 
stem and fibres issuing from it on each 
side ; as the antennas of certain moths, but¬ 
terflies, &c. -In Botany, a plumose bristle 

































683 


iltterarji Embury. 


[pneumatics 


is one that lias hairs growing on the sides 
of the main bristle. A plumose pappus, or 
down, is a flying crown attached to some 
seeds, composed of feathery hairs. 

PLU'MULA, or PLU'MULE (plumula, a 
small feather: Lat.), in Botany, the grow¬ 
ing point of the embryo: placed at the 
apex of the radicle, and the base of the 
cotyledons which protect it while young. 
It is the rudiment of the future stem. 

PLU'BAL ( pluralis , belonging to more 
than one: Lat.), in Grammar, an epithet 
applied to that number of nouns and verbs 
which is used when we speak of more than 
one, or that which expresses a number of 
things. 

PLURAL'ITY (pluralitas: Lat.), a num¬ 
ber consisting of two or more of the same 
kind ; as a plurality of worlds, &c.- Plu¬ 

rality of benefices or livings, is where the 
same clergyman holds two or more spiri¬ 
tual preferments, with cure of souls. In a 
plurality of livings, the first, ipso facto, be¬ 
comes void; on which account, the patron 
may present to it, provided the clerk be 
not qualified by dispensation, &c., to hold 
move livings than one. The law strictly en¬ 
joining residence, no spiritual person can 
take and hold together two benefices un¬ 
less their churches are within three miles 
of one another by the nearest road, and the 
annual value of one of them does not exceed 
1001. If the population belonging to one 
exceed 3000, he cannot take another having 
a population of more than 500, nor can any 
one,having more than one benefice with 
cure of souls take any cathedral preferment. 
In certain cases, however, the archbishop 
of Canterbury can dispense with regard to 
population and yearly value. 

PLUS (more: Lat .),in Algebra, a charac¬ 
ter formed thus +, used as the sign of ad¬ 
dition, or to mark some distinctive quality, 
then termed positive. 

PLUSH (peluche: Fr.; from pilosus, 
hairy: Lat.), a kind of shaggy cloth, with a 
velvet nap on one side, usually composed 
of a woof of a single woollen thread, and 
a double warp—the one, wool of two 
threads twisted ; the other of goats’ or 
camels’ hair. There are also some plushes 
made entirely of worsted, and others wholly 
of hair. 

PLUTON'IC HOCKS (Pluto, the god of 
the infernal regions), in Geology, crystal¬ 
line rocks, destitute of organic remains, 
supposed to be of igneous origin, and to 
have been formed at great depths in the 
earth. Such are Granite, Syenite, and 
some of the porphyries, which belong to 
the unstratified division of the hypogene 
formations. The other division contains 
rocks which exhibit stratification, such as 
Gneiss and Mica Slate. These have been 
styled Metamorphic Rocks. 

PLUVIOM'ETER (pluvia, rain : Lat.; and 
metron, a measure: Or.), an instrument for 
ascertaining the quantity of water that 
falls, as rain and snow, in any particular 
place. [See Rain-gauge.] 

PNEUMAT'ICS (pneumatikos, belonging 
to the air: Or.), the science which treats 
of the mechanical properties of elastic or 
aeriform fluids; such as their weight, den¬ 


sity, compressibility, and elasticity. The 
air, being a heavy body, presses like other 
fluids, in every direction, upon whatever 
is immersed in it, and in proportion to 
the depths. This pressure may be thus 
shown:—Cover a wine-glass, quite full 
of water, with a piece of writing-paper; 
then place the palm of the hand over the 
paper, so as to hold it close to the edge 
of the glass. The latter may then be 
turned upside down, and the hand removed, 
without the water running out. The 
pressure of the air upon the paper sus¬ 
tains the weight of the water. Air can 
also be compressed into a much less space 
than it naturally occupies. Take a glass 
tube open only at one end—it is of course 
full of air; plunge the open end into a bowl 
of water, and the water will rise an inch 
or so in the tube; the air, therefore, which 
before filled the whole length of the tube, 
is compressed into a smaller space. The 
pressure of the atmosphere is capable of 
supporting about 33 feet of water or about 
29 or 30 inches of mercury. If a glass tube 
upwards of 31 inches long, and hermetically 
sealed at one end, be filled with mercury, 
and, while the mercury is retained in it by 
the thumb, have its open end immersed in 
a cup of the same fluid, the altitude of the 
mercury which remains within it on ac¬ 
count of the pressure of the air on the sur¬ 
face of what is in the cup, will be found to 
vary both at different times and in different 
places. Hence it appears that the pressure 
of the atmosphere is variable; and the 
above-mentioned tube, filled with mercury, 
has, from its showing this pressure, been 
called a barometer [which see]. By re¬ 
moving the pressure from air, it always 
expands; nor is it known to what degree 
this expansion will reach. By increasing 
the pressure, it may be condensed into any 
given space, however small, nor has this 
condensation any known limits. The den¬ 
sity of the air is in proportion to the force 
that compresses it. Gravity acts on aeri¬ 
form fluids as it does on liquids and solids; 
but molecular force acts upon them very 
differently—with liquids and solids it is 
strongly attractive, with gases repulsive. 
The volumes of gases are inversely as the 
pressures they sustain: this is called the 
law of Mariotte, although previously disco¬ 
vered by Boyle. Thus, if air sustaining a 
pressure of 30 lbs. to the square inch 
occupies the space of one cubic foot, it will 
occupy the space of two cubic feet if the 
pressure is diminished to 15 lbs. The elas¬ 
ticity of gaseous fluids is greatly increased 
by increase of temperature. In conse¬ 
quence of numerous investigations regard'- 
ing the mechanical properties of the air, 
which were made by experimental philoso¬ 
phers in England, France, and Germany, 
after Torricelli had clearly demonstrated 
its pressure, the barometer was invented in 
1643, and subsequently also a variety of 
pneumatic machines, such as the air-pump, 
air-balioon, thermometer, &c. [For further 
information on this subject, the reader is 
referred to the articles Atmosphere, Air, 
Air-pump, Barometer, Fluids, Gravity, 
&c.] 


J 















PNEUMATIC RAILWAY] CfjC iUltf 584 

PNEUMAT'IC RAIL'WAY. [See RAIL¬ 
WAY.] 

PNEUMATO'SIS (Or., from pneumatoo, 

I inflate), in Medicine, Emphysema, a 
collection of air in the cellular membrane, 
rendering the part swollen, elastic and cre¬ 
pitating when pressed. It generally arises 
from some wound in the lungs by which 
the air escapes into the cellular membrane ; 
and it is sometimes the effect of poison. 

PNEUMO'NIA ( pneumonia, from pneu- 
mon, the lungs: Or.), in Medicine, inflam¬ 
mation of the lungs, a disease which gene¬ 
rally attacks robust persons, on account of 
exposure to cold or wet, and suppressed 
perspiration, and is sometimes produced by 
over-exertion of the lungs in any way. 
Fever, cough, difficult breathing, a strong, 
hard, and quick pulse, are the symptoms 
at its commencement; and if it is neglected, 
it may end in suffocation, or in suppuration 
and gangrene. 

PNEUMON'ICS (pneumonikos, belonging 
to the lungs: Or.), medicines proper in 
diseases of the lungs, in which respiration 
is affected. 

PO'A (grass: Or.), in Botany, a genus 
of grasses, very abundant in the pasturages 
of Europe. The Poa annua is the most 
common of all weeds; the Poa trivialis and 
pratensis are used extensively in artificial 
pastures and lawns. Most of the species 
are agreeable and nutritious to cattle. 

POD (bode, a little house: Dut.), the cap¬ 
sule or seed-vessel of certain plants. It is 
a word in popular use, but is never applied 
scientifically. 

PODA'GRA (Or.: from pous, a foot; and 
agra, a catching—literally a trap for the 
feet), in Medicine, that species of gout 
which recurs at regular intervals, attacking 
the joints of the foot, particularly the 
great toe, the pain of which is described as 
resembling that produced by laying a burn¬ 
ing coal upon it. When the disease is vio¬ 
lent the whole foot is so sensitive that the 
lightest touch causes excruciating pain. 
The attacks usually recur once a year, in 
spring or autumn; sometimes twice, and 
even oftener. [See Gout.] 

PODES'TA (potestas, power: Lat.), one of 
the chief magistrates of Genoa and Venice 
in former times. 

PO'DIUM (Lat.), in Architecture, the part 
of the amphitheatre projecting over the 
arena, above which it was raised between 
ten and fifteen feet. It was set apart for 
persons of distinction. 

PCE'CILE (poikile, from poikilos, many- 
coloured: Gr.— on account of its fresco 
paintings), a celebrated portico, or gallery, 
at Athens, adorned with statues and pic¬ 
tures. 

POECILIT'IO (poikilos, many-coloured: 
Gr.), a geological term applied to the Trias, 
or upper new red sandstone series, from the 
variety of colours the strata exhibit. 

POET'ICAL J US'TICE, a term often used 
in speaking of dramatic writings, to de¬ 
note a distribution of rewards and punish¬ 
ments to the several characters, according 
to their deserts, at the catastrophe or close 
of a piece. 

PO'ET-LAU'RE ATESHIP (. laureatus: Lat., 

crowned with laurel), an office in the 
royal household, bestowed as a mark of 
court favour upon some eminent poet,with 
a small annual salary. Formerly it was 
the duty of this official to produce a set of 
verses on the sovereign’s birth-day, and on 
the occasion of any other court event of 
importance, but this is now forborne. The 
first mention of a poet-laureate was in the 
reign of Henry III., under the name of court- 
poet. Chaucer, a contemporary of Petrarch, 
who was crowned with laurel in the Capitol 
at Rome, assumed the title of poet-laureate, 
and, in the reign of Richard II., obtained a 
grant as such. We afterwards And poets- 
laureate noticed in the reigns of Edward 
IV., Henry VII., &c. Ben Jonson was court- 
poet to James I., and received a pension, 
but does not appear to have had the title of 
laureate formally granted to him. Dryden 
was appointed laureate to Charles II., and 
afterwards to James II., by regular patent 
under privy seal. Nahum Tate, Rowe, 
Eusden, Cibber, Whitehead, T. Warton, 
Pye, Southey, Wordsworth, and Tennyson, 

have been Dryden’s successors.- Poeta 

Laureatus was also an academical title 
in England, conferred by the universi¬ 
ties when the candidate received the de¬ 
grees in grammar (which included rhe¬ 
toric and versification). The last instance 
of a laureated degree at Oxford occurred in 
1512. 

PO'ETRY (poiesis: Gr.), in its ordinary 
acceptation, is the art of expressing eleva¬ 
ted sentiments in measured language ac¬ 
cording to certain rules, in accordance with 
harmony and taste; and also the expression 
of those sentiments in that language. In 
the latter meaning it is divided into blank 
verse and rhyme, and is denominated ac¬ 
cording to its subject—as pastoral for rural 
objects ; elegiac for plaintive pieces; lyrical 
for music; didactic, or instructive ; satirical; 
humorous; and dramatic, or conversa¬ 
tional. But, agreeably with the extensive 
signification of its Greek origin, poetry, in 
more extended meaning, includes every 
effusion, every creation of the mind, whe¬ 
ther expressed by the pen, the pencil, or 
musical sounds. Some languages, as the 
Greek and the Italian, are admirably adapted 
for poetry; and they impart to it a charm 
which is independent of the genius or the 
taste of the poet. In all cases, poetry has 
the same general character—that of an ap¬ 
peal to the passions or the affections. The 
rules of poetry and versifying are taught by 
art, and acquired by study; but the force 
and elevation of thought, which Horace 
calls something divine, and which alone 
makes the poetry of any value, must be 
derived from nature. 

POINT (Fr.), among artists, an iron or 
steel instrument used for tracing designs 

on copper, wood, stone, &c_ Point,' in 

Astronomy, a term applied to a certain 
place marked in the heavens, or distin¬ 
guished for its importance in astronomical 
calculations. The four principal points or 
divisions of the horizon, viz. the east, west, 
north, and south, are called the cardinal 
points. The zenith and nadir are the verti¬ 
cal points; the points where the orbits of 













585 


iUterarg treasury. 


the planets cut the plane of the ecliptic, are 
called the nodes ; the points where the 
equator and ecliptic intersect are called the 
equinoctial points —that whence the sun as¬ 
cends towards the north pole, being called 
the vernal point ; and that by which he de¬ 
scends to the south pole, the autumnal 
point. The points of the ecliptic, where the 
sun’s ascent above the equator, and descent 
below it, terminate, are called the solstitial 

points. -Point, in Geography, a small cape 

or headland, jutting out into the sea; thus 
seamen say, two points of land are in one 
another, when they are so completely in a 
right line against each other that the 

innermost is hidden by the outermost.- 

Point, in Geometry, as defined by Euclid, 
is a quantity which has no parts, or which 
is indivisible. Points are the ends or extre¬ 
mities of lines. If a point be supposed to 
he moved any way, it will, by its motion, 

describe a line.- Point, in Grammar, a 

character used to mark a division of wri¬ 
ting, or the pause to be observed in reading 
or speaking ; as the comma (,) semicolon (;) 
colon (:) and period (.), also the points of 

interrogation (?) and admiration (I). - 

Pointing, the art of dividing a discourse, 
by points, into periods and members of pe¬ 
riods, in order to show the proper pauses 
to be made in reading.- Point, in Heral¬ 

dry, a part of the escutcheon denoting the 

local position of a figure.- Point, in 

modern Music, a dot placed after a note to 
raise its value or prolong its time one-half, 
so as to make a semibreve equal to three 
minims, a minim equal to three crotchets, 
&c. A note of this kind is usually called a 
dotted note. When a point is placed over a 

note, it is called staccato [which see.]- 

Point, in Optics, a term variously applied 
with reference to the rays of light : thus, 
the point of dispersion is that in which the 
rays begin to diverge; the point of incidence, 
that point upon the surface of a glass, or 
any body, on which a ray of light falls; 
point of reflection, the point from which a 
ray iB reflected; point of refraction, that 
point in the refracting surface where the 
refraction is effected.- Point, in Litera¬ 

ture, a lively turn or expression that strikes 
with agreeable surprise, such as i3 usually 
found or expected at the close of an epigram. 

- Point-blank, in Gunnery, denotes the 

shot of a gun levelled horizontally. Point- 
blank range is the extent of the apparent 
right line described by a ball discharged 
horizontally. In shooting point-blank, the 
ball is supposed to move directly to the ob¬ 
ject without a curve.- Point of Sight, 

in Perspective, that point in the perspective 
plane, at which the horizontal and vertical 
lines intersect each other. [See Perspec- 
TIVE.] 

POINTS, small pieces of cordage, put 
through the sail in rows, for the purpose of 
reefing.- Points of Support, in Archi¬ 

tecture, the collected areas, on the plan, of 
the piers, walls, &e„ by which an edifice is 
supported. The smaller the number of 
these required by an architect, the greater 
his skill and economy. Tiie following are 
the ratio of the area to the points of sup¬ 
port, the total area, and the area of the 


[poison 


points of support, in some of the most cele¬ 
brated buildings:— 


Building. 

Ratio 

of 

area 

to 

points 
of sup¬ 
port. 

Total 
area in 
feet. 

Area 

of 

points 
of sup¬ 
port. 

Church of St. Paul, 
Rome . . 

0118 

106,513 

12,655 

Church of Notre 
Dame, Paris . . 

0-140 

67,343 

8,784 

Pantheon, Paris . 

0T54 

60,287 

9,269 

Cathedral, Milan . 

0-169 

125,853 

21,365 

St. Paul’s, London 

0170 

84,025 

14,311 

Cathedral, Flo¬ 
rence .... 

0-201 

84,802 

17,030 

St. Sophia, Con¬ 
stantinople . . 

0-217 

103,200 

22,567 

Pantheon, Rome . 

0-232 

34,238 

7,954 

St. Peter’s, Rome 

0-261 

227,069 

59,308 

Invalides, Paris . 

0-268 

29,003 

7,790 


POINT'ER, a variety of the Canis fami- 
liaris, and the dog used by sportsmen for 
finding partridges, pheasants, and other 
feathered game. Though the pointer is not 
a native of England, it has been long natu¬ 
ralized in it. Pointers differ from setters, 
as, on approaching sufficiently near to the 
game, they stand erect, whereas the true- 
bred settereither sits upon his haunches or 
lies close to the ground, generally the latter. 
Pointers are very susceptible of education, 
and their speed, strength, and persevering 
nature, enable them to continue the chase 
for an almost incredible length of time. 

POINT'ERS, The, in Astronomy, are the 
two outer stars of the quadrangles in tho 
Great Bear so called, because they point to 
the Pole Star. 

POI'SON (Fr.), any substance which, by 
its chemical action, when taken into the 
stomach, mixed with the blood, or applied 
to the flesh, disturbs or suspends the cir¬ 
culations and functions necessary to life. 
Poisons have been divided into irritants, 
narcotics, and narcotico-acrids. Irritants 
act chiefly on the alimentary canal, causing 
inflammation and sometimes ulceration of 
the throat and parts leading to the stomach, 
&c., nausea, vomiting, the vomited matter 
being often streaked with blood, and other 
most painful symptoms connected with the 
stomach and intestines. Narcotics produce 
totally different effects—headache, vertigo, 
confused vision, stupor, convulsions, paraly¬ 
sis, and coma. Narcotico-acrid poisons pro¬ 
duce symptoms which usually consist of 
those of the other two classes. In large 
doses, narcotism predominates; in smaller, 
irritation ; and both seldom co-exist. No 
general rule can be given for the treatment 
of cases of poisoning. In nearly every in¬ 
stance vomiting should be caused as soon 
as possible by tickling the throat, and by 
the use of emetics, such as sulphate of zinc, 
&c. The stomach-pump should be employed 



















polaris] Cfje Jbcfentftic 


586 


also, but with great caution when there is 
disorganization on account of the presence 
of irritants. The stomach should be washed 
out with bland albuminous or mucilaginous 
fluids, such as milk, barley-water, flour and 
water, &c., and sometimes sugar and water. 
The following are antidotes for the most 
usual poisonsFor mineral acids, acetic, 
or oxalic acid—chalk or whiting and water, 
magnesia and water, soap and water, albu¬ 
minous diluents. For alkalis— vinegar, or 
any mild acid and water, including even 
very dilute mineral acids, olive oil, almond 
oil. For arsenic —emetics, thin milk gruel, 
and other diluents, in large quantities. 
For corrosive sublimate —white of eggs, and 
water, milk, cream. For cupreous poisons— 
sugar and water, white of eggs and water. 
For antimonial poisons—warm milk, gruel, 
or barley water, infusion of galls. For 
nitrate of silver, abundance of warm salt 
and water. For sulphate of zinc —solution 
of carbonate of soda in water, milk, muci¬ 
laginous and farinaceous liquids. For ace¬ 
tate of lead—emetics, solution of sulphate 
of soda in water, milk, white of eggs and 
water. For opium and its preparations— 
emetics, strong coffee; torpor to be pre¬ 
vented by dashing cold water on the face, 
and forced exercise. 

POLA'RIS, or the Pole Star, so called 
because it is situate very near the north 
pole of the axis round which the earth per¬ 
forms its diurnal motion, is a star of the 
second magnitude, and the principal star in 
the constellation of the Little Bear. It is 
the a. TJrscB Minoris of astronomers. It is 
easily found, because the two outer stars 
of the quadrangle, in the Great Bear, point 
to it. 

POLAR'ISCOPE (polarity ; and skopeo, I 
examine : Gr.), an instrument contrived for 
the exact and convenient observation of 
the phenomena of polarized light. It con¬ 
sists of two parts, that by which the polari¬ 
zation of the light is effected, and that by 
which the polarized light is examined. 
When fitted to a microscope the first is 
formed of a prism of Iceland spar, so ar¬ 
ranged that only one of the rays into which 
the original pencil of light is divided shall 
be transmitted ; and the second part is a 
similar prism placed next the eye. By re¬ 
volving one of these prisms whilst the eye is 
looking along the tube, the effect of polari¬ 
zation upon an object placed between the 
two prisms is made apparent. 

POLAR'ITY ( polus, a pole: Lat.), that 
property of bodies which is manifested by 
the exhibition of opposite and equal effects 
always tending to neutralize each other. 
Magnetism and electricity afford instances 
of polarity. 

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT (same dc- 
riv.), in Physics, a change produced upon 
light by the action of certain media, which 
cause it to exhibit the appearance of hav¬ 
ing polarity, or sides possessing different 
qualities. The knowledge of this singular 
fact with regard to light has afforded an ex¬ 
planation of several intricate phenomena in 
optics. [See Optics.] Light, in ordinary 
cases, can be decomposed not only into 
rays of different colours, but into two white 


rays of very different properties. This is 
effected by either refraction or reflection. 
The most simple example of polarization 
by refraction is afforded by Iceland spar. 
If a dot is made on certain surfaces of a 
piece of this substance, and it is looked at 
from the opposite side, two dots will bo 
seen. If a ray of light be transmitted in 
the same direction through this spar, it 
will appear double, and each of these rays 
will be incapable of reflection, in certain 
positions of a mirror: that is, when the 
mirror will not reflect one of the rays, on 
being turned round 90°, without changing 
its angle of inclination, it will not reflect 
the other. The most brilliant colours may 
be produced by polarization. The subject is 
one of the highest interest in philosophy : 
it has thrown the greatest light, not only 
on optics, but on other branches of science. 

-Polarizing Angle, that angle at 

which light must fall on a reflecting sur¬ 
face, that it may be polarized; for glass, it 
is about 33°. A very important law lias 
been discovered, namely, that ‘ the tangent 
of the polarizing angle, for any medium, is 
the index of refraction for that medium.’ 
All reflecting substances are capable of po¬ 
larizing, if the light is incident at a proper 
angle. When the angle is not the proper 
one, the light is polarized to an extent de¬ 
pendent on its approximation to accuracy, 
and the polarization may be completed by 
successive reflections. 

POLE {polos, from poleo, I turn round: 
Gr.), in Astronomy, the extremity of the 
axis of the earth, an imaginary point on 
the earth’s surface, of which there are two, 
namely, the Arctic or North Pole, and the 

Antarctic or South Pole.- Pole op the 

Ecliptic, a point on the surface of the 
sphere, 23° 30' distant from either pole of 

the world.- Pole, in Spherics, a point 

equally distant from every part of the cir¬ 
cumference of a great circle of the sphere: 
it is 90° from the plane of a circle, and in a 
line called the axis, passing perpendicularly 
through the centre. Thus, the zenith and 
nadir are the poles of the horizon.- Mag¬ 

netic Poles, two points, or rather posi¬ 
tions, on any magnet, where the opposite 
magnetic influences chiefly reside. It was 
long expected that two points would be 
found on the earth at which the opposite 
magnetic powers would respectively be 
found concentrated. Philosophers, however, 
discovered apparently several; and at last, 
reasoning from the well-known properties 
of ordinary maguets, perceived that its 
magnetic poles, supposing the earth to be, 
as it is, a great magnet, could not be mere 
points, but must occupy a considerable 
space, though its magnetic effects would 
naturally be most powerful at some parti¬ 
cular part of each. It is probable that the 
earth is an electro-magnet, the magnetism 
of which is caused by electric currents. 
These are developed by a change of tem¬ 
perature produced by rotation—which 
brings the different parts successively under 
solar influence. The magnetic poles must, 
therefore, be in the neighbourhood of the 
terrestrial. 

rO'LE-AXE, a kind of hatchet with a 









































687_ Etterarg 

abort handle, and a point or claw Lending 
downward from the back of its head. It is 
principally used at sea, to cut away the 
rigging of an enemy attempting to board ; 
sometimes it is driven into the side of an 
enemy’s ship to assist in boarding it, and is 
then called a boarding-axe. 

PO'LECAT ( Pole or Polish-cat, because of 
their abundance in Poland), the Putorius 
feetidus of zoologists, an animal allied to 
the weazel,which emits a most foetid stench 
■when pursued. It inhabits Europe and 
Asiatic Russia. It is a nocturnal animal, 
and of a bloodthirsty disposition, making 
great havoc in hen roosts and dovecots. 

POLEM'ICS (polemikos, belonging to war: 
Gr.), controversial writings particularly on 
matters of divinity. 

POLEM'OSCOPE ( polemos , war ; and sko- 
peo, I examine : Gr.), in Optics, an oblique 
perspective glass, or diagonal opera-glass, 
contrived for seeing objects that do not lie 
directly before the eye. It received its 
name from its inventor supposing it might 
be useful in war. It consists of a mirror 
placed obliquely in a tube having an open¬ 
ing in the side opposite to the mirror, so 
that rays from any object, falling on the 
mirror, are reflected to the eye. Opera- 
glasses [which see] are sometimes con¬ 
structed on this principle. 

PO'LE-STAR, or PO'LAR STAR. [See 
POLAltlS.] 

POLI'CE (Fr.), the internal regulation of 
a kingdom, city, or town. In its most popu¬ 
lar acceptation, the police signifies the ad¬ 
ministration of the municipal laws and 
regulations of a city, incorporated town, or 
borough ; as the police of London, of Bir¬ 
mingham, &c. The police, in this sense, 
differ from the military, in being under 
the command of civil officers, but they are 
drilled and armed in a half military man¬ 
ner. Their object is both to prevent and 
detect crime ; and they are either the ordi¬ 
nary police, dressed in uniform, or secret and 
detective police, who are not intended by 
their dress and manners to be distinguished 
from ordinary citizens: that the guilty may 
neither feel themselves safe from detec¬ 
tion, nor be so. Such a secret force re¬ 
quires very careful regulation, or it might 
lead to great abuses. The metropolitan 
police of London amounts to upwards of 
5000 men. The constabulary force of Ire¬ 
land has more of a military character than 
city police; and amounted in 1850 to 12,000 
men, at a cost of 560,0001. per annum. 

POL'ICY, in Commerce, a written in¬ 
strument containing the terms or condi¬ 
tions on which a person or company under¬ 
takes to indemnify another person against 
losses of property exposed to peculiar ha¬ 
zards, as fire, casualties at sea, &c. [See 
Insurance 3 

POLITICAL ARITHMETIC (politikos, 
belonging to the state: Gr.), the art of 
making arithmetical calculations on mat¬ 
ters relating to a nation, its revenues, 
value of lands and effects, produce of lands 
or manufactures, population, and the gene¬ 
ral statistics of a country. 

POLITICAL ECON'OMY (same denv.), 
the science which treats of the administra- 


[political 


tion of the revenues of a nation; or the 
management and regulation of its re¬ 
sources, and productive property and 
labour. It is a term of very comprehensive 
meaning, and includes all the measures 
by which property and labour are directed 
in the best manner to the success of in¬ 
dividual industry and enterprise, and to 
the public prosperity. Political economy 
considers the production and distribution 
not of those things which are merely use¬ 
ful, but of those which are of value. The air 
is very useful, but it commands no price; 
bread is useful, but its utility and its 
value are two different things. The wealth 
of a country, which forms the subject 
of political economy, consists in what is 
capable of appropriation. A thing may be 
very useful, but it may be attainable by 
every one—thus, the light of day. Labour 
is the only source of wealth, since it is the 
only source of value; it does not create 
matter, but it makes it suitable to our 
wants; and is required generally in a 
variety of ways—to appropriate the mate¬ 
rial, to convey it from place to place, and 
most usually to give it some peculiar form. 
As wealth depends on labour, everything 
that facilitates labour adds to the wealth of 
a country. But this is effected by a proper 
division of employments, and a judicious 
application of capital. Division of employ¬ 
ment produces greater dexterity in the 
workmen; saves the time lost in passing 
from one occupation to another; and tends 
to facilitate the invention of useful machi¬ 
nery and advantageous processes of manu¬ 
facture. But division of labour supposes 
a certain demand for the article manu¬ 
factured. Ten or more men are employed 
to make one pin; but if all the pins which 
these ten men can manufacture are not 
required, the division of labour in this case 
is disadvantageous. Division of labour is 
useful, not only among individuals, but 
among provinces and countries; for one 
province or country may have greater 
facilities for producing one article, and 
another province or country for producing 
another. This leads to the conclusion, 
that facilities for intercourse between 
different countries, or parts of a country, 
are of deep importance. Capital consists 
of what is necessary for the support of 
human beings, or to facilitate production. 
Food, clothes, &c., which are required 
continually, constitute circulating capital; 
the tools, machines, &c., which are more 
slowly consumed, constitute fixed capital. 
The co-operation of both kinds of capital 
is required for the successful production of 
wealth. It has been said that the employ¬ 
ment of machinery lessens the demand for 
labour. This may be true in a particular 
department, and temporarily ; but the total 
employment of labour is increased by it. 
The introduction of locomotives threw the 
drivers of stage-coaches out of employ¬ 
ment; but what an incalculably greater 
number of men do they cause to be em¬ 
ployed in the preparation of materials, 
construction of machinery, and even in 
the staff of officials required by the rail¬ 
ways! 























politics] 


t£l )t ^ctntttftc autr 


583 


POLITICS ( politeia, civil polity : Gr.), in 
the most extensive sense, are the theory 
and practice of obtaining the ends of civil 
society ; or the regulation and government 
of a nation or state, for the preservation of 
its safety, peace, and prosperity. Politics 
are necessarily divided into two branches; 
the one regarding a state in all its relations 
with other states, and the other its inter¬ 
nal arrangements or polity. The latter 
includes what is frequently called its do¬ 
mestic economy, viz. the augmentation of 
its strength and resources, and the pro¬ 
tection of its citizens in their rights, with 
the preservation and improvement of their 
morals. 

POLL (pol, the head: Sax .-—a register of 
heads), in elections, the register of those 
who give their vote, containing their name, 
place of residence, &c. Also the place 
where the votes are registered. 

POL'LEN (fine flour: Lat.), in Botany, a 
fine powder contained in the anthers of 
flowers, and which being shed on the pistil, 
fructifies the ovary and causes it to produce 
fertile seeds. Each pollen grain is a cell 
which contains a granular semifluid matter 
called fovilla. Sometimes the exterior of 
the cell is prettily marked, hut to see 
the markings requires a good microscope. 
In the tribe of orchids the pollen grains are 
joined together by.viscid matter into masses 
called pnllinia. 

POL'LUX, in Astronomy, a fixed star of 
the second magnitude in the constellation 
Gemini, or the Twins. 

POL'VERINE ( pulver , dust: Lat.), in Che¬ 
mistry, the calcined ashes of a plant 
brought from the Levant and Syria. In the 
manufacture of glass it is preferred to other 
ashes, as the glass made with it is perfectly 
colourless. 

POL'Y (polus: Gr.), a prefix in a number of 
our words, signifying many ; as in polygon, 
a figure of many angles. 

POLYACOUS'TIC ( polus , many; and 
akoustikos, belonging to hearing: Gr.), an 
epithet applied to that which multiplies or 
intensifies sound. 

POLYADEL'PHIA (polus, many; and 
adelphos, a brother: Gr.), in Botany, the 
18tli class of the Linnseau system of plants, 
consisting of plants which have the sta¬ 
mens united into three or more bundles 
by the filaments. 

POLYAN'DRIA (polus, many ; and aner, 
a male : Gr.), in Botany, the thirteenth class 
of the Linnasan system of plants, consisting I 
of those whose hermaphrodite flowers have 
twenty or more separate stamens inserted 
on the receptacle, not on the calyx, as in 
Icosandria. 

POLYANTHUS (polus, many; and an- 
thos, a flower : Gr.), a garden variety of the 
wild primrose. 

POL'YOHROITE (polus, many; and chroia, 
colour: Gr.), in Chemistry, the colouring 
matter of saffron. It has received this 
name on account of the various colours it 
exhibits when acted on by reagents. 

POLYCYSTl'NA (polus, many; kustis, a 
hag : Gr.), a tribe of minute marine animals 
of very low organization, allied to the 
Foramini/era, but inhabiting 


shells. These shells are of elegant and 
varied shape, and have large orifices 
through which the animal can protrude, at 
will, parts of its body, to collect food or to 
assist its movements. 

POLYGA'MIA (polus, many ; and gamos, 
marriage: Gr.), the 23rd class of the 
Linnsean system of plants, containing those 
witli perfect flowers, accompanied by one 
or both sorts of imperfect flowers. 

POLYG'AMY (polugamia, from same), a 
plurality of wives or husbands at the same 
time; the latter, however, is hardly inclu¬ 
ded under the term, as it has scarcely ever 
been considered lawful. In some countries, 
Turkey for instance, polygamy is allowed ; 
but, by the laws of England, polygamy 
is made felony, except in the case of 
absence beyond the seas for seven years. 
Polygamy prevailed among the Jewish pa¬ 
triarchs, both before and under the Mosaic 
law; but the state of manners had proba¬ 
bly become reformed in this respect before 
the time of Christ, for in the New Testa¬ 
ment we meet no trace of its practice. 
Polygamy has been allowed under all the 
religions which have prevailed in Asia. By 
the laws of Mohammed, every Mussulman 
is permitted to have a plurality of wives ; 
the Arabs, however, seldom avail them¬ 
selves of this privilege. The ancient Ro¬ 
mans never practised it, though it was not 
forbidden among them ; and Mark Antony 
is mentioned as the first who used the 
privilege of having two wives. From that 
time it became frequent in the Roman em¬ 
pire, till the reigns of Theodosius, Hono- 
rius, and Arcadius, who prohibited it, a.d. 
393. 

rOLYG'ENOUS (polugenes, of many fami¬ 
lies : Gr.), consisting of many kinds, an 
epithet used in Mineralogy ; Asnpolygenous 
mountain, one composed of strata of differ¬ 
ent species of stone. 

POLYG'LOTT (polus, many and glotta, a 
tongue : Gr.), a book containing many lan¬ 
guages; as the Polyglott Bible, a bible 
printed in several languages 

POL'YGON (polus, many; and gonia, an 
angle : Gr.), in Geometry, a figure having 
many angles or whose perimeter consists of 
more than four sides. Every polygon may 
be divided into as many triangles as the 
figure has sides, and its area may therefore 
be easily measured.- Polygonal Num¬ 

bers are so called because the units of 
which they consist may be disposed in 
such a manner as to represent several regu¬ 
lar polygons. They are numbers forming 
arithmetical progressions. When their 
common difference is I, the sums of the 
terms give triangular numbers—that is, 
numbers representing the points or angles 
in a series of triangles having a common 
vertex. When the common difference is 
2, the sums of the terms give square num¬ 
bers, which will represent the points or 
angles in a series of squares having a 
common angle. When the common dif¬ 
ference is 3, the sums of the terms give a 
similar series of pentagons ; and so on 

POL'YGON OF FOR'CES, in Mechanics, 
the theorem, * If any number of forces 
acting at one angle of a polygon are repre- 


sniceous I 




























689 


Etterari? ErcaSurg. 


Bented by all the sides of the polygon taken 
in succession except one, that remaining 
side taken in the opposite direction will re¬ 
present their resultant.' 

POLYG'ONUM (polugonns, producing 
much : Gr.), in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. Polygonaceas. It includes the knot¬ 
grasses, bistorts, buckwheats, &c. 

POL'YGRAM (polus, many ; and graining, 
a line: Gr.), a figure consisting of many 
lines. 

POL'YGRAPH (polus, many ; and grapho, 
I write: Gr.), an instrument for multiply¬ 
ing copies of a writing with ease and expe¬ 
dition. 

POLYG'RAPHY (same deriv.), the art 
of writing in, and deciphering, various 
ciphers. 

POLYGYN'IA (polus , many ; and gune, a 
female: Gr.), in Botany, one of the Lin- 
nman orders, containing plants the flowers 
of which have twenty or more styles. 

POLYHAL'ITE (polus, much ; and hals, 
sea-salt: Gr.), a mineral occurring in masses 
of a fibrous structure, a brick-red colour, 
and tinged with iron. It contains sulphates 
of lime, magnesia, and potash, with chloride 
of sodium or common salt. 

POLYHE'DRON (polus, many ; and hedra, 
a base : Gr.), in Geometry, a body or solid 
comprehended under many sides or planes. 

-In Optics, a multiplying glass or lens, 

consisting of several plane surfaces dis¬ 
posed in a convex form. 

POLYMIG'NITE (polus, much ; and mig- 
numi, I mix: Gr.), the name of a mineral 
found in Norway. It consists of titanic 
acid, zirconia, lime, yttria, oxides of iron, 
cerium, manganese, magnesia, potash, si¬ 
lica, and oxide of tin. 

POL'YNOME (polus, many : Gr. ; and no¬ 
men, a name : Lot.), In Algebra, a quantity 
consisting of many terms. 

POLYOP'TRUM (polus, many; and op- 
teuo, I see : Gr.), in Optics, a glass through 
which objects appear multiplied. 

POLYPET'ALOUS (polus, many; and pe- 
talon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, having many 
petals. 

POLYPH'ONY, or POLYPH'ONISM (po- 
luphOnia: from polus, many; and phone, a 
voice: Gr.), multiplicity of sounds, as in 
the reverberations of an echo. 

POLYPHYL'LOUS (poluphullos: from 
polus, many ; and phullon, a leaf: Gr.), in 
Botany, many-leaved; as, a polyphyllous 
calyx or perianth. 

POL'YPI (polus, many; and pous, a foot; 
Gr.), in Natural History, a term used 
synonymously with Zoophytes [which see]. 

POLYP'ODY (polupodion: from polus, 
many; and pous, a foot: Gr. —from the 
roots having many tubercles like the feelers 
of a. polypus), a fern belonging to thegenu3 
Polypodium. The common polypody is one 
of our most abundant ferns. 

POL'YPUS, in Surgery, a fleshy tumour, 
commonly met with in the nose. It abounds 
in ramifications, from which it derives its 
name. . , 

POL'YSCOPE (polus , many; and skopeo, I 
behold: Gr.), an optical instrument, con¬ 
sisting of a plano-convex lens, the convex 
surface of which is subdivided into several 


[POMPFEROUS 


facets. Each of these will give a distinct 
image, and thus the object will appear in 
different places at the same time. 

POLYSPERM'OCJS (polu-permos, abound¬ 
ing in seed : Gr.), in Botany, an epithet for 
such plants as have several seeds. 

POL'YSTYLE (polustulos: from polus, 
many; and stulos, a column : Gr.), a build¬ 
ing surrounded by numerous columns, so 
that they cannot be readily counted at first 
view. 

POLYSYL'LABLE (polusullabos: from 
polus, many; and sullabe, a syllable: Gr.), 
in Grammar, a word consisting of more 
syllables than three; for when a word con¬ 
sists of one, two, or three, it is called, re¬ 
spectively, a monosyllable, dissyllable, and 
trisyllable. • 

POLYSYN'DETON (polusundetos: from 
polus, much ; and sundetos, bound together : 
Gr.), in Grammar and Rhetoric, a figure in 
which a redundancy of conjunctions, espe¬ 
cially copulative ones, is used ; as, * We have 
armies and fleets, and gold and stores—all 
the sinews of war.’ 

POL YTECH'NIC (polus, many; and techne, 
an art: Gr.), an epithet denoting or com¬ 
prehending many arts; as, a polytechnic 

school, a polytechnic gallery, &c.-The 

Polytechnic School of France was established 
by a decree of the National Convention of j 
March 11, 1794, which was passed by the , 
influence of Monge, Carnot, Fourcroy, &c., 
the committee of public safety having seen 
the necessity of providing for the educa¬ 
tion of engineers. Lagrange, Laplace, 
Berthollet, Fourcroy, and many other dis¬ 
tinguished individuals, were its professors. 
Napoleon did much for it, and under 
him it received considerable modifica¬ 
tions. The pupils were obliged to live in 
the building, and wear a uniform. Its ob¬ 
ject is to diffuse a knowledge of the mathe¬ 
matical, physical, and chemical sciences, 
and to prepare pupils for the artillery ser¬ 
vice and the various departments of engi¬ 
neering, military, naval, and civil. The 
inmates of this establishment fought 
bravely against the allies, March 30, 1814. 
In April, 1816, it was abolished, but re¬ 
established in September of the same year. 

POL'YTHEISM (polus, many; and tlieos, I 
a god : Gr.), the doctrine and worship of a 
plurality of gods; opposed to monotheism, 
or the belief in one Supreme Being. 

POMA'CEiE ( pomum, fruit, but particu¬ 
larly an apple: Lat.), a nat.'ord.of plants, 
including the apple, pear, medlar, and 
quince. 

POMA'TUM (Lat., from pomum, fruit— 
sometimes used in making it), a compound 
of jessamine, orange, &c., with lard and 
rose-water; an unguent used in dressing 
the hair. 

POM'EGRANATE (pomum granatum, 
fruit having many seeds : Lat.), in Botany, 
the fruit of a tree belonging to the genus 
Punica, nat. ord. Myrtacece, a native of the 
south of Europe. It is as large as an 
orange, is of a reddish colour, and has a 
hard rind filled with a soft pulp and numer¬ 
ous seeds. 

POMIF'EROUS (pomum, fruit; and fero, 

I bear: Lat.), fruit-bearing; an epithet ap- 























Scientific antt 


590 


FOMOLOGY] 


V>lie<l to plants which hear pomes, that is 
fruits like the apple, pear, and quince. 

POMOL'OGY ( pornum, fruit: Lat.; and 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), that branch of gar¬ 
dening which is directed principally to the 
cultivation of fruit-trees, shrubs, &c. In 
Germany and France there exist many po- 
mological societies, upon a similar princi¬ 
ple to our horticultural, though the former, 
as the name implies, direct their attention 
chiefly to the cultivation of fruits. 

POM'PA CIRCEN'SIS (the Circensian 
procession: Lat.), in Antiquity, a solemn 
march of the persons who were to engage 
in the exercises of the circus, attended by 
the magistrates and ladies of quality ; the 
statues of the gods and illustrious men 
were carried along in state, on wagons 
called thenscc, from the shrines to the pul- 
vinaria, and, when the games were over, 
back again. 

PO'MUM A'DAMI (Adam’s apple : Lat.), 
in Anatomy, the name of a protuberance in 
the anterior part of the neck, so named 
from the whimsical supposition that a part 
of the forbidden fruit of which Adam ate 
stuck in his throat, and thus caused it. 

PONTEE', in glass-works, an iron instru¬ 
ment used for taking the hot glass out of 
the pot. 

PON'TIFEX (Lat.: from pons, a bridge; 
and facio, I make—probably because ori¬ 
ginally the construction and preservation 
of bridges were a part of his duties), among 
the Romans, one of those priests who had 
the superintendence and direction of divine 
worship in general. The pontiflces,at first, 
were only four in number, but were made 
•fifteen by Sulla, and sixteen by Julius 
Cassar—including the poutifex maximus. 
The latter was always chosen from those 
who had borne the highest dignities in the 
state ; and the office was conferred for life. 
There were other pontiffs who were termed 
minores (lesser): they were probably the 
secretaries of the higher order. The Roman 
emperors assumed the right of appointing 
as many pontiflees as they pleased, which 
diminished the splendour of the pontifical 
college; and they retained for themselves 
the office of pontifex maximus (supreme 
pontiff), which was one of great dignity 
and power, as it gave the supreme, direct 
control over religious matters, and great 
indirect influence in all others. 

PON'TIFF (from last), in the Roman 
Catholic and Greek churches, a bishop. 
The pope i3 termed sovereign pontiff. The 
Jews had their pontiffs or chief priests. 
Pontificate is used for the state or dignity 
of a pontiff, or high priest; but more par¬ 
ticularly for the reign of a pope. 

PONTIFICA'LIA (pertaining to a pontiff: 
Lat.), the robes in which a bishop performs 
divine service. 

FONTOO'N BRIDGE ( ponton: Fr.), a 
floating bridge, formed of flat-bottomed 
boats or pontoons, anchored or made fast 
in two lines, and used in forming bridges 

over rivers for the passage of armies.- 

Pontoon Carriage, a vehicle formed of 
two wheels only, and two long side pieces, 
whose fore-ends are supported by timbers. 

PONT-VOLANT' (a flyiDg bridge : Fr.), 


in Military affairs, a kind of bridge used in 
sieges for surprising a post or outwork that 
has but a narrow moat. It is composed of 
two small bridges laid one above the other; 
and so contrived that, by the aid of ropes 
and pulleys, the upper may be pushed for¬ 
ward till it reaches the destined point, 

POOR and POOR LAWS (jpauvre: Fr.), 
[See Pauperism.] 

POPE (papa, a father: Lat.), the head of 
the Roman Catholic church. The appellation 
of pope was anciently given to all Christian 
bishops; but about the latter end of the 
11th century, in the pontificate of Gregory 
VII., it was claimed as the exclusive title of 
the bishop of Rome, whose peculiar title it 
has ever since continued. The spiritual 
monarchy of Rome sprang up soon after 
the declension of the Roman empire. The 
bishops of Rome affect to owe their origin 
to the appointment of St. Peter, who was 
considered as transferring the keys of 
heaven (figuratively consigned to his keep¬ 
ing) to them as his successors; hence they 
assumed a supremacy which was admitted 
by all the western Christians, but resisted 
by the eastern, who, in Greece, Turkey, and 
Russia, constitute a separate church, termed 
Greek, in distinction from that of the west, 
termed Latin. The vices of the clergy led, 
however, in the 14tli and 15th centuries, to 
schisms; and a personal quarrel between 
the pope and Henry VIII. of England in¬ 
duced the latter to assume the title of the 
head of (he Anglican church. Th c. Reforma¬ 
tion took place at that period, and its prin¬ 
ciples were adopted by many German 
princes, and by the northern sovereigns. 
The pope retains his spiritual ascendency 
throughout Italy,France, Belgium, Austria, 
Spain, and Portugal; and four-fifths of the 
Irish are Roman Catholics. He is a tem¬ 
poral prince, but his dominions are now 
reduced to the sovereignty of Rome, and 
a few provinces around that city. On 
the death of a pope his successor is ap¬ 
pointed from amongst the cardinals by the 
cardinals assembled in conclave. There 
are four modes of election :—1. By inspira¬ 
tion, when a number of cardinals call out a 
name as if on the impulse of the moment 
and under the direction of God. 2. By com¬ 
promise, when after long deliberation with¬ 
out result the cardinals agree to leave the 
nomination to one of their number.. 3. By 
scrutiny or ballot, when each cardinal writes 
the name of his nominee on a ticket which 
is deposited in a consecrated chalice. If, 
on an inspection of these tickets, it is 
found that any cardinal has obtained two- 
thirds of the votes, he is considered to be 
elected. If no onehas received the requisite 
number of votes, there remains another 
mode of proceeding: 4. By access, when any 
cardinal accedes to the vote of another, 
and alters his ticket accordingly so as to 
give the nominee the number of votes re¬ 
quired.—-Priests in the Greek church are 
termed Popes. 

POP'LAR (peuplier: Fr.; from populus: 
Lat.), the name of trees belonging to the 
genus Populus, nat. ord. Amentacecc. The 
commonest species in Britain are the black 
poplar (P. nigra), the white poplar or Abele 




























591 iLtterarg (£rca£ut*jn [porcupine 


(P. alba), and the Lombardy poplar (P. fasti- 
giata ). The aspen (P. tremula ) belongs to 
the genus. 

POP'LIN, in Commerce, a kind of flue- 
woven stuff made of silk and worsted. 

POP'PY (popig: Sax.), the name of plants 
belonging to the genus Papaver. From one 
species, P. somnifcrum, or white poppy, 
opium is collected. [See Opium.] 

POPULA'RES ( Lat., from populus, the 
people), the name of a party at Rome, who 
struggled to ingratiate themselves with the 
people, and sought, by extending the in¬ 
fluence and power of the latter, to increase 
their own. The Populares were opposed to 
the Optimates. [See Optimates.] 

POPULATION (populatio , from same), 
the aggregate number of people in any 
country. Owing to the progressive increase 
of births over deaths, the population is 
continually augmenting in most parts of 
the habitable world. ‘Countries,’ says 
Adam Smith, in his ‘ Wealth of Nations,’ 
‘are populous, not in proportion to the 
number of people whom their produce can 
clothe and lodge, but in proportion to that 
of those whom they can feed.’ A notion 
formerly existed that an increase of popu¬ 
lation was necessarily an advantage to a 
country; but it is now admitted that the 
increase is beneficial only when accom¬ 
panied by an increase in the means of sub¬ 
sistence. 


During the interval between 1851 and 1861 
more than 2,050,000 British subjects emi¬ 
grated to distaut places. The population of 
1801 doubled its numbers in 1852, but at the 
rate of increase during the last decennial 
period the population would double itself 
in 52 years. The boys born in England are 
in the proportion of 104,811 boys to 100,000 
girls, but from various causes the males 
become reduced in number, and the census 
of 1861 [gave 10,289,965 females to 9,770,259 
males. The number of families in 1861 was 
4,491,524, and the average number of per¬ 
sons in two families was about nine. It was 
found that there were on the average 344 
persons to each square mile.- Popula¬ 

tion op the World. The human race 
is thought to comprise about 1000 mil¬ 
lions of living persons, speaking 3064 lan¬ 
guages and professing 1100 forms of re¬ 
ligion. The average duration of human life 
is estimated at 33| years. One-fourth of 
the children born die before their seventh 
year, and one half before their seventeenth. 
About 330 millions of persons die every 
year, or one every second. 

POR'CELAIN (porcelaine :Fr.), a fine sort 
of earthenware, originally manufactured in 
China, and thence called china-ware. It is 
supposed to have been invented before our 
era. A combination of silex and alumina 
is the basis of porcelain; and with the 
addition of various proportions of other 
earths, and even of some metallic oxides, 
it forms the different varieties of pottery, 
from the finest porcelain to the coarsest 
earthenware. Though siliceous earth is the 
ingredient which is present in large pro¬ 
portion in these compounds, it is the argil¬ 
laceous which more particularly gives them 
their character; for this communicates 
plasticity to the mixture when soft, so that 
it may be moulded in any way, or even 
turned into any shape on the lathe, and 
renders it capable of being baked. Porce¬ 
lains differ much in their fineness and 
beauty. They are either of the p&te dur 
or p&te tendre, the hard quality being the 
oldest. Egg-shell porcelain is so called from 
its extreme thinness. Cracklinporcelain has 
a curious appearance, due to a cracking of 
the glaze in all directions, and a fllling-up 
of the cracks with a dark pigment. [See 
China-ware, Earthenware, &c.] 

PORCEL'LANITE, a species of jasper, a 
siliceous mineral of various colours. It is 
sometimes marked with vegetable impres¬ 
sions of a brick-red colour, and seems to be 
formed accidentally in coal-mines which 
have indurated and semi-vitrified beds of 
coal-shale or slate-clay. 

PORCH (porche: Fr.; from portions: 
Lat.), in Architecture, a kind of vestibule 
supported by columns, at the entrance of 
temples, halls, churches, or other build¬ 
ings.- a public portico in Athens, where 

Zeno the philosopher taught his disciples, 
was called, by way of distinction, the porch 
(Stoa). Hence, the porch, in classical litera¬ 
ture, is equivalent to the school of the Stoics. 

POR'CUPINE (pore, a hog; and (pine, a 
thorn: Fr.), the name of some rodent qua¬ 
drupeds belonging to the genus Eystrix. 
The common porcupine ( E. cristata) is a 


Population of England and T Vales, from the 
year 1700 to 1861. 



No. of 



No. of 

Year. 

Persons. 

Year. 


Persons. 

1700 . 

. 5,475,000 

1790 . 

• 

8,675,000 

1710 . 

. 5,240,000 

1801 . 

• 

9,168,000 

10,502,500 

1720 . 

. 5,650,000 
. 5,769,000 

1811 . 

• 

1730 . 

1821 . 


12,218,500 

1740 . 

. 6,064,000 

1831 . 


14,594,500 

1750 . 

. 6,467,000 

1841 . 


15,914,000 

1760 . 

. 6,736,000 
. 7,428,000 

1851 . 


18,000,000 

1770 . 

1861 . 


20,228,497 

1780 . 

. 7,953,000 





Scotland, 



1801 . 

. 1,652,400 

1841 . 


2,365,114 

2,870,784 

1811 . 

. 1,865,900 

1851 . 


1821 . 
1831 . 

. 2,135,300 
. 2,365,807 

1861 . 

* 

3,096,808 


Ireland. 



1821 . 

. 6,846,949 

1851 . 


6,515,794 

1831 . 

. 7,767,401 

1861 . 

• 

5,850,309 

1841 . 

. 8,175,238 




Total population of the United 

Kingdom in 1861 

• 


29,321,288 


Dividing the population into 100 parts, 
England and Wales have 69 parts, Scotland 
10 J parts, and Ireland nearly 20 , and the 
islands in the British seas have half such a 

part. 


Increase per cent, of the population of Great 
Britain at periods between 1700 and 1851. 


Between 1801 and 1811 . . 

. 14 

per cent 

it 

1811 „ 1821 . . 

• 17J 

99 

tt 

1821 h 1831 . . 

. 14 

99 

tt 

1700 „ 1851 . . 

. 175 

99 

99 

1851 „ 1861 . ,. 

. 12 

99 
































POTReI 


Cf)e J^ctenttfic miif 


592 


native of Asia and Africa. Its foreteeth 
are obliquely truncated, and it lias no canine 
teeth ; its ears are of a roundish form, and 
the body is covered with prickles or spines, 
and also with bristles like those of a hog. 
The spines, or quills, as they are also called, 
are of two kinds ; some being short, thick, 
strong, and sharp-pointed ; others longer, 
weaker, more flexible, and compressed at 
the point. The porcupine is capable of 
erecting them if attacked or in danger; 
but not of projecting them, as is some¬ 
times stated. It is a burrowing animal, 
and its habits are nocturnal. It feeds on 
vegetables. 

PORE (Fr.; from poros, literally a pas¬ 
sage : Gr.), a small aperture in the skin for 
perspiration ; so fine as to be invisible ex¬ 
cept by microscopes of great power, and so 
numerous that thousands of them exist 

within a very small space.-Also, a small 

opening in other organic bodies; as the 
pores in plants. 

rO'RISM (porisma, from porizo, I deduce : 
Gr.), a corollary; a name given by ancient 
geometers to certain propositions, which 
partake of the nature of both problems and 
theorems. The porism asserts that a cer¬ 
tain problem may become indeterminate, 
Rnd so far it partakes of the nature of a 
theorem ; in seeking to discover the condi¬ 
tions by which it may be effected, it par¬ 
takes of the nature of a problem. 

POR'PHYRY ( porphurites , literally pur¬ 
ple-coloured : Gr.), in Mineralogy, a rock 
composed of an earthy or compact base 
through which distinct crystals are dis¬ 
seminated. It is of igneous origin, usually 
very hard, and susceptible of a fine polish. 
The term was originally applied to the ex¬ 
tremely hard stone found in Egypt, of vari¬ 
ous shades, from a violet to a claret colour, 
variegated with white, the well-known 
Rosso antico. The extensive quarries from 
which the Romans obtained the porphyry 
they caused to be worked up into baths, 
columns, tazze, and architectural orna¬ 
ments, were situate in a mountain now 
called Gebel Doklian, which rises in the 
eastern desert of Upper Egypt between the 
Nile and the Gulf of Suez. It is probable 
that the greater part of a year was con¬ 
sumed in transporting an object from the 
quarries to Rome. They are now entirely 
deserted. 

POR'POISE {pore, a hog; and poisson, a 
fish : Fr.), the name of cetaceous mammals, 
belonging to the genus Phoccena, and allied 
to the dolphins. The common porpoise is 
known to every voyager, being frequently 
seen in packs, rolling over and over as they 
swim after shoals of herring and mackarel, 
which they drive before them. It also 
seeks food by rooting with its snout like a 
hog in the sand and mud. Its tough skin 
is of a bluish black colour, and this can be 
tanned and usefully applied. The blubber 
yields a pure oil. 

PORT (Fr.; from portus: Lat.), a haven, 
cove, inlet, or recess of the sea; in short, 
any commodious place situated on the sea- 
coast, or at the mouth of a river, screened 
from the wind, with depth of water suf¬ 
ficient for ships of burden, and where 


vessels may safely unload their cargoes. 
The word port is generally applied to spa¬ 
cious harbours much resorted to by ships, 
as the ports of London and Liverpool; and 
they may be either natural or greatly im¬ 
proved by art.- Pout, a kind of wine 

made in Portugal: so called from Oporto. 

PORT'AGE (Fr., from porter, to carry), a 
place on the rivers in Canada,, where rapids 
or cataracts prevent the passage of boats, 
and where, therefore, travellers are obliged 
to carry their goods over land until the 
stream becomes again navigable. 

PORTCUL'LIS (porlecoulisse: Fr ), in For¬ 
tification, a machine like a harrow, hung 
over the gateway of a fortified town. It is 
let down, in case of surprise, to prevent the 
entrance of an enemy. 

POR'TER, a kind of malt liquor made of 
high-dried malt, and characterized by its 
dark brown colour, its peculiar aromatic 
flavour, and its tonic and intoxicating qua¬ 
lities. Before the year 1730, the malt 
liquors in general use in London were ale, 
beer, and twhpenny ; and it was customary 
for the drinkers of malt liquor to call for a 
pint, or tankard, of half and half, that is, a 
half of ale and a half of beer, a half of ale 
and half of twopenny, or half of beer ind 
half of twopenny. In course of time, i', „tso 
became the practice to call for a pint, or 
tankard, of three threads, meaning a third 
of ale, of beer, and of twopenny ; and thus 
the publican had the trouble to go to three 
casks and turn three cocks for a pint of 
liquor. To avoid this inconvenience and 
waste, about 1722 a liquor was made which 
should partake of the united flavours of 
ale, beer, and twopenny, which was called 
entire or entire-butt; and as it was a 
very exhilarating and nourishing liquor, it 
was very suitable for porters and other 
working people: hence it obtained its 
present name. Some brewers colour their 
porter with burnt sugar; but in general 
they concentrate a quantity of their first 
and best wort to an extract in an iron pan, 
and burn this into a colowing stuff: by 
which they can lay claim to the merit of 
using nothing in their porter but malt and 
hops. 

PORT'-FIRE, in Gunnery, a paper tube, 
about ten inches in length, filled with a 
composition consisting of meal-powder, 
sulphur, and nitre, rammed moderately 
hard. It is used with guns and mortars in¬ 
stead of a match. 

PORT'GLAIVE (porte-glaive , a sword- 
bearer : Fr.), one who formerly carried the 
sword before a prince or governor. 

PORT'GREVE, or PORT'REEVE (port, a 
harbour; and gere/a, a governor: Sox.), in 
former times, the chief magistrate of a port 
or maritime town. This officer is now 
styled either mayor or bailiff. According to 
Camden, the chief magistrate of London 
was anciently called portgreve, but that 
officer was changed by Richard I. for two 
bailiffs; and these gave place in the reign 
of John to a mayor. 

PORT'HOLES, the openings or embra¬ 
sures in the sides of ships of war, through 
which guns are run out. 

POR'TICO (Ital.; from porticus: Lat.), in 


















593 


ilttcmvy Ctreasury. 


Architecture, a range of columns support¬ 
ing a roof, and affording a space where 
people may walk under cover. Though this 
word is ultimately derived from porta, a 
gate or door, it is used for any arrange¬ 
ment of columns which forms a gallery.— 
The Athenians were magnificent in their 
porticos. Poets and philosophers recited 
their works and held their disputations 
in them. Their most famous portico was 
that called Pcecile, which was, in fact, a 
picture gallery, adorned with the works of 

the greatest masters.-The word portico is 

sometimes applied to any place for walking 
under shelter, though constructed with 
arches; but it is more accurately confined 
to a projection in front of a building, sup¬ 
ported on columns. 

PORT'LAND STONE, a granular lime¬ 
stone, belonging to the upper portion of 
the oolite formation, obtained in the isle of 
Portland, on the coast of Dorsetshire. 

PORT'LAND VASE, a celebrated cine¬ 
rary urn, found in the tomb of the emperor 
Alexander Severus, and his mother Mam- 
miea. It was first in the possession of 
the Barberini family at Rome; whence 
it came into that of the Portland family, 
who, in 1810, deposited it in the British 
Museum. It is said to be of glass, is of a 
deep blue colour, and the figures are white. 
Wedgwood made a number of copies of it 
closely resembling the original. 

POSE' (placed: Fr. 1, in Heraldry, a lion, 
horse, or other beast, standing still, with all 
his four feet on the ground. 

POSI'DEUM, or POSI'DEON (Poseidedn : 
Or.), in Ancient Chronology, the sixth 
month of the Athenian year, which con¬ 
sisted of thirty days, and answered to the 
latter part of December and beginning of 
January. The name was due to a festival in 
honour of Neptune Posidonius, which was 
celebrated during that month. 

POSI'TION (positio, a placing: Lat.), in 
Arithmetic, called also the 'rule of false, 
a rule which, by the use of one or more 
assumed but false numbers, enables us to 

find the number sought.- Position, in 

Geometry, is a term sometimes used in 
contradistinction from magnitude; thus, 
a line is said to be given in position when 
its situation, bearing, or direction, with 
regard to some other line, is defined; on 
the contrary, a line is given in magnitude 
when its length is stated but not its situa¬ 
tion.- Position, in Logic, the ground¬ 

work or proposition on which an argument 
is raised. 

POS'ITIVE ( positus, placed : Lat.), a term 
of relation sometimes opposed to negative; 
[ hence, a positive quantity, in Algebra, is a 
quantity opposed to that which is negative. 
( Thus, if the latter represent a debt, a posi- 
f tive quantity will represent money in pos- 
| session, or to which one has a claim ; if it 
represent motion towards the south, a posi- 
I tive quantity will represent motion towards 
the north. Negative quantities are just as 
| real as positive, and it is absurd to suppose 
that in any case they can be less than no¬ 
thing. If I owe money beyond what I am 
able to pay, my condition is negative, and I 
am worse off than if I simply possessed 


[POSTAGE 


nothing—the debt is a reality. If I intend 
to go westward, and by mistake go eastward, 
my position with regard to my destination 
has become negative, but the distance tra¬ 
versed by mistake is a reality. Positive 
quantities are designated by the charac¬ 
ter -I- prefixed or supposed to be prefixed 
to them.- Positive Degree, in Gram¬ 

mar, the adjective in its simple significa¬ 
tion, without comparison or relation to 
increase or diminution: as, good, bad, &c. 

- Positive Electricity, a term applied | 

to the electricity of bodies supposed to con¬ 
tain more than their natural quantity. Posi¬ 
tive electricity, being that produced by rub¬ 
bing glass, is called also vitreous; negative 
electricity, produced by rubbing amber or 
resin, being called resinous. 

POSOL'OGY (posos, how much ? and logos, 
a statement: Gr.), in Medicine, the science 
or doctrine of preparing and administering 
doses. 

POS'SE COMITA'TUS (posse, to be able; 
and comitatds, belonging to the county: 
Mod. Lat .—the power of the county), in Law, ! 
the armed power of the county, or the at¬ 
tendance of all persons charged by the 
sheriff to assist him in the suppression of 
riots, &c. It includes all males above fif¬ 
teen years of age within the county, except 
ecclesiastical persons, peers, and such as 
labour under any infirmity. 

POSSES'SION ( possessio: Lat.), in Law, 
the holding or occupying of anything, 
either de jure or de facto. Possession de 
jure is the title a man has to enjoy a thing, 
though it is in the actual possession of an¬ 
other; or the title which a person has when 
lands are descended to him and he has not 
yet entered into them. Possession de facto, 
or actual possession, is where there is an 
actual and effectual enjoyment of a thing. 
Long undisturbed possession is presump¬ 
tive proof of right or property in the pos- 
sessor. 

POSSES'SIVE CASE (posscssivus, relating 
to possession : Lat.), in English Grammar, 
the genitive case, or case of nouns and pro¬ 
nouns, which either denotes ownership, as 
John’s book (a book belonging to JohD); or 
some relation of one thing to another, as 
Byron's admirers (those who admire the | 
writings of Byron). 

POST (after), a Latin preposition used in 
composition with several English words, 
and generally implying a relation of poste¬ 
riority. 

POST (poste: Fr.), a messenger or carrier 
of letters ; one that goes at stated times to 
convey the mail and despatches.-A mili¬ 
tary station.-A public office or employ¬ 
ment.-The name of a sort of writing- 

paper much used for letters .—To ride post 
is to be employed to carry despatches and 
papers,and consequently to ride with speed. 
Hence, to travel post is to travel expedi¬ 
tiously by the aid of fresh horses taken at 
certain stations.- To post, in Book-keep¬ 

ing, is to carry accounts from the waste- 
book or journal to the ledger. 

POST'AGE (same deriv.), the duty or 
charge imposed on letters or parcels con¬ 
veyed by post. This charge is at present 
only one penny for each letter not exceed- 
Q Q __ 






























Et)c Jprienttftc rcntf 594 


post-date] 


iiig half an ounce in weight, from any part 
of Great Britain and Ireland to any other 
part, and in proportion for other weights. 
Great facilities are now afforded, at very 
moderate rates, for the transmission of 
books, and also of money. 

PO'ST-DATE, to date after the real time ; 
as to post-date a bill or a contract, that is, 
to date it after the true time of drawing 
the one or making the other. There is a 
penalty of 1001. for post-dating bills, &c., on 
stamps which do not cover the real term. 
Bankers’ cheques must not be post-dated 
unless on a bill stamp, under the same 
penalty. 

POST-DISSE'ISIN, in Law, a writ which 
was formerly issued for the purpose of 
putting in possession a person who had 
been disseised after a judgment to recover 
the same lands of the same person, under 
the statute of Merton. 

POS'TEA (afterwards: Lat.), in Law, the 
return of a record of the proceedings in a 
cause, after a trial and verdict by writ of 
nisiprius, into the court after a verdict. 
The entry of the result of the trial upon 
the record commences with this word. 

POS'TERN (posterne: Fr.), in Fortifica¬ 
tion, a small gate, usually in the angle of 
the flank of a bastion, or in that of the cur¬ 
tain descending into the ditch. 

POST'HUMOUS (posthumus: from post, 
after; and humus, the earth : Lat.— after 
interment), born after the death of afather. 
Also, published after the death of the au¬ 
thor ; as posthuvious works. 

POS'TIL (posttlla, afterwards: Lat.), a 
marginal note; originally, a note in the 
margin of the Bible; so called because 
written after the text. 

POSTLIMIN'IUM (Lat.: from post, after; 
and limen, the threshold), among the Ro¬ 
mans, the return to his own country of a 
person who had gone to sojourn in a foreign 
country, or who had been banished or taken 
by an enemy-In the modern law of na¬ 

tions, the right of postliminy is that by 
virtue of which persons and things taken 
by an enemy in war are restored to their 
former state, when coming again under 
the power of the nation to which they be¬ 
longed. But this cannot extend in all cases 
to personal effects, on account of the diffi¬ 
culty of ascertaining their identity. 

POST'MASTER, the officer who has the 
superintendence and direction of a post- 

office.- The postmaster-general is the chief 

officer of the post-office department, whose 
duty is to make contracts for the convey¬ 
ance of the public mails and see that they 
are executed ; and who receives and is ac¬ 
countable for the moneys arising from the 
postage of letters, pays the expenses, and 
superintends the whole. It is usual to 
appoint a peer to this office, and he retires 
with the ministry. The chief secretary is 
the person by whom the duties are princi¬ 
pally performed. 

POST MOR'TEM (after death: Lat.), an 
epithet applied to an inspection and exami¬ 
nation of the body of a deceased person, 
for the purpose of ascertaining the cause 
of death. 

POST'-NOTE, in Commerce, a bank-note 


intended to be transmitted to a distant 
place by the public mail, and made pay¬ 
able to order ; differing in this from a com¬ 
mon bank-note, which is payable to the 

hearer. 

POST'-OFFICE, an establishment for the 
reception, conveyance, and delivery of let¬ 
ters, &c. Posts were established for the 
first time in modern Europe by Louis XI. 
of France, in 1479; and were originally 
intended to serve merely for the convey¬ 
ance of public despatches, an„d of persons 
travelling by authority of government. 
But the great convenience afforded to indi¬ 
viduals, particularly as commercial trans¬ 
actions multiplied and extended, by a 
safe, regular, and speedy communication 
between distant parts of the country, in¬ 
duced the government to convert it into a 
source of public revenue. In 1635, Charles 
I. ex - ected a letter-office for England and 
Scotland; it extended to only a few of 
the principal roads, the times of carriage 
were uncertain, and the postmasters on 
each road were required to furnish horses 
for the conveyance of the letters at 2i d. a 
mile. The plan did not eventually succeed; 
but it led to an establishment for the con¬ 
veyance of letters to all parts of the king¬ 
dom, weekly, in 1649, under the common¬ 
wealth. In 1657, the post-office was estab¬ 
lished very nearly as it was before the 
recent changes; and the rates of postage 
that were then fixed were continued till the 
reign of queen Anne. But instead of im¬ 
proving, the post gradually became less ex¬ 
peditious; and in I784,wlien a journey from 
London to Bath was made by the diligences 
in 17 hours, the post took 40 hours I and on 
other roads the rate of travelling bore about j 
the same proportion. Under these circum¬ 
stances, it occurred to Mr. John Palmer, of 
Bath, comptroller-general of the post-office, 
that a very great improvement might bo 
made in the conveyance of letters, in re¬ 
spect of economy, as well as of speed and 
safety, by contracting with the proprietors 
of the coaches for the carriage of the mail: 
the latter being bound to perform the jour¬ 
ney in a specified time, and take a guard 
with the mail for its protection. Railways 
have increased in an extraordinary degree 
the speed with which letters are trans- | 
mitted. The journey from London to Liver¬ 
pool, by the mail coach, took about twenty- 
two hours : it is now accomplished in eight 
or less. The Post-office Act (1839), which 
recognizes the expediency of one uniform 
postage, is now in operation; the rate 
being one penny for all inland letters not 
exceeding half an ounce in weight; two- i 
pence for those not exceeding one our^e; 
fourpence for those not exceeding two 
ounces; and so on, if not exceeding sixteen 
ounces, except in certain specified cases. 
Newspapers require only a penny stamp for 
transmission from one part of Great Britain 
to another; they must be open at each end ; 
any writing or enclosure subjects them to 
a treble postage. They require only the 
same stamp when sent to the British colo¬ 
nies, if put into a post-office within fifteen 
days of publication ; or if sent to countries 
with which there is a postal arrangement 





























695 3Utcm*n &m3ttrju [pound 

Books and deeds may now also be sent to 
all parts of tlie empire and the colonies, if 
enclosed in envelopes open at each end, 
at very moderate rates; and probably the 
penny postage scheme will soon be extended 
to all parts of the civilized world. The 
heavy postage was to a great extent evaded 
[see Franking-] ; nevertheless the revenue 
has not yet been beneflted by the change. 
In 1838 the net receipt from the post- 
office was 1,659,5101., in 1865 it was only 
1,500,0001. 

POST'SCRIPT (postscribo , I write after : 
Lat,), an addition made to a letter after it 

is concluded and signed by the writer.- 

Also, any addition made to a literary per¬ 
formance after it has been supposed to be 
finished, containing something omitted or 
something which subsequently occurs to 
the writer. 

POST'ULATES ( postulatum , a demand: 
Lat.), fundamental principles in any art or 
science, which are too simple and obvious 
to need demonstration, and are therefore 
assumed or taken for granted. 

POTAR'GO, a kind of pickle imported 
from the West Indies. 

POT'ASH ( potasse: Fr .), in Chemistry, 
the name of a vegetable fixed alkali. It is 
procured, in an unrefined state, from the 
ashes of certain plants, by lixivation and 
evaporation ; the residue after evaporation 
is purified in a crucible or furnace, and the 
extractive substance burnt off or dissi¬ 
pated. Refined potash is called pearlasli; 
it is an impure carbonate of potassa. [See 
next.] 

POTAS'SIUM, in Chemistry, a substance 
procured by passing a galvanic current 
through potash, of which it is the metallic 
basis, and still more conveniently by other 
means. It is remarkable for its low spec, 
grav., which is only 0865; it is therefore 
lighter than water, and, when thrown into 
that fluid, it takes fire spontaneously on 
account of its extraordinary affinity for 
oxygen, and floats about in a state of igni¬ 
tion. At the ordinary temperature of the 
atmosphere it is solid ; at 80° it becomes 
soft; and at 150° liquid, in which state it 
resembles mercury in appearance. In the 
atmosphere it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and 
becomes protoxide or potassa: heated in 
oxygen, it becomes peroxide, which is at 
once changed by water into the protoxide. 
The latter is as a hydrate in what is called 
caustic potash; which may be obtained by 
removing the carbonic acid from the car¬ 
bonate with caustic lime and water, evapo¬ 
rating the solution, and fusing the residue. 
Potassium burns with great splendour in 
chlorine. It must be kept immersed in 
naphtha, or some other fluid containing no 
oxygen, or it will speedilj lose its metallic 
state. As potassium has the most powerful 
affinity for oxygen of all substances Mown, 
it takes it from every other compound, and 
hence is a most important agent in chemical 
8,119 lysis. 

POTATO, the wholesome and nutritive 
root of the Solanum tuberosum, a native of 
America. It was introduced into the British 
dominions by Sir Walter Raleigh in the 16th 
century. 

POTENTIAL MOOD, in Grammar, that 
form of the verb which Is used to express 
the possibility of an action, as, I may go, he 
can sing. 

POT'STONE, in Mineralogy, a tough 
variety of steatite, the Lapis ollaris of 
Pliny. It is sometimes made into culinary 
vessels. 

POT'TERN ORE, in Mineralogy, a species 
of ore which hasbeen so called by the miners 
on account of its tendency to vitrefy like 
the glazing of potter’s ware. 

POTTERY, the manufacture of earthen 
pots, or earthenware in general, but par¬ 
ticularly of the coarser species. The better 
kinds of pottery, called in this country 
Staffordshire ware, are made of an artificial 
mixture of alumina and silica; the former 
obtained in the form of a fine clay, chiefly 
from Devonshire ; and the latter consisting 
of chert or flint, which has been heated 
red-hot, and quenched in water. Each 
material, carefully powdered and sifted, is 
diffused through water, mixed by measure, 
and brought to a due consistency by eva¬ 
poration; it is then highly plastic, and is 
formed upon the potter’s wheel or lathe into 
various circular vessels, or moulded into 
other forms, which, after liavingbeen dried 
in a warm room, are enclosed in baked clay 
vessels, resembling band-boxes, and called 
seggars; these are ranged in the kiln so 
as nearly to fill it, leaving only space 
enough for the fuel; the ware is kept 
red-hot for a considerable time, and is 
thus brought to the state of biscuit. This 
is afterwards glazed; which is done by 
dipping it into a mixture of about 60 
parts of litharge, 10 of clay, and 20 of 
ground flint, diffused in water to a creamy 
consistence; when taken out, enough ad¬ 
heres to the piece to give a uniform 
glazing, when it is again heated. The 
pieces are then again packed up in the 
seggars, with small bits of pottery inter¬ 
posed between them, and fired in a kiln as 
before. The glazing mixture fuses at a 
very moderate heat, and gives a uniform 
glossy coating, which finishes the process 
when ordinary white ware Is to be made. 
[See Earthenware.] The blue patterns, 
so common on account of the facility with 
which cobalt is applied, are generally first 
printed on paper, which is attached to the 
article while it is in the state of biscuit, 
and the colour transfers itself when heat is 
applied; other mineral substances are some¬ 
times put on in the same way. The work 
of the porcelain manufacturer is one which 
requires great skill, and is highly interest¬ 
ing ; his art owes more to chemistry than 
perhaps any other. 

POUL'PE. [See Octopus.] 

POUNCE (ponzone: Ital.), gum-sandarach 
pulverized ; a fine powder used to prevent 
ink from spreading on paper. There is also 
a kind of pounce, used by embroiderers and 
lace-makers, which consists of coloured 
powders enclosed in muslin, &c. It is passed 
over holes pricked in the work, to mark the 

lines or designs on a paper underneath.- 

Pounces, in Falconry, the talons or claws 
of a bird of prey. 

POUND (pund: Sax.; from pondus, a 



































pourfresture] 


EIjC ^cfcuttfxc attU 


598 


weight: Lat.), a weight containing 12 
ounces troy, and 10 avoirdupois. It also 
denotes a money of account; so called be- 
tause the ancient pound of silver weighed a 

pound troy.- Pound ( pynan , to confine : 

Sax.), any enclosed place, erected by autho¬ 
rity, in which cattle are con fined when taken 
trespassing, or going at large, in violation 
of law. A common pound is kept in every 
township, lordship, or village; and it is said 
there ought to be one in every parish, the 
want of which is punishable in a court-leet. 
The pound-keeper is bound to receive any 
animal brought to him, and is not answer- 
I able if it is illegally impounded. 

POURPRES'TURE (pourpris, an enclo¬ 
sure : Fr.), in Law, the appropriation of any¬ 
thing which ought not to be appropriated ; 
but specially any encroachment on a high¬ 
way, by the erection of a shed, or the mak¬ 
ing of a projecting window, &c. 

POW'ER (pouvoir: Fr.), in Mechanics, 
signifies those simple mechanical contriv¬ 
ances intended to render power more effec¬ 
tive. Also, any force which, applied to a 
machine, sets it in motion. The use in 
mechanics of the word power in two senses 
is productive of some inconvenience. In 
the former sense there are six mechanical 
powers, reducible to two : the lever, pulley, 
and wheel and axle, reducible to the lever; 
the inclined plane, wedge, and screw, re¬ 
ducible to the inclined plane. In the latter, 
there are many powers : gravity, acting in 
the form of weights ; elasticity, in springs; 
the strength of animals; wind, water, heat 
—particularly in the application of steam. 
A power is rarely suited precisely to the 
production of the effect intended. The ac¬ 
tion of gravity is modified by the pendu¬ 
lum ; the varying force of a spring, by the 
fusee; the reciprocating motion imparted 
by steam is changed by the crank into ro¬ 
tary ; and the irregularities of the crank 

itself are corrected by the fly-wheel.- 

Power, in Arithmetic and Algebra, the 
product of any quantity multiplied by itself 
some number of times. Thus, the second 
power or square of 5 is 25, or 5 multiplied 
by 5 ; the third power or cube of a is the 
product of three a’s multiplied together, 
hriefiv expressed by a 3 , &c. 

POW'ER OF ATTOR'NEY.in Law, an in¬ 
strument by which one party empowers an¬ 
other to perform certain acts for him, either 
generally or for a particular purpose. 

POW'ERS, GREAT, of Europe, in Di¬ 
plomacy, England, Prance, Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia. 

FOW'TER, an appellation given to a cer¬ 
tain kind of pigeon which has a habit of 
swelling up its neck when it is displeased. 

POY'NING’S LAW. Several laws were 
called by this name; but the most import- 
tant was an act of parliament made under 
Henry VII., by which the law of England 
became in force in Ireland. It derived its 
name from Sir Edward Poyning, then lord- 
lieutenant of Ireland. 

PRACTICE, in Arithmetic, a rule which 
abridges the operations in proportion, by 
facilitating the multiplication of quantities 
containing different denominations: as 
pounds, shillings, pence, &c.; yards, feet, 


inches, &c.- Practice of the Courts, 

in Law, the form and manner of conducting 
or carrying on suits at law or in equity. 

PR/E-AD'AMITES, those who are sup¬ 
posed, by some writers, to have inhabited 
the earth before Adam. 

PR/E'CIPE IN CAP'ITE, in Law, a writ 
issuing out of the court of chancery, for a 
tenant who held of the king in chief, as of 
his crown, and not as of any honour, castle, 
or manor. 

PR/ECIPTTA'TIO de Robore (Lat), in 
Antiquity, a capital punishment among the 
Romans, which consisted in throwing the 
criminal headlong from that part of the 
prison which was called the robur. 

PR.ECOG'NITA (Lat.), things which are 
to be previously known in order to under¬ 
stand something else. Thus, a knowledge 
of the structure of the human body is one 
of the prcecognita of medical science and 
skill. 

PR/E'LECTURE (prmfectura: Lat.), in 
Antiquity, an appellation given to certain 
towns in Italy, whose inhabitants had the 
name of Roman citizens, but were not allow¬ 
ed to enjoy either their own laws or magis¬ 
trates, being governed by annual prefects 
sent from Rome. These were generally | 
such places as were suspected, or had in i 
some way or other incurred the displeasure 
of the state. The title of prefect (prce.- 
fectns) was given to many officers in ancient 
Rome. 

PREMUNFRE (for prcemoneri, to be 
forewarned : Lat.), in Law, a species of of¬ 
fence, consisting of a contempt of the king 
and his government. It derives its name 
from the words at the beginning of the 
writ issued preparatory to prosecution, 
promoneri or prcemoneri facias (you will 
cause to be warned). The first statute of 
this nature was passed in the reign of 
Edward I., to restrain the encroachments 
of the Roman Catholic clergy ; and others 
were subsequently enacted, previous to the 
reformation, relating to the assumption of 
authority in England by virtue of papal 
and other foreign provisions. But later 
statutes under this name affect very mis¬ 
cellaneous acts; and among them, the re¬ 
fusing to take the oaths of allegiance and 
supremacy, &c. 

PRiENO'MEN {pro;, before; and nomen: 
Lat.), that name among the ancient Romans 
which, like our Christian name, stood be¬ 
fore thegenti/eorfamily name, and served to 
distinguish brothers, &c., from each other; 
as Caius, Lucius, Marcus, Julius, &c. Care 
was generally taken, in conferring thep?vu- 
nomen, to give that of the father to the 
eldest son, that of the grandfather to the 
second, and so on. The prcenomen was not 
brought into use till long after the nomen , 
or family name. The word was also used 
to indicate a title prefixed to a name. 

PI’iETEX'TA, or Toga Pr/etexta (Lat., 
from prce.texo, I border), a long white robe, 
with a broad purple border, originally ap¬ 
propriated to the Roman magistrates and 
some of the priests, but afterwards worn 
by children of quality—by boys till the age 
of seventeen, when they assumed the toga 
virilis; and by girls till they were married. 



























5 97 


Utterly CrcrtSurM. 


PR^E'TOR (Lat., for praeitor, from prci-eo, 
I precede), a chief magistrate among the 
Romans, instituted for the administration 
of justice in the city in the absence of the 
consuls. The office of preetor was estab¬ 
lished in the year of the city 388, the con¬ 
suls being at that time wholly engaged in 
foreign wars. The institution was intended 
also to compensate the nobility for the loss 
of their exclusive right to the consulship, 
to which honour the commons had now 
put in their claim, and succeeded. But 
this office also was thrown open to the 
plebeians, A.u. 418. Only one praetor was 
appointed until a.u. 519, from which time 
there were two—one, the preetor urbanus, 
for administering justice to the citizens 
of Rome; the other, the preetor peregrinus, 
for administering justice in places at a 
distance. When Sicily and Sardinia were 
formed into provinces, two more were 
created to govern them ; and two more 
when hither and farther Spain were subju¬ 
gated. Like the consuls, the praetors ob¬ 
tained their provinces by lot. Under the 
emperors, their privileges were greatly di¬ 
minished. The praetor decreed and pro¬ 
claimed public feasts; had the power to 
make and repeal laws, with the approbation 
of the senate and the people; and kept a 
register of all the freed men who were 
enfranchised at Rome. In the absence of 
the consuls, he had a right to lead the 
armies; he also commanded the quaestors, 
who served him as lieutenants, and were 
charged with part of the business of his 
office. He was entitled to the praetexta, 
the curuie chair, and two lictors to walk 
before him in Rome, and six when out of 
the city. 

PRiETORIA'NI, Pr^tori^: Cohortes 
(from last), or Praetorian Guards, the empe¬ 
ror’s guards, who in time were increased to 
ten thousand. The Prcetorian bands owed 
their first institution to Scipio Africanus, 
who chose for his guards a company of the 
bravest men in his army; but in time they 
became very inimical to the liberties of 
their country. They were reorganized by 
Severus, and altogether disbanded by Dio¬ 
cletian. Their commander was called the 
praetorian prefect; and as the government 
gradually changed into a military despo¬ 
tism, he became the head of the army, 
the provinces, and even superior to the 
law. 

PRJETO'RITJM (same deriv.), among the 
Romans, the hall or court where the praetor 
administered justice. It was also the name 
of his palace. 

PRAGMAT'IC SANCTION, in the Civil 
Law, a rescript or answer of the sovereign, 
delivered by advice of his council to some 
college, order, or body of people who con¬ 
sult him in relation to the affairs of their 
community. A similar answer given to an 

Individual is called simply a rescript.- 

The term pragmatic sanction was applied to 
the ordinance of Charles VII. of France, in 
1438, which formed the foundation of the 
liberties of the Gallican church ; also to the 
arrangement made by Charles VI., emperor 
of Germany, when, having no sons, in 1722 
he settled his hereditary dominions on his 


[precedent 


eldest daughter, the Archduchess Maria 
Theresa. 

PRA'IRIE (a meadow : Fr.), a %vord used 
to designate the remarkable natural mea¬ 
dows, or plains, which are principally found 
in the Mississippi valley. North America. 
They are classed as follows :—l. The heathy 
or bushy, which have springs, and are 
covered with small shrubs, bushes, grape 
vines, &c., very common in Indiana, Illi¬ 
nois, and Missouri. 2. The dry or rolling, 
generally destitute of water, and almost all 
vegetation but grass. These are the most 
common and extensive: the traveller may 
wander for days in these vast and nearly 
level plains, without wood or water, and see 
no object rising above the horizon. In this 
kind of prairies roam immense herds of 
bisons. 3. The alluvial, or wet prairies, form 
the third and smallest division ; they are 
covered with a rich vegetation, and have a 
black, deep, and friable soil, of inexhausti¬ 
ble fertility ; in a state of nature they are 
covered with tall rank grass, and in the 
rainy season are frequently overflowed, or 
contain numerous pools, the waters of which 
pass off solely by evaporation. 

PRAM, or PRAAM, a flat-bottomed boat 
or lighter, used in Holland for conveying 
goods to or from a ship in loading or un¬ 
loading. Also a v kind of floating battery 
mounting several cannon, used in covering 
the disembarkation of troops. 

PRATI'QUE (Fr.), in Commerce, a license 
or permission to hold intercourse and trade 
with the inhabitants of a place, after having 
performed quarantine, or upon a certificate 
that the ship has not come from an infected 
place. 

TRE'AMBLE (priambule: Fr.; from pree- 
ambulo, I walk before: Lat.), in Law,- the 
introductory matter to a statute, which 
contains the reasons for making the enact¬ 
ment. 

PREB'END (prSbende: Fr.), the stipend 
or maintenance a prebendary receives out 
of the estate of a cathedral or collegiate 
church. There are several prebendaries 
attached to such churches, who reside and 
officiate in rotation. Prebends are simple 
or dignitary : a simple prebend has merely 
the revenue destined for its support; but a 
prebend with dignity has always a jurisdic¬ 
tion annexed to it. 

PREB'ENDARY (from last), an ecclesi¬ 
astic who enjoys a prebend. The differenc * 
between a prebendary and a canon is, that 
the latter obtains bis prebend in considera¬ 
tion of his officiating in the church ; but 
the former merely in consequence of his 
being admitted among the clergy of the 
cathedral, and without his enjoying, neces¬ 
sarily, any stipend from it. 

PRECE'DENCE (pneccdo, I go before: 
Lat.), by custom and courtesy, the right to 
taking place before another; which is de¬ 
termined by authority, and followed ex¬ 
actly on all public occasions of processions 
and the like. 

PREC'EDENT (prcecedens, going before 
Lat.), in Law, a judicial decision, which 
serves as a rule for future determinations 
in similar or analogous cases.- Prece¬ 

dent also frequently denotes an original 




















precentor] 


HLfye anfr 


598 


authentic instrument or writing, which 
serves as an exemplar from which to draw 
others. 

PRECENTOR ( prceccntor: Lat.), the chan¬ 
ter or master of the choir in a cathedral. 

PRE'CEPT ( prceceptum: Lat.), in Law, a 
command in writing sent by a justice of 
the peace, &c., for the purpose of bringing 
a person, record, or other matter before 
him. In a general sense, a precept signifies 
anything laid down as an authoritative rule 
of action ; but it is applied particularly to 
commands respecting moral conduct. 

PRECES'SION OF THE EQ'UINOXES 
(prceccdo, I go before : Lat.), in Astronomy, 
a motion of the axis of the earth, by which 
the equinoctial points, or nodes, recede, 
with reference to the stars. The pole, the 
solstices, the equinoxes, and all the other 
points of the ecliptic, have a retrograde 
motion, and are constantly moving from 
east to west, or from Aries towards Pisces, 
&c.; by means of which the equinoctial 
points are carried further and further back 
among the preceding signs or stars, at the 
rate of about 50‘1" each year. This retro¬ 
grade motion is called the precession, re¬ 
cession, or retrocession of the equinoxes. 
It is caused by the combined action of the 
sun and moon on the mass of matter accu¬ 
mulated about the earth’s equator, and 
forming the excess of the terrestrial sphe¬ 
roid above its prescribed sphere; and the 
motion which produces it maybe compared 
to that of a top made to rotate rapidly with 
its axis inclined to the horizon. The axis, 
in such a case, slowly revolves about a ver- 
j tical line, describing a cone. Any section of 
| the top perpendicular to its axis will, if 
j produced to mdet the horizon, at every in- 
[ stant intersect it in a new line ; and the line 
of intersection will revolve with a motion 
corresponding to that of the axis of the 
top, but in a direction opposite to that of 
rotation. The precession of the equinoxes 
was discovered by Hipparchus, a century 
and a half before the Christian era; though 
it is alleged that the astronomers of India 
had discovered it long before. [See Equi¬ 
noxes.] 

PRECIP'ITATE, anything thrown out of 
a combination of which it is a constituent, 
on the addition of a substance capable of 
producing a new combination with the 
other constituents. Thus if lime be added 
to a solution of sulphate of magnesia, mag¬ 
nesia is precipitated, being displaced by 
j the lime which enters into combination 
j with the acid. One metal may also be pre¬ 
cipitated by another. At the Mint plates 
of copper are immersed in solutions of sul- 
j phate of silver, and metallic silver is thrown 
| down, the acid combining with the copper 
I to form a sulphate. At the mines of Frey- 
j burg metallic silver is obtained byagjtat-' 
j ing chloride of silver with scrap-iron. The 
iron enters into combination with the 
j chlorine and turns out the silver. When 
sulphate of antimony is fused with scrap- 
iron the iron unites with the sulphur, and 
turns out the antimony. The metals alu¬ 
minium and magnesium are obtained by 
fusing the chlorides with metallic sodium, 
when the latter combines with the chlorine 

i • • .. .— 


and turns out the aluminium or magne¬ 
sium. 

PREDESTINATION (prcedcstinatio, a de¬ 
termining beforehand : Lat.), in Theology, 
a term used to denote the pre-ordination of 
men by the Supreme Being to everlasting 
happiness or misery. One who believes in 
this doctrine is called a predestinarian. 
[See Calvinism.] 

PRE'DICABLE (prcedico, I declare : Lat.), 
in Logic, a term which can be predicated of 
several others. There are said to be five 
predicables : genus, species, difference, pro¬ 
perty, and accident. Notions expressed by 
such terms are formed by the faculty termed 
abstraction. 

PREDIC'AMENT (same deriv.), in Logic, 
a category. Scholastic philosophers distri¬ 
bute all the objects of our thoughts and 
ideas into genera or classes, which the 
Greeks call categories, and the Latins predi¬ 
caments. 

PRED'ICATE (same deriv.), In Logic, that 
part of a proposition which affirms or de¬ 
nies something of the subject: thus, in 
‘ snow is white, ink is not white,’ whiteness 
is the predicate affirmed of snow and denied 
of ink. 

PRE-EMP'TION (prceemptio: Lat.), the 
right of purchasing before others. 

PREEN, to clean, arrange, and dres3 the 
feathers, as is done by birds, to enable them 
to glide more easily through the air or 
water. For this purpose they are furnished 
with two glands on the rump, which se¬ 
crete an oily substance in a bag, from 
which they draw it with the bill, and spread 
it over the feathers. 

PRE'FIX Iprcefixus, set up in front: Lat.), 
or Affix, in Grammar, a particle put to the 
beginning of a word, either to vary its form 
or alter its signification. 

PREHEN'SILE(prc/icns 2 ts, grasped :Lat.), 
adapted to seize or grasp. Thus, we say, 
the tails of some monkeys are prehensile. 

PREHN'ITE, a mineral of a greenish co¬ 
lour, allied to the Zeolites, and originally 
discovered at the Cape of Good Hope by 
Prehn. It has been called shorl, emerald, 
clirysopra’se, felspath, chrysolite, and zeo¬ 
lite. It is massive or crystallized, but the 
form of its crystals cannot be determined 
in consequence of their aggregation. 

PREJ'UDICE (Fr.; from prcejudico, I de¬ 
cide beforehand : Lat.), a judgment neither 
founded upon, no consistent with, reason; 
the error of ignorance, weakness, or idle¬ 
ness. It is the enemy of all truth, know¬ 
ledge, and improvement, and is the blind¬ 
ness of the mind, rendering its powers 
not only useless but mischievous. Innu¬ 
merable are the prejudices we imbibe in our 
youth ; we are accustomed to believe with¬ 
out reflection, and to receive opinions from j 
others without examining the grounds by 
which they are supported. 

PREL'ATE (proilatus, carried in front: 1 
Lat.— distinguished), an ecclesiastic raised 
to some eminent dignity in the church, as 
a bishop or archbishop. The office or dig¬ 
nity of a prelate is called a prelacy. 

PRELIM'INARY(p?ce, before; and limen, 
the threshold: Lat.— before the commence¬ 
ment), in general, denotes something to b« 

































599 Etterarn 


examined and determined before an affair 
can be treated effectually. The prelimi¬ 
naries of peace consist chiefly in settling the 
powers of ambassadors, and points which 
may be in dispute must be determined pre¬ 
vious to the treaty itself. 

PREMTElt (the llrst: Fr.), the name 
usually given to the prime minister of 
England. 

PREM'ISES (preemissus, sent in advance : 
Lat.), in Logic, the first two propositions of 
a syllogism, from which the inference or 
conclusion is drawn. Also, propositions 
antecedently proposed or proved. -Pre¬ 

mises, in Law, lands, tenements, &c., be¬ 
fore mentioned in a lease or deed. 

PRE'MIUM (prmnium: Lat.), properly, a 
reward or recompense; but it is chiefly 
used in a mercantile sense for the sum of 
money given to an insurer, whether of 
ships, houses, lives, &c. Also, the money 
X>aid by a purchaser in excess of the prime 
cost of an article, a share in a public com¬ 
pany, &c. Also, the recompense or prize 
offered for a specific discovery, or for suc¬ 
cess in an enterprise. 

PREMON'STRANTS, the order of regular 
uanons or monks of Premontre, in the isle 
of France ; instituted in 1120. 

I i PREMOR'SEfprcemorsns, bitten off : Lat), 

I in Botany, an epithet which, when applied 
to roots, means such as are not tapering, but 
blunt at the end; and when applied to 
leaves, such as end very obtusely with un¬ 
equal notches. 

| PREPEN'SE (preepensus, weighed before¬ 
hand : Lat.), in Law, an epithet applied to 
actions attended with premeditation and 
forethought; whence the term malice pre¬ 
pense. 

PREPOSITION (preepositio, from pree- 
pono, I put before: Lat.), in Grammar, a 
part of speech which denotes the relations 
between the things signified by various 
words in a sentence. 

PREROGATIVE (prerogatif: Fr.; from 
prcr.rogo, I ask before: Lat.), an exclusive 
or peculiar privilege.-The royal preroga¬ 

tive is that special pre-eminence which a 
sovereign has, not only over all his subjects, 
but over the ordinary course of the com¬ 
mon law, in virtue of the regal dignity. 
Among his prerogatives are the right of 
appointing ambassadors, and of making 
peace and war. It is the prerogative of the 
house of lords in Great Britain to decide 
legal questions in appeals against decisions 
of the courts of law. It is the prerogative 
of the house of commons to determine the 
validity of all elections of their own mem¬ 
bers. 

PREROGATIVE COURT, an ecclesiasti¬ 
cal court, which formerly existed for the 
trial of all testamentary causes, where the 
deceased had left bona notabilia (5 1.) with¬ 
in two different dioceses. Its powers 
have been transferred to the court of pro¬ 
bate. 

PRESBYO'PIA (presbus, an old man; and 
bps, an eye: Gr.), in Medicine, that defect 
of vision by which objects that are near 
are seen confusedly, but those at a distance 
more distinctly. It proceeds from various 
causes, but generally from too great flat- 


[prescription 


ness in the crystalline humour [see Eye] ; 
and is common amongst aged persons. 

PRES'BYTER (presbuteros, the compara¬ 
tive of presbus, old : Gr.— an elder), in the 
primitive Christian church, an elder ; one 
who had authority in the church, and whose 
duty was to watch over the flock. The 
word is borrowed from the Greek transla¬ 
tion of the Old Testament, where it usually 
signifies a ruler or governor. It was a title 
of office and dignity—not of age; and, in 
this sense, bishops are sometimes called 
presbyters in the New Testament. 

PRESBYTE'RIANS (same deriv.), a sect 
of Protestants so called from their main¬ 
taining that ecclesiastical authority, in the 
New Testament, is vested in presbyteries 
that is, in ministers and ruling elders. The 
kirk, or church of Scotland, is governed by 
presbyteries, synods, and general assem¬ 
blies, which constitution was introduced 
from Geneva, together with the doctrines 
of Calvin, the reformer of that country, 
by the celebrated John Knox. The kirk- 
session is the lowest court, and consists of 
the parochial minister and lay elders, gene¬ 
rally to the number of twelve, the minister 
being moderator ex ofjicio. The presbytery 
is composed of the ministers of several 
neighbouring parishes,witjr a lay elder from 
each. A moderator is chosen by it for half 
a year: he must be a clergyman. Tbe 
synod is formed of the lay and clerical 
members of two or more presbyteries. The 
general assembly is the highest ecclesiastical 
court. Its decisions are final. It consists 
of representatives chosen by the various 
presbyteries, royal burghs, and universi¬ 
ties. The total number of members is 386, 
of which 218 are ministers. The assembly 
chooses a moderator annually; he is a cler¬ 
gyman. A nobleman is present at its meet¬ 
ings as representative of the sovereign, 
under the title of lord high commissioner ; 
but he merely opens, closes, or dissolves its 
sittings. There are 82 presbyteries and 16 
synods in Scotland, about 150 presbyterian 
congregations in England, 450 in Ireland, 
and upwards of 100 in our North American 
colonies. The presbyterians stand opposed 
to the episcopalians, the latter preferring 
the hierarchy of bishops, and to congrega- 
tionalists or independents, who hold every 
pastor to be as a bishop or overseer of his 
own congregation, independent of any per¬ 
son or body of men. 

PRESCRIPTION (prwscriptio, from pree- 
scribo, I write before: Lat.), in Law, a right 
and title to a thing grounded upon a con- ! 
tinued possession. Prescription is negative, j 
when it relates to realty or corporeal here¬ 
ditaments ; positive, when to incorporeal 
hereditaments. It is personal when it is in I 
a man and his ancestors; if it is in right of 
a particular estate, it is termed prescrip- : 
tion in que estate. Prescription supposes 
a grant, and therefore can exist with regard 
to those things only which can pass by . 
grant. Uninterrupted possession for thirty, 
and, in many cases, for twenty years, gives [ 
this title; and unless the title have arisen 
from some agreement, it becomes abso¬ 
lute in sixty years. Prescription differs 
from cusiom, which is a local usage.- 



























)t J^rtcuttfir antf 


600 


presentation] 


Prescription, in Medicine, the formula 
of a remedy for a disease, and the man¬ 
ner of using it, as given by a physician. 

PRESENTATION prcesentatio , a placing 
before : Lot.), in Ecclesiastical Law, the act 
of a patron offering his clerk to the bishop, 
to be instituted in a benefice of his gift. 
An advowson is the right of presentation. 
A patron may revoke his presentation be¬ 
fore institution, but not afterwards. 

PR-ESENT'MENT proesento , I place be¬ 
fore : Lat), in Law, an information made 
by the jury in a court, before a judge who 
has jurisdiction in the matter. Properly 
speaking, it is the notice taken by the grand 
jury, of their own knowledge, without any 
bill of indictment at the suit of the king, 
of any offence, nuisance, libel, &c. 

PRES'ENTSfprosse?itesliteras, the writing 
under observation : Lat.), in the plural, is 
used, in Law, for the thing then actually 
made or spoken of—a deed of conveyance, 
a lease, or other written instrument; as in 
the phrase, * Know all men by these pre¬ 
sents that is, by the writing itself (per 
prcesentes). 

PRES'ENT TENSE (prccscns: Lat), in 
Grammar, the tense or form of a verb which 
expresses an action or being in the present 
time, as ‘I am readingor something that 
exists at all times, as * temperance is to be 
preferred to excess;’ or which expresses 
habits or general truths, as plants grow, 
birds fly, dogs bark, &c. 

PRESER'VE preserver, to preserve: Fr.), 
a small enclosed place where game is kept. 

PRES'IDENT ( prccsideo, I sit foremost: 
Lat.), an officer appointed to preside over a 
corporation, company, or assembly of men; 
to keep order, manage their concerns, or 
regulate their proceedings. Also an officer 
appointed or elected to govern a province 
or territory, or to administer the govern¬ 
ment of a nation. A vice-president is one 
who is second in authority to the president, 
and performs the duties of president when 
the latter is disabled or absent. 

PRESS (presso, I press : Lat.), a machine 
by which things are compressed. It acts 
by means of the screw, the pressure of fluids 
[see Hydrostatic Press], &c. ; and is of 
various kinds, as a wine-press, a cheese- 
press, a printing-press, &c. 

PRESS'-GANG, a detachment of seamen, 
under the command of an officer, em¬ 
powered to impress men into the naval 
service. 

PRESS'MAN, in Printing, a workman 
i who manages the press and impresses the 
sheets. 

PRESS'URE (pressura, a pressing : Lat), 
the force of one body acting on another by 
weight or by the continued application of 
power. Pressure is occasioned by weight 
or gravity, by the motion of bodied, by the 
expansion of fluids, by elasticity, &c. The 
degree of pressure is in proportion to the 
weight of the pressing body, to the power 
applied, or to the elastic force of resisting 
bodies. 

PRESTATION MONET (prcestalio , a pay¬ 
ment : Lat.), a sum of money paid yearly by 
archdeacons and other dignitaries to their 
| bishop; also purveyance, 


PREST-MONEY, called earnest-money, 
the sum given to a soldier at the time he 
enlists; so called because it binds the re- : 
ceiver to be ready for service at all times 

appointed. 

PRESUMPTIVE EVIDENCE (prcesumo, 

I take for granted: Lat.), in Law, that 
which is derived from circumstances that 
necessarily or usually attend a fact, as dis¬ 
tinct from direct evidence or positive 
proof. 

PRETERIMPER'FECT prceteritus, past; 
and imperfectus, unfinished : Lat.), in Gram¬ 
mar, the tense which expresses action as 
being carried on at a past time: as legebam, 

I was reading. It is called also the imper¬ 
fect tense. 

PRETERITE ( prceteritus, past: Lat.), in ; 
Grammar, the tense which expresses an 
action perfectly past or finished, but with¬ 
out a specification of time: as scripsi, I 
have written. It is called also the perfect 
tense. 

PRETERI'TION preeteritio, a passing 
over : Lat), in Rhetoric, a figure by which, 
while pretending to pass over anything, we 
make a summary mention of it; as, ‘I will 
not say the prince is noble, or that he is as 
learned as he is accomplished,’ &c. The 
most artful praises are those bestowed by 
way of pretention. 

PRETERNAT'URAL preeter, more than; 
and naturalis, natural: Lat), an epithet for 
those events in the physical world which 
are deemed extraordinary, but not mira¬ 
culous ; in distinction from events which 
are supernatural, which cannot be produced 
by physical laws or powers, and must there¬ 
fore be due to the direct intervention of a 
superior Being. 

PRETERPER'FECT (preeter, beyond; and 
perfectus, complete: Lat), in Grammar, an j 
epithet equivalent to preterite; applied to 
the tense of verbs which expresses action 
or being absolutely past; as, scripsi, I 
wrote. 

PRETERPLTT'PERFECT preeter, beyond; i 
phos, more ; and perfectus, complete: Lat), 
an epithet in Grammar, designating the 
tense of verbs which expresses action or 
being past, prior to another past event or 
time ; as, scripseram, I had written. 

PREVARICATION preevaricatio, from 1 
prcevaricor , I walk crookedly : Lat), a devia¬ 
tion from the plain path of truth and fair 
dealing ; a shuffling or quibbling to evade 
the truth or the disclosure of truth. 

PREVENTIVE SER'VICE, an appellation 
for the duty performed by the armed police 
officers engaged to watch the coasts, for the 
purpose of preventing smuggling and other 
illegal acts. The men thus employed are 
termed the coast guard. 

PRICE-CUR'RENT, in Commerce, a pub¬ 
lished list or enumeration of the various 
articles of merchandise, with their prices, 
the duties (if any) payable on them when 
imported or exported, and the drawbacks 
occasionally allowed upon their exporta¬ 
tion. 

PRIEST prtester: Ger.; from presbuteros, 
an elder : Gr.), according to the modern ac¬ 
ceptation of the word, a person who is set 
apart or consecrated to the ministry of the 

























601 


Sttcrarg Erfatfttrp. 


[PRINTING 


Gospel. In its most general sense, tlic word 
includes all orders of the clergy duly li¬ 
censed according to the forms and rules of 
each respective denomination of Christians; 
but Protestants are accustomed to apply 
the word more especially to clergymen of 
the Roman Catholic persuasion.-In pri¬ 

mitive ages, the fathers of families, princes, 
and kings, were priests. In the days of 
Moses, the oflice of priest was restricted to 
the tribe of Levi. The priesthood consisted 
of three orders, the bigh-prtest, the priests, 
and the Levites; and the office was made 

hereditary in the family of Aaron.- 

Among pagans, priests were persons whose 
appropriate business was to offer sacrifices 
and perform other sacred rites. 

PRI'MACY (primatus , from primus, first: 
Lat.), the chief ecclesiastical station or dig¬ 
nity. The Archbishop of Canterbury is pri¬ 
mate of all England. The Archbishop of 
York is primate of England ; words without 
meaning, as the provinces of the two are 
quite distinct. 

PRI'MHS VI'iE (the first passages : Lat.), 
the Medical term for the whole alimentary 
duct, including the oesophagus, stomach, 
and intestines, with their appendages. 

PRI'MAGE, in Commerce, a small duty 
payable to the master and mariners of a 
ship. 

PRIMA'TES (primatus, the chief place : 
Lat.), in Zoology, the highest order of Mam¬ 
mals. It is divisible into six families l. 
Anthropini, containing man alone; 2. Qa¬ 
tar hini or Simiidce, containing the apes of 
the old world; 3. Platyrhini or Cebidce, con¬ 
taining all the apes of the old world, except 
the Marmosets; 4. Arctopithecini, containing 
the Marmosets; 5. Lemurini, containing 
the Lemurs ; 6. Galeopithecini, containing 
the flying Lemur alone, a form which al¬ 
most touches the bats,which some natural¬ 
ists also place amongst the Primates. There 
is here an extraordinary series of grada¬ 
tions, leading from the kings of theanimal 
world down to a point which must be 
placed low amongst the vertebrates. 

PRIME MOV'ERS, the sources whence 
power is obtained; as steam, electro-mag¬ 
netism, &c. 

PRIME NUM'BERS, in Arithmetic, those 
which cannot be divided by any whole num¬ 
ber greater than unity, or less than them¬ 
selves ; thus, 5, 7, &c. They are termed 
prime because they may be conceived to 
exist before those formed from them by 
multiplication, and which are said to be 
composite. Numbers are said to be prime 
to each other when they have no common 
measure except 1. 

PRIME VERTICAL, in Astronomy, the 
vertical circle of the sphere which inter¬ 
sects the meridian at right augles, and 
passes through the east and west points of 
the horizon. 

PRI'MING, the spray with which wet 
steam is charged in the boilers and cylin¬ 
ders of steam engines.- Priming, among 

Painters, the first colour laid on canvas, or 
on a building, &c. 

PRIMITIVE (primitivus , the earliest: 
Lat), in Grammar, a root or original word 
in a language, in contradistinction from 


derivative; thus, God is a primitive, godly 
a derivative. 

PRIMOGENTTURE (primogenitus, first¬ 
born : Lat.), in Law, the right of the first¬ 
born, which with us is restricted to the 
inheritance of descendable honours, and of 
the whole of the real estate, in the absence 
of a testamentary disposition. The justice 
of the latter arrangement has been often 
contested. By the ancient custom of gavel¬ 
kind, still preservedin Kent, primogeniture 
is disregarded, the paternal estate being 
equally divided among the sons. [See Feu¬ 
dal System.] 

PRIM'ROSE, a well-known plant, the Pri¬ 
mula veris of botanists. 

PRINCE (Fr.; from princeps: Lat.\ a 
general title for sovereigns. Also, a title 
of honour, which with us is limited to the 
blood royal. 

PRIN'CIPAL ( principalis, original: Lat.), 
in Commerce, the sum due orient, so called 

in opposition to interest. -In Law. the 

absolute perpetrator of a crime is called a 
principal in the first degree; a principal in 
the second degree is one who is present 
aiding and abetting; distinguished from 
accessory. 

PRINCIP'IA, NEWTON’S, a work by Sir 
Isaac Newton, published in 1687, the full 
I title of which is Philosophies Naturalis 
[ Principia Mathematica, that is, the matlie- 
! matical principles of Natural Philosophy. 

! The manuscript was presented to the Royal 
! Society, in whose keeping it remains. It 
was ordered by that body to be printed, but 
j the expense was borne by Halley the astro¬ 
nomer. This work, the greatest in the His¬ 
tory of science, is divided into three books. 
The first deals with the laws of unresisted 
motion and attraction. The second treats 
of the laws of resisted motion, hydrosta¬ 
tics, and the motions of fluids. In the 
third book Newton sho wed the application 
of the results arrived at iii the two preced¬ 
ing books to the system of the world. He 
here treats of gravitation, the motions of 
the planets and their satellites round their 
respective centres of gravity, the nature of 
their orbits, the lunar phenomena; the 
tides, the motionsof comets, &c. 

PRIN'CIPLE (principiurn: Lat.), in a ge¬ 
neral sense, the origin, source, or primordial 

substance of anything.-In Ethics, that 

which is believed, and serves as a rule of 
action or the basis of a system; as, the 
principles of morality, the principles of the 

Stoics, &c.-In Science, a truth admitted 

either without proof, or considered as hav¬ 
ing been before proved. 

PRINT'ING (empreinte, an impression: 
Fr.), the art of taking impressions from 
wooden blocks, types, or plates, upon paper, 
silk, calico, or any other substance. It is 
that very important art, by means of which 
copies of books are multiplied, and conse¬ 
quently knowledge and science diffused 
among mankind. It is understood to have 
been practised at least fifty years before 
the Christian era, in China; but Chinese 
printing differs essentially from European, 
and the merit of rendering the art truly 
valuable to the human race belongs to him 
who first introduced moveable types. In 






























&I)e J)ctenttft'c ancf 


G02 


printing] 


their earliest essays Guttenhurg, Faust, and 
Mentz all used wooden blocks, on which 
the letters were cut in the Chinese manner: 
and from the specimens that remain, it 
appears that they impressed only one side 
of the paper, and then pasted the blank 
faces of every two leaves together, to 
form but one, with print on either side. 
! About the year 1450, they used single 
letters of wood; and at length, letters of 
| metal. This last great invention is gene- 
I rally attributed to Schoefler, first the ser- 
j vant, and afterwards the partner and son- 
in-law, of Faust. At the invention of the 
| art, the character employed was the old 
! Gothic or German, and the earliest printing 
| was such a complete facsimile of the manu¬ 
scripts which it copied, that, at the present 
day, it often requires the aid of chemistry 
to determine whether a given volume is 
a manuscript or a production of the press ; 
particularly as the ornamental letters and 
the borders^were filled in by hand, after the 
book was printed. The Roman type was 
first introduced by Sweynliein and Pau- 
nartz, at Rome; and the Italic by Aldus. 
The earliest complete Greek work was a 
grammar of that language, printed at Milan 
in 1476. The Pentateuch, which appeared 
in 1482, was the first work printed in the 
Hebrew character: and the earliest known 
Polyglott Bible—Hebi'ew, Arabic, Clialdaic, 
Greek, Latin—issued from the press of 
Genoa in 1516. The art of printing was first 
introduced into England by William Caxton, 
a native of Kent, who established a press in 
Westminster Abbey, some time between 
1471 and 1474. Before the middle of the 
16th century, printing had reached a flou¬ 
rishing condition in this country; for it is 
recorded that, in the reigns of Henry VIII. 
and his successors, English printers had 
become * so skilful as to print books as 
well as any beyond the seas.’ The art is 
not known to have existed in Scotland 
earlier than the year 1500; and we find that 
about fifty years subsequent to that time, it 
was introduced into Ireland. Butitwasnot 
long before Scotland distinguished itself 
by the extent and beauty of its typographi¬ 
cal productions ; while Ireland cau hardly 
be said to have advanced a step in the art 
of printing books till the beginning of the 
18th century. The workmen by whom the 
art of printing is performed are of tw T o 
kinds1. Compositors, who range and dis¬ 
pose the letters into words, lines, pages, 
and sheets; and, 2. Pressmen, who apply 
the ink and take off the impressions. Until 
a comparatively recent period, the printing 
press was formed chiefly of wood; and for 
the first essential modification of it the 
world is indebted to Earl Stanhope. The 
Stanhope press is composed entirely of iron; 
the table on which the types rest, and the 
platten (or surface which produces the im¬ 
pression) are made perfectly level; a beau¬ 
tiful combination of levers is added to give 
motion to the screw, causing the platten to 
descend with increasingforce, till it reaches 
the type, when a very great power is ob¬ 
tained. Various other iron presses, more 
| j or less upon the principle of the ‘ Stanhope,’ 
i j with such improvements as time and fur¬ 


ther experience suggested, were subse¬ 
quently made ; among which the ingenious 
inventions of Clymer, Rutliven, Cogger, and 
Cope deserve to be mentioned. They were 
all, however, constructed on the principle of 
a reciprocating, not a continuous motion: 
and it is a remarkable fact that from the 
invention of printing to the year 1798, a 
period of nearly 300 years, no important 
improvement was introduced into this art. 
A new era had, however, arrived, when 
the demands for prompt circulation of poli¬ 
tical intelligence required powers of print¬ 
ing newspapers beyond the reach of the 
most expeditious hand presswork ; and at 
length the automatic printing machine 
struggled into existence. A mere outline 
of the improvements which have taken 
place since the commencement of the 
present century would occupy many pages. 
The great triumph in the art has, however, 
been the introduction of cylindrical ma¬ 
chinery. The suggestion of this important 
change belongs to Mr. W. Nicholson, the 
able editor of the * Philosophical Jour¬ 
nal;’ but the first working machines were 
erected by Konig, a Saxon, who was en¬ 
gaged for several years in this country in 
bringing his contrivances to perfection ; 
and, at length, the reader of the Times was 
told, on Nov. 28th, 1814, that he held in his 
hand a newspaper printed by machinery, 
and by the power of steam. In these ma¬ 
chines the type was made to pass under 
the cylinder, on which was wrapped the 
sheet of paper, the latter being held firmly 
in its place by means of tapes ; the ink was 
placed in a cylindrical box, from which it 
was forced by means of a powerful screw 
depressing a tightly-fitted piston ; thence 
it fell between two iron rollers; below 
these were placed a number of other rollers, 
two of which had, in addition to their 
rotary motion, an end motion—that is, a 
motion in the direction of their length—for ; 
the purpose of distributing the ink more j 
uniformly ; and the whole system of rollers : 
terminated in two, which applied the ink to I 
the types. This machine produced 1100 
impressions per hour, and subsequent im¬ 
provements raised the number to 1800. 
The next machine, also by Konig, was one 
that printed both sides of the sheet, by | 
conveying it from one cylinder to an- j 
other. This was made in 1815, and printed | 
1000 sheets on both sides per hour. In the 
same year Cowper obtained a patent for 
curving stereotype plates, for the purpose 
of fixing them on a cylinder. These ma- | 
chines, though only adapted for stereotype 
printing, first showed the Lest method of 
furnishing, distributing, and applying the 
ink by rollers. Applegartli and Cowper, j 
by their conjoint ingenuity, superseded 
Konig’s inventions; and constructed a 
number of machines, modified in twenty- 
five different ways, for printing books, j 
bank-notes, newspapers, &c.; their greatest 
success has been in printing newspapers. 
In the Time s machine constructed by them, 
the form passes under four printing cylin¬ 
ders, which are fed with sheets of paper by 
four boys, and after the sheets are printed 
they pass into the hands of four others; by 






























603 


EterarH Cmtfurg* 


[PRISCILLIANISTS 


this contrivance from 4000 to 5000 sheets 
per hour are printed on one side. But the 
machine used at present in that establish¬ 
ment for ordinary purposes is still more 
powerful. It consists of eight vertical cy¬ 
linders, each carrying and printing its sheet 
of paper; and all of them printed on one 
side, by a single revolution of a central 
drum, which carries the type. One of these 
machines prints 11,000 and another 12,000 
per hour; and 70,000 copies of the news¬ 
paper have been issued iu one day. We 
6hall conclude with a short description 
of Mitchel’s composing and distributing 
machines, which are used in the printing 
works of Messrs. Spottiswoode & Co., and 
have been found highly effective: they 
complete the subservience of mechanism 
to printing, in all its details. Attempts 
have been made for some years past, in 
various parts of Europe, with different 
degrees of success, to construct such ma¬ 
chines. It is clear that no composing ma¬ 
chine can ever supersede the necessity of 
intelligence iu connection with mechan¬ 
ism ; for the combinations of the type in 
printing being practically infinite [see Per¬ 
mutations and Combinations], they can 
never be provided for even in the most per¬ 
fect. The composing machine very much 
resembles a grand pianoforte; the work- 
j man occupies the position of the player; 
each of the keys is marked with the letter 
with which it is in connection, and of which 
a sufficient number is contained in one 
jj of a set of nearly vertical grooves which 
have been filled with the respective letters 
by the distributing machine. When the 
workman touches a key, the required letter 
drops from its slide, and, falling on one of 
a system of travelling tapes which corre- 
I spond in position to the strings of a piano, 

I Is carried to another travelling tape which 
runs along the sloping side of the machine, 
and which brings it to the end of the 
longest side, whence it is tilted into a long 
brass slide. The latter, when full, is re¬ 
moved for the purpose of adjusting the 
lines to the lengths required by the width 
of the intended page of the book. The 
parallel tapes just mentioned carry the 
types away from the workman, and when 
they arrive at the oblique tape, this carries 
I; them in a direction from his right towards 
; his left hand. All the types, therefore, 

, except that released by the key at his ex¬ 
treme left, are carried successively in two 
directions, that they may ultimately reach 
the same point, and be tilted from it. 
They must come to that point exactly in 
the order in which the workman touches 
the keys, so that in fact, were all the keys 
i touched at once, all the letters thus libe- 
!| rated from the slides would arrive to- 
i' gether at the tilting-point, however differ- 
|| ent the distances to be travelled over by 
j them respectively. Effecting this consti- 
I tutes the real ingenuity of the contrivance. 

It is done, first by diminishing the lengths 
! of the parallel tapes, as the distance to be 
travelled over on the oblique tape increases. 
I But as no modification of this kind can 
exactly equalize the sums of the distances 
j to be travelled by the types liberated by 


the different keys, the excess, which gradu¬ 
ally increases from left to right of the work¬ 
man, is compensated by an increased ve¬ 
locity imparted to the motion of the oblique 
tape: so that types from all parts of the 
machine take exactly the same time to reach 
the tilting-point, and there will be exactly 
the same interval between the arrival of 
the different types successively liberated 
by the keys as between the points of time 
at which they are touched by the workman. 
The latter requires a little practice to 
become used to the machine, but it soon 
enables him greatly to exceed the hand- 
compositor in the amount of work which he 
does, so as soon to do without difficulty 
twice as much. Another advantage is, 
that one workman can ‘justify’—that is, 
arrange the composed type in lines— while 
another works the keys. There are but 
forty keys, including all the types, &c., 
except those which are rarely used, and 
which, being in a case near the workman, 
can, when it is required, be easily conveyed 
by him to one of the parallel tapes. The 
distributing machine may be worked by a 
child. It consists of a round table, with 
slides radiating from the centre ; the letters 
are carried round on the revolving frustum 
of a cone, being poised on notches which 
are placed variously in the different letters, I 
and which allow them to assume such 
positions as will cause them, when during 
revolution they come into contact with the 
proper one of a series of offsets on an in¬ 
clined plane beneath, to be tilted off into 
the radiating grooves which are intended to 
receive them respectively. Only one of the 
letters can be tilted off by any one of the off¬ 
sets, which are passed by those letters with 
which they do not correspond; and thus all 
the letters are distributed successively into 
their proper grooves, whence they are re¬ 
moved with great facility to the respective 
vertical grooves of the composing machine. 
This machine distributes about 8000 types 
per hour: a workman in the ordinary way 
can distribute only about 5000 types per 
hour. The subordinate details of these 
machines are highly ingenious and effec¬ 
tive, but would not be understood without 
illustrations; the general principles on 
which they act will, however, be sufficiently 
evident from what has been said. 

PRI'OR ( Lat .), the superior of a convent 
of monks; or the next in dignity to an 
abbot when there is one. 

PRI'SAGE (prise, a taking: Fr.), an an¬ 
cient right belonging to the crown of Eng¬ 
land, of taking two tuns of wine from every 
ship importing twenty tuns or more. This, 
by charter of Edward I., was changed into a 
duty of two shillings for every tun imported 
by foreign merchants; and called butlerage, 
because paid to the king’s butler. 

PRISCIL'LIANISTS, In Church History, 
a Christian sect, so called from their leader, 
Priscillian, a Spaniard by birth, and bishop 
of Avila. He was put to death a.d. 382, for 
heresy, on the accusation of a brother bi¬ 
shop, whose character is stated to have 
been disreputable, and with whom, there is 
reason to believe, it was enough to lead a 
life of purity and austerity to fall under 





























prism] 


CTjc J^rienttft'c anif 


604 


the accusation of Priscillianism, which was 
considered to he identical with Manichmism. 
But the accusation of Manichaeism was not 
unfrequently madcata later period, against 
those who merely denounced abuses and 
demanded a reformation of morals. His 
peculiar tenet was stated by his enemies 
to have been, that it is lawful to make false 
oaths in the support of one’s cause and in¬ 
terest. 

PRISM ( prisma, from prizo, I saw : <7r.1, 
in Geometry, a solid whose upper and lower 
bases are equal and similar figures, and 
whose lateral surfaces are plane parallelo¬ 
grams. If the bases are triangular, it is 
called a triangular prism; if square, a 

quadrangular, &c.- Prism, in Dioptrics, a 

triangular glass body used in experiments 
regarding the nature of light and colours. 
The phenomena and uses of the prism arise 
from its separatingthe rays of light in their 
passage through its substance; and the doc¬ 
trine it demonstrates is, that colours are 
original properties, inherent in light itself. 
The sun’s rays transmitted through a prism 
to an opposite wall project an image tinted 
like a rainbow. Its colours are red, yellow, 
green, blue, and violet; and the whole 
phenomenon is explained upon the prin¬ 
ciple that the coloured rays, which were 
before mixed and blended together, are 
now, in virtue of their different refrangi- 
bilities, separated by refraction, in passing 
through the prism, so that each colour is 
placed by itself. 

PRIVATEE'R ( privatus , pertaining to an 
individual: Lat.), a ship of war owned and 
equipped by private persons at their own 
expense, but authorized by the government 
to seize or plunder the vessels of an enemy. 
The owners of privateers must bind them¬ 
selves not to violate the stipulations of 
treaties made by their government, and 
not to misuse their prisoners. Ashipfitted 
out and acting as a privateer without being 
licensed or commissioned by government, 
is a pirate. It is manifestly proper that the 
severest restrictions on privateering should 
be enforced. The wish to amass plunder 
is the only principle by which men in such 
circumstances are actuated ; and hence it 
would be idle to suppose that they will be 
very scrupulous about abstaining from 
excesses. 

PRIV'ATIVE ( privativus , denoting priva¬ 
tion : Lat.), in Grammar, a prefix to a word 
which changes its signification, and gives 
it a contrary sense. Thus un and in, as un¬ 
wise, inhuman. 

PRIV'ET, in Botany, a well-known shrub 
of the genus Ligustrum, nat. ord. Oleacece. 
The evergreen privet is of the genus Iiliam- 
nus, nat. ord. Ithamnacece. 

PRIVILEGE (priv ilegium: from primes, 
separate ; and lex, a law: Lat.), in Law, some 
peculiar benefit granted to certain persons 
or places, contrary to the usual course of 
the law, or beyond the advantages enjoyed 
by other citizens. Thus the nobles of Great 
Britain have the privilege of being tried by 
their peers only : and members of parlia¬ 
ment have the privilege of exemption from 
arrest in certain cases. 

PRIV'Y-COUN'CIL (privi. , private: Fr ), 


in British Polity, an executive body, with 
whose assistance the crown issues procla¬ 
mations, which, if not contrary to law, are 
binding on the subject. It is summoned 
on a warning of forty-four hours, and is 
never held without the presence of a se¬ 
cretary of state. The members of the 
privy-council are styled 'right honourable. 
Anciently, the privy-council was a high 
court of justice ; but it does not in modern 
times interfere with judicial matters, con¬ 
fining itself to the executive branch of 
government It has, however, an appellate 
jurisdiction from all parts of the British 
dominions, except Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land ; and appeals from certain courts are 
intrusted to a judicial committee of the 
privy-council. 

PRIV' Y-SE AL (same deriv.), a seal affixed, 
by the lord-keeper of the privy-seal, to in¬ 
struments which afterwards pass the great 

seal.-The word privy-seal is also used 

elliptically for the person intrusted with 
the privy-seal: he is the fifth great officer 
of state in England, and a member of the 
cabinet. 

PRO AND CON, i.e. pro and contra (Lat.), 
for and against; a phrase frequently occur¬ 
ring in common parlance. 

PRO CONFES'SO (as a thing admitted: 
Lat.), in Law, a term applied to a defendant 
in chancery who appears and is afterwards 
in contempt for not answering; in which 
case the matter contained in the bill is 
taken pro confesso, that is, as though it had 
been confessed. 

PRO'A, a vessel used in the South Seas, 
with the head and stern exactly alike, but 
with the sides differently formed ; that in¬ 
tended for the lee side being flat, the other 
rounded. To prevent oversetting, the proa 
is furnished with what is called an out¬ 
rigger, from the windward side. 

PROBABILITY (probabilitas, from pro- 
ba.bilis, capable of proof : Lat.), that state 
of a question which falls short of moral 
certainty, but inclines the mind to receive 
it as the truth. Demonstration produces 
certain knowledge, and probability opinion. 

If the chance that a thing may happen is 
less than the chance that it may not happen, 
it is said to be probable; and the methods 
of obtaining the numbers which express , 
these variable chances constitute what is 

termed the science of probabilities. -In 

mathematical language, probability has a 
definite signification. Suppose that seven 
balls, four black and three white, are placed 
in an urn : the probability of drawing any 
particular ball is a, and the probability of 
drawing a black is four times as great, 
that is, i. The probability will remain : 
the same as long as the ratio between the f 
colours is unchanged; for, if there are 
seventy balls, forty black and thirty white, 
the chance of drawing a black will be xa 
which is the same as If the probability 
relates to simultaneous events, it is also 
easily calculated : thus the chance of throw¬ 
ing two aces with two dice. The chance of 
throwing an ace with one of them by itself 
is t, and with the other by itself, » ; there- 





























605 Utter ary 

fore, with both together, it m a of a, that is. 
The same reasoning would hold with 
three or more events. If the probability re¬ 
lates to successive events, the calculation is 
similar: thus, the probability of throwing 
an ace twice successively. The probability 
of throwing it the first time is a, and the 
second time also A; but, at both times, it 
is A of A, that is, -jL. Of course, the pro¬ 
bability of throwing it neither time is 

| of a, that is, - Probability, as 

applied to human life, is founded on tables 
of mortality, and serves as the foundation 
of societies which, for certain annual 
premiums, varied according to age, &c„ 
undertake to pay certain sums to the ex¬ 
ecutors of the party whose life is insured. 

PItO'BATE ( probo , I prove : Lnt.), in Law, 
the official proof of the genuineness and 
validity of a will; or the exhibition of the 
will to theproper officer, and suchotberpro- 
ceedings as the law prescribes as prelimi¬ 
nary to its being carried into effect by the 
executor. Probate of a will is now obtained 
in the court of probate; the will which has 
been proved is deposited in that court, and 
a copy on parchment is made out under its 
seal and delivered to the executors. 

PROB'LEM ( problema , from proballo, I 
put forward: Gr.), in Algebra, a question 
or proposition which requires something 
unknown to be investigated, and the truth 
of the result demonstrated.-In Geo¬ 

metry, a proposition in which some opera¬ 
tion or construction is required ; as to 

bisect a line or an angle, &c.-In Logic, 

a proposition that appears neither abso¬ 
lutely true nor false, and consequently may 
be asserted either in the affirmative or 

negative.-In a general sense, a problem 

may be defined, any question involving 
doubt or uncertainty, and requiring some 
operation or further evidence for its solu¬ 
tion. 

PROBOS'CIS, the trunk or snout of an 
elephant, being a prolongation of the nose. 

-The oral instrument of the Diptera. - 

The oral apparatus of certain gasteropods, 
which is so long as to be capable of being 
protruded to some distance from the body._ 
The mouth is at the end. 

PROCATARX'IS ( prolcatarxis, from pro- 
katarcho, I begin first: Gr.), in Medicine, 
the predisposing cause of a disease; the 
procatarctic cause. 

PRO'CEEDS ( procedo , I am derived from : 
Lat.), in Commerce, the money raised by 
the sale of goods. 

PROCELLA'RIA ( procella, a violent 
storm : Lat.), in Ornithology, a genus of 
oceanic birds. [See Petrel.] 

PROC'ESS ( prods: Fr.; from processus, 
a going forwards : Lat.), in Law, the whole 
course of proceedings in any cause, civil or 
criminal, from the original writ to the end 
of the suit. In a more limited sense, pro¬ 
cess denotes that by which a man is first 
called into any temporal court. Original 
process is the means taken to compel the 
defendant to appear in court. Mesne process 
Is, strictly speaking, that which issues, at 
the commencement of a suit or during its 


[procuration 


progress, upon some collateral or interlo¬ 
cutory matter. It is usually applied only 
to writs under which parties are arrested. 
Final process is the process of execution. 
- Process, in Anatomy, any protuber¬ 
ance, eminence, or projecting part of a 

bone. - Process, in Chemistry, the whole 

course of an experiment or series of ope¬ 
rations, tending to produce something 
new. 

PRO’CHRONISM (pro, before; and chro- 
nos, the time: Gr.), an error in chronology, 
when events are dated anterior to the time 
at which they happened. 

PROCLAMA'TION (proclamatio: Lat.), a 
public notice or declaration of anything in 
the name of the prince or supreme magis¬ 
trate. To issue a proclamation is a pre¬ 
rogative of the sovereign ; and it is binding 
on the subject, so far as it is grounded on, 
and enforces, the laws of the land. It is of 
two kinds : one enforcing an actually exist¬ 
ing law, the other exercising an extra¬ 
ordinary but dormant power in the king. 
It is held that the sovereign may, by a 
proclamation, suspend or dispense with 
existing laws, in particular circumstances. 

-Proclamation, a solemn declaration 

of war and peace; and the act of notifying 
the accession of a prince to the throne. 
Also, the public declaration used at the 
calling of a court, and for various other 
objects. 

PROCON'SUL {Lat.: from pro, instead 
of; and consul, a consul), a Roman magis¬ 
trate sent at the close of his consulship 
(though sometimes without his having been 
consul) to govern a province, with consular 
authority’. The proconsuls were appointed 
from the body of the senate, and their 
authority expired at the end of a year; 
but it might be prolonged, as was done in 
the case of Caesar. In the time of the re¬ 
public, the proconsul held both the military 
command and the civil jurisdiction of hi3 
province. Before the proconsul quitted 
Rome, he went up to the Capitol, offered 
sacrifice, put on the robe of war called pa- 
ludamentum, and then departed from the 
city in pomp, preceded by lictors with rods 
and axes, and attended by his friends to 
some distance from Rome. His equipage, 
consisting of pavilions, horses, mules, 
clerks, secretaries, &c., was called his via - 
ticam, and was provided at the public ex¬ 
pense. 

PROC'TOR (contracted from procurator, 
a manager: Lat ), a person employed to 
manage another’s cause in a court of civil 
or ecclesiastical law; as in the court of 
admiralty, or in a spiritual court. His 
duty is similar to that of a solicitor or 

attorney in other courts.-Also an 

officer in the universities of Oxford and 
Cambridge. 

PROCUM'BENT ( procumbens, bending 
down : Lot.), in Botany, trailing ; an epithet 
applied to a stem which is unable to support 
itself, and therefore lies on the ground, 
but without putting forth roots. 

PROCURATION (procuratio, literally the 
averting by a sacrifice: Lat.), in Law, a 
composition paid by an incumbent to the 
bishop or archdeacon, to commute for the 



















FROCURATORES] HUtT 606 


entertainment which was to have heen 

given him at his visitation.-Also, the 

instrument by which a person is empower¬ 
ed to transact the affairs of another. 

PROCURATO'RES (managers: Lat.), 
under the Roman emperors, officers sent 
into the provinces to regulate the public 
revenue, receive it, and dispose of it as the 
emperor directed. Such an officer was Pon¬ 
tius Pilate in Judaea; hut, since the Jews 
were looked upon as a rebellious people, 
besides his authority over the revenue, 
he was invested with all the power of a 

proconsul, even that of life and death.- 

Proceratores, in the Roman courts of 
judicature, were properly such lawyers as 
assisted the plaintiff in proving, or the 
defendant in clearing himself from, the 
matter of fact alleged. They are often 
confounded with the advocates, but were 
equivalent to our attorneys. 

PRO'CYON, a star of the first magnitude 
in the constellation of the Lesser Dog; it 
is the a Canis Minoris of astronomers. 

PROD'UCE ( produco , I make: Lat.), in an 
enlarged sense, is what any country yields 
from labour and national growth ; which 
may serve either for the use of the inhabi¬ 
tants, or be exported to foreign countries. 
In a more limited sense, we speak of the 
produce of a farm, of a mine, of a tax, &c.; 
but, when we allude to a work either of 
nature or art, we use the word produc¬ 
tion. 

PRO'DUCT (productus, formed by pro¬ 
longation: Lat.), in Arithmetic and Alge¬ 
bra^ the number or quantity produced by 
multiplying two or more quantities to¬ 
gether, as 5x4=20, a*.b=ab: 20 and ab are 
the products required. 

PRODUCTIVE LA'BOUR, that which in¬ 
creases the number or amount of consum¬ 
able products; opposed to unproductive 
labour. The labour of the farmer and 
mechanic is productive; the labour of 
officers and professional men is unproduc¬ 
tive to the state. 

PROEMPTO'SIS (pro, before; and em- 
pipto, I fall in: Gr.), in Astronomy, the 
addition of a day every 330 years, and an¬ 
other every 2400, to prevent the new moon 
happening too soon. The opposite is me- 
temptosis, which see. 

PROFES'SION (professio: Lat.), a word 
which, when applied to a person’s vocation 
or employment, designates an occupation 
not merely mechanical. We say, the learn¬ 
ed professions ; the profession of a clergy¬ 
man, a lawyer, a physician, a surgeon, a 
lecturer, or a teacher. In like manner, we 
use the word professional when speaking of 
literary and scientific studies, pursuits, or 
duties. 

PROFES'SOR (Lat.), one who publicly 
teaches any science or branch of learning 
in a university or college, as a professor of 
natural history, of mathematics, of theo¬ 
logy, &c. In a university, some professors 
are denominated from the arts they profess, 
others from the founders of the professor¬ 
ships, or those who assigned a revenue for 
the support of the professors. 

PRO'FILE (profil: Fr.), in general, the 
view ol an object from one of its sides.- 


Profile, in Architecture, the outline of a 
figure, building, or member; also the draft 
of a building, representing it as if cut down 
perpendicularly from the roof to the 

foundation.- Profile, in Sculpture and 

Painting, a head, portrait, &c., represented 
sideways, or in a side view. On almost all 
medals, faces are represented in profile. 

PROF'IT AND LOSS, in Commerce, the 
gain or loss arising from goods bought and 
sold ; the former of which, in book-keeping, 
is placed on the creditor’s side, the latter 
on the debtor’s. Netprofit istliegain made 
by selling goods at a price beyond what 
they cost the seller, and beyond all costs 
and charges. 

PROFLU'VIA, in Medicine, morbid ex¬ 
cretions of mucus from the nostrils, and 

parts connected with them.-Also, dysen- . 

tery, with a morbid excretion of mucus 
from the bowels. 

PROG'NATIIOUS (pro , before; gnathos, 
a jaw : Gr.), a term applied to skulls, such 
as those of negroes, which have the profile 
of the face inclined by reason of the front 
part of the jaws projecting much beyond 
the forehead; opposed to orthognathous. 

‘ Draw a line on a globe,’ says Prof. Huxley, 
‘from the Gold Coast in Western Africa to 
the steppes of Tartary. At the southern 
and western end of that line there live the 
most dolicocephalic, prognathous, curly- 
haired, dark-skinned of men, the true ne¬ 
groes. At the northern and eastern end of 
the same line there live the most bracliy- 
cephalic, orthognathous, straight-haired, 
yellow-skinned of men, the Tartars and 
Caimucks. The two ends of this line are 
ethnological antipodes.’ 

PROGNO'SIS (prognosis , a perceiving 
beforehand : Gr.), in Medicine, the method 
of foretelling the event of a disease by par¬ 
ticular symptoms. Hence the word pro¬ 
gnostic, a sign or symptom indicating the 1 
way in which a disease will progress or 
terminate. 

PRO'GRAMME (programma: Gr.), a 

detailed account or advertisement of some 
public performance. In a university, a bil¬ 
let or notice to invite persons to an oration. 

-In Classical Antiquity, an edict posted 

in some public place. 

PROGRES'SION (progressio, a going for¬ 
wards : Lat.), in Arithmetic, a series of 
numbers increasing or decreasing by a cer¬ 
tain law. In an arithmetical progression, 
they increase or decrease by a common dif¬ 
ference; thus, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c., where the com¬ 
mon difference is 2. In a geometrical pro¬ 
gression they increase by a common ratio 
or multiplier, or decrease by a common 
divisor: thus, 3, 9, 27, 81, &c., where the 
common ratio is 3. In any three conse¬ 
cutive terms of an harmonical progres¬ 
sion, the first is to the third as the 
difference between the first and second is 
to the difference between the second and 
third. 

PROJECTILE FORCE ( projectus, thrown 
to a distance : Lat.), the force with which 
a cannon-ball or missile is thrown: being 
modified by the action of gravitv, it oc¬ 
casions the body to describe a curve line. 
The velocity of a musket-ball is, on an ave- 






















607 Htttrnrii 


rage, 1000 feet per second, and its range half 
a mile. In velocities exceeding 1600 feet 
per second, the resistance of the air is 
greatly increased ; hence the absurdity of 
giving balls too great an initial velocity. 
To give a bullet the velocity of 2000 feet 
per second, requires half as much more 
powder as to give it the velocity of 1600 
feet; yet, after both have moved 400 feet, 
the difference between the velocity of 
each is reduced to 8 feet per second. A 
21-pound ball moving at the rate of 2000 
feet per second, meets with a resistance of 
800 pounds. 

PROJEC'TILES (same deriv.), in Me¬ 
chanics, that branch which treats of the 
motion of bodies thrown or driven from the 
surface of the earth by an impelling force, 
and affected by gravity and the resistance 
of the air. Not taking the latter into ac¬ 
count, the path of a projectile can be shown 
to be a parabola; but, when a body moves 
with considerable velocity, the resistance of 
1 the air becomes very serious. Some anoma¬ 
lous circumstances occur in experiments 
with artillery; thus, balls are frequently 
driven totlieright or left, as if acted on by 
a lateral force; and sometimes, without any 
apparent cause, the range is much shorter 
I than at others, &c. 

PftOJEC'TION (projectio: Lat.), in Archi- 
[ tecture, the prominency of columns, &c., 

beyond the level of the wall.- Projection 

ok the Sphere, a representation of the 
circles on the surface of the sphere, upon a 
plane surface. There are three principal 
kinds of projection : the stereographic, the 
orthographic, and the gnomonic; and to 
these may be added the globular, on which 
is founded the construction of the globular 
chart. [See these terms.] 

PROLEGOM'ENA (things to be said pre¬ 
viously : Or.), introductory or preliminary 
remarks or dissertations, prefixed to a book 
or treatise. 

PROLEP'SIS ( prolepsis, from prolambano, 
I take beforehand : Or.), a figure in Rheto¬ 
ric, by which the speaker anticipates or 
prevents objections, by alluding to or an¬ 
swering them himself. 

PROLEP'TIC (proleptikos , anticipating: 
Gr.), in Medicine, an epithet applied to a 
periodical disease, v'hose paroxysm returns 
at an earlier hour every time, as is fre¬ 
quently the casein agues. 

PROLIF'EROUS tproles, offspring; and 
fero, I bear: Lat.), in Botany, prolific. A 
proliferous stem is one which puts forth 
branches only from the centre of the top, 
or which shoots out new branches from the 
summits of the former ones, as the pine 
and fir. A proliferous umbel is a com¬ 
pound one which has the smaller umbels 
divided. . , _ . , 

PROLIFICA'TION (proles, offspring; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), in Botany, the pro¬ 
duction of a second flower from the sub¬ 
stance of the first, either from the centre 
of a simple flower, or from the side of an 
aggregate one. _ 

PRO'LOGUE {prologos, from prolego, I 
say beforehand : Gr.), in Dramatic Poetry, 
an address to the audience previous to the 
commencement of the play, delivered by 


{JTreajSttri?. [proper 


one of the performers. It may be in either 
prose or verse, but is generally in the latter; 
and it usually consists of apologetic re¬ 
marks on the merits of the piece about to 
be represented. Sometimes it relates to 
the situation in which the author or the 
actors stand to the public. 

PROLU'SION (prolusio, from proludo, I 
play beforehand: Lat.), in Literature, a term 
formerly applied to certain pieces or com¬ 
positions made previously to others, by way 
of prelude or exercise. 

PROM'ISSORY NOTE ( promissum, a pro¬ 
mise : Lat), a writing or note of hand, 
promising the payment of a certain sum at 
a certain time, in consideration of value 
received by the promiser. 

PROM'ONTORY (promontorium: from pro, 
in front of; and mons, a mountain: Lat.), 
in Geography, a high point of land or rock, 
projecting into the sea; the extremity of 
which is called a headland. 

PRONA'TION (pronus, inclined down¬ 
wards : Lat.), in Anatomy, that motion of 
the radius by which the palm of the hand 
is turned downwards; opposed to supina¬ 
tion. 

PRO'NOUN(pro-no?? 2 c?t, instead of a noun: 
Lat.), in Grammar, a declinable part of 
speech which, being used instead of a noun, 
prevents the repetition of it. Pronouns 
arc personal when they simply denote the 
person, as I, thou, he, &c.; possessive, when 
they also denote possession, as vry, thine, 
his, &c.; relative, when they express a rela¬ 
tion to something going before, as who, 
which; interrogative, ■when they serve to 
ask a question ; demonstrative, when they 
point out things precisely, as this, that. 
They are also, and more accurately, divided 
into substantive, or personal; and adjective, 
which include all the others. 

PROOF (prouver, to prove: Fr.; from 
probo: Lat.), in Logic, that evidence which 
convinces the mind of the certainty of a 
proposition, and produces belief. FrooJ 
differs from demonstration, being derived 
from personal knowledge or conclusive 
reasoning; whereas the term demonstra- 1 
tion is applicable only to those truths of 

which the contrary is inconceivable.-In 

Printing and Engraving, a proof is a rough 
impression taken for correction. 

PROOF SPIRIT, a mixture of equal 
weights of absolute alcohol and water. The 
spec, gravity of such a mixture is Cr917, but 
the density of commercial proof spirit is 
0930. 

PROPAGANDA ( propago, I propagate: 
Lat.),a term appliedduring the Frenchrevo- 
lution to secret societies, whose object was 
the propagation of democratical principles; 
and it has since come to signify any kind of 
institution for making proselytes for poli¬ 
tical objects. The name was originally 
given to those institutions which were 
erected by the papal court for the extension 
of its own power and the Roman Catholic 
religion among those who were not within 
its pale. It was called the Congregatio de 
Propaganda Fide (Society for Propagating 
the Faith), and was founded by Gregory 
XV. in 1622. 

PROP'ER {propre: Fr.; from proprius, 






















property] 


S'ctcnttfu mttr 


608 


peculiar: Lat.), in Heraldry, an epithet for 
any charge which is to he represented in 
coat-armour in its own tincture or natural 

colours. „ . 

PROP'ERTY (proprietas: Lat.), a particu¬ 
lar virtue or quality which nature has be¬ 
stowed on some things exclusive of all 
others. Thus, colour is a property of light; 
extension, figure, divisibility, and impene¬ 
trability are properties of bodies, &c. 
Literary Property can be secured only 
for a limited time; and many consider it 
unreasonable that the productions of ma¬ 
nual labour should rank higher in the scale 
of rights than the nobler productions of the 
intellect. . 

PROPH'ET ( prophetes , from prophemi, I 
say beforehand : Gr.), in general, one who 
foretells events. Among the canonical 
books of the Old Testament are the writings 
of sixteen prophets, four of whom are de¬ 
nominated the * greater prophets,’ viz. 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, who 
were so called from the length or extent of 
their writings, which exceed those of the 
others. The ‘ lesser prophets ’ are Hosea, 
Joel, Amos, Obadiali, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, 
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, 
and Malachi. Jonah, the earliest of the 
prophets, lived about 800 years b.c. ; and 
Malachi, the latest, about 400 b.c. 

PROPHYLACTIC ( prophulaktilcos , pre¬ 
cautionary : Gr.), in Medicine, an epithet 
for whatever preserves or defends against 
disease. 

PROPITIATION (propitiatio, from propi- 
tio, I appease : Lat ). in Theology, an atone¬ 
ment or sacrifice offered to God to assuage 
his wrath, and render him propitious. 
Among the Jeivs there were both ordinary 
and public sacrifices, offered by w r ay of 
thanksgiving; and extraordinary ones, 
offered by particular persons guilty of any 
crime, by way of propitiation. - Propitia¬ 

tion, a feast among the Jews, celebrated 
on the 10th of the month Tisri, in com¬ 
memoration of the divine pardon proclaim¬ 
ed to their forefathers through Moses, who, 
as God’s agent, remitted the punishment 
due to the crime of tlieir worshipping the 
golden calf. 

PROPITIATORY (propitiatorium, a 
means of atonement: Lat.), or Mercy- 
seat, the cover or lid of the ark of the 
covenant, lined within and without with 
plates of gold. It is said to have been a 
type of Christ. 

PRO'POLIS (Gr.: from pro, in front of; 
and polis, a city), a thick odorous substance 
having some resemblance to wax, and used 
by bees for stopping the holes and crevices 
in their hives, to prevent the entrance of 
cold air, &c. 

PROPORTION (proportio: Lat.), in a 
general sense, the relation of any one thing 
to another.- Proportion, in Mathe¬ 

matics, an equality of ratios; but the term 
is sometimes improperly used for ratio. 
The arithmetical ratio between two quan¬ 
tities consists in their difference: thus, the 
arithmetical ratio between 6 and 4 is 6 — 4, 
or 2. And four quantities constitute an 
arit metical proportion when they form 
two ratios having equal differences : thus, 


8 is to 6 as 4 is to 2, or more briefly 
8 : 6 : : 4 : 2 ; because 8 — 6 =4 — 2. The 
geometrical ratio between two quantities 
consists in their quotient: thus, the geo¬ 
metrical ratio between 4 and 7 is £. And 
four quantities constitute a geometrical pro¬ 
portion, when they form equal ratios, that 
is two fractions having equal quotients: 
thus, 8 : 4 : : 6 : 3, because & = §. Quan¬ 
tities form an harmonic proportion when, 
of three numbers, the first is to the third 
as the difference of the first and second 
is to the difference of the second and third. 
Thus, 2, 3, 6, are in harmonical proportion; 
for 2 is to 6 as 1 is to 3. Tb ernle of proportion 
enables us, when three terms of a geometri¬ 
cal proportion are given, to find the fourth. 

If more gives more, theproportion is said to 
be direct; if more gives less, and vice versd, 
it is said to be inverse— but improperly, as 
only the mode of stating is affected by these 
circumstances. * If 5 men build 20 yards 
of a wall in a week, liow many yards would 
7 men build? ’ is an example of the direct 
rule ; for, the more men, the more yards of 
the wall they will build. But ‘If 5 men 
build a wall in a week, how many days 
would 9 men require?’ is an example of 
the indirect: since, the greater the number 
of men, the less time they require to per¬ 
form a certain work. 

PROPOSIT'ION (propositio, from propono, 

I point out: Lat.), in Logic, the part of an 
argument in which some quality, negative 
or positive, is attributed to a subject; as, 

‘ man is mortal,’ ‘ war is dreadful.’-In 

Mathematics, a statement in terms of ! 
either a truth to be demonstrated, or an j 
operation to be performed. It is called a 
problem when something is to be done; 
and a theorem when something is t* be j 
proved. 

PROPRIETOR (proprietor , a vice-praetor: 
Lat.), a Roman magistrate, who, having 
discharged the office of praetor at home, 
was sent into a province to command there 
with his former praetoriai authority. [See 
Proconsul.] 

PRO RATA (pro rata parte, in a fixed 
part: Lat.—proportionally), in Commerce, 
a term sometimes used by merchants, for 
in proportion ; as, each person must reap 
the profit or sustain the loss pro rata to his 
interest, that is, in proportion to his stock. 

FRO RE NA'TA (Lat.), according to exi¬ 
gencies or circumstances: a phrase com¬ 
monly used in medical prescriptions. 

PROROGATION (prorogatio, from pro- 
rogo, I prolong: Lat.), a term used at the 
conclusion of a session of parliament, de¬ 
noting its continuance from one session to 
another: as an adjournment is a continua¬ 
tion of the session from day to day. 

PROSCE'NIUM (Lat : from prosJcenion: 
pro, in front of ; and slcine, the scene : Gr.), 
in the Grecian and Roman theatres, the 
stage or place before the scene, containing 
the pulpitum, into which the actors came 
from behind the scenes to perform. In 
the modern theatre, it is the frontispiece, 
or part where the drop-scene separates the 
stage from the audience, and beyond the 
orchestra. 

PROSCRIPTION (proscripiio, from pro- 




































609 


Etterarg Cmtfutg. 


[PROTEUS 


scribo, I publish in writing : Lat.), a punish¬ 
ment in use among the Homans, which had 
some analogy to our outlawry. The names 
of the proscripti, or persons proscribed, 
were posted up in tablets at the forum, that 
they might be brought to justice, a reward 
being promised to those who took them, 
and a punishment denounced against those 
who concealed them. Under the triumvi¬ 
rate many of the best Roman citizens fell 
by it. Cicero was slain in the proscription 
agreed upon by Octavius, Antony, and 
Lepidus. 

PROSECUTION (prosecutus , pursued: 
Lat.), in Law, the commencement and 
carrying on of a suit in a court of law or 
equity ; or the process of exhibiting formal 
charges against an offender before a legal 
tribunal, and pursuing them to final judg¬ 
ment.-The person who institutes and 

carries on a criminal suit is called the 
prosecutor. 

PROS'ELTTE {proselutos , literally one 
who has arrived at a place: Gr.), a new 
convert to some religion, system, or party. 
Thus a pagan converted to Christianity is 
a proselyte; and, although the word pri¬ 
marily refers to converts to some religious 
creed, we speak familiarly of proselytes to 
philosophical theories, &c. 

PROSENNEAHE'DRAL {pros , beside; 
ennea, nine; and hedra, a base: Gr.), in 
Crystallography, having nine faces, on two 
adjacent parts of a crystal. 

PROS'ODY ( prosodia: Gr.), that part of 
Grammar which treats of quantity, accent, 
and the laws of versification. 

PROSONOMA'SIA {Gr., from prosono- 
mazo, I call by name), a figure in Rhetoric, 
in which allusion is made to the similarity 
of sound in several names or words. 

PROSOPOLEP'SY {prosopolepsia: from 
prosOpon, a person; and lepsis, a seizing : 
Gr.), a word used by some writers on ethics 
to express a premature opinion or prejudice 
against a person, formed in consequence 
of his external appearance. 

PROSOPOPCE'IA (prosbpopoiia: from 
prosOpon, a person; and poieo, I make: Gr.), 
a figure in Rhetoric, in which qualities or 
things inanimate are personified and ad¬ 
dressed, as if endowed with human form 
and sentiments. 

PROSPECTUS (a view: Lat.), the out¬ 
line or plan of a literary work, containing 
the general subject or design, with the ne¬ 
cessary particulars as to the mode of publi¬ 
cation. The word prospectus has recently 
been adopted in announcing many under¬ 
takings and schemes not literary. 

PRO'STYLE {prostulos: from pro, in front 
of; and stulos, a column: Gr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a range of columns in the front of 
a temple. 

PROTA'SIS {Gr., from proteino, I stretch 
out in front), in the ancient Drama, the 
first part of a comic or tragic piece, in 
which the several members of the dramatis 
personcevrere shown, and the subject or plot 
entered on. It is opposed to the epitasis, or 
part where the plot thickens. 

PROTEA'CEiE {Proteus, in Mythology, 
remarkable for his power of assuming dif¬ 
ferent shapes), in Botany, a natural order 


of exogenous shrubs and trees, natives 
chiefly of the Cape of Good Hope and Aus 
tralia. The flowers are apetalous. The great 
diversity of appearance presented by the 
genera suggested the name of the order. 
The principal genera are Leucadendron (to 
which the Silver tree of the Cape of Good 
Hope belongs). Protea, Grevillea, Hake a, 
Banksia, and Dryandra. The order affords 
little that is useful to man. 

PROTECTOR {protego, I defend: Lat.), 
in English History, a title assumed at 
various times by those who seized the regal 
power, without adopting its name: first 
by Richard, Duke of York, in 1453: next by 
the Duke of Somerset, in 1548 ; and then by 
Cromwell, in 1653. The last was nominally, 
but not really, succeeded by his son. 

PROT'EST (protestor, I declare in public : 
Lat.), a formal and solemn declaration of 
opinion, given in writing,commonly against 
some act: as, the protest of lords in parlia¬ 
ment : or the formal and recorded dissent 
of a minority against the majority of any 

public body.- Protest, in Commerce, a 

formal declaration made by a notary public 
at the request of the holder of a bill of ex¬ 
change, on account of the non-payment 
of it, against the drawer and others con¬ 
cerned ; and a demand of the exchange, 
charges, damages, and interest. It is writ¬ 
ten on a copy of the bill, and notice of it is 
given to the indorser, by which he becomes 
liable for the amount with charges and 
interest. There is also another kind of 
protest, which is a writing attested by a 
justice of the peace or consul, drawn by 
the master of a vessel, stating the circum¬ 
stances through which his ship has suf¬ 
fered, and showing that the damage was 
not occasioned by his misconduct or neg¬ 
lect. 

PROT'ESTANT (same deriv.), a name first 
given in Germany to those who adhered 
to the doctrine of Luther, because, in 1529, 

: they protested against a decree of the em¬ 
peror Charles V. and the diet of Spires, de¬ 
claring that they appealed to a general coun¬ 
cil. This name was afterwards extended to 
the Calvinists, and is now common to all 
who belong to the reformed churches. The 
great principles upon which all protestants, 
however they may differ in other respects, 
agree, are the right of private judgment, 
and the rejection of any infallible head of 
the church or ultimate authority in pope or 
council. Protestants differ among them¬ 
selves as to whether the Bible alone is to 
be taken both as a rule of faith and its owm 
interpreter, or the opinions of the fathers 
of the first three centuries also are to be 
appealed to. [See Reformation.] 
PROTEUS, in My thology, a marine deity, 
whose distinguishing characteristic was 
the faculty of assuming different shapes. 
Hence we denominate one who easily 
changes his form or principles a Proteus. 
-In Zoology, a genus of amphibia, inclu¬ 
ding the Proteus anguinus, an aquatic ani¬ 
mal which possesses both lungs and per¬ 
manent gills. Sir Humphry Davy, who saw 
one of them in a lakein the beautiful grotto 
of Maddalena, at Adelsburg, in Illyria, thus 
describes it: ‘At first you might suppose 
R R 




























prothonotaey] QPfye Scientific antf 610 


it to be a lizard, but it bas the motions of a 
fish. Its bead, and the lower part of its 
body, and its tail, bear a strong resem¬ 
blance to those of the eel; but it has no 
fins ; and its curious branchial organs are 
not like the gills of fishes; they form a 
singular vascular (net-like) structure, al¬ 
most like a crest, round the throat, which 
may be removed without occasioning the 
death of the animal, which is likewise fur¬ 
nished with lungs. "With this doiible appa¬ 
ratus for supplying air to the blood, it can 
live either below or above the surface of 
the water. Its fore feet resemble hands, 
but they have only three claws or fingers, 
and are too feeble to be of use in grasping 
or supporting the weight; the hinder feet 
have only two claws or toes, and in the 
larger specimens are found so imperfect as 
to be almost obliterated. It has small 
points in place of eyes, as if to preserve 
the analogy of nature. It is of a fleshy 
whiteness and transparency in its natural 
state; but when exposed to light, its skin 
gradually becomes darker, and at last gains 
an olive tint. Its nasal organs appear 
large ; and it is abundantly furnished with 
teeth, from which it may be concluded 
that it is an animal of prey ; yet, in its con¬ 
fined state, it has never been known to eat, 
and it has been kept alive for many years, 
by occasionally changing the water in which 
it was placed.’ 

PROTHQN 'OTARY (proto Aiotarius , first 
notary: Lat.: from protos: Gr., and notarius: 
Lat.), a title which had its origin in the By¬ 
zantine empire.-An officer in the court 

of king’s bench, and also in that of common 
pleas, until changes were made in these 
courts.— Apostolical prothonotaries, in the 
church of Rome, are twelve persons consti¬ 
tuting a college, who receive the last wills 
of cardinals, are employed in the proceed¬ 
ings necessary for the canonization of 
saints, &c. 

PROT'OCOL (protos , first; and kolla, glue : 
Gr.), the first draft of a deed, contract, or 
instrument. The word is generally applied 
to such writings as are of a diplomatic 
clinxticter 

PRO'TOMARTYR (proto-martur: Gr.), a 
designation given to Stephen, the first 
Christian martyr; and used also for the 
first sufferer in any cause, religious or 
political. 

PRO'TOPOPE, the imperial confessor, an 
officer of the holy directing synod, the 
supreme spiritual.court of the Greek church 
In Russia. [See Pope.] 

PROTOSUL'PHATE, in Chemistry, the 
combination of sulphuric acid with a pro¬ 
toxide. 

PROTOTYPE (proto-tupos: Gr.), an ori¬ 
ginal or model after which anything is 
formed. 

PROTOX'IDE, in Chemistry, a substance 
combined with oxygen in the first degree. 

PROTOZOA (protos , first; zdon, animal: 
Gr.), a sub-kingdom of animals comprising 
the lowest forms of the kingdom. They are 
all aquatic, aud the majority are of minute 
size. They may be divided into six groups, 
viz.1. Rhizopoda, including Fokamini- 
feka. 2. Polycystina. 3. Spongiadce [see 


Sponges]. 4. Thalassicollidce. 5. Qregari- 
nidee. 6. Infusoria. All except the last 
group are destitute of distinct organs ; and, 
as the Infusoria possess a mouth and diges¬ 
tive apparatus, and have power to move 
rapidly, it is not improbable that hereafter 
they may cease to be classed with tho 
Protozoa, of which many of the forms are 
of such low organization that they have 
frequently been placed in the vegetable 
kingdom. 

PROVEDO'RE (proveditore: Ital.), a pur¬ 
veyor, or one employed to procure supplies 
for an army. 

PROVEN'CAL, a corrupted form of Latin 
employed in France during the middle ages, 
and much used for poetical purposes. There 
were two dialects, both corruptions of the 
Latin : the Langue d’Oil, ancient northern . 
French, of which the lately discovered 
song of Eulalia, written before the tenth 
century, is a specimen; and the Langue 
fl’Oc, employed in the south of France, of 
which the song of Boethius, usually attri¬ 
buted to the tenth century, is the earliest 
exam [fie. The river Loire was the boundary 
between these two dialects. It was the 
latter, or Langue d’Oc, which was called Pro¬ 
vencal, and this was the dialect employed 
by the Troubadours, whilst the Trouveres 
used the Langue d’Oil. 

PROV'ENCE or PROVINCE ROSE, a 
gardener’s name for a tribe of cultivated 
roses, known also a3 cabbage roses, of 
which the Rosa centifolia, which has been 
found wild in the Caucasus, is the parent. 
The moss rose is one of the numerous 
varieties. 

PROV'ERB (proverhium: Lat.), a pithy 
sentence in common use, embodying or 
applying a truth of practical value. A 
proverb has been styled the wisdom of 
many, aud the wit of one. Every country 
has its proverbs, and amongst the quaintest 
are those of Spain, of which Sancho Panza 
made abundant use.-In Dramatic Litera¬ 

ture, chiefly French, a short piece, in which 
some proverb or popular saying is made the 
foundation of the plot.- Book of Pro¬ 

verbs, a canonical book of the Old Testa¬ 
ment, containing a great variety of wise 
maxims, practical truths, and excellent 
rules for the conduct of all classes of men. 
The first twenty-four chapters are attri¬ 
buted to king Solomon ; the five succeeding 
chapters are a collection of several of his 
proverbs, made by order of king Hezekiah; 
and the last two bear the names of different 
authors. 

PROVTNOE (provincia: Lat.), among the 
Romans, a country of considerable extent, 
which, being reduced under their dominion, 
was new modelled accordingto the pleasure 
of the conquerors, subjected to the com¬ 
mand of annual governors sent from Rome, 
and obliged to pay such taxes and contribu¬ 
tions as the senate thought fit to demand. 
Provinces had the appellation of consular 
or preetorian, according as they were go¬ 
verned by consuls or praetors.-Among 

the moderns, a country belonging to a 
kingdom or state, either by conquest or 
colonization, usually situated at a distance 
from the kingdom or state, but more or less 




















611 


&ttcrari> Ereatfurg. 


[psalm 


dependent on and subject to it. Such are 
Canada, Novia Scotia, &c., in reference to 

Great Britain.- Province, in Geography, 

a division of a kingdom or state, compris¬ 
ing several cities, towns, &c., all under the 
6ame government, and usually distinguish¬ 
ed by the extent either of the civil or ec¬ 
clesiastical jurisdiction.——In the eccle¬ 
siastical division of England, there are two 
provinces, viz. those of Canterbury and 
York, under the jurisdiction of their respec¬ 
tive archbishops. 

PROVIN'CIALISM ( provincial^ , pertain¬ 
ing to a province : Lat.), a mode of speech 
peculiar to a province or district remote 
from the mother country or from the me¬ 
tropolis. 

PROVISIONAL, intended for present 
need or for a temporary occasion; as, 
a provisional government, a provisional 
treaty, &c. 

PROVI'SO (it being provided: Lat.), or 
Condition, in Law, an article or clause in 
a statute, deed, or writing, limiting some¬ 
thing that has gone before, or introducing 
a condition. It usually begins, * Provided 
that.’ 

PROV'OST (contracted from prcepositus, 
placed first: Lat.'), in a general sense, a 
person who is appointed to preside over or 
superintend; as, the provost of a college. 

-Provost, in Scotland, is equivalent to 

our mayor; and the chief magistrates of 
Edinburgh and Glasgow are termed Lord 
Provost. [See University.] 

PROVOST-MARSHAL of an army, an 
officer appointed to arrest and secure deser¬ 
ters and other criminals, to execute the 
sentences of courts-martial, to hinder the 
soldiers from pilfering, to regulate weights 
and measures, &c. There is a similar officer 
in the royal navy, who has the charge of 
prisoners taken at sea. 

PROW ( prora: Or.), in Nautical language, 
the beak or pointed cutwater of a galley, 
&c. The upper part is usually furnished 
with a grated platform. Also, the fore-part 
of a ship. 

PROX'IMATE CAUSE (proximus, the 
nearest: Lat.), that which immediately pre¬ 
cedes and produces the effect, as distin¬ 
guished from the remote or predisposing 

cause. 

PROX'Y (contracted from procur-acy— 
from procuratio, a taking charge of: Lat.), 
one who acts as a substitute for another. 

-In England, any member of the house 

of lords may commission another peer to 
vote for him as his proxy in his absence. 
Proxies cannot be used when the house is 
in committee, nor can a proxy sign a pro¬ 
test. No peer can hold more than two 
proxies. 

PRUD’HO'MME (Fr.; from prudens homo, 
a prudent man : Lat.). Tribunals in France 
during the middle ages, composed of citi¬ 
zens acting as arbiters of disputes, inspec¬ 
tors of police, &c., were termed councils of 
prucChommes. A court of this kind was re¬ 
established at Lyons in 1806. 

PRU'NING, in Horticulture, the lopping 
off the superfluous branches of trees, either 
to improve their appearance, or to cause 
them to bear better fruit. 


PRU'NUS ( Lat .), in Botany, a genus of 
plants belonging to the natural order Rosa¬ 
ce®, including the plum ( Prunus domestica), 
the sloe ( P. spinosa), the cherry-laurel (P 
Laurocerasus), and other species. 

PRURI'GO ( Lat.), in Medicine, a cuta¬ 
neous disease, in which there is itching, 
and an eruption of small pimples. Tho 
term is applied to irritation caused in va¬ 
rious parts of the body from vermin, 
worms, &c. 

PRUS'SIAN BLUE, a pigment of a beau¬ 
tiful blue colour, a combination of iron and 
cyanogen. Good Prussian blue is known 
by the following tests: it feels light in 
the hand, adheres to the tongue, has a 
dark, lively, blue colour, and gives a smooth 
deep trace ; it should not effervesce with 
acids, which it will do, if adulterated with 
chalk, nor become pasty with boiling water, 
which will be the case when adulterated 
with starch. It is obtained from organic 
matters abounding in nitrogen, and is used 
in calico-printing. 

PRUS'SIATE, in Chemistry, a salt formed 
by the union of prussic or hydrocyanic acid 
with different bases. Thus, the prussiate 
of potash, which is much used as a test for 
various metals, particularly iron. 

PRUS'SIC A'CID, in Chemistry, ono of 
the deadliest poisons known. It is a com¬ 
pound of cyanogen and hydrogen, hence 
also called hydrocyanic acid. When even 
moderately strong, its fatal effects are so 
rapid, that it is impossible to prevent them 
by any antidote. The smallest quantity of 
the pure acid applied to the eye of a cat, 
&c., causes instantaneous death. If there 
is the least hope of saving one who has 
swallowed it, a solution of chlorine, which 
decomposes it, should be administered; 
also ammonia, which both combines with it 
and acts as a stimulant. It is a narcotic; 
and, given with great caution, it may be 
used as a powerful sedative and anti-irritant, 
especially in whooping-cough. It is this 
acid that gives a peculiar flavour to the 
kernels of peaches and bitter almonds and 
the leaves of the cherry laurel. 

PRYTANE'UM (prutaneion, from pruta- 
nis, a president: Or.), in Grecian Antiquity, 
the senate-house in Athens, where the 
council of the prytaneis, or committee of 
fifty, assembled, and where those who had 
rendered any signal service to the common¬ 
wealth were maintained at the public ex¬ 
pense. 

PSALM (psalma, from psallo, I play a 
stringed instrument: Gr.), a divine song or 
hymn. The term is chiefly appropriated to 
the hundred and fifty Psalms of scripture, a 
canonical book of the Old Testament. The 
Psalms were called by the Jews Thehillim 
(praises), and were divided by them into five 
books, ending respectively with the 40th, 
71st, 88th, 105th, and last. Most of them 
have a particular title, signifying either 
the name of the author, the person who was 
to set it to music or sing it, the instrument 
that was to be used, or the subject and oc¬ 
casion of it. Some have imagined that 
David was the sole author of the Book of 
Psalms; but the titles of many of them 
prove the contrary. Some of the psalms 























5Tl)e J^rtcnttftc antf 612 


psaltery] 


were apparently written toy Solomon ; a few 
toelong to the reigns of the kings imme¬ 
diately succeeding him ; and several to the 
mournful days of the Babylonish captivity, 
and of the return, especially those headed 

* For the sons of Korah,’ most of which are 
probably by the same author. Finally, a 
few belong to the age of the Maccabees. 

PSAL'TERY ( psalterion , a stringed in¬ 
strument: Gr.), a musical instrument used 
by the Hebrews, the form of which is not 
known. It is supposed to have resembled 
both the harp and the lyre. 

PSAM'MITE (psammos , sand: Gr.), in 
Mineralogy, a species of micaceous sand¬ 
stone. 

PSEUDEPIG'RAPHY (pseudes, false ; and 
epigraphs, an inscription: Gr.), the assign¬ 
ing to an author works which he did not 
write, to secure for them a wide circula¬ 
tion and an undeserved authority. It was 
carried by the Christians of the fourth and 
following centuries to a great extent; and 
hence it is extremely difficult to distinguish 
the spurious works of the fathers from the 
true. 

PSEU'DO ( pseudes, false: Gr.), a prefix 
used in the composition of many words, to 
denote false or spurious ; as, a pseudo- pro¬ 
phet, or false prophet, &c. 

PSETJDOBLEP'SIS ( pseudes , false ; and 
blepo, I see: Gr.), in Medicine, a defect of 
vision, in which specks, network, colours, 
and imaginary bodies, float or dance before 
the eyes. Distorted and double vision are 
its most ordinary accompaniments. Some¬ 
times it depends on nervous irritation ; at 
others, on organic derangement. 

PSEUDODIP'TERAL ( pseudes, false ; and 
dipteros, having a double peristyle: Gr.), in 
Architecture, a building in which the dis¬ 
tance from each side of the cell to the co¬ 
lumns on the flanks is equal to two inter- 
columniations, the intermediate range of 
columns being omitted. 

PSEUDOISODO'MUM(pse 2 «<ies,false; and 
isodomos, built in equal courses: Gr.), in 
Ancient Architecture, masonry in which 
the height, thickness, and length of the 
courses are different. 

PSEU'DO-METAL'LIC (pseudo-metallikos : 
Gr.), in Mineralogy,an epithet for a kind of 
lustre, which is perceptible only when held 
towards the light. 

PSEUDOMORPH'OUS (pseudes , false; 
morphe, shape: Gr.), aterm applied to a min¬ 
eral which owes its form to some extra¬ 
neous cause, not to crystallization. 

PSEU'DOSCOPE (pseudes, false; and 
skopeo, I view: Gr.), a name given to the 
stereoscope when employed to produce 

* conversions of relief.’ The pseudoscope 
consists of two reflecting prisms, placed in 
a frame with adjustments, so that, when 

j applied to the eyes, each eye may separately 
! see the reflected image of the projection 
which usually falls on that eye. The in¬ 
strument being directed to an object, and 
adjusted so that the object shall appear of 
its proper size and at its usual distance, the 
I distances of all other objects are inverted, 

1 all nearer objects appearing more distant, 
i and all more distant objects nearer; and 
it constitutes the conversion of relief. 


PSIT'TACUS (Lat.; from psittalcos: Gr.). 
[See Parrot.] 

PSO'AS MUS'CLE (psoai, the loins : Gr.), 
a large muscle, on the fore part and sides 
of the lumbar vertebra. Its use is to bend I 
the thigh forward, and assist in turning it 
outwards. 

PSYCHOL'OGY (psuchS, the soul; and 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), the doctrine of the 
nature and properties of the soul; ora 
treatise upon it. In a more extended sense, 
it is mental philosophy. 

PSY'CHOMANCY ( psuche, the soul; and 
manteia, prophecy : Gr.), a kind of divina- j 
tion, in which the spirits of the dead were 
supposed to appear and communicate de¬ 
sired information. 

PTAR'MIGAN (tarmachan: Gael.), the 
Lagopus mutus, called also the white grouse. 

It is the smallest species of British grouse. 
The colour of its plumage is a pale brown 
or ash, elegantly marked with dusky spots 
or minute bars; the bill is black, and the 
belly and wings are white. It is occasion¬ 
ally seen on the summits of mountains in 
Scotland, but it has ceased to be an in¬ 
habitant of England. It is abundant in the 
northern parts of Scandinavia, whence a 
great number are sent to the English mar¬ 
kets. 

PTERODAC'TYLTTS (pteron,' awing; and 
daktulos, a finger: Gr.), a genus of reptiles 
whose remains have been found in oolitic 
strata. They were flying lizards, the bones 
of the fore legs being much elongated, and 
connected by skin with the hind legs, as i 
amongst the bats. 

PTEROP'ODA (pteron, a wing; poda, feet: 
Gr.), a class of mollusca which live in the 
open sea both of the tropics and colder 
latitudes, affording food to whales and 
sea birds. The chief characteristic by 
which they are separated from other mol¬ 
lusca is the possession of a pair of fins, one 
at each side of the mouth or neck. Their 
shells, when present, are glassy and trans¬ 
lucent, differing greatly in shape. The 
northern Clio, the chief food of the right- 
whale, is a pteropod. 

PTOLEMA'IC SYS'TEM, the system of 
astronomy invented by Claudius Ptole- ‘ 
masus, a celebrated astronomer and mathe¬ 
matician of Pelusium, in Egypt, who lived 
in the beginning of the second century of 
the Christian era. It supposes that the 
earth is fixed in the centre of the universe, 
and that the sun, moon, planets, and stars 
revolve around it, from east to west, once 
in twenty-four hours. This theory was re¬ 
ceived for ages; astronomers having no 
notion of any other system but that of 
which our sun is the centre, nor of any 
other world but the earth on which we 
live. They imagined that all the fixed 
stars were contained in one concave sphere, 
and that the primum mobile was circum¬ 
scribed by the empyreal heaven, the bliss¬ 
ful abode of departed souls. [See Astro¬ 
nomy.] 

PTY'ALISM (ptuallsmos, from ptualon, 
spittle : Gr.), in Medicine, an unnatural or 
copious flow of saliva; salivation. 

PUBES'CENCE (pubescens, downy : Lat.), 
in Botany the hairy or downy substance 
























613 Ettcnuj) Erca^utg. [pun 

growing on certain vegetable productions : 

; hence a pubescent plant. 

PUB'LICAN (publicanns: Lat.), among 
the Romans, a farmer of the taxes and pub- 
! lie revenues. The inferior members of this 
class were looked upon as oppressors, and 
were consequently regarded by the Jews 
i and other tributary nations with no small 

i degree of detestation_Under the modern 

term of publicans are comprised inn-keep¬ 
ers, hotel-keepers, alehouse-keepers, keep¬ 
ers of wine vaults, &c. 

PUB'LICIST (publicus , pertaining to the 
state: Lat.), a writer on the laws of 
nations. 

PUD'DING-STONE, a conglomerate, con¬ 
sisting of oblong and rounded pebbles of 
flint, about the size of almonds, imbedded 
in a hard siliceous cement. The pebbles 
are usually black, and the cement a light 
yellowish brown. It is capable of receiving 
a very high polish, and is used in orna¬ 
mental works. It is found chiefly in Essex. 

PUDD'LING, a process in the manufac¬ 
ture of iron effected by stirring the melted 
metal with an iron rod in order to bring it 
into contact with the air and free it from 
carbon. 

PUER'PERAL FE'VER (puerperns, per¬ 
taining to childbirth: Lat.), in Medicine, a 
fever attended by peritoneal inflammation, 
which comes on about the third day after 
delivery. It is a dangerous disease, is 
most common in the autumn, and seems 
infectious. It sometimes assumes a typhoid 
character. 

PUG MILL, an apparatus used in the pre¬ 
paration of clay, with a view to increase its 
plasticity and fit it for manufacture into 
earthenware, bricks, and other articles. 

PU'LEX (Lat.), the flea, [See Flea.] 

PUL'LEY (poulie: Fr.), one of the six 
mechanical powers, consisting of a small 
wheel with a grooved edge and turning on 
an axis. 

PUL'MONARY or PULMON'IO ( pulmo, 
the lungs : Lat.), pertaining to the lungs; 
as, a pulmonary disease. 

PULSE ( pulsus , a beating: Lat.), amotion 
of the blood-vessels, produced by the alter¬ 
nate dilatation and contraction of the 
arteries, arising from the impulse given to 
the blood by the action of the heart. The 
average rate of pulsation In a healthy in¬ 
fant, for the first year, is from 120 to 108 
strokes per minute; for the second year, 
from 108 to 90; for the third, from 100 to 
80; from the seventh to the twelfth, about 
70. In febrile diseases, the pulse some¬ 
times reaches to 140, and is then difficult 
to count. Its range in a healthy adult is 
between 60 and 80; but it is extremely 
capricious, and is modified by slight mental 
affections, indigestion, &c., so that the 
peculiarities of individuals must be care¬ 
fully considered before conclusions can be 
drawn from it. Certain modifications of 

it are termed hard, soft, full, wiry, &c.- 

Pulse, in Botany, the seed of leguminous 
plants, as beans, peas, &c. 

PULSE GLASS, a tube about a quarter 
of an inch in diameter, and five or six inches 
lone, with a bulb at each end; and about 
half filled with spirit of wine, the air having 

been carefully removed from it before it 
was hermetically sealed. When held in an 
inclined position, one of the bulbs being 
grasped in the hand, the expansion of the 
vapour which is generated there, and after¬ 
wards condensed at the other end, causes 
the liquid to rise and fall in the tube—to 
pulsate; a snapping noise being produced. 

PUL'YINATED (pulvinatus, cushion¬ 
shaped : Lat.), an Architectural term, ex¬ 
pressive of a swelling in any portion of an 
order; as, for example, in the modem 
Ionic frieze. 

PU'MA, the Felis concolor, a rapacious 
quadruped, called sometimes the American 
lion. When mature it is about five feet 
long and of a fawn colour. It ranges from 
the forests under the equator to Tierra del 
Fuego. It preys on horses, cattle, deer, 
and other wild animals, usually springing 
upon the shoulders and pulling the head 
back by one of its paws, until the verte¬ 
brae are broken. After eating its fill, says 
Darwin, the puma covers the carcass with 
large bushes, and lies down to watch it. 
Tnis habit is often the cause of its being 
discovered; for the condors whirling in 
the air every now and then descend to 
partake of the feast, and, being angrily 
driven away, rise all together on the wing. 

It is then known that a ‘lion’ is watching 
its prey, and men and dogs hurry to the 
chase. It is described as being very crafty ; 
when pursued it turns on its former track, 
and then, suddenly making a spring on one 
side, waits thereuntil the dogs have passed 
by. 

PUMTCE-STONE (pumex: Lat.), a porous 
volcanic product, composed chiefly of silica 
and alumina, with traces of potash, soda, 
and oxide of iron. It floats on water, is 
hardly acted on by the acids, and may proba¬ 
bly be looked on as stony froth. It is found 
in almost all volcanic countries; and is 
known to be produced especially by Etna, 
Vesuvius, and Hecla, during the eruptions 
of which it is thrown up in great abundance. 

It is used for polishing ivory, wood, marble, 
metals, glass, &c., as also skins and parch¬ 
ment. 

PUMP (pompe: Fr.), an hydraulic engine 
for raising water by exhausting the incum¬ 
bent air from a tube or pipe; in conse¬ 
quence of which, the water rises in the tube 
by means of the pressure of the air on the 
surrounding water. There are suction- 
pumps, forcing pumps, air-pumps, &c, A 
chain-pump consists of a chain which is fur¬ 
nished with a sufficient number of flat pis¬ 
tons at proper distances; these, working 
on two wheels, pass down through one tube 
and up through another, carrying up the 
water along with them. The chain-pump 
is well adapted for ships; it acts merely 
mechanically, aud is not liable to be choked 
by sand, &c. 

PUMP'KIN or POM'PION, the fruit of 
plants belonging to the genus Cucurbita, 
nat. ord. Cucurbitacece, which see. 

PUN, a play upon words, the wit of which 
depends on the resemblance between the 
sound and syllables of two or more words, 
which have different and even opposite 
meanings. [See Paronomasia.] 


L 























punctuation] t£i)C j^ctenttfu iiufr 614 


PUNCTUA'TION (punctum, a point: Lat), 
in Grammar, the discriminating use of 
certain marks adopted to distinguish the 
clauses of a period; sometimes with refer¬ 
ence to the sense, and at others to the 
grammatical construction. Thus, a full 
point ( .) closes a perfect sentence; a colon 
( :) divides parts of a sentence, separated 
by semicolons; a semicoion (;) distinguishes 
the more importantmemhers of a sentence, 
as when one is an inference from, qualifica¬ 
tion, illustration, or explanation of another; 
and a comma (,) separates parts subordi¬ 
nate to the semicolon. A paragraph, which 
may include several periods, includes a 
branch of the subject or argument. A 
question is indicated by (?); an exclama¬ 
tion by (!); and it is sometimes convenient 
to include a collateral circumstance in a 
parenthesis (). There are other marks not 
so easily defined. The ancients were scarcely 
acquainted with punctuation. 

PUNOTURA'TION ( punctura , a pricking: 
Lat.), in Surgery, a piercing of the skin, 
&c., with needles, to relieve the painful 
diseases arising from tension, obstruction, 
&c. 

PUN'DIT, in Hindostan, a learned Brah¬ 
min ; one versed in the Sanscrit language, 
and in the science, laws, and religion of 
the country. The term is used ironically 
with us, to designate one who makes a 
show of learning without possessing its 
reality. 

PU'NIC, pertaining to the Carthaginians, 
or their language; as the Punic wars, con¬ 
tests carried on between the Romans and 
Carthaginians for more than three centu¬ 
ries, and which ended in the destruction 
of Carthage, b.o. 147.-Also, a term imply¬ 

ing treacherous, deceitful; as punic faith. 

PUN'ISHMENT (punio, I punish : Lat.), 
the infliction of pain or personal suffering, 
according to law, for crimes; intended as 
an example to deter others, and a means of 
correcting the offender. 

PUN'KAH, an apparatus employed in 
India to cause the air to circulate through 
the rooms of the houses and thereby keep 
down the temperature. 

PU'PA (a puppet: Lat.), in Entomology, 
the second stage of an insect’s life, inter¬ 
mediate between the maggot or larva and 
the perfect insect. In the case of butter¬ 
flies the names of chrysalis and aurelia are 
given to this metamorphosis. In the pupa 
state the insect is covered with a tough 
skin which more or less conceals the or¬ 
gans ; and it remains quite helpless, with¬ 
out power to move, until the time arrives 
for its next metamorphosis, when it be¬ 
comes the complete insect. When the 
larva is about to change its form, it seeks 
out some place of concealment, sometimes 
in the earth, and often about walls. Some 
species attach themselves by a few threads 
to their hiding-place; others envelope 
themselves entirely in a cocoon of silk. 
The length of time for continuing in this 
mummy-like condition varies with the spe¬ 
cies ; but in this country most insects pass 
the winter in the pupa form. -Pupa, a ge¬ 

nus of small land snails; so called from 
their resemblance to thepwpa of an insect. 


PU'PIL (pupula, literally a dim. of pupa, 
a puppet : Lat,), in Anatomy, the round 
aperture in the middle of the iris. It is so 
called because it reflects the diminished 
image of the person who looks into it. 

PUPIP'ARES (pupa; and pario, I bring 
forth : Lat.), a term applied to insects, such 
as the Ilippobosca equina, or forest fly,which 
bring forth their young in the condition of 
a pupa or nymph. 

PUPIV'ORES (pupa; and voro, I devour : 
Lat), a tribe of liymenopterous insects, 
comprehending those of which the larvra 
live parasitically in the interior of the 
larvae and pupae of other insects. 

PURA'NAS. These are metrical compo¬ 
sitions in Sanscrit, embracing a collection 
of legends and traditions touching the 
origin and history of the holy places of 
India, or of the religious sects. They were 
intended to be read publicly to the people 
assembled at great festivals. The existing 
Puranas have been formed out of much 
older compositions, which have been lost. 

PURGA'TION (purgatio, from purgo, I 
make clean : Lat.), the act or operation of 
clearing oneself of a crime; a mode of 
trying persons accused of any crime, which 
was formerly in practice. 

PUR'GATORY (purgatorius, cleansing : 
Lat.), a supposed place or state after death, 
where, according to the Roman Catholics, 
the souls of the faithful are purified from 
the sins which they carry with them out of 
this life, before they are admitted to a state 
of perfect bliss. It is assumed to differ 
from hell in little except that its pains are 
not eternal, and that they may be shorten¬ 
ed, or even terminated, by masses, indul¬ 
gences, &c. 


PURIFICATION (purificatio, from puri- 
fico, I make clean : Lat.), the act or opera¬ 
tion of cleansing ceremonially, by remoAdng 
any pollution or defilement. Purification 
by washing was common to the HebreAvs 
and to pagans; and the Mohammedans al¬ 
ways use it previous to devotion. 

PU'RIM, among the Jcavs, the feast of 
lots, instituted to commemorate their de¬ 
liverance from the machinations of Ha- 
man. 


PU'RITAN, a name formerly given to 
dissenters from the church of England,who 
professed to follow the pure Avord of God, 
in opposition to all traditions and human 
institutions. 


PUR'LIN, in Architecture, a piece of 
timber extending from end to end of a 
building or roof, across and under the 
principal rafters, to support them in the 
middle. 

PUR'PURA (purple: Lat.), in Medicine, 
an eruption of small purple specks and 
patches, produced by extravasation of 

blood under the cuticle.-In Zoology, the 

generic name of the univah r e gasteropod 
which secretes the purple fluid that formed 
the base of the Tyrian dye. 

PUR'PURE (pourpre, purple : Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, one of the five colours of armorial 
bearings, compounded of gules and azure, 
bordering on violet. It is represented in 
engraving by diagonal tarn from right to 
left. 


— 
































615 Etterarn ©rraattrg. [pygmy 

PUR'PURIC A'CID, in Chemistry, an acid 
produced by the action of nitric upon uric 
acid. It forms, with most bases, a deep red 
or purple compound. 

PUR'SER, in the Navy, an officer on board 
a man-of-war, whose principal duty is to 
keep the ship’s accounts; but who takes 
charge of the provisions, and attends to 
their preservation and distribution among 
the officers and crew. 

PUR'SUIVANT ( poursuivant: Fr.), in He¬ 
raldry, the lowest order of officers at arms. 
The pursuivants are properly attendants on 
the heralds when they marshal public cere¬ 
monies. They are a kind of probationers, 
in the heralds’college, and are styled Port¬ 
cullis, Rouge Dragon, Blue Mantle, and Rouge 
Croix. 

PUS (Lat.), the white or yellowish matter 
issuing from a sore, which usually precedes 
the healing; and in such cases is termed 
healthy or good pus. Examined in a mi¬ 
croscope, it is found to consist of globules, 
and a transparent colourless fluid. Its spe- 
ciflc gravity is greater than that of water; 
exposed to heat, it evaporates to dryness, 
butdoe3 not coagulate. 

PUT'CHOCK, the root of a plant that 
grows abundantly in Sinde. When burned, 
it yields a thin smoke, and a grateful and 
diffusive smell. The Chinese beat it into a 
fine powder, which they burn as incense in 
the temples of their gods. 

PUTREFAC'TION (putrefacio, I make 
rotten : Lat.), the spontaneous decomposi¬ 
tion of organic substances, accompanied by 
the evolution of foetid and noxious gases. 
It is a species of fermentation. Animal mat¬ 
ter, containing more nitrogen, gives rise 
to more offensive products than vegetable : 
unless nitrogen is present, putrefaction 
will either not take place, or it will pro¬ 
gress very slowly. Most animal substances 
generate ammonia or ammoniacal com¬ 
pounds : the other results of putrefaction 
are various combinations of hydrogen, par¬ 
ticularly carburetted hydrogen, along with 
complicated and dangerous compounds, in 
some of which sulphur and phosphorus are 
present ; all of them, however, are decom¬ 
posed and rendered harmless by chlorine. 
The production of putrefaction requires a 
number of conditions: it cannot take place 
without a certain temperature, and hence 
does not occur below the freezing point ; it 
requires moisture, and hence is prevented 
by substances that absorb or remove water, 
which explains the efficacy of salt, sugar, 
alcohol, &c. ; it is prevented also by those— 
such as the tanning principle—which form 
new combinations with the organic matter: 
it requires access of oxygen, and, therefore, 
exclusion of the air prevents it. Vitality 
hinders putrefaction : as Boon as the body 
or a part ef it dies, mortification, that is, 
putrefaction, sets in. The ancient Egyp¬ 
tians seem to have been well acquainted 
with many of the means required to pre¬ 
vent putrefaction, as is proved by their 
mummies remaining perfect for so many 

hundred years. - Antiseptic processes. In 

curing provisions, the ordinary means em¬ 
ployed are, drying, smoking, salting, and 
pickling. Grain of all kinds, as well as 

flour, may be kept for an indefinite length 
of time, if they are kiln-dried, put up in 
vessels or chambers free from damp, and 
excluded from the air. Well-dried grain is 
not liable to the depredations of*insects. 
Fruits may be preserved in various ways. 
Pears, apples, plains, &c., should be ga¬ 
thered in a sound state, altogether free 
from bruises, and plucked in dry weather 
before they are fully ripe. One mode of 
preservation is to expose them in an airy 
place, to dry a little, for eight or ten days, 
and then to lay them in dry sawdust or 
chopped straw, spread upon shelves in a 
cool apartment, so as not to touch each 
other. Another method consists in sur¬ 
rounding them with flne dry sand in a ves¬ 
sel which should be made air-tight and kept 
in a cool place. Herbs, cabbages, fz c., may 
be kept a long time in a cool cellar, pro¬ 
vided they are covered with dry sand. 
Tuberose and other roots are preserved 
better in an airy place where they may dry 
a little without being exposed to the win¬ 
ter’s frost. A partial drying is given to 
various vegetable juices by evaporating 
them to the consistence of a syrup, called 
a rob; in which so much of the water is 
dissipated as to prevent them from running 
into fermentation. The fruits are to lie 
crushed, and squeezed in bags to expel the 
juices; which must then be inspissated 
either over the naked Are, or in a water or 
steam bath, in the air or in vacuo: some¬ 
times a small proportion of spices is added, 
to prevent mouldiness. 

PUT'TY (potee: Fr.), a kind of cement, 
made of whiting and llnseed-oil ground 
together into a paste, which is used by gla¬ 
ziers in fastening the panes of glass, and 

by painters in stopping crevices. - Also, a 

fine cement, made of lime only, creed by 
plasterers; it differs from fine stuff in con¬ 
taining no hair. 

PUZZOLA'NO, a volcanic rock, yielding 
an excellent cement, which resists mois¬ 
ture. It is found at Puszuoli, near Naples, 

&c. 

PYC'NITE (pulcnos , compact : Or.), in 
Mineralogy, the schorlous topaz it usually 
appears in long irregular prisms or cylin¬ 
ders, longitudinally striated, and united in 
bundles. 

PYC'NOSTYLE (pulcnostulos: from pulc¬ 
nos, close; and stulos, a column: Or.), in 
Ancient Architecture, a species of building 
in which the columns stand very close to 
each other, only one diameter and a half of 
the column being allowed to each interco- 
lumuiation. 

PYG'MY (pugmaios, from pugme, a mea¬ 
sure of length—the distance from the elbow 
to the knuckles, about 13i inches : Or.), an 
appellation given by the ancients to a fabu¬ 
lous race of beings, said by some authors 
to have lived in India, by others in Ethio¬ 
pia, &c., and to have waged perpetual war 
with the cranes, by whom they were ulti¬ 
mately destroyed. The fable, no doubt, had 
its origin in the stunted growth of parti¬ 
cular races, on account of a severe climate 
or great privations. The term pygmy is now 
restricted to a species of ape, the Simia 
Troglodytes, and to a dwarf. 



































pylorus] 


VZ\)t J?rientifu antf 


616 


PYLO'RUS ( puldros, from pule, an en¬ 
trance; and ouros, a guard: Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the right or lower orifice of the sto¬ 
mach, which is connected with, and, as it 
were, guards the entrance into the intes¬ 
tines. 

PY'RACIDS (pur , fire : Gr.), acids, gene¬ 
rated by that process of decomposition 
J which several vegetable acids undergo 
I when subjected to the action of heat. 
Thus, gallic acid, in such circumstances, 
yields pyrogallic acid; tartaric acid, pyro- 
tartaric acid, &c. 

PYRAL'LOLITE (pur, fire; alios, an¬ 
other; and lithos, a stone: Gr.), a mineral 
which undergoes various changes of colour 
when heated. It is greenish, and occurs 
both massive and in crystals. 

PYR'AMID (puramis : Gr.), a solid body 
standing on a triangular, square, or poly¬ 
gonal base, and terminating at the top in a 
point termed the apex. Its lateral surface 
consists of three or more plane triangles. 
The Pyramids of Egypt are noble monu¬ 
ments of Egyptian grandeur. They are 
forty in number, and are situated near 
Memphis. The largest is 480 feet in height, 
that is, 43 feet higher than St. Peter’s at 
Rome, and 136 feet higher that St. Paul’s 
in London. It covers more than thirteen 
acres, and, if solid, would contain more 
than three million cubic yards of stone, 
that is, six times as much as what is con¬ 
tained in Plymouth breakwater. Accord¬ 
ing to the information given by the priests 
to Herodotus, 100,000 men were twenty 
years constructing it. 

PYRAM'IDOID (puramis, a pyramid; and 
eidos, form: Gr.), in Geometry, a solid 
figure, formed by the rotation of a semi¬ 
parabola about one of its ordinates. It is 
called also a parabolic spindle. 

PYR'ENITE, a mineral of a greyish-black 
colour, found in the Pyrenees, and consi¬ 
dered as a variety of garnet. 

PYRETOL'OGY (puretos, a fever; and 
logos, a discourse : Gr.), the doctrine of fe¬ 
vers ; or a treatise on their nature, effects, 
&e. 

PYRI'TES (purites, from pur, fire: Gr.), 
in Mineralogy, sulphurets of copper and 
iron. Copper pyrites is the principal ore of 
copper, and iron pyrites is a most abundant 
{ ore of iron ; it is of a brass-yellow colour. 
Iron pyrites, exposed to the air, particular¬ 
ly when heated, absorbs oxygen, and yields 
j sulphate of iron or green vitriol. These 
minerals have obtained their name either 
from igniting spontaneously, or because 
they are sufficiently hard to strike fire with 
steel. They occur massive, disseminated, 
and frequently crystallized. 

PYRO-ACET'IC SPI'RIT, in Chemistry, 
a liquid obtained by subjecting to dry dis¬ 
tillation the acetates of copper, lead, al- 
kalis, and earths. It is very combustible, 

| and burns with a brilliant flame, without 
j smoke. It is used for dissolving the gum- 
resins with which the bodies of hats are 
stiffened, and is now called acetone, which 
see. 

PYROLTO'NEOUS A'CID, in Chemistry, 
an acid obtained from beech and other 
I woods by destructive distillation. It is a 


liquid of the colour of white wine, of a 
strongly acid and slightly astringent taste. 
It is an antiseptic, and serves instead of 
wood smoke, of which it is the most active 
constituent, for preserving animal sub¬ 
stances. It is an impure acetic acid, or 
vinegar. 

PYROL'OGY (pur, fire ; and logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), the natural history of heat; 
or a treatise on that subject. 

PYROM'ALATE, in Chemistry, a com¬ 
pound of pyromalic acid and a salifiable 

l)ctS6 

PYROMAL'IC A'CID, in Chemistry, a 
substance obtained from the distillation of 
malic acid. 

PYROM'ETER (pur, fire; and metron, a 
measure: Gr.), an instrument for measur¬ 
ing high temperatures, or degrees of heat 
above those indicated by the mercurial 
thermometer. "Wedgewood’s pyrometer 
consists of porcelain, and is founded on 
the principle that clay progressively con¬ 
tracts in its dimensions in proportion as 
it is exposed to higher degrees of heat. 
But its indications cannot be depended on, 
since they are due not only to the tempera¬ 
ture to be tested, but to that at which the 
porcelain was originally baked. If made at 
a very high temperature, all the water will 
be driven off, and it will contract no fur¬ 
ther, whatever the heat to which it may 
be subsequently exposed. Other kinds of 
pyrometers have been used, but one of un¬ 
questionable excellence has not yet been 
invented. 

PYRO'PHANE (pur, fire; and pliaino, I 
make to appear: Gr.), a mineral which, in 
its natural state, is opaque, but by means 
of heat is rendered transparent. 

PYROR'THITE (pur, fire: Gr. ; and or- 
thite), a scarce mineral, resembling orthite 
in appearance; but is very different in re¬ 
ality, for it burns in the flame of the blow¬ 
pipe like charcoal, whereas orthite melts. 

PY'ROSCOPE (pur, fire; and slcopeo, I 
examine: Gr.), an instrument for measuring 
the intensity of heat radiating from a fire. 

PYRO'SIS (purdsis, from puroo, I burn: 
Gr.), a disease of the stomach, which causes 
a burning sensation, and the throwing up 
of a quantity of saline or sour fluid. It 
is a variety of heartburn, and is termed also 
waterbrash, and blackwater. 

PYROS'MALITE (pur, fire; osme, an 
odour; and lithos, a stone : Go-.), a Swedish 
mineral of a brown or greenish colour, oc¬ 
curring in six-sided prisms, of a lamellar 
structure. It is anative subchloride of iron ; 
and, when heated, exhales the odour of 
chlorine. 

PYROSO'MA(p?tr,flre ; andsomu, a body: 
Gr.), the generic name of certain compound 
ascidians, animals allied to the mollusca. 
These ascidians form a hollow cylinder 10 
to 12 inches long, which is only met with in 
the open ocean. The Pyrosoma is remark- I 
able for the brilliant light which it emits. i 

PY'ltOTARTARIC ACID, in Chemistry, 
is formed by subjecting cr.vstallizod tar¬ 
taric acid to destructive distillation, or of 
cream of tartar. Its salts are termed pyro- 

tftrtrflitGS 

PY'ROTECHNY, or PYROTECH'NIOS 



























617 


Htterarg Cmtfurji. 


(pur, Are; and techne, an art: pur. Are ; and 
technikos, artistic: Gr.), the art of con¬ 
structing Areworks intended to be let off 
on the ground, in the air, or under water. 
The materials principally employed consist 
of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal; with the 
addition of substances to produce colour, 
&c. Iron Alings give bright red and white 
sparks. Copper Alings impart a greenish 
tint to the Aame: zinc, a Ane blue; sul- 
phuret of antimony, a less greenish blue, 
and much smoke; amber, colophony, or 
common salt, a yellow. Lamp-black, with 
gunpowder, gives a red, but with nitre in 
excess, a pink colour ; and is used also to 
produce golden showers. Yellow sand, or 
glistening mica, communicate to Areworks 
a golden radiation; verdigris, sulphate of 
copper, and sal ammoniac, each a shade of 
green. Camphor gives a very white Aame, 
and an aromatic odour. Some other sub- 
stan ces are u sed to mask a bad smel 1. Lyco¬ 
podium seed gives a rose-colour and splendid 
Aame; it is used in theatres to represent 
lightning, &c. 

PY'ROXEISE, in Mineralogy, augite. Ac¬ 
cording to some mineralogists, it is a gene¬ 
ral term under which augite, diallage, and 
hyperstliene rank as varieties of the same 
species. 

PYROXYL'IC SPIR'IT (pur, Are; and 
xulon, wood : Gr.), one of the products of 
the destructive distillation of wood. It is 
inAammable, burning with a blue Aame, and 
may be used instead of alcohol in lamps, 
being often sold for the purpose, under the 
name of wood naphtha. When rectiAed, 
its spec. grav. is 0804; it boils at ISO 3 . 
-g ee diethyl 3 

PYRRHO'NIANS, or PYRR'HONISTS, a 
sect of ancient philosophers, so called from 
Pyrrho, a native of Elis, in Peloponnesus, 
who Aourished about 300 years n.c. Their 
opinions are known only through their 
enemies, and they are said to have been so 
sceptical as not to put even so much conA- 
dence ill the senses as was necessary for the 


[QUADRATS 

preservation of life. But this is refuted by 
their founder having lived to the age of 
ninety. They were believed to be always in 
search of truth without ever acknowledging 
that they had found it; hence the art of 
disputing upon all things, without ever 
going further than suspending our judg¬ 
ment, is called pyrrhonism. 

PYTHAGORE'ANS, a sect of ancient phi¬ 
losophers, so called from being the fol¬ 
lowers of Pythagoras of Samos, who lived 
in the 6th or 7th century b.c. [See Phi¬ 
losophy.] - Pythagorean system, the sys¬ 

tem of astronomy taught by Pythagoras, 
which was founded on the hypothesis that 
the sun was a sphere situated in a centre, 
round which the planets revolved. This 
is now called the Copern lean system, be¬ 
cause it was revived by Copernicus. [See 
Astronomy.] 

PYTH'IA, orPYTH'ONESS, in Antiquity, 
the priestess of Apollo, who delivered ora¬ 
cular answers at Delphi in Greece. 

PYTH'IAN GAMES, games celebrated in 
the neighbourhood of Delphi, at Arst every 
eighth, but afterwards at the end of every 
fourth year, in honour of Apollo, as the 
conqueror of the Python; which, according 
to the mythological history, was a dreadful 
dragon that sprang from the mud left by 
the Aood of Deucalion. The contests were 
the same as those at Olympia. 

PY'THON ( puthon, the serpent said to 
have been slain by Apollo : Gr.), a genus of 
large non-venomous snakes in which the 
hinder pair of limbs are developed under 
the skin, but not visible externally except 
that a terminal spur or nail projects at each 
side of the vent. One species grows to the 
length of 30 feet, and is capable of killing a 
buffalo. The Pythons are natives of the 
old world, and are allied to the boas bf the 
new. 

PYX (puxis, a box, especially of box¬ 
wood : Gr.), the box in which the conse¬ 
crated wafer is kept by Roman Catholic 
priests. 


Q 


Q (queue, a tail: FV.—because it is an O 
with a tail), the seventeenth letter of the 
English alphabet, is not to be found either 
in the Greek, old Latin, or Saxon alphabets ; 
is never sounded alone, but in conjunction 
with u, and never ends any English word. 
For qu in English, the Dutch use kw, the 
Germans qu, and the Swedes and the Danes 
qv. It appears, in short, that q is precisely 
k, with this difference in use, that q is al¬ 
ways followed by u in English, and k is not. 
The Rotnans used it for an abbrevation for 
Quintus, que, &c. Thus S. P. Q. R. senatus 
populusque Romanus (the senate and Roman 
people). And, as a numeral, for 500; but, 
with a dash over it, for 500,000. With us, 
Q is used as an abbreviation for question; 
also for quantity, or quantum, as q. pi., 


quantum placet (as much as you please), 
and q. s., quantum svflie.it (as much as is ne¬ 
cessary). Among mathematicians, Q. E. D. 
stands for quod erat demonstrandum (that 
which was to be demonstrated), and Q. E. F., 
quod erat faciendum (that which was to be 
done). 

QITADRAGESTMA ( quadragesimus, the 
fortieth: Lat.), Lent; so called because it 
consists of forty days. 

QUAD'RANGLE (quadrangulum: from 
quatnor, four; and angulus, an angle: Lat.), 
in Geometry, a Agure consisting of four 

sides and four angles.-In Architecture, 

any range of houses or buildings with four 
sides in the form of a square. 

QUAD'RANS (Lat.), the fourth of a Ro¬ 
man As, or three ounces, when the as was 



































—, f 


quadrant] 


%\)t ^ctcnltftc anti 


618 


its full weight.-A farthing or fourth part 

of a penny. Before the reign of Edward I. 
the smallest coin was a sterling or penny, 
marked with a cross, hy means of which it 
might he cut into halves and quarters. But, 
to avoid the frauds of unequal cuttings, 
that king coined halfpence and farthings in 
distinct round pieces. 

QUAD'RANT (quadrans, a fourth part: 
Lot.), in Geometry, an arc of a circle, con¬ 
taining its fourth part, or ninety degrees; 
also, the space or area included between 
this arc and two radii drawn from the 

centre to each extremity.- Quadrant, in 

Astronomy and Navigation, an instrument 
for taking the altitudes of the sun and 
stars; as also for taking angles in survey¬ 
ing heights, distances, <fcc. Quadrants are 
of different forms, but the most common is 
Hadley’s, which consists of an octant, or 
the eighth part of a circle, an index, a 
speculum, two horizontal glasses, two 
screens, and two sight-vanes. Though its 
arc is only 45°, it measures angles of 90°, 
being constructed on the principle that 
‘ when a ray of light is twice reflected, the 
angle made by its first and last directions 
is double that made by the mirrors.’ [See 

Octant.] -There is also the gunner's 

quadrant, used for elevating and pointing 

cannon, mortars, &c.- Quadrant of 

Altitude, a slip of brass, in length equal 
to a quadrant, graduated and attached to 
the artificial globe. It serves as a scale in 
measuring altitudes, azimuths, &c. 

QUADRAN'TAL TRI'ANGLE (quadran- 
tnlis, containing the fourth part • Laid, in 
Trigonometry, a spherical triangle, having 
for one of its sides an arc of 90°. 

QUAD'RATE or QUAR'TILE ( quadrans, 
a fourth part; quartus, the fourth : Lat.), 
in Astrology, an aspect of the heavenly 
bodies, in which they are distant from each 
other ninety degrees, or the quarter of a 
circle. 

QUADRAT'IC EQUATIONS (quadratics, 
squared : Lat.), in Algebra, those in which 
the unknown quantity is found in the 
square or second power. If it is found only 
in the second power, the quadratic is sim¬ 
ple or pure: if found both in the first and 
second powers, it is complete or adfected: 
x- = a, is a pure quadratic ; x- + x = b, is a 
complete quadratic. 

QUAD'RATRIX (quadro, I make square : 
Lat.), in Geometry, a mechanical line by 
means of which we can find right lines equal 
to the circumference of circles, or other 
curves, and their several parts. 

QUAD'RATURE (cquadratura, from qua¬ 
dro, I make square: Lat.), in Astronomy, 
the position of the moon, when she is 90° 
from the sun, or at one of the two points 
of her orbit, which are equidistant from 
conjunction and opposition.-In Geome¬ 

try, the finding of a square equal in area 
to that of a curve. The quadrature of the 
circle is a very ancient and celebrated 
problem. As the area of a circle is equal 
to the product of the radius and half the 
circumference, it depends on the ratio of 
the diameter to the periphery. And as this 
ratio and its square are irrational numbers, 
the quadrature of the circle is not possible, 


except by the geometrical construction of a 
straight line equal to a circle of a given 
radius. The fraction iaa gives a close ap¬ 
proximation to the side of a square equal 
in area to a circle of which the diameter is 
unity. Only those who have an imperfect 
knowledge of geometry, at the present 
time, even attempt the quadrature of the 
circle; just as those only who have an im¬ 
perfect knowledge of mechanics endeavour 
to find the perpetual motion. 

QUADRIDEC'IMAL (quatuor, four; and 
decern, ten: Lat.), in Crystallography, an 
epithet for a crystal whose prism has four 
faces and two summits, containing to¬ 
gether ten faces. 

QUADRIDEN'TATE (quatuor, four ; and 
dens, a tooth : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
denoting that there are four teeth on the 
edge. 

QUAD'RIFID (quadrirfidus, split into 
four parts : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet de¬ 
signating anything cut into four segments. 

QUADRI'GA (Lat.: from quatuor, four; 
and jugum, a yoke), in Antiquity, a car or 
chariot drawn by four horses. On the re¬ 
verses of medals, we frequently see the 
emperor, or Victory,in a quadriga, holding 
the reins of tliehoi'ses; whence these coins 
are, among numismatologists, called num- 
mi quadrigati and victonati. 

QUADRIJU'GOUS (quatuor, four; and 
jugum, a pair.': Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
for a pinnate leaf with four pairs of leaflets. 

QUADRILAT'ERAL (quadrilaterus, four¬ 
sided : Lat.), in Geometry, an epithet for 
a figure whose perimeter consists of four 
right lines, makingfour angles ; it is called 
also quadrangular. Quadrilateral figures are 
either a parallelogram, trapezium, rect¬ 
angle, square, rhombus, or rhomboid. 

QUADRIEL'E (Fr.; from quadra, a 
square: Lat.), a graceful kind of dance, 
consisting of parties of four. Also, a game 
of cards played by four persons with forty 
cards, the four tens, nines, and eights 
being discarded. 

QUAD'RILOBATE (quatuor, four: Lat.; 
and lobos, a lobe: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet 
for a leaf having four lobes, or divided to 
the middle into four distinct parts with 
convex margins. 

QUADRILOC'ULAR (quatuor, four; and 
loculus, a compartment: Lat.), in Botany, 
having four cells, as a quadrilocular peri¬ 
carp. 

QUADRINO'MIAL (quatuor, four; and 
nomen, a name: Lat.), in Algebra, a root 
which consists of four terms or parts. 

QUADRIPH'YLLOUS (quatuor, four; 
Lat.; and phullon, a leaf : Gr.), in Botany, 
having four leaves. 

QUADRIRE'MIS or QUAD'RIREME 
(quadriremis: Lat.), a species of the navis 
longa, or ship of war, used by the Romans 
and also by the Greeks ; being a galley with 
four benches or banks of rowers. 

QUADROON', the name given by the 
South Americans to the offspring of a 
mulatto woman by a white man. 

QUAD'RUMANA (quadrumanus, four- 
handed : Lat.), an order of mammals estab¬ 
lished by Cuvier for the reception of the 
apes, baboons, monkeys, and lemurs, ani- 


























619_^ Ettcrary 

rriala whose hind limbs are better snited for 
prehension than walking, the first toe 
being opposable to the others as the thumb 
is to the fingers. They are vegetable feed¬ 
ers, and chiefly dwell on trees, some of 
them being aided in their progress from 
branch to branch by their prehensile tails. 
They are natives of warm climates. Some 
species approach man in their structure. 
[See Primates, Ape, Baboon, Monkey.] 
As to the geographical distribution of the 
quadrumana, it is remarkable that Austra¬ 
lia and New Guinea do not contain a single 
species, whilst in Madagascar only the 
lemurs, the most lowly organized of all, are 
to be found. The gibbons are confined to 
south-eastern Asia, and the dog-faced ba¬ 
boons to Africa. In Americaevery monkey 
has three premolar teeth (false molars), 
whilst in the rest of the world not a single 
monkey has more than two. Only one 
species has established itself in Europe, and 
that is the North African Innuus sylvanus, 
which has found a home on the rock of 
Gibraltar. 

QUAD'RUPED (quadrupes, fourfooted: 
Lat), any animal having four feet, as a 
horse, a lion, a dog, &c. 

QUAD'RUPLE ( quadruplus, fourfold: 
Lat.), an epithet for whatever is fourfold, 
or four times any given quantity. 

QUHS'RE (endeavour to obtain informa¬ 
tion : Lat.), a term expressive of doubt, and 
calling for further inquiry. 

QUiES'TOR (Lat., from quosro, I search 
) for), an officer among the Romans originally 
j found in two departments. In one, the 
quaestor performed, to some extent, the 
! duties of a public prosecutor; in the other, 
he had charge of the revenues. The qucestor- 
ship was the first office any person could fill 
in the commonwealth. 

QUAG'MIRE (i.e. quakeniire), soft wet 
land, the surface of which is firm enough to 
bear a person, but which shakes or yields 
under the feet. 

QUAIL (caille: Fr.), the name given to 
birds of the genus Coturnix, allied to the 
partridge. The common quail (C. dactyliso- 
nans), a smaller bird than the partridge 
and less prolific, comes to us in May and 
leaves again in October for the north of 
Africa. In performing their migrations 
quails arrive at Malta so exhausted by 
fatigue, and in such prodigious multitudes, 
that the inhabitants pick them up with 
facility and in the greatest abundance. 

| After resting one night, those that escape 
| being taken proceed to Syria and Arabia, 
and spread over Asia and Africa. Quails 
were formerly much prized for their pug¬ 
nacious propensities : quail-fighting was as 
\ common at Athens and Rome as cock-flght- 
: inghas been in modern times, and it is still 
practised in some parts of Italy. In the 
east also, and especially in China, quails are 
pitted against each other, after having been 
armed with artificial spurs. 

QUA'KERS or Friends, a religious sect 
which made its first appearance in England 
during the protectorate of Cromwell. Their 
founder was George Fox, a native of Dray¬ 
ton in Leicestershire. He proposed but few 
articles of faith, insisting chiefly on moral 


Crfatfutj). [QUAKERS 


virtue, mutual charity, the love of God, and 
a deep attention to the inward motions and 
secret operations of the Spirit. He required 
a plain simple worship, and a religion with¬ 
out ceremonies, making it a principal point 
to wait in profound silence the directions 
of the Holy Spirit. Although at first the 
Quakers were guilty of some extravagances, 
these wore off, and they settled into a re¬ 
gular body, professing great austerity of 
behaviour, a singular probity and upright¬ 
ness in their dealings, a great frugality at 
their tables, and a remarkable plainness 
and simplicity in their dress. They w r ere 
subjected for a long time to constant per¬ 
secution ; and their refusal to take oaths 
or pay tithes was a source of great suf¬ 
fering to them. But, since the time of 
William III., their affirmation has been 
received instead of an oath ; and an altera¬ 
tion in the mode of levying tithes has sa¬ 
tisfied their scruples on that point. Their 
system or tenets are laid down by Robert 
Barclay, one of their members, in a sensi¬ 
ble, well-written ‘Apology,’ addressed to 
Charles II. Their principal doctrines are ] 
—that God has given to all men, without 
exception, supernatural light, which being 
obeyed can save them ; and that this light 
is Christ, the true light, which lighteth 
every man that coraeth into the world: 
that the scriptures w r ere indeed given by 
inspiration, and are preferable to all the 
other writings in the world; but that they 
are no more than secondary rules of faith 
and practice, in subordination to the light 
or Spirit of God, which is the primary rule : 
that immediate revelation has not ceased, 
a measure of the spirit being given to every 
one : that all religious ceremonies of mere 
human institution ought to be laid aside : 
that, in civil society, the saluting one 
another by pulling off the hat, bending 
the body, or other humiliating posture, 
should be abolished: and that the use of 
the singular pronoun thou when address¬ 
ing one person, instead of the customary ; 
you, should bo strictly adhered to. They j 
further laid it down as a solemn obliga- ) 
tion, not to take an oath, encourage 
war, engage in private contests, nor even 
carry weapons of defence. On a most vital 
question of Christian faith, one of their 
body has lately thus written : ‘ Although 
“ Friends ” do not call the Holy Scriptures 
the Word of God, but apply this epithet 
exclusively to the Lord Jesus Christ, yet 
they believe that these sacred writings are , 
the words of God, written by holy men as 
they were moved by the Holy Ghost; that 
they are profitable for doctrine, for reproof, 
for correction, for instruction in righteous¬ 
ness, that the man of God may be perfect, I 
thoroughly furnished unto all good works; 
and that they are able to make wise unto 
salvation through faith which is in Christ j 
Jesus. They also hold them to be the most i 
perfect and authentic declaration of Chris¬ 
tian faith, and the only fit outward standard 
in all religious controversies : and that what¬ 
ever, either in doctrine or practice, any pro¬ 
fess or do, though under pretence of the 
guidance of the Holy Spirit, if it be con¬ 
trary to or inconsistent with the testimony 


























qualification] Jfrtenttftc antf 620 

—— - 

of the Holy Scriptures, Is to he esteemed a 
delusion and error.’—The society is govern¬ 
ed by its own code of discipline, which is 
enacted and supported by meetings of four 
| degrees, for discipline; namely, preparative, 
monthly, quarterly, and yearly meetings. 
The preparative digest and prepare the 
business for the monthly meetings, in 
which the executive power is principally 
lodged, subject however to the revision and 
contx-ol of the quarterly meetings, which are 
subordinate and accountable to the yearly 
meeting; and subject to its supervision and 
direction. Its authority is paramount, and 
it possesses the sole power to make or 
amend the discipline. There are at present 
ten yearly meetings, namely, London, Dub¬ 
lin, New England, New York, Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, Virginia, North Carolina, Ohio, 
and Indiana, which include a total of about 
150,000 members; but their numbers are 
supposed to be decreasing. In this country 
they are most numerous in Yorkshire, Lan¬ 
cashire, Durham, Cumberland, and Essex. 

QUALIFICATION ( qualis , having a cer¬ 
tain quality : and facio, I make: Lat.), any 
natural endowment, or any acquirement, 
Avhich fits a person for a place, office, or 
employment. Also any property or posses¬ 
sion which gives one a right to exercise 
the elective franchise, or furnishes one 
with any legal power or capacity. 

QUAL'ITY {qualitas: Lat.), in Physics, 
some property of bodies. Essential Quality, 
some property which is necessary to con¬ 
stitute a thing what it is. Sensible Quality, 
one that affects the senses, such as figure, 
taste, &c. 

QUANTITY (quantitas: Lat.), in Gram¬ 
mar, the measure of a syllable, or that 
which determines the time in which it is 

pronounced.-In Mathematics, anything 

which can be multiplied, divided, and 

measured.-In Physics, anything capable 

of estimation or measurement, which being 
compared with another thing of the same 
nature,may besaid to be greater or less than, 

equal or unequal to it.-In common usage, 

quantity is a mass or collection of matter 
of indeterminate dimensions: thus we say, 
a quantity of earth, a quantity of timber, 
&c. But when we speak of an assemblage 
of individuals or separate beings, we say a 
number: as a number of men, of horses, 
Ac- 

quantum {Lat.), as much as. Thus 
Quantum meruit (as much as he deserved), 
in Law, an action grounded on a promise 
that the defendant should pay to the plain¬ 
tiff for his service as much as he should de¬ 
serve.- Quantum svfflcit (as much as is 

sufficient), a very common expression.- 

; Quantum valebat (as much as it was worth), 
in Law, an action to recover of the defend¬ 
ant for goods sold, as much as they were 
worth. 

Q U AQU AVER'S A XAquaqna versum, every 
way : Lat.), a term applied by geolo¬ 
gists to strata which dip to every point 
of the compass, like those surrounding a 
volcano. 

QUAR'ANTINE {quaranta, forty : Ital.), 
the restraint of intercourse, to which a 
ship arriving in port is subjected, on the 

presumption that she may be infected with 
a malignant contagious disease. This is 
either for forty days,or for any other limited 
term, according to circumstances. A ship 
thus situated is said to be performing 
quarantine. The term has been adopted, 
because it was generally supposed that if 
no infectious disease break out within 
forty days, or six weeks, no danger need be 
apprehended from the free admission of 
the individuals under quarantine. During 
this period all the goods, clothes, &c., that 
might be supposed capable of retaining the 
infection, are subjected to a process of 
purification, which is a most important 

part of the quarantine system.-In Law, 

the period of forty days, during which the 
widow of a man dying possessed of land, 
has the privilege of remaining in the prin¬ 
cipal messuage or mansion house. 

QUA'RE IM'PEDIT (why does he hin¬ 
der: Lat.), in Law, a writ lying for one 
who has a right of advowson, against one 
who hinders or disturbs him in his right 
to present a clerk when the living is vacant 

QUAR'RY {carrig, a stone: Irish), a pit 
where stones for building, &c., are dug 
from the earth ; as a freestone quarry, or a 

marble quarry.- Quarry ( qutrir, to fetch* 

Fr.), in Falconry, the game which a hawk is 

pursuing, or has killed.-Among hunters, 

a part of the entrails of the beast taken 
given to the hounds. 

QUARTAN (quartanus, from quartus, the 
fourth : Lat.), in Medicine, an intermitting 
ague, that occurs every fourth day. 

QUARTA'TION ( quarta , the fourth part: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, the operation by which 
the quantity of one constituent is made 
equal to the fourth part of the whole mass. 

It is specially applied to the act of render¬ 
ing the quantity of silver, in a combination 
consisting of silver and gold, one fourth 
of the entire that the silver may be soluble 
in nitric acid. If the gold exceeds this 
proportion, it protects the silver, and thus 
prevents the separation of the two metals 
by the solution of one of them. 

QUARTER (same deriv.), the fourth part 
of anything, the fractional notation for 

which is i. -Quarter, in Astronomy, the 

fourth part of the moon’s period, or month¬ 
ly revolution. Thus, from the new moon to 
the quadrature is the first quarter; from 
this to full moon, the second quarter, &c. 

-Quarter, in Naval Architecture, that 

part of a ship’s hull ■which lies from the 
steerage to the transom.- On tiie Quar¬ 

ter indicates the bearing or position of an 

object seen between aft and abeam.- 

Quarter, in Weights, is generally used 
for the fourth part of a hundred-weight 
avoirdupois,or 281b. Quarter also signi¬ 
fies the sparing of men’s lives in battle when 
they are no longer able to defend them¬ 
selves.- Quarter-deck, that part of the 

deck of a ship which extends from the stern 

to the mainmast.- Quarter-Gallery, a 

sort of balcony on the quarters of a ship. 
- Quarter-master, in the army, an of¬ 
ficer whose business is to attend to the 
quarters of the soldiers, their provisions, 

&c. In the navy, an officer who assists the 
mates in their duties, attending the steer- 




















621 Etterarn (Embury. [question 

age, &c.- Quarter-master-general, a 

military officer, whose duty is to mark the 
marches and encampments of an army, and 
procure supplies of provisions, forage, &c. 

-Ou ship-board, quarters signifies the 

stations or places where the officers and 

men are posted in action.- Quarters, in 

"War, is used in various senses: thus to 
indicate the place allotted to a body of 
troops to encamp upon, &c..——H ead¬ 
quarters, the place where the general 
of an army resides, which is generally near 
the centre of the army.- Winter-quar¬ 

ters, the places in which the troops are 
lodged during the winter, or their residence 
in those places. 

QUAR'TER DAYS, the days which begin 
the four quarters of the year, and on which 
rents, &c., usually become due in this coun¬ 
try, namely, the 25th of March, or Lady- 
day ; the 24th of June, or Midsummer-day ; 
the 29th of September, or Michaelmas-day; 
and the 25th of December, or Christmas- 
day. 

QUAR'TERING, in Heraldry, partitions 
of the escutcheon according to the number 
of coats that are borne in it, or the several 
divisions that are made when the arms of 
more than one family are borne by the same 
person. 

QUAR'TER SES'SIONS, a court of jus¬ 
tice, held quarterly, before magistrates of a 
county or borough, to try minor offences by 
jury, after bills found by a grand jury. The 
legal powers of these are often very great; 
but the questions may, in many cases, be 
removed to superior courts. Two justices 
at least must be present. 

QUARTETT' (quartetto: Ttal.), in Music, 
a piece for four voices or four instru¬ 
ments. 

QUAR'TO ( quartus , the fourth : Lat), in 
Printing, &c., a size of books, produced by 
twice folding a sheet, which then makes 
four leaves. Also a book so folded. 

QUARTZ ( Ger .), in Mineralogy, a species 
of silicious stone of various colours, com¬ 
monly amorphous, and frequently crystal¬ 
lized. The name is usually applied, in 
scientific language, to the purer varieties 
of silica, particularly to rode crystal. Quartz 
is abundantly spread throughout the globe. 
Its varieties are numerous: differences of 
colour being produced by different metals. 
Thus, amethyst, or purple quartz, is tinged 
with a little iron and manganese. Rose 
quartz, or false ruby, derives its colour from 
manganese. Aventurine is a beautiful va¬ 
riety of quartz, of a rich brown colour, 
which, from a peculiarity of texture, appears 
filled with bright spangles. Small crystals 
of quartz, tinged with iron, are found in 
Spain, and have been termed hyacinths of 
• Compostella. Flint, chalcedony, carnelian, 
onyx, sardonyx, and bloodstone, or helio¬ 
trope, and the numerous varieties of agates, 
are principally composed of quartz, with 
various materials from which they derive 
their particular hue. 

QUAS, a liquor commonly drunk in Rus¬ 
sia. It is prepared from pollard, meal, and 
bread, or from meal and malt, by an acid 
fermentation. 

QUASH'ING (.casscr, [to crush: Fr.), in 

Law, the overthrowing and annulling oi 
anything. 

QUA'SI CON'TRACT, in the Civil Law, 
an act which has not the strict form of a : 
contract, but yet has the force of one. 
Thus, if one person does another’s business 
in his absence without his procuration, 
and it has succeeded to the other person’s 
advantage, the one might have an action 
for what he has disbursed, and the other to 
obtain an account of the administration: 
which amounts to a quasi-contract. 

QUAS'SIA, in Botany, a genus of tropical 
plants : nat. crd. Simarubacece. The wood of 
the root of the Quassia tree is intensely 
bitter, and a decoction from it is used in 
medicine. Brewers have been often charged 
with using it as a substitute for hops, but 
this is now prohibited under severe penal¬ 
ties. A strong infusion of quassia, sweeten¬ 
ed with brown sugar, is a safe and effective 
poison for flies. The plant yields an alka¬ 
loid called quassine, which crystallises in 
small white prisms. 

QUATREFOIL ( quatre, four; and feuille, 
aleaf: Fr.), in Heraldry, a four-leaved plant, 
a frequent bearing in coat armour. 

QUA'VER, in Music, a measure of time 
equal to half a crochet, or an eighth of a 
semibreve. Also a shake or rapid vibration 
of the voice. 

QUEEN ( ewen, a wife: Ang. Sax.), a 
womaiQwlio holds a crown singly; or, by 
courtesy, one who is married to a king. The 
former is distinguished by the title of 
queen regnant; the latter by that of queen 
consort. A queen consort is a subject; 
though as the wife of the king she enjoys 
certain prerogatives. The widow of a king 
is called queen dowager. 

QUEEN ANNE’S BOUNTY, funds.yested 
in Trustees called Governors, arising from 
the first yeai - ’s income (according to the 
valuation in the King’s books), of newly ap¬ 
pointed incumbents in the Church of Eng¬ 
land, and one tenth of that sum annually 
paid by them afterwards. These funds are 
applied to the augmentation of small livings. 
The first fruits were formerly paid to the 
Crown, until Queen Anne ordered them to 
be applied in the manner stated. 

QUERCIT'RON, the bark of the Quercus 
tinctoria, or yellow oak, a tree growing in 
North America. It is used in dyeing yel¬ 
low, the colour being developed from it by 
a solution of alum. 

QUER'CUS (Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
amentaceous trees. [See Oak and Cork.] 

QUES'TIO (Lat.; from queero, I inquire!, 
in Logic, the third proposition in a syllo¬ 
gism, which contains the question to be 
proved. 

QUES'TION ( queestio , from queero,! seek : 
Lat.), the application of torture to prisoners 
under criminal accusation. It was custom¬ 
ary in France before the revolution. One 
kind was intended to make him confess his 
own guilt: the other to make him confess 
his accomplices. From the earliest times 
it was perceived that disclosures made 
under the influence of torture could not bo 
relied on ; yet the practice wa3 very preva¬ 
lent, wherever the principles of the Civil 
Law have been adopted. The rack is the 

















questmen] ^ctenttftc antf 622 


only instrument of torture which was em¬ 
ployed in England. It was introduced, or 
at least first commonly used in the mino¬ 
rity of Henry VI. The peine forte et dine, 
however, was recognized by the law: and 
its cruel details were diffused in the reign 
i of Henry IV. The prisoner who refused to 
plead was laid on the ground in a dark 
room; as many weights as he could bear, 
and more, were laid on him; and no suste¬ 
nance being allowed but a morsel of the 
worst bread, and a draught of the worst 
water, on alternate days, he was to so re¬ 
main, until he pleaded or died. This tor¬ 
ture was inflicted until the beginning of 
the-last century ; and until so lately as the 
commencement of the reign of George III., 
prisoners were forced to plead, by squeez¬ 
ing their thumbs and other cruelties. In 
the reign of George III. it was enacted that 
any one who stood mute, or did not answer 
directly to the arraignment should be held 
to plead guilty. 

QUEST'MEN ( quSste , a search : Fr.), in 
Law, persons chosen to inquire into abuses 
and misdemeanours, especially such as re¬ 
late to weights and measures. 

QUES'TUS ( qucestus , an acquiring : Lat.), 
in Law, land which does not descend by 
hereditary right, but is acquired by one’s 
own labour and industry. 

QUICK-LIME, any calcareous substance 
deprived of its carbonic acid: as „ chalk, 
limestone, oyster-shells, &c., calcined. 

QUICK-MATCH, a combustible prepa¬ 
ration used by artillerymen; being formed 
j of cotton strands dipped in a boiling com- 
i position of vinegar, saltpetre, and mealed 
powder. 

QUICK'SILVER. [See Mercury.] 

QUID PRO QUO (one thing for another: 
Lat.), an equivalent, or the mutual conside¬ 
ration and reciprocal performance of both 
parties to a contract. 

QUI'ETISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, a 
sect of mystics, originated by Molinos, a 
Spanish priest, who maintained that reli¬ 
gion consists in the internal rest and medi¬ 
tation of the mind, wholly employed in 
contemplating God and submitting to his 
will. This doctrine was termed Quietism: 
and was held by a number of persons in 
France, the most celebrated of whom were 
Madame de la Motte Guiyons, and Fenelon. 
The writings of the latter on the subject 
were condemned by Innocent XII.; and 
he acquiesced without a murmur in their 
condemnation. Quietists existed in early 
times among the monks of Mount Athos; 
the sect being called Hesychastce (from 
hesuchia, repose: Or.). 

QUINCE, the fruit of the Cidonia vul¬ 
garis, so named from Cydou, a town of 
Crete, famous for abounding with this 
fruit. It is now cultivated throughout 
Europe, and when boiled and eaten with 
1 sugar, or made into marmalade, is much 
esteemed. 

QUIN'CUNX (Lat.), the dispositions of 
| any five objects, so that four of them shall 
j be at the corners, and one in the middle of 

an imaginary square.-In Gardening, the 

i disposition of trees, in this order ; which 
| way be repeated, so as to form a regular 


grove or wood, that presents equal rows 
and parallel alleys. Sir Thomas Browne 
wrote a curious treatise, ‘The Garden of 
Cyrus, or the Quincuncial Lozenge,’ in 
which he points out how frequently the 
number five occurs in nature: ‘ quin¬ 
cunxes,’ says Coleridge, ‘ in heaven above, 
quincunxes in earth below, quincunxes in 
the mind of man, quincunxes in tones, in 
optic nerves, in roots of trees, in leaves, in 
everything.’ 

QUINDEC'AGON ( quindecim, fifteen: 
Lat.; and gonia, an angle : Or.), in Geome¬ 
try, a plain figure with fifteen sides and 
fifteen angles. 

QUINDECEM'VIR, or QUINDECEM'- 
VIllI (fifteen men : Lat.), in Roman Anti¬ 
quity, a college of fifteen priests: origi¬ 
nally but ten, five chosen from the patri¬ 
cians, and five from the Plebeians; Julius 
Cmsar increased their number to sixteen. 
They were the interpreters of the Sibylline 
books, which, however, they never consult¬ 
ed without an express order of the Senate; 
and it was their duty also to celebrate the 
games of Apollo, whose priests, indeed, 
they were considered to be. 

QUINI'NE, an alkaloid of inestimable 
value in the form of a sulphate, as a tonic, 
and febrifuge. It is extracted from the 
bark of several species of small trees be¬ 
longing to the genus Cinchona, which 
grow in Peru and Ecuador, and named in 
honour of the Countess of Chinchona, wife 
of a viceroy of Peru, who was cured of a 
fever by the use of the bark, and who intro¬ 
duced it into Europe. For many years the 
medicine was taken in the form of powder¬ 
ed bark, which being sent to Europe by the 
South American Jesuits, was commonly 
known as Jesuits’ bark, or Peruvian bark. 
The tree was called Quina-quina, or bark of 
barks, by the Indians, by whom its virtues 
were communicated to the Spaniards. Vast 
numbers of trees having been improvi- 
deutly destroyed during a long series of 
years, the medicine grew gradually dearer, 
and it became highly desirable that the 
plant should be cultivated in other parts of 
the world. Mr. Markham has lately suc¬ 
ceeded in obtaining a quantity of seeds and 
young trees, in spite of the opposition of 
the Peruvians, and they have been planted 
in India, where the young trees thrive so 
well that no fear of the supply of quinine 
failing need now be entertained. Thirty- 
nine species of cinchona have been des¬ 
cribed, but only a few of these are consi¬ 
dered deserving of cultivation. No fewer 
than four alkaloids having more or less 
similar qualities have been obtained from 
Peruvian bark, the best known of these 
being quinine, which was first discovered 
by two French chemists, Pelletier and Ga- 
venton, in 1820. It is in these alkaloids 
that the medicinal virtues of th6 bark re¬ 
side. To show the great consumption of 
quinine, notwithstanding its high price, it 
may be mentioned that the Indian govern¬ 
ment has sometimes expended upwards of 
50,0001. in a single year in the purchase of 
this drug. 

Q UINQ U AGES' IM A ( quinquagesimus, the 
fiftieth: Lat.), the seventh Sunday, and 

























623 Etterarj) 


therefore about the fiftieth day before Eas¬ 
ter, whence its name. 

QUINQUENNA'LIA (Lat., from quin¬ 
quennium, a period of five years), in Anti¬ 
quity, Roman games, celebrated every five 
years. They were instituted by the Em¬ 
perors in commemoration of different 
events in their respective reigns. 

QUIN'QUEREME ( quinqueremis, having 
five banks of oars: Lat.), in Antiquity, a 
galley having five seats or rows of oars. 
When Regulus was sent to Africa, a.u.c. 
498, the Romans had 330 of these vessels, 
and the Carthaginians 350, each furnished 
with 300 rowers and 120 soldiers, which 
would give 140,000 men for those of the 
Romans, aud 150,000 for those of the Car¬ 
thaginians ; numbers that would be incre¬ 
dible did they not rest on the highest au¬ 
thority. 

QUIN'SEY, or QU IN'S Y (esquinancie: Fr.), 
in Medicine, inflammation of the tonsils, 
the common inflammatory sore throat; it 
is not infectious. It has proved fatal, by 
causing suffocation, but it generally ter¬ 
minates by suppuration. 

QUINTESSENCE, a term used by the 
older chemists to express alcoholic tinc¬ 
tures; made by digestion, at common tem¬ 
peratures, or by the sun’s heat.-In a 

more general sense, an extract of any¬ 
thing containing the most essential part. 

QUINTILE ( quintus, the fifth : Lat.), in 
Astronomy, the aspect of planets when dis¬ 
tant from each other the fifth part of the 
zodiac, or 72 degrees. 

QUIN'TILIS (Lat.), in Chronology, the 
mouth of July ; so called because it was the 
fifth month of Romulus’s year, which began 
in March. It received the name of July from 
Marc Antony, in honour of Julius Caesar, 
who reformed the calendar. 

QUIN'TIN (quintaine: Fr.), in ancient 
martial sports, an upright post on the top 
of which tunied a cross piece, on one end 
of which was fixed a broad board, and on the 
other a sand-bag. The play was to tilt or 
ride against the broad end with a lance, and 
pass without being struck, by the sand-bag 
behind. 

QUIRINA'LIA, in Antiquity, a feast cele¬ 
brated among the Romans in honour of 
I Romulus, who was called Qairinus. It was 
! held on the 17th of February. 

QUIRI'TES, in Antiquity, a name given 
to the citizens of Rome, as distinguished 
from the soldiery. It is said to have origi¬ 
nated in their having admitted into their 
city the Sabines, who, inhabiting the town 
of Cures, were called Quirites ; and the 
appellation was thenceforward given to 
both nations indiscriminately. 

QUI-TAM (who as well: Lat.), in Law, a 
term for an action brought, or information 
exhibited, at the suit of the king, on a 
penal statute, in which half the penalty is 
directed to fall to the suer or informer. 
The plaintiff describes himself as A. B., 

♦ qui tarn pro domino rcge quam pro seipso 


®toa£urj). [quo-warranto 


(who sues as well for the king as himself). > 

QUIT'RENT ( quietus redditus, quiet rent* 
Lat.), in Law, a small rent payable by the 
tenants of most manors, and oy which they 
are freed from all other services. 

QUITTER-BONE, in Farriery, a hard 
round swelling on the coronet, between the 
heel and the quarter, usually on the inside 
of the foot. 

QUOAD HOC (Lat.), a term used fre¬ 
quently in law reports to signify that * as to 
the thing named,’ the law is so, &c. 

QUODLIBET (what you please: Lat.), in 
the language of the schoolmen, a term ap¬ 
plied to questions which were miscellaneous 
-In French, a jeu d’esprit, a pun, &c. 

QUOIN, or COIN (com: Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, the external or internal corner of any 

building or any part of a building.-In 

Artillery, a loose wedge of wood, placed 
under the breech of a cannon to adjust its 
elevation. 

QUOITS (coete, thrown : Belg.), a kind of 
exercise or game very similar to the one 
known among the ancients under the name 
of discus. It consists in pitching or throw¬ 
ing a flat iron ring at a fixed object. 

QUO'RUM, in Law, a word frequently 
mentioned in our statutes, and in commis¬ 
sions both of justices of the peace and 
others. By it is generally understood that 
among the number of justices necessary 
for the transaction of business, certain in¬ 
dividuals must necessarily be present, 
otherwise the business cannot proceed. 
The term is derived from the words of the 
commission, quorum A. B. ununi esse vo- 
lunius (of whom we will that A. B. be one: 
Lat.). For example, where a commission is 
directed to seven persons, or to any three 
of them, whereof A. B. and C. D. are to be 
two, these are said to be of the quorum, 
because the rest cannot proceed without 
them. 

QUO'TA (quot, how many: Lat.), the part 
which each member of a society is bound 
to contribute, or is to receive, in making up 
ordividing anything. 

QUOTID'IAN (quotidianus, daily: Lat.), 
in Medicine, an intermitting fever, or ague, 
of which the paroxysm or fit returns every 
day. 

QUOTIENT ( quoties, how often : Lat.), in 
Arithmetic, the number which arises, by 
dividing the dividend by the divisor; or, 
in other words, the number resulting from 
the division of one number by another. 

QUO-WARRANTO (by what authority: 
Lat.), in Law, a writ filed in the Court of 
King’s Bench, by the Attorney-General, or 
some one in his name, calling upon a per¬ 
son to show by what title he holds an office, 
franchise, &c. The proceedings under this 
writ were attended with so many difficulties, 
that it has been superseded by what is 
termed, an information in the nature of a 
quo warranto, in which the person usurping 
is considered in the nature of an offender, 
and consequently punishable by fine. 



















624 


kabbet] &1)c £>ct£iittftc antf 

R 


R, the eighteenth letter of our alphabet, 
is numbered among the liquids and semi¬ 
vowels, and is sometimes called the canine 
letter. Its sound is formed by a guttural 
extrusion of the breath, which in some 
words is through the mouth, with a sort of 
quivering motion or slight jar of the tongue. 
In words which we have received from the 
Greek language we follow the Latins, who 
wrote li after r, as the representative of the 
aspirated sound with which this letter was 
pronounced by the Greeks; as in rhapsody, 
rhetoric, &c.; otherwise it is always followed 
by a vowel at the beginning of words and 
syllables. As an abbreviation, R was used 
by the Romans for Roma; as, R. C., 
Jtomana Civitas (theRoman State!. For Rei; 
as, R. G. C., Rei Gerendce Causa (for the 
sake of carrying on the affairs). For Recte ; 
as, R. F. E. D., Recte Factum et Dictum 
(rightly done and spoken). For Res, or 
Romani; as, R.P.,Respublica (therepublic), 
or Romani Principes (the Roman Chiefs). 
— In English, it stands for Rex, as, G. R., 
Georgius Rex (King George). And for Re¬ 
gina; as, V. R., Victoria Regina (Queen 
Victoria). In Medicinal Prescriptions it is 
put for recipe (take). And, as a numeral, for 
80, and with a dash over it, for 80,000. 

RAB'BET (rabattre, to pare down: Fr.), 
in Carpentry, a deep groove or channel cut 
in a piece of timber longitudinally, to re¬ 
ceive the edge of a plank, or the ends of 
several planks, that are to be fastened in 

it.- Rabbeting, the paring down the edge, 

or cutting channels or grooves in boards, 
for the purpose of lapping one over the 
other. In Ship-carpentry, it signifies the 
letting in of the planks of the ship into the 

RAB'BI, or RAB'BIN (rebee, master: 
neb.), a title assumed by the Pharisees and 
Doctors of the law among the Jews. There 
were several gradations before they ar¬ 
rived at the dignity of a rabbin; but it 
does not appear that there was any fixed 
age or previous examination necessary ; 
when, however, a man had' distinguished 
himself by his skill in the written and oral 
law, and passed through the subordinate 
degrees, he was saluted a rabbin by the 
public voice. In their schools the rabbins 
sat upon raised chairs, and their scholars at 
their feet: thus St. Paul is said to have 
studied at the feet of Gamaliel. Such of 
the doctors as studied the letter or text of 
scripture were called Caraites, those who 
studied the cabballa, Cabbalists; and those 
whose study was in the traditions or oral 
law, were called Rabbinists. The customary 
duty of the Rabbins, in general, was to pray, 
preach, and interpret the law in the syna¬ 
gogues. Among the modern Jews, the 
learned men retain no other title than that 
of Rabbi; they have great respect paid them, 
have the first places or seats in their synago¬ 
gues ; determine all matters o£ controversy ; 
and frequently pronounce upon civil affairs. 


RAB'BIT, in Zoology, the Lepus cuniculus, 
a well-known rodent animal, which feeds 
on grass or other herbage and grain, and 
burrows in the earth. It is very prolific, 
and is kept in warrens for the sake of its 
flesh. 

RAB'DOMANCY, or RHAB'DOMANCY 
(rhabdos, a rod ; and manteia, prophecy: 
Gr.), in Antiquity, a sort of divination by 
means of rods. The divining rod is the 
branch of a tree, generally hazel, forked 
at one end, and held in a particular way by 
the two ends. It is supposed to indicate 
the presence of the substance sought, by 
bending towards it with a slow rotatory 
motion; the diviner being, in modern times, 
in contact with some metallic or magnetic 
substance. It is used by the credulous, 
most usually, for the discovery of metals 
and water. 

RACCOON', an American plantigrade car¬ 
nivorous animal belonging to the bear fami¬ 
ly 7 . It is the Procyon lotor of zoologists. It is 
somewhat of the shape of a beaver, with 
hair like that of a fox; its head, too, re¬ 
sembles the fox, except that the ears are 
shorter, roundish, and naked; its tail is 
longer than its body, and not unlike that 
of a cat, with annular streaks of different 
colours. It lodges in a hollow tree; its fur 
is valuable. 

RACE (race: Fr., from radix, a root: 
Lat.), the lineage of a family, or the series 
of descendants indefinitely continued. 

RACEME' ( racemus, a bunch of grapes: 
Lat.), in Botany, a species of inflorescence, ■' 
consisting of a peduncle with short lateral 
branches. It may be either simple or com¬ 
pound, naked or leafy, &c.- Racemous, 

growing in clusters. Racemiferous, bearing 
racemes or clusters; as, the racemiferous 
fig-tree. 

RACES ( rces, to run : Sax.), a public trial 
of speed, in horses. Among the ancients, 
horse-races were performed either by single 
horses, or by two horses, on one of which 
they performed the race, and leaped upon 
the other at the goal. Chariot-races were 
performed by one, two, three, four, live, or 
more horses joined together in chariots. 
How great soever the number of horses 
might be, they were all ranged abreast, or 
in onefront, being coupled together in pairs. 
Clistlienes, the Sicyonian, introduced the 
custom of coupling the two middle horses 
only ; the rest he governed by reins. The 
principal part of a charioteer’s skill con¬ 
sisted in dexterously avoiding the metee, or 
goals; a failure in this point overturned his 
chariot, which was an event that was at¬ 
tended not only with imminent danger, 
but also with great disgrace. Nero, 
at the Olympic games, made use of a 
decemjugis, or chariot drawn byten horses. 
He also used camels in the Roman circus; 
and Heliogabalus introduced elephants in¬ 
stead of horses. The most remarkable cir- 
| cumstance relating to the Roman chariot- 






















625 Ettcrarj? Crfajftirjj. [sADirs 


races was the factions of the charioteers, 
which divided into parties the whole city of 
Rome. In modern times, at Rome, the 
race-horses have no riders; they run 
| through the Corso , a street of considerable 
length, which derives its name from being 
thus used. The spectators range them¬ 
selves at each side. Contrivances which 
goad the horses are attached to them. 

| Races were customary in England in very 

I early times, and are mentioned by Fitz- 
Stephen in the reign of Henry II. In queen 
Elizabeth’s reign they appear to have been 
carried to such excess as to have injured 
the fortunes of the nobility. At that time, 
however, the matches were private, and 
gentlemen rode their own horses. In the 
reign of James I. public races were estab¬ 
lished ; hut it was not till after the restora¬ 
tion of Charles II. that they were particu¬ 
larly encouraged by royalty; when ‘liis 
majesty’s plate,’ a cup or bowl worth 100 
guineas was first given, in lieu of which 
that sum of money is now paid. The usual 
trial of speed, in English racing, is a single 
mile; of continuance or bottom, four miles ; 
but the true test of thorough blood in a 
racer is continuance. There is a great deal 
of fraud practised in the whole business of 
racing; and, as in every other species of 
gambling, the wealthy who addict them¬ 
selves to the sport generally in the end 
become the victims of a host of black-legs 
and their confederate jockies. 

RACHI'TIS ( rachitis , a spinal complaint: 
Gr.), in Medicine, the rickets, which see. 

RACK (rakke; from rekken, to extend: 
Belg.), a horrid engine of torture, furnished 
with pullies and cords, &c. for extorting 
confession from criminals or suspected 
persons. Its use is entirely unknown in free 
countries. 

RACK'ET ( raquette: Fr.), a bat to strike 
the ball with at tennis. It usually consists 
of a net-worlc of catgut strained very tight 
in a circle of wood, with a handle. 

RATH A L ( radius , the exterior bone of 
the fore arm : Lat.), in Anatomy, pertaining 
to the radius or fore-arm of the human 
body ; as, the radial artery or nerve. The 
radial muscles are two muscles of the fore¬ 
arm, one of which bends the wrist, the 

other extends it.- Radial Curves, in 

Geometry, curves of the spiral kind, whose 
ordinates all terminate in the centre of the 
including circle, and appear like so many 
semi-diameters. 

RA'DIANT HEAT {radio, I emit beams : 
Lat.). Rays of heat are emitted in all 
directions, from a body whose temperature 
is higher than that of the airs, and bodies 
which surround it. These rays are either 
reflected, absorbed, or transmitted. Reflec¬ 
tion of heat may be illustrated by throwing 
the heat from a Are on the face by means 
of a piece of bright tinned iron. Absorption 
of heat may be shown by roughening the 
surface of the tins; when it will become 
hot and scarcely any heat will be reflected. 
Transmission of heat is exhibited by the 
atmosphere, which allows the sun’s rays to 
pass through it, without having its tempe¬ 
rature raised by them, the heat it receives 
being due to reflection from and contact 

with the heated surface of the earth ; and 
glass will not intercept solar heat, but it 
will intercept heat emanating from a body 
at a comparatively low temperatui'e: thus 
from hot water, or even from a common 
fire. And the lower the temperature of 
the heated body the less of its heat will be 
transmitted by the glass. 

RADIA'TA {radius, a ray: Lat.), In 
Zoology, a division of the animal kingdom, 
containing several classes [Acalepha, 
Echixodermata, Zoophytes, Infusoria], 
in all of which the species aro characterized 
by a radiating form of body, or of some por¬ 
tion of it; for example, a star-fish, a sea 
anemone, and a medusa. 

RA'DIATE, or RA'DIATED, in Botany, 
a term applied to such flowers as have 
several semi-floscules set round a disk, in 
form of a star: those which have no such 
rays are called discous flowers. 

RADIA'TION {radiatio: Lat.), the act of 
a body emitting or diffusing rays of light, 
&c., all round, as from a centre.- Radiat¬ 

ing point, in Optics, any point of an object 
from whence rays proceed. 

RAD'ICAL {Fr.; from radix, a root: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, radicals are either 
simple or compound. Simple radicals con¬ 
sist of but one elementary substance; 
thus sulphur, the radical of sulphuric acid, 
is simple. A compound radical consists of 
two or more elementary substances com¬ 
bined, the combination simulating the de¬ 
portment and exercising the functions of 
an elementary substance; thus cyanogen, 
the radical of hydrocyanic or prussic acid, 
is compound, consisting of carbon and 
nitrogen. Chemists speak of several theo¬ 
retical compound radicals, such as ethyl, 
consisting of four equivalents of carbon 
and five of hydrogen. This is assumed to 

exist in alcohol and ether.-In Grammar, 

the appellation radical is given to primitive 
words, in contradistinction to compounds 

and derivatives.- Radical quantities, in 

Algebra, those whose roots may be accu¬ 
rately expressed in numbers. 

RAD'ICAL SIGN, in Algebra, V, the 
symbol which denotes that a root is to be 
extracted : it is V. a modification of the 
letter It. Thus y/a means the square root 
of a; y/d, the cube root of d; ^16, the 
eighth root of 16. Fractional exponents 
are often used instead of the radical sign; 
thus a i, instead of yja; di instead of d ; 
16J, instead of ^16. A radical sign and an 
exponent may be used together: thus fya 2 , 
or a the fifth root of a square. 

RADICA'TION {radix, a root: Lat.), in 
Botany, the disposition of a root of a plant, 
with respect to the ascending and descend¬ 
ing caudex, and the radicles. 

RAD'ICLE {radicula, a small root: Lat.), 
in Botany, that part of the seed of a plant 
which, upon vegetating, becomes the root. 

RA'DIUS {Lat.), in Geometry, a right line 
extending from the centre of a circle to 
the periphery ; and hence the semidiameter 
of the circle.-in Trigonometry, the ra¬ 
dius is the sine of 90 degrees.-In Ana¬ 

tomy, the exterior bone of the fore-arm, 
descending along with the ulna from the 
elbow to the wrist. It Is so called from its 
s s 






















radius-vector] 


£TIje ^rtrntffft autr 


626 


I supposed resemblance to the spoke of a 
wheel.-In Botany, the outer part or cir¬ 

cumference of a compound radiate flower, 
or radiated discous flower. 

RA'DIUS-VEC'TOIt ( radius , a radius; 
and vector, a carrier: Lett.), in Astronomy, a 
straight line drawn from the centre of 
force to the point of the orbit where the 
body is supposed to be. When a body is 
projected in space, and subjected to the 
action of gravity, whose effect varies in¬ 
versely as the square of the distance, a 
conic section, having a focus at the centre 
of force, is described. The conic section, 
traversed by the planets, is an ellipse, the 
sun being in one of its foci, and the spaces 
described by the radius-vectors, respec¬ 
tively, are always equal in equal times [see 
Planet]. The Algebraic expressions for 
the radius-vectors of the different conic 
sections are termed the Polar equatio7is of 
these curves. 

RADIX (a root : Lat.), in Algebra, the 
root of a finite expression, from which a 

series is derived.-In Botany, a root, or 

that organ of a vegetable through which it 

draws its nourishment. [See Botany.]- 

In Etymology, a primitive word, from 
which spring other words.-In Loga¬ 

rithms, that number whose logarithm is 
unity. 

RAFT ( rafte: Pan,, from ratis: Lat.), a. 
sort of float, consisting of boards fastened 
together side by side : sometimes used for 
saving persons who lose their vessel at sea. 

-Also, a quantity of timber, fastened 

together by chains for the purpose of being 
more conveniently floated down a river. 

RAFT'ERS {rafter: Dan.), pieces of tim- 
. her extending from the wall of a building, 

I so as to meet in an angle at the top, and 
form the roof. 

RAG'STONE, a local name for certain 
rocks. The Kentish ragstone is a calcareous 
rock, now much used for building purposes, 
which forms a division of the lower green¬ 
sand. The Coral Rag, an oolitic limestone, 
containing abundant remains of corals, is 
well developed in Oxfordshire. It is a mem¬ 
ber of the middle oolite. 

RAGU'LED.or RAG'GED.in Heraldry, an 
epithet for any bearing that is ragged or 
uneven, like the trunk or limb of a tree 
; lopped of its branches, so that only the 
stumps are seen. 

RAIL, a name given to several wading 
birds. The land rail, Crex pratensis, comes 
to us in the summer, and derives its name 
of corncrnkefrom its call note. It frequents 
grassy places in the neighbourhood of 
rivers, and fields of green corn. It is much 
esteemed by epicures. The spotted crake 
is a prettily marked bird of the same genus, 
but much rarer than the last. The water 
rail, Rallus aquaticus, remains with us 
through the year, haunting the rank ve¬ 
getation of marshes. The bill and the mid¬ 
dle toe are much longer than in the land 
rail. 

RAILWAYS, or RAILROADS. Among 
the most wonderful features which mark 
the progress of science in the nineteenth 
century is the vast and increasing extent 
of the substitution of mechanical for ani¬ 


mal power—ingenious in most operations, 
exciting our admiration in many, but excel¬ 
ling all in its application to the purposes of 
travelling. 

Nearly two centuries before the introduc¬ 
tion of the locomotive, wooden rails were 
used at the collieries, in the north of Eng¬ 
land ; their upper surfaces being, at a later 
period, covered with a plate or bar of iron, 
to render them more durable; and about 
the year 1776, flanges being added to them 
to keep the waggons from running off. 
The imperfections of plate, or as they were 
also called tram rails, led about the year 
1801 to the adoption of edge rails, or those 
at present exclusively used; and, soon after, 
cast iron was supplanted by wrought iron, 
in their manufacture. The use of locomo- i 
tives, instead of animals, was suggested, in 
1794 ; but no locomotive seems to have been 
constructed until 1805. At first cogged 
wheels, and various kinds of propellers, were 
employed with locomotives, from an er¬ 
roneous supposition that there would not 
be sufficient friction between the driving 
wheels and rails to prevent the former 
from turning round, without the produc¬ 
tion of progressive motions; but in 1814, 
plain wheels were tried and found perfectly 
efficient. The locomotive did not come in¬ 
to practical use until the opening of the 
Liverpool and Alan Chester Railway in 1830 ; 
although the first railway Act received the 
sanction of the British legislature in 1801, 
by the incorporation of the Surrey iron 
railway company. This was indeed a com¬ 
paratively trifling enterprise, for it extend¬ 
ed only from Wandsworth to Croydon, and 
was merely applicable for the carriage of 
coals, lime, &c., the moving power being 

derived from horses alone.-The rails. 

The breadth of an edge rail does not in gene¬ 
ral exceed two inches, and the carriage is 
kept on the line by means of flanges on the 
outer part of the rim of the wheel. These 
flanges ought never to touch the rail on 
account of the great resistance they cause ; 
and they are in ordinary circumstances 
prevented from doing so, by the wheels be- j 
ing bevelled on the rim, so that the exte- } 
rior diameter is less than the interior. The 
rails are formed in bars, fixed at each end, 
and at intermediate points, in cast iron 
chairs, which rest on sleepers, for which 
wood has been found the best material. 
They are now straight: those rails which 
are fishbcllied, or thicker underneath at the 
centre,being more expensive and not so con¬ 
venient, nor of greater practical strength. 
Cast iron rails are at first much cheaper 
than malleable iron ones, but not in the 
end ; for not only are malleable rails more 
durable than those made of cast iron, but 
malleable rails when in use are less sus¬ 
ceptible to the deteriorating action of the 

atmosphere.- Inclined planes. Where the 

inclination of the road is greater than that 
for which the ordinary power is calculated 
the ascent must be effected by means of 
an additional power, the amount of which 
can be readily computed, since in those 
parts no additional friction is to be pro¬ 
vided for, and only the additional resistance 
arising from gravity is to be overcome. If. 
































627 jit terra*!? tfreatfurg. 


for instance, the additional inclination is 
one in ninety-six, or fifty-five feet in a mile, 
the additional power must he totheweight 
as one to ninety-six, or as fifty-five to the 
number of feet in a mile, namely, 5280. In 
descending planes so much inclined that 
the gravity would move the carriages too 
rapidly for safety, the velocity is checked 
by means of a break, which consists of a 
piece of wood of the same curvature as the 
rim of the set of wheels, upon which it is 
pressed by means of a lever, so adjusted as 
to be within reach of the conductor, in his 
position on the carriage.- Curves. Devia¬ 

tions from the straight line, or railways, 
can be made only by curves, angles being 
incompatible with speed. In passing along 
a curve, centrifugal force tends to throw 
the carriages off the line ; this has been to 
a certain extent counteracted by raising 
the outer rail and giving a conical form to 
the wheel. The friction of the flanges 
against the rails is lessened, as curves of 
different radii are described with wheels, 
practically of a different size: for centri¬ 
fugal force throws the larg.er parts of one 
set of wheels on the outer rail, and the 
smaller parts of the other on the inner 
rail; thus the wheels are not kept on the 
rails altogether by the flanges, as they have 
a natural tendency not to move in a straight 

line, but in a curve.- Gauge of the line. 

The determination of the gauge, or width 
between the rails, is a matter of great im¬ 
portance. Three different widths are used 
in England:—4 feet 8} inches, 5 feet, and 
7 feet; two in Scotland, 4 feet 6 inches and 
5 feet 6 inches ; and one differing from all 

these, in Ireland, 6 feet 2 inches.- Slopes, 

Cuttings, and Embankments. The cuttings 
andembankmentsmust,if possible,balance 
each other. The quantity of material re¬ 
moved is sometimes enormous, amounting 
occasionally in a single cutting to 600,000 

cubic yards.- Bridges and! r iaducts. These 

form a most important portion of the con¬ 
struction of railways, and often are most 
serious items in their cost. In the ‘ high 
level’ bridge at Newcastle, the roadway is 
1380 feet in length, and the bridge 112j feet 
from high water line. It is estimated that, 
in Britain, for every mile of railway, there 
are on an average from two to four bridges, 
many of them viaducts hundreds of feet 
in length. It is not necessary here to enter 
into the details of the great tubular bridge, 
over the Menai Straits, or that still more 
wonderful work, the great tubular bridge, 
about two miles in length, at Montreal in 
Lower Canada; they show, however, the 
vast undertakings often involved in the 

construction of a railway.- rower. Where 

the road is sufficiently and uniformly de¬ 
scending in one direction, gravity may be 
relied upon as a motive power in that di¬ 
rection ; but on railroads generally, some 
other power must be resorted to in each 
direction. It was at first a great question 
as to whether stationary or locomotive 
steam-engines should be used, but after 
various experiments locomotives were pre¬ 
ferred; and the opinion in favour of this 
kind of power on roads of which the in¬ 
clination does not exceed about thirty feet 


[■railways 


in a mile, has become pretty fully estab¬ 
lished. Stationary power can be used to 
advantage only on lines of very great trans¬ 
portation, as the expense is necessarily very 
great, and almost the same whether the 
traffic be greater or less. Another objec¬ 
tion to the use of stationary power is, that 
its interruption, in any part, breaks up the 
line for the time, which is not necessarily 
the case with a locomotive. The alterna¬ 
tive, accordingly, is between the use of 
locomotive steam-engines or horses; and 
the fact seems well established, that where 
the transportation is sufficient for supply¬ 
ing adequate loads for locomotive engines, 
where the road is so constructed that they 
can be advantageously used, and where fuel 
is not exceedingly expensive, they afford 
much the most economical motive power. 
In England, France, Belgium, Italy, Ger¬ 
many, nay, over the whole of the European 
continent, and on an infinitely more ex¬ 
tended scale in theUnited States of America, 
Canada, &c., railroads are everywhere in 
progress. With regard to America, many 
circumstances conspire to assist in the 
construction of railways in that country— 
the alluvial plains, which often present a 
dead level for a hundred miles together, the 
great plenty of timber, and, more than all, 
the non-appropriation of the ground, which 
enables the projectors to buy it for a trifle, 
and, in the majority of cases, to get it for 
nothing. They have pushed these roads 
into the very bosom of the wilderness. Like 
the military roads of the Romans, they hold 
steadily and straight on through plain and 
morass, through lane, forest, and river, 
across the rugged Alleghanies, and the wild 
woods that skirt the banks of the Mohawk. 
Many of these roads have been finished'for 
less than 5000 dollars a mile; the very best 
of them, made of English iron, and laid 
down on stone sleepers, have been com¬ 
pleted for 29,000 dollars a mile, or about 
60001., which is only one-seventh the cost 
of the Liverpool and Manchester line. The 
same method and dexterity which marks 
their steamboat travelling is seen here 
also ; the engines are nearly all of American 
construction, having superseded those im¬ 
ported from England, and the engineers 
seem to have them under better control. 
There is no unnecessary expense about 
these railroads. The sleepers are often not 
filled up, and frequently, in passing a deep 
chasm, or rushing torrent, the bridge is 
only just wide enough for the rails. Most 
of these railroads are at present single 
tracks, which occasion delay when trains 
meet. The carriages are larger than ours, 
they are sometimes fifty feet long, and have 
a deck with verandahs ; they are warmed 
by stoves in winter, are well ventilated, 
and being commodious, are fitted with 
washing apparatus, &c., and often furnished 
with a convenient means of changing them 
at night into comfortable sleeping apart¬ 
ments. The American engineers seem more 
dexterous than the English ; the trains are 
stopped more rapidly and with apparently 
greater facility. The American engine 
carries a machine In front, which removes 
any obstacle from the rails, and is capable 


























rain] CTje Jj?ctcnttfu antr 628 


even of taking up cattle if they happen to 
get into the way; wood is burned in most 
of the engines. A traveller may pass with 
the greatest ease and convenience from 
any of the cities of Canada to New York in 
less than twenty-four hours, taking Niagara 
in his way, if he please. There are railroads 
throughout all the New England States to 
every town of importance, and some thou¬ 
sands of miles are in progress in the south 
and west. There is the least improvement 
in the slave states. In no other country 
may such vast tracts be traversed in so 
short a time as in America, and the facili¬ 
ties are every day increasing. The Ohio 
already joins the Delaware, by a railroad 
350 miles long, and in a few years a traveller 
may be able to pass from the gulf of New¬ 
foundland to the gulf of Mexico—from 
icebergs to orange-groves—in a very few 
days. 

RAILWAY, Atmospheric or Pneuma¬ 
tic.— -This invention consisted in exhaust¬ 
ing a tube lying between the rails, in front 
of a piston to which the carriages were at¬ 
tached by a convenient air-tight apparatus. 
The pressure of the air behind the piston 
forced it on, and consequently the carriages 
in connection with it. The exhaustion was 
effected by powerful air pumps, worked by 
a steam engine at the terminus. The con¬ 
trivance seemed to answer very well; but 
it was not, in practice,found so economical 
as traction by locomotives. Something 
similar is being adapted, for the trans¬ 
mission of parcels underground, from one 
part of London to another; as the tube in 
this instance has no longitudinal opening 
for the purpose of connection with anything 
external, there is less complication and 
less leakage. 

RAIN ( rcegn: Sax.), in Meteorology, va¬ 
pour precipitated upon the earth in the 
form of drops of water. Bain is the return 
to the earth, in condensed drops, of the 
aqueous vapours which are continually 
rising into the atmosphere by evaporation : 
the condensation being occasioned by a 
change in the general temperature, by a 
collision produced by contrary currents, or 
by a cloud passing into a cold stratum of 
air. The power of the air to hold water in 
solution increases in a much higher ratio 
than the temperature. Hence, when two 
masses of air, saturated with moisture, and 
of different temperatures, are mixed, the 
resulting compound is not capable of hold¬ 
ing the whole water in solution, and a part 
is, in consequence, precipitated as Tain. As 
the whole atmosphere, when saturated, is 
calculated not to hold in solution more 
water than would form a sheet five inches 
in depth, while the mean annual deposit of 
rain and dew is probably from 35 to 40 
inches, it is obvious that the supply of 
atmospheric moisture must be renewed 
many times in the course of a year. [See 
Air, Fog, &c.] The quantity of rain preci¬ 
pitated from the atmosphere depends upon 
a variety of circumstances—on thepfevious 
hygrometric state of the unmixed portions 
of air, their difference of heat, the eleva¬ 
tion of their mean temperature, and the 
extent of the combination which takes 


place. "When the deposition is slow, and 
the electricity set free by change of state 
[see Cloud] is not suddenly removed, the 
very minute aqueous globules remain sus¬ 
pended, and form clouds; but if the deposi¬ 
tion be rapid and copious, and the electricity 
is more or less suddenly carried off, those 
particles conglomerate, and produce, ac¬ 
cording to the temperature of the medium 
through which they descend, rain, mist, 
snow, or hail. 

RAIN'BOW, in Meteorology, an arch or 
semicircle exhibited in a rainy sky, and 
some similar situations, opposite to the 
sun, adorned with the prismatic colours, 
and formed by the refraction of the rays of 
light in spherical drops of water. The inner 
bow is produced by a refraction at the en¬ 
trance of the drop, a reflection from its 
back, and a refraction at its exit, or by two 
refractions and one reflection. The outer 
bow by two refractions and two reflections 
within the drop ; and, since much of the 
light is dispersed by the two reflections, 
the outer bow is fainter than the inner. 
As all the drops in a shower are affected at 
the same time, so all the colours of light 
are visible anywhere to a spectator whose 
back is to the sun, in circles which are from 
54 to 51 degrees and from 42 to 40 degrees 
from the eye ; but in the two bows the 
colours are reversed. A line passing from 
the sun through the eye of the spectator i 
goes to the centre of the bow, so that the 
height of the bow is inversely as the height 
of the sun ; and, if the sun is more than 42 
or 54 degrees high, there can be no bow. 

Of course, as it is a mere optical effect, 
depending on the position of the eye, no I 
two persons can see the same bow. An 
artificial rainbow maybe produced in sun¬ 
shine by scattering drops of water in any 
convenient way to a sufficient height in 
the air, and the spectator standing between 
them and the sun, with his back to the i 
latter. Magnificent rainbows are often pro- , 
duced also by the mist and spray which 

rise from waterfalls.- Lunar Rainbow. 

The moon sometimes also exhibits the 
phenomenon of an Iris, by the refraction 
of her rays in drops of rain in the night 
time. The lunar bow has all the colours of 

the solar, but much fainter. - Marine 

Rainbow, a phenomenon sometimes ob¬ 
served in an agitated sea, when the wind 
carrying the tops of the waves aloft, and 
the sun’s rays falling upon them, are re- 
frn cted 

RAIN-GAUGE, or PLUVIOM'ETER 
(pluvia, rain ; and metron, I measure: Lat.), 
an instrument to measure the quantity of 
rain which falls at any place in a given I 
time. A very simple and convenient rain- 
gauge consists of a strong cylindrical ves 
sel of copper terminated above by a funnel, 
having an opening which is some multiple 
of the sum of the areas of the copper vessel 
and of a glass tube of equal height, so fixed ! 
into one side of it that water in one will S 
rise to the same height in the other; a ; 
graduated scale is attached to the glass 
tube. Suppose that the area of the opening i 
of tho funnel is ten times the area of the 5 
vessel and glass tube taken together, one- I 






























629 


3Litcrarj) €rea£ut|). 


tenth of an Inch of rain will show an inch 
on the graduated scale attached to the 
tube. In fixing one of these gauges care 
must be taken that the rain may have free 
access to it; hence the tops of build¬ 
ings are usually the best places. When 
the quantities of rain collected in them at 
different places are compared, the instru¬ 
ments ought to be fixed at the same heights 
above the ground at both places, because 
it is found that, at different heights, the 
quantities are always different, even at the 
same place. 

RAJ'S INS ( grapes: Fr.), grapes perfectly 
ripe, and dried either in an oven or by the 
heat of the sun; in the latter case they are 
richer and sweeter. The best raisins come 
from Spain, Portugal, Calabria, and other 
places in the south of Europe; there are 
! also very fine ones brought from Smyrna, 
Damascus, and Egypt; their quality, how¬ 
ever, in a great measure depends upon the 
method of their cure. The finest are those 
of the sun— the plumpest bunches are left 
to ripen fully upon the vine, after their 
stalks have been half cut through. [See 
Grape.] 

RA'JAH (Sanscrit), a title given to the 
| native princes of India, their dominions 
being termed raj. The words are connected 
with the Latin rex, regis, king. 

RAKE, the nautical language to incline. 
The word is applied to masts, sterns, stem- 
! posts, &c, Masts generally rake aft: some 
few of them rake forward. The rake of the 
mast has considerable influence on the 
rate of sailing; its chief effect seems to be 
the diminishing that tendency which all 

sails have, to depress the ship’s head.- To 

ralce a ship, is to fire into her head, or stern, 
In the direction of her length, or along her 
decks; so as to sweep them from end to 
end, and thus, probably, cause great slaugh¬ 
ter. It is similar to what is termed enfilad¬ 
ing by engineers. 

RALLENTAN'DO, in Music, an Italian 
term, implying that the time of the passage 
over which it is placed is to be gradually 
rendered slower. 

RAL'LUS, in Ornithology, the Rat?, which 
see. 

RAM (Sax.), in Zoology, the male of the 
sheep or ovine genus; in some parts of 

I England called afttp.- Ram, in Astronomy 

[See Aries]. See also Battering Ram. 

| RAM'ADAN, or RHAM'ADAN, the great 
! fast or lent of the Mohammedans. It be¬ 
gins with the new moon of the ninth mouth 
of the Mohammedan year; and ends the 
day preceding the Bairani. During the 
Ramadan, the day is spent in devotion; 
and the night also, by the more rigid. But, 
generally speaking, the arrival of sunset is 
the commencement of indulgence in the 
pleasures of the table. The Mahometans 
call this month holy, and believe that as 
long as it lasts the gates of paradise are 
open, and those of hell shut. 

RAMEN'TUM (scrapings or chips : Lat.), 
in Botany, the loose scales that are fre¬ 
quently found on the stalks of the fronds 
of ferns. 

RAMIFICATION (ramus, a branch ; and 
fado, I make: Lat.), any small branch isstt- 


[ranters 


ing from a large one, particularly the very 
minute branches issuing from the larger 

arteries.-In Botany, the manner in 

which a tree produces its branches or 
boughs. 

RA'MOUS (ramosus, branching: Lat.), in 
Botany, having lateral divisions or being 
full of branches. 

RAMP (rampe, a slope : Fr.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a concave bend, or slope, in any upper 
member. 

RAM'PANT (Fr.), in Heraldry, an epithet 
for a lion, leopard, or othe-r beast, when it 
stands on its hinder legs, and rears up its 
fore feet in the posture of climbing, show¬ 
ing only its profile. It is different from 
salient, in which the beast seems to be 

springing forward.- Rampant gardant, is 

when the animal stands on its hinder legs, 
looking full-faced; Rampant regardant, when 
it stands on its hinder legs, but looks be¬ 
hind. 

RAM'PART (rempart: Fr.), in Fortifica¬ 
tion, an elevation or mound of earth round 
a place, capable of resisting the cannon of 
an enemy; and formed into bastions, cur¬ 
tains, &c. It is made of earth, taken out 
of the ditch; and the lower part of its out- 
ward slope is usually formed of masonry. 
The advantage of earth is that balls bury 
themselves in it, instead of splintering the 
works and rebounding, to the great injury 
of the besieged. It is, therefore, more 
durable than stone or bricks. The rampart 
is generally about eighteen feet in height. 

' RA'NA (a frog: Xat.), in Zoology, a genus 
of batrachian reptiles, including the frogs. 

RANGE, in Gunnery, the horizontal dis¬ 
tance to which a shot or shell is pro¬ 
jected. But for the resistance of the air 
the path of a projectile would be a parabola; 
and the greatest range would be obtained 
by discharging the projectile at an angle 
of 45°. But the path actually described is 
very different from a parabola; and the 
angle producing the greatest range can 

be found only by experiment.- Range, 

among Mariners, a quantity of cable, equal 
to the depth of the water, laid on deck, that 
when the anchor is cast loose from the 
bow it may receive no check before it 
reaches the bottom. 

RA'NGER (ranger, to place: Fr.), an offi¬ 
cer whose duty it was to walk through the 
forest, and present all trespassers at the 
next forest court. The rangerships of the 
royal forests are honorary offices, with 
salaries attached. 

RANK (ranc: Sax.), the degree of eleva¬ 
tion which one man holds in respect to 
another. This is particularly defined with 
regard to the nobility, to all officers of 
state, and all officers of the army and navy. 

-Rank, in military tactics, the straight 

line which the soldiers of a battalion 
or squadron make as they stand side by 
side.— Rank and file, a name given 
to the men carrying firelocks, and standing 
in the ranks, in which are included the cor¬ 
porals. 

RAN'SOM (rangon: Fr.), money paid for 
redeeming a captive, or for obtaining the 
liberty of a prisoner of war. 

RANTERS, a sect which took its rise in 

























ranula] El )c J^acuttft'c antf 630 


a secession from, tlie Wesleyan connection, 
on the ground that too much attention was 
paid to order in conducting religious wor¬ 
ship ; and too little zeal was displayed in 
field preaching. The Ranters parade the 
streets and fields, singing hymns and 
preaching. And, unlike all other Metho¬ 
dists, they allow females to address a con¬ 
gregation. They hold camp meetings an¬ 
nually, and differ from the parent stock in 
many of the outward ceremonies. They 
are most numerous in America. 

RA'NULA (Lat.: a dim. of rana, a frog), 
in Medicine, a tumour under the tongue, 
supposed to bear some resemblance to a 
! frog. It generally arises from some ob- 
| struction of the ducts of the salivary 
I glands; and usually results in a trouble¬ 
some ulcer. 

RANUNCULA'CEiE, a natural order of 
exogenous polypetalous plants, for the 
most part herbs. The calyx and corolla 
differ considerably in the different genera, 
amongst which are to be found the well- 
known buttercups (Ranunculus) Ane¬ 
mones, Clematis, Columbine, Helle¬ 
bore, Larkspur, Monkshood (Aconi- 
tum), and Peony. The stamens aud seeds 
are usually numerous. The plants abound 
in cold damp climates, and possess narcoti- 
co-acrid properties, many being poisonous. 

RANUN'CULUS {Lat.: a dim. of rana, a 
frog, because many of the species inhabit 
moist places), in Botany, a perennial much 
l cultivated in gardens, bearing a flower of a 
! globular shape. Also the systematic name 
of a genus of plants, of which the globe 
ranunculus, the crowfoot, and the butter¬ 
cup, are species. 

RANZ DES VACHES.in Music,airs among 
the Swiss shepherds, played while they tend 
their flocks and herds. It consists of a few 
simple intervals, is adapted to their instru¬ 
ment (the Alpenhorn, horn of the Alps), and 
lias an uncommon effect in the echoes of 
the mountains. This effect becoming inti¬ 
mately associated with the locality of Swit¬ 
zerland, explains the many anecdotes of 
the home-sickness caused by the sound of 
the Iianz des Vaches, when heard by Swiss 
in foreign countries. 

RAPE, a division of a county; it some¬ 
times means the same as a hundred, and at 
other times includes several hundreds: 
thus Sussex is divided into six rapes, every 
one of which, besides its hundreds, has a 
castle, a river, and a forest belonging to it. 
Similar districts in other counties are called 
tithings, lathes, or wapentakes.-In Bo¬ 

tany, a biennial plant, the Brassica rape., of 
botanists. Rape is cultivated in many parts 
of England, partly on account of its seed, 
which is crushed for oil, and partly for its 

leaves as food for sheep.- Rape-cake is 

the adhering masses of the husks of rape- 
seed, after the oil has been expressed; they 
aro reduced to powder by a malt-mill or 
other machine, and are used either as a 
top-dressing for crops of different kinds, or 
are drilled along with turnip seed. 

RAPH'ANUS {Lat: from raphanos; Gr.), 
■ in Botany, a genus of plants, nat. crd. Cru- 
| ciferce, containing the radish, of which many 
i varieties are in cultivation. 


RA'PHE (raphe, a line : Gr.), in Anatomy, 
a term applied to any parts which appear 
as if they had been sewed together, a dis¬ 
tinct seam being observable.-In Botany, j 

the vascular cord connecting the nucleus 
of an ovule and the placenta, in those cases 
where the base of the former is removed 
from the hilum. 

RAPH'IDES ( raphis , a needle: Gr.), in 
Botany, the needle-like crystals frequently 
found in the cells of plants. They are of 
microscopic minuteness and usually consist 
of phosphate and oxalate of lime. 

RAPHID'IA (raphis, a needle : Gr.), in 
Etymology.a genus of neuropterous insects. 
The head is of a horny substance and de¬ 
pressed ; the tail is armed with a slender 
horny weapon, not bifid at the extremity. 
They are common in the neighbourhood of 
woods aud streams in July; and from the 
facility with which they turn the front of 
the body, they have been called snake flies. 

RAPTDS ( rapidus , swift: Lat.), the part 
of a river where the velocity of the current 
is very considerable, owing to a descent of 
the earth, not sufficient to occasion such a 
fall of the water as is deemed a cascade or 

CclfcclI*clC t 

RAREPAC'TION (rarefacio, I make thin : 
Lat.), in Physics, the act or process of ex¬ 
panding or distending bodies; so that, the 
intervals between their particles being aug¬ 
mented, they occupy more room, or appear 
under a larger bulk without accession of 
any new matter. Rarefaction is opposed to 
condensation. It has been proved, by ex¬ 
periments with the air pump, that air may 
be so rarefied as to occupy a space 13,000 
times greater than in ordinary circum¬ 
stances. [See Air, Atmosphere, &c.] 

RASO'RES (scratchers : Lat.), an order of 
birds, synonymous with the Gallince, and ; 
including those which have strong feet, 
provided with obtuse claws for scratching 
grains, &c„ such as the pheasants, grouse, 
and barn-door fowl. 

RAS'PBERRY, the fruit of a bramble, or 
species of Rubus. Several varieties are cul- 
tivated, differing in the size and colour of 
the fruit, which is either red, flesh-coloured, 
or yellow. A light soil is best suitedtotlio 
culture of the raspberry, and an eastern or 
western exposure, slightly shaded. It is 
generally propagated by suckers. 

RAT (Fr.), a well known quadruped of 
the genus Mas, which infests houses, 
stores, and ships; an animal equally trou¬ 
blesome and destructive. The species at 
present common in this country, called the 
Norway rat (Mas decumanus) was intro¬ 
duced from Asia forty or fifty years ago, 
and lias entirely extirpated the black rat | 
(M. rattus), or old British species. 

ltATAFI'A, a liquor made by steeping 
the kernels of apricots, cherries, &c. in 
brandy. In France, ratafia is the generic 
name of all liqueurs compounded with alco- ! 
liol, sugar, aud the odoriferous or flavour¬ 
ing principles of vegetables. 

RATCHET, in Horology, &c., an arm, I 
moving on a centre at one extremity, and 
abutting at the other against the teeth of 
the ratchet wheel, which it allows to turn 
iu one direction, but not in the others, in 

























631 Eiterarg Crtatftttg* [ray 

which case it is called also a detent. Some¬ 
times a ratchet is jointed freely to a recip¬ 
rocating driver, for the purpose of giving 
continuous motion to a wheel ; it is then 
called a click or paid. The teeth of the 
detent wheel are cut like those of a saw. 

RATCH'IL, among Miners, fragments of 
stone. 

RATE ( ratus , calculated : Lat.), an assess¬ 
ment by the pound for public purposes ; 
as, for the poor, the highways, church 
; repairs, county expenses, &e. 

RATE OF A SHIP, in the Navy, the or¬ 
der or class of a ship, according to its mag¬ 
nitude or force. There are three classes of 
ships : rated ships, commanded by captains ; 
sloops and vessels, by commanders ; and 
third class, by lieutenants. Rated ships 
| are divided into six classes : — 1 st, tliree- 
i deckers ; 2 nd, two-deckers, having at least 
j 700men ; 3rd, ships having from 600 to 800 
! men ; 4tli, ships having from 400 to 600 
men ; 5th, ships having from 250 to 400 
men ; 6 th, ships having less than 250 men. 

RATH' OFFICE, in Mineralogy, a kind of 
! garnet found in Sweden. Its colour is a 
dingy brownish nlack, and it is a compa- 
1 nied with calcareous spar and small crystals 

1 of Hornblende. 

RATIFICATION (ratus, established ; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), the solemn act by 
which authority is given to an instrument, 
&c. It is most usually applied to the 
sanctions given by government to treaties 
contracted by their representatives. 

RA'TIO (Lat.), in Mathematics, the re¬ 
lations between two quantities; an arith¬ 
metical ratio consists in their difference, 
and a geometrical ratio, in their quotient. 
Thus, the arithmetical ratio between 8 and 
6 is 8 - 6 , or 2 , which added to the less will 
make the greater ; or taken from the 
greater will make the less. The geometri- 
1 cal ratio between 6 and 2 is f or 3, and the 
! less being multiplied by 3 will make the 
i greater; or the greater divided by 3 will 

1 make the less. Ratio is expressed by two 
dots, thus a : b, or 6 : 4. Ratios are suscep- 
; tible of various changes in form, without 

1 alteration of value. Thus the same quan- 
\ tity may be added to or taken from each 
term of an arithmetical ratio, &c. Each 
term of a geometrical ratio may be multi¬ 
plied or divided by the same number. The 
first term of a ratio is termed the antece¬ 
dent, the second the consequent, the equality 
of ratios constitutes proportion [which see]. 
Ratios are compounded by multiplying the 
antecedents together, and the consequents 
together, and this is the foundation of the 
rule of compound proportion. Duplicate 
ratio is the ratio of the squares of two quan¬ 
tities thus at : h'- is the duplicate ratio of a :b. 
Triplicate ratio is the ratio of the cubes of 
two quantities : thus a 3 : b 3 is the triplicate 

ratio of a : b. - Prime and ultimate ratio, 

the relation which two variable quantities 
bear to each other when they are first sup¬ 
posed to be generated, and are indefinitely 
small, hence called prime ; or the relation 
of two variable quantities to each other at 
the instant of vanishing, or becoming in¬ 
definitely small, and* hence called ultimate 
ratio. 

RATION (ratio, a computation: Lat.), 
the proportion or fixed allowance of pro¬ 
visions, drink, forage, &c. assigned to each 
soldier for his daily subsistence. Seamen i 
in the navy also have rations of certain 
articles 

RATIONA'LE (ratio, a theory : Lat.), the 
account or solution of any phenomenon, ex¬ 
plaining the principles on which it depends. 

RATIONALISTS (ratio, the reason : Lat.), 
a term used to denote those who consider 
all the events recorded in the Scriptures as 
events happening in the ordinary course of 
nature; and who consider the statements 
and morality of the sacred -writings as sub¬ 
ject to the test of human reason. 

RAT'LINES, in a ship, lines which make 
the ladder steps for going up the shrouds 
and ascending to the mast-head. 

RATOON', a sprout from the root of tho 
sugar-cane, which has been cut. 

RATTAN', a slender cane obtained from ’ 
several species of Calamus, plants belonging 
to the order of palms, and growing in 
India and the Indian archipelago. The 
walking sticks imported under the name of 
Penang lawyers are a kind of rattan. Im¬ 
mense quantities are consumed in India and 
Europe, but more particularly in China. 
For cane work they should be chosen long, 
of a bright pale yellow colour, well glazed, 
of a small size, and not brittle. 

RATTLESNAKE, the common name for 
certain poisonous snakes inhabiting Ame¬ 
rica, and belonging to the genus Cro- 
talus (krotalon, a rattle : Gr.), from three to 
eight feet in length, with several horny 
cells at the tail, which, when moved, pro¬ 
duce a loud rattling noise. The head is 
broad, triangular, and flat; the eyes bril¬ 
liant, the mouth large, and the .tongue 
forked. The sound of the rattle is said to 
be audible at the distance of twenty yards, 
and is thus useful in giving warning of the 
approach of the reptile. Its bite is attended 
with frightful consequences. There are 
two species, the Crotalics horridus of the 
United States, and the Crotalus durissimus 
of Guiana. They are sluggish, move 
slowly, and bite only when provoked, or to 
kill their prey. They feed chiefly on birds, 
squirrels, &e., which they are supposed to 
have the power of fascinating. 

RATTLESNAKE ROOT, a North Ameri¬ 
can plant, the Polygala senega of botanists, j 
It is a stimulant, and is believed to be 
serviceable in case of the bite of a rattle¬ 
snake. 

RAY'ELIN, in Fortification, a detached 
work composed of two faces, forming sa¬ 
lient angles, and raised before the counter¬ 
scarp. "When used to cover the approach 
to a bridge, it is called a tete dupont. It is 
employed also in field fortification. 

RA'VEN (hrafn : A.Sax.), the Corvus corax 
of ornithologists, a well known bold and 
sagacious British bird, the largest of the 
genus with us. It builds in high trees or 
rocks ; is long lived, feeds on all sorts of 
carrion, and has an exquisite sense of smell. 

RAY (raie: Fr.; from radius: Lat.), in 
Optics, a beam of light, propagated from a 
radiant point ; said to be direct, if it comes 
immediately from the point; reflected, if it 






























ray-fish Ei)£ J^cfolttfic Mitt 632 


first strike upon any body, and is thence 
transmitted to the eye. _ The mixed solar 
beam contains: 1st. calorific rays, producing 
heat, but not vision and colour; 2nd. colo¬ 
rific rays, producing vision and colour, but 
not heat; 3rd. chemical rays, producing 
certain effects on the composition of bo¬ 
dies, but neither heat, vision, nor colour. A 
ray of -white light is compounded of 
several colours [see Colour] ; and it is 
divisible into two rays of white light, hav¬ 
ing different properties. [See Polarisa¬ 
tion.] -In Botany, the outer part or cir¬ 

cumference of a compound radiate flower. 

.-In Ichthyology, a bony or cartilaginous 

ossicle in the fins of fishes, serving to sup¬ 
port the membrane. 

RAY'-FISH, the common name for fishes 
with cartilaginous bones, belonging to the 
genus Baia of ichthyologists. They are dis¬ 
tinguished by their flattened and broad dis- 
shaped body, that chiefly consists of im¬ 
mense pectoral fins, the rays of which 
support a broad duplicature of the skin, 
which is continuous anteriorly with that of 
the side of the flattened head. The mouth 
is on the underside of the body, where also 
are the gill openings in two rows of fins. 
The genus Baia includes the Skates and the 
Thornback. The sting ray and the eagle 
ray belong to allied genera; whilst the 
electric ray is a torpedo. 

RAY'AH, the non-Mahomedan subjects 
of the Turkish Government, who pay the 
capitation tax. 

RAYONNA'NT, in Heraldry, an epithet 
for any ordinary that darts forth rays like 
the sun when it shines. 

RE, in Grammar, a prefix or inseparable 
particle at the beginning of words, to repeat 
or otherwise modify their meaning; as in 
re-action, re-export, &c. 

REACH, that part of the length of a 
river in which the stream maintains the 
same direction. 

REACTION (re, back; and actio, an act¬ 
ing: Lat.), in Physics, the resistance made 
by all bodies to a change from motion to 
rest or from rest to motion. It is in reality 
due to the necessity of a body at rest re¬ 
ceiving motion, before it can move; or a 
body in motion losing motion, before it 
can stop, both of which require time. 

REA'GENT (re, back; and ago, I act: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, the name given to such 
! bodies as serve to detectothers. 

REAL (res, property : Lat.), in Law, per- 
! taining to things permanent and immov- 
i able; as real estate, consisting of lands, 
j tenements, and hereditaments, and opposed 
to personal or movable property. Beal as¬ 
sets, assets consisting in real estate, or 
lands and tenements descending to an heir, 
sufficient to answer the charges upon the 
estate created by the ancestor. 

REAL'GAR, red sulphuret of arsenic. It 
is either native or factitious. 

RE'ALISM, in Philosophy, the opposite 
of Idealism: that philosophical system 
which conceives external things to exist in¬ 
dependently of our conceptions of them. 
Realism becomes materialism if it considers 
matter, or physical substance, as the only 
original cause of things, and the soul itself 


as a material substance. As opposed to 
Nominalism, it is contrary to the theory 
which asserts that general terms have no 
corresponding reality, either in or out of 
our minds, being mere words, and nothing 
more. 

REALM (royaume, a kingdom : Fr.), a 
royal jurisdiction, or the extent of a king’s 
dominions. 

REAL PRES'ENCE, in the Roman Ca¬ 
tholic church, the supposed actual presence 
of the body and blood of Christ in the 
eucharist, the bread and wine being sup¬ 
posed to be converted into the real body 
and blood of Christ by the priest. 

REAM (a bundle: Sax.), a certain quan¬ 
tity of paper. Twenty quires of twenty- 
four sheets each make a ream of writing 
paper; but the printer's ream, or perfect 
ream of printing paper, consists of 2li 
quires, or 516 sheets. Two reams maks 
what is termed a bundle. 

REAR (arriire: Fr.), a military term for 

behind.- Bear-guard, a body of men that 

marches in the rear of the main body to 

protect it.- Bear-rank, the last line of 

men that are drawn up two or more deep. 

-The rear is also a naval term applied to 

the squadron which is hindmost. 

REASON (raison: Fr.), a faculty of the 
human mind by which it distinguishes 
truth from falsehood, and good from evil, 
and which enables the possessor to deduce 
inferences from facts or from propositions. 
Reason differs from understanding, which 
is the faculty of reflection and generaliza¬ 
tion ; and from instinct, which is a mere 
natural impulse, by which animals are 
directed to certain actions, necessary for 
the preservation of the individual or the 
species. Instinct has nothing to do with 
reflection or experience ; the wasp, in what¬ 
ever solitude it may be reared, puts a food 
which it does not use itself, along with its 
eggs, into a hole ; and just enough of it to 
support the larva, which it will never see, 
until it is able to provide for itself. 

REASONING, or RATIOCINATION 
(ratiocinatio: Lat.), an operation of the mind, 
deducing some unknown proposition from 
ethers that are evident and known. Every 
act of reasoning necessarily includes three 
distinct judgments; two, in which the ideas 
whose relation we want to discover are 
severally compared with the middle idea; 
and a third, in which they are themselves 
connected, or disjoined, according to the 
result of that comparison. Now, as our 
judgments when put into words are called 
Propositions, so the expressions of our 
reasonings are termed Syllogisms. And 
hence it follows that as every act of reason¬ 
ing implies three several judgments, so 
every syllogism must include three distinct 
propositions. [See Syllogism.] 

RE'BATE (rabattre, to abate: Fr.), in Ar¬ 
chitecture, the groove, or channel, sunk 
on the edge of any material.-In arith¬ 

metic, Discount, which see. 

RE'BEC. An instrument like a violin, 
having three strings tuned in fifths, and 
played with a bow. It was introduced by 
the Moors into Spain. 

REB'EL (rebcllis • Lat.), one who revolts 
















633 


Eftcvarji Areas'uni. 


from the Government to which he owes 
allegiance, either hy openly renouncing its 
authority, or by taking arms and openly 
opposing it. 

REBEL'LTON ( rebellio , a renewal of war 
by a conquered people : Lat.), an open and 
avowed renunciation of the authority of 
the government to which allegiance is due. 
It differs from Insurrection, which may be 
a rising in opposition to a particular act or 
law, without a design to renounce wholly 
all subjection to the government, anil 
which may lead to, but is not necessarily 
in the first instance rebellion. Rebellion 
differs also from Mutiny, which is an in¬ 
surrection of soldiers or sailors against the 
authority of their officers. 

RE'BUS, an enigmatical representation 
of some name, &c., by using figures or pic¬ 
tures instead of words. Camden tells us 
the rebus was in great esteem among our 

forefathers.-In Heraldry, a coat of arms 

which bears an allusion to the name of a 
person. 

REBUT'TER (rebuter, to repulse: Fr.), in 
Law,the defendant’s answer to the plaintiff’s 
sur-rejoinder. The fifth stage of the pro¬ 
ceedings in an action if an issue lias not 
been previously come to. 

RECEIPT' ( receptus , received: Lat.), in 
Commerce, an acquittance or discharge in 
writing for money received, or other valu¬ 
able consideration. 

RECE'IVER ( recevoir , to receive: Fr.), in 
Law, one who takes stolen goods from a 
thief, knowing them to be stolen, and 
incurs the guilt of partaking in the crime. 
Also, one appointed to receive the rents, 
&c., accruing from the estate of an em¬ 
barrassed person, for the benefit of his 
creditors.—-In Pneumatics, a glass vessel 
for containing that on which an experiment 
is to be made with the air-pump. 

RE'CENT ( recens, lately: Lat.), a Geolo¬ 
gical term applied to whatever is of a date 
posterior to the introduction of man; all 
formations since that period being so 
termed. The word is also used in Natural 
History, in contradistinction to extinct. 

RECEPTACLE (receptaculum, a place into 
•which anything is received: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, the expanded summit of the flower 
stalk upon which numerous florets are 
j seated. In the order of Composites the re- 
I ceptacle is flat, convex, or conical: in the 
j Fig order the receptacle is flushy and 
! hollow; it is the part we eat, and contains 
! the seeds within, where the small flowers 
originally were. 

RE'CIPE (take: Lat.), a Medical prescrip¬ 
tion ; or directions for preparing any mix¬ 
ture or compound. It, at the head of a 
medical prescription, signifies recipe. 

RECIP'ROCAL ( reciprocus, alternating: 
Lat.), in general, something that is mutual, 
or which is returned equally on both sides, 
or that affects both parties alike.- Re¬ 

ciprocal figures, in Geometry, are those 
which are of the same kind—triangles, for 
example, prisms, &c.; and so related that 
two sides of one form the extremes of a 
proportion, of which two corresponding 

sides of the other form the means. - 

Reciprocal proportions, is when of four 


[RECORD 

terms, taken in order, the first is to the 
second, as the fourth is to the third: or 
when the first is to the second, as the reci¬ 
procal of the third is to the reciprocal of 
the fourth. It is often 'termed Inverse 
proportion. - Reciprocal quantities, or re¬ 

ciprocals, are the terms of the fractions 
representing the quantities inverted : thus 
the reciprocal of f is |; the reciprocal of 5, 
or is i. A quantity multiplied by its re¬ 
ciprocal gives unity ; thus f multiplied by 
■t, is equal i| or 1; and £ multiplied by A, is 

equal to a or 1.- Reciprocal terms, in Logic, 

are those which have the same significa¬ 
tion ; and consequently are convertible and 
may be used for each other. 

RECITATI'VE (recito, I recite: Lat.), a 
kind of musical pronunciation, in which 
the composer and the performer endeavour 
to imitate the inflections, accent, and em¬ 
phasis of speech ; such as that in which the 
several parts of the liturgy are rehearsed 
in cathedral churches, or that of actors on 
an operatic stage when they relate some 
event or reveal some design. 

RECK'ONING (recan, to reckon: Sax.), 
in Navigation, an account of the ship’s 
course and distance: the course being 
determined by the compass, and the dis¬ 
tance by the log books, and no aid being 

had from observation.- Dead reckoning, 

is the reckoning, allowance being made for 
drift, lee-way, currents, &c. 

REC'LINATE ( reclinis, lean in g back: Lat 
in Botany, bent downwards, so that the 
point of the leaf is lower than the base. 

RECLINA'TION ( reclino, I lean back: 
Lat.), in Dialling, the number of degrees 
which a dial-plane leans backwards from an 
exactly upright or vertical plane; that is, 
from the zenith. 

RECOGN'IZANCE(recogrjiosco,T recognize: 
Lat.), in Law, a bond or obligation acknow¬ 
ledged in some court, or before some judge, 
with condition to do some particular act, 
as to appear at the assizes, to keep the 
peace, &c. The person who enters into 
such bond is called the recognizor ; the per¬ 
son to whom he is bound is the recognizee. 

RECOIL' ( reculer, to go back: Fr.), in 
Gunnery, the retrograde motion made by 
any piece on being discharged. This term 
is particularly applicable to pieces of ord¬ 
nance, which are always subject to a recoil, 
according to the sizes and the charges which 
they contain. To lessen the recoil of a gun, 
the platforms are generally made sloping 
towards the embrasures. 

RECONNOITRE (to discover: Fr.), in 
Military language, to learn by ocular in¬ 
spection of the situation of an enemy, or 
the nature of a piece of ground. It is one 
of the most important duties of a general, 
and must precede every considerable move¬ 
ment. Reconnoitering not unfrequently 
brings on engagements: for large bodies 
of troops march out to cover the recon¬ 
noitering party, and to make prisoners if 
possible, in order to obtain information 
from them. 

RECORD (recordor, I call to mind : Lat.), 
in Law, the authentic written testimony of 
the judgment of a superior court, contained 

























recorder] 


flHje Jjuenttftc aiitr 


634 


in rolls of parchment and preserved in a 
court of record. 

RECORD'Ell (same deriv.), the chief ju¬ 
dicial officer of a borough or city, exercis 
i mgr within it, in criminal matters, the 
I jurisdictions of a court of record—whence 
his title. Recorders are now selected by 
! the Crown, and must be barristers of at 
least five years’ standing. 

RECOV'ERY, or COMMON RECOVERY 
( recouvrer , to recover: Fr.), in Law, a mode 
of conveyance, by means of a fictitious 
action [see Fink], which gave the recoverer 
j a fee simple absolute. Common recoveries 
! are now abolished, and a new mode of 
conveyance for the use of the tenant in 
tail substituted. [See Estate Tail.] 

RECT'ANGLE ( rectus angulus, a right 
angle : Lat.), a figure whose sides are per¬ 
pendicular to each other. The term is also 
sometimes used, but incorrectly, for the 
product of two quantities. 

RECTIFICATION ( rectus , right; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), in Chemistry, the pro¬ 
cess of refining by repeated distillation or 
sublimation, in order to render the sub 
stance purer. 

REC'TOR (a director: Lat.), a term ap 
plied to the possessors of several official 
situations; as, 1. A clergyman who has the 
charge and cure of a parish, and the pro¬ 
perty of the tithes, &c.; 2. The chief elec¬ 
tive officer in several universities; 3. The 
head master of large public schools in Scot¬ 
land; 4. The governor in several convents; 
5. The superior of a seminary or college of 
the Jesuits, &c. 

REC'TUM ( rectus, straight: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the third and last of the large intes¬ 
tines: so called by the older anatomists," 
from an erroneous idea that it was straight. 

REC'TUS (straight: Lat.), in Anatomy, a 
name common to several pairs of muscles, 
so called on account of the straightness of 
their fibres. 

REC'TUS IN CU'RIA (right, in the eye 
of the court: Lat.), in Law, one who stands 
at the bar, no person objecting anything 
against him. Also, one who has reversed 
an outlawry, and can therefore partake of 
the benefit of the law. 

RECUR'RENT VERSES (recurro, I return: 
Lat.), in Poetry, verses that read the same 
backwards as they do forwards. 

RECUR'RING (same deriv.), or CIRCU¬ 
LATING DECIMALS, those decimals which 
arise from the divisions of the numerator 
of a fraction by its denominator ; when the 
denominator includes, as factors, one or 
more prime numbers, different from 2 or 5, 
and not included in the numerator, the 
digits in such a case are repeated, ad infini¬ 
tum. If only a single digit is repeated, it 
is a repetend; if two or more digits, a peri¬ 
odical ; if there is also a finite part, that is 
one or more digits before the repeated part, 
it is a mixed, otherwise it is a pure circulate. 

RECUR'VATE(recwrw,I bend backwards: 
Lat.), in Botany, bowed or curved down¬ 
wards. 

RECU'SANT (recuso, I refuse: Lat.), in 
English History, one who refuses to ac¬ 
knowledge the kingly supremacy in mat¬ 
ters of religion. 


RED, in Physics, one of the simple or 
primary colours of natural bodies, or rather 
of the rays of light. It has different shades 
or hues, as scarlet, crimson, Vermillion, 

orange-red, &c.-The Greeks called the 

Arabian gulf the Erytlirean or lied sea, 
probably from Edom or Idumea; impro¬ 
perly applying the meaning of Edom (red) 
to the sea, which improper application has 
been continued to the present time. It is, 
however, conjectured by some that the 
name was given on account of the vast 
quantity of red animalcules which the sea 
contains. 

RED BOOK, a book containing the names 

of all persons in the service of the state.-- 

Red Book of the Exchequer, an ancient 
record, in which are set down the names of 
all who held lauds per baroniam, in the time 
of Henry II. 

RED'BREAST, the Erytliaca (or Sylvia) 
rubecula of ornithologists, a well-known 
bird. Its fame has arisen from its habit of 
seeking the aid of man, and fearlessly 
visiting his dwelling, during the winter 
season. 

REDEMPTION (redemptio; from redimo, 

I buy back: Lat.), in Law, the liberation of 

an estate from a mortgage.-In War and 

in Commerce, the act of procuring the de¬ 
liverance of persons or things from the 
possession and power of captors by the 
payment of an equivalent; as, the redemp¬ 
tion of a ship and cargo.-In Theology, 

the ransom or deliverance of sinners from 
the bondage of sin, and the penalties of 
God’s violated law, by the atonement of 
Christ. 

RED LEAD, Minium ; an oxide of lead, 
intermediate between the protoxide and 
peroxide. 

REDOUBT' (rcdoute, from redouter, to 
fear : Fr.), in Fortification, almost any kind 
of work, used to fortify a military position, 
as those constructed within others, to pro¬ 
long a defence; or detached works, to 
secure a piece of ground, useful to the 
besiegers. 

REDPOLE, a name given to two species 
of the genus Linota, or linnet; namely, the 
mealy redpole (L. canescens), and the lesser 
or common redpole ( L. linaria), both of 
which are winter visitors to our islands. 
The latter is easily tamed, and its lively 
habits and easy confidence render it a fa¬ 
vourite. 

RED SAN'DAL, or RED SAN'DERS. The 
wood of leguminous trees growing in Cey¬ 
lon and other parts of India, belonging to 
the genus Pterocarpus. It is of a garnet- 
red colour, and extremely hard. The old 
wood only is employed as a dye stuff, and 
the colouring matter which it yields is by 
chemists known as santaline. 

RED'STAltT, the Pheenicura rutacilla, a 
beautiful bird, about five inches in length, 
which comes to this country about the 
middle of April, and leaves it in the begin¬ 
ning of October. The tail is of a reddish 
hue, whence the name, start being an old 
English word for tail. 

REDUO'TIO AD ABSURDUM (a reducing 
to an absurdity : Lat.), in Logic, a mode of 
argument by which the truth of a propwsl 




































635 Hftirarg 


tion is proved by showing the absurdity of 
the contrary. 

REDUCTION ( reductio , a restoring: 
Zaf.), in Arithmetic, the change of a quan¬ 
tity from one denomination to another.- 

Reduction, the conversion of a metallic 
compound into a metal. It is sometimes ef¬ 
fected by heat alone, oxygen being driven 
off; but it generally requires along with 
heat, some deoxidising agent, charcoal be¬ 
ing most commonly used for that purpose, 
on the large scale. 

REDUCTION OF EQUATIONS {reductio, 
a bringing back : Lat.'), in Algebra, reduc¬ 
ing them to the simplest state, or clearing 
them of all superfluous quantities, by sepa¬ 
rating the known from the unknown, till 
the unknown quantity isfound on one side, 
and the known ones on the other. 

REDUPLICATION (re, again; and du- 
plicatio, a doubling: Lat.), in Logic, a 
kind of condition expressed in a proposi- 
| tion; indicating or assigning the manner 
in which the predicate is attributed to the 
subject. 

REED {reod: Sax.), the common name of 
I many aquatic plants. In general, it denotes 
a kind of long, hollow, knotted grass that 

grows in fens and watery places.- Reed, 

in Music, the small elastic plate which, by 
its vibration, produces the sound of certain 
instruments. 

REEF, amongst Australian gold-miners, 
a vein of quartz, penetrating rocks of silu- 
vian age, and varying in thickness from a 
few inches to forty or fifty feet, with a con¬ 
siderable extent as to length and depth. 
Gold is frequently found disseminated in 
such reefs, and is extracted by crushing 
the quartz to powder and treating it with 
mercury. 

REE'FING (reef, a part of a sail taken in : 
Ihif.),a nautical term for the taking up a 
sail in a great gale of wind, so as to diminish 

its surface.- Reef-tackle, a tackle upon 

deck, communicating with its pendant,pass¬ 
ing through a block at the top-mast head, 
and through a hole in the top-sail yard¬ 
arm, and attached to a cringle below the 
lowest reef. It is used to pull the skirts 
of the top-sails close to the extremities of 
the yards, to lighten the labour of reefing. 

REENTERING ANGLE, in Fortification, 
the angle of a work which points inwards, 
towards the place to be defended. 

REFECTION ( refeclio, a refreshment : 
Lat.), among certain Ecclesiastics, a spare 
meal or repast just sufficing for the support 
of life ; hence the hall in convents, and 
other communities, where the monks, nuns, 
&c. take their refections or meals in com¬ 
mon, is called the refectory. 

REFEREE' ( refero, I consult: Lot.), one 
to whose decision a thing is referred ; par¬ 
ticularly, a person appointed by a court to 
hear, examine, and decide a cause between 
parties, pending before the court. 

REF'ERENCE (same deriv.), in Law, the 
act of referring a matter in dispute to the 
decision of an arbitrator. Also, in the 
court of chancery, the referring a matter 
to a chief clerk, taxing master, &c.,to exa¬ 
mine and certify the result. -Reference, 

In Printing, a mark in the text of a work 


[reformation 


referring to a similar one in the side or 
at the bottom of the page. 

REFI'NING (r a finer, to purify : Fr.), in 
general, is the art or practice of purifying a 
thing ; including not only the assaying or 
refining of metals, but likewise the clarifi¬ 
cation of liquors. 

REFLECTION, or REFLEX'ION (re- 
flecto, I bend back: Lat.), in Mechanics, the 
rebound of one body from the surface of 

another.- Reflection of light, the 

turning of a ray from a body against which 
it has impinged ; a reflecting is necessarily 
a polished surface. Light and heat, in re- ; 
flections, follow 7 the law of perfectly elas- i 
tic bodies; that is, ‘ the angle of incidence j 
is equal to the angle of reflection.’ This 
enables us to ascertain with ease the path 
of a reflected ray; and to explain how it is ; 
that: 1. Plane mirrors alter the apparent 
position but not the size of an object; 

2. Concave mirrors bring rays to a focus, 
and either increase or diminish the appa¬ 
rent size of an object, according as it is in ; 
one or other ox the conjugate foci; and 3. ! 
convex mirrors disperse rays, and diminish 
the apparent size of an object. 

RE'FLEX (reflexus, bent back: Lat.), in 
Painting, a term used to denote those places 
in a picture which are supposed to be illu¬ 
minated by a light reflected from some 
other body, represented in the sauie piece. 

-Reflex vision, that performed by 

means of reflected rays, as from mirrors. 

REFORMATION ( reformatio ; from re- 
formo, I amend : Lat.), the term applied by 
Protestants universally, to denote the 
change from the Roman Catholic to the 
Protestant religion, which was first begun 
effectually in Germany, by Luther, A.D. 1517, 
but had commenced in England oiie hun¬ 
dred years earlier by Wickliffe. No one 
anticipated the quarter whence the first 
blow would be struck. Leo X. was created 
pope in 1513; and, little affected by the 
universal desire for reformation in the 
church—a desire expressed in the strongest 
terms by the most eminent Roman Catholic 
writers of the time, who in unmeasured 
terms inveigh against the universal cor¬ 
ruption of morals from the very head * 
of the church down to its most humble 
members, he seemed placed at its head 
merely to employ its revenues in the gra¬ 
tification of his princely tastes. Albert, 
elector of Mentz and archbishop of Magde¬ 
burg, a prince of a similar character, re¬ 
ceived from Leo, in 1516, under the pre- i 
tence of raising money for the erection of 
St. Peter's at Rome, permission to sell in- 
dulgences wuthin his own jurisdiction, on 
condition of sharing the profits with the 
pope. In this traffic, Albert' employed, 
among others, John Tetzel, a Dominican ' 
monk of Leipsic, who went about from i 
place to place, carrying on his trade with 
the most unblushing assurance. Luther, i 
an Augustine monk of Erfurt,—a man of 
powerful mind,and distinguished more for 
his ardem piety and strong love of truth 
than for deep erudition,—set his face 
against this abuse, first in his sermons,and 
afterwards in ninety-five theses, or ques¬ 
tions, which he affixed to the door of thq 
























refraction] Scientific antr 636 


church, Oct. 31, 1517. This led to several 
public disputations, in which he had such a 
decided advantage over his antagonists, 
that he, who was hardly known before, 
became the public champion of all who 
lamented the degeneracy of the church. 
The Franciscans were intrusted with the 
sale of indulgences in Switzerland; and 
executed their commission with equal zeal 
and imprudence. They were successfully 
opposed by Zuinglius, who was not inferior 
to Luther himself in courage and determi¬ 
nation. The disputes between the Roman 
Catholic and reformed churches were long 
a source of many calamities ; arising from 
the attempts to arrest the progress of 
reformation ; until they were terminated 
in Germany, by the peace of Augsburg in 
1555. In this country the Reformation 
triumphed from the very beginning, with 
the exception of the interval of Mary’s 
reign, and has remained permanent. 

REFRAC'TION ( refractus , broken : Lat.), 
in Optics, the deviation of a ray of light 
from a right line in entering a medium of 
different density. The great law of refrac¬ 
tion, which holds with regard to all bodies 
and all mediums, is, that a body passing ob¬ 
liquely out of one medium into another 
in which it meets with less resistance, is 
refracted or turned towards the perpendi¬ 
cular ; and, on the contrary, in passing out 
of one medium into another in which the 
resistance is greater.it is refracted or turned 

from the perpendicular.-The ratio of the 

lines of the angles of incidence and refrac¬ 
tion is called the index of refraction; it is 
different in different media, and is ob¬ 
tained, for each, by experiment—being 
that which is obtained when light passes 
from a vacuum into the medium. It en¬ 
ables us to ascertain the path of a ray, 
passing through any medium, or any 
number of media; to ascertain the foci of 
convex media, and the amount of diver¬ 
gences produced by those which are con¬ 
cave. Whatever the number or kind of 
media through which a ray of light may 
pass, its path is the same, from which¬ 
ever of its extremities it begins its mo¬ 
tions.- Astronomical refraction, the ap¬ 

parent angular elevation of the celestial 
bodies above the true places; caused by 
the passage of light through the atmo¬ 
sphere of the earth. Since the refractive 
power of an aeriform fluid is found to be 
proportional to its density, and the density 
of the air continually diminishes, as its 
distance from the earth increases, the path 
of a ray which traverses the atmosphere 
obliquely must be a curve. The existence 
of atmospheric refraction was known at a 
very early period. It is clear that the place 
of distant or elevated terrestrial objects 
must be affected by refraction due to the 
atmosphere : this effect is called terrestrial 

refraction. - Double refraction. Certain 

substances have the power of decompos¬ 
ing a ray of white light into two others, 
which are refracted at different angles, and 
are found to possess very different proper¬ 
ties. [See Double refraction and Po¬ 
larization.] 

REFUGEE' ( refugio, I take refuge with : 


Lat.) : in Political History, a term applied to 
the French Protestants, who, on the revo¬ 
cation of the edict of Nantes, fled from the 
persecution of France. The same term was 
also applied to the French priests and other 
royalists who sought an asylum in this 
country at the commencement of the revo¬ 
lution, towards the end of the last century 
They were also styled tmigrbs. 

REGA'LIA (things pertaining to the 
king: Lat.), in Law, the rights and prero¬ 
gatives of the sovereign power ; also the 
ensigns of royalty, the crown, sceptre, &c. 
worn by our kings and queens at their co¬ 
ronation. They consist of the Crown used 
at the coronation of Queen Victoria [see 
Crown]. St. Edward's Crown, of gold embel¬ 
lished with diamonds and other precious 
stones, made for the coronation of Charles 
II., and used at all subsequent coronations 
except the last. It was stolen by Blood 
from the Tower in May, 1761. The Prince of 
Wales' Grown, of pure gold without jewels. 
The Queen Consort's Crown, of gold set with 
diamonds, and other stones. The Queen’s 
Diadem, made for the queen of James II. ; 
it is adorned with diamonds and pearls. St. 
Edward's Stuff, of beaten gold fourfeet seven 
inches long, surmounted by an orb, con¬ 
taining, according to tradition,a part of the 
true cross. This is carried before the sove¬ 
reign at a coronation. The Royal Sceptre, 
or sceptre with the cross, 2 feet 9 inches 
long, made of gold, the pommel embel¬ 
lished with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds; 
the cross with various jewels, and a large 
table diamond in the centre. This is placed 
in the sovereign’s right hand at the coro¬ 
nation by the officiating archbishop. The 
Rod of Equity,or sceptre with the dove, made 
of gold enriched with diamonds. This is 
placed in the sovereign’s left hand at a coro¬ 
nation. The Queen Consort’s Sceptre, of gold 
adorned with precious stones. The Ivory 
Sceptre, made for the queen of JamesI I. bear- 
inga dove of whiteonyx. A Sceptre thought 
to have been made for Mary queen of Wil¬ 
liam III. The Curtana, a pointless sword 
of mercy, made of steel adorned with gold. 
Two Swords of Justice, temporal and ecclesi¬ 
astical, which are carried before the sove¬ 
reign at a coronation. Armillce, or bracelets; 
Spurs; the Ampulla, or anointing vessel, and 
Spoon for receiving the sacred oil from the 
ampulla ;—all these objects being used at a 
coronation. The Golden Salt Cellar, shaped 
like a castle. The Baptismal Font employed 
at the christening of the royal children, and 
a service of sacramental plate. All these 
articles are preserved in the Tower of Lon¬ 
don, where the public is permitted to see 
them. Regalia of the church, are the rights 
and privileges which cathedrals, &c., enjoy 
by royal grants. This term is particularly 
used for such lands and hereditaments as 
have been given by different sovereigns to 
the church. 

REGAR'DANT (FO.in Heraldry, looking 
behind; used for a lion, &c. with the face 
turned towards the back in an attitude of 
vigilance. 

REGAT'TA, a name given to yacht and 
boat races on different parts of the coast, or 
on large rivers. The word is adopted from 





















637 


Ettcntry (Ercasttry. 


the Regatta In Venice, where boats contain¬ 
ing one person only, contend for prizes on 
the canals that intersect that city. 

REGELA'TION (freezing again : Lat.), a 
term applied to a property possessed by 
ice. If two pieces of it are brought into 
contact, even in hot water, they will be fro¬ 
zen together. 

RE'GENT ( regeus , governing: Lat.), one 
who governs a kingdom during the minor¬ 
ity, absence, or incapacity of the rightful 
monarch-In Engiish universities, a mas¬ 

ter of arts becomes a regent, after a short 
period, and therefore a member of the go¬ 
verning body of the university ; having a 
vote In convocation and congregation, at 
Oxford, and in the senate at Cambridge. 

-A member of aboard or corporate body 

in the state of New York, which has power 
to grant acts of incorporation for colleges, 
and to visit and inspect all colleges, acade¬ 
mies, and schools in the state. 

REG'IMEN (a guiding : Lat.), the regu¬ 
lation of diet, or in a more general sense, 
of all the non-naturals, with a view to pre¬ 
serve or restore health.-In Grammar, 

that part of syntax, or construction, which 
regulates the dependency of words; and 
the alterations which one occasions or re¬ 
quires in another connected with It. 

REG'IMENT ( Fr., from rego, I govern: 
Lat.), in Military affairs, a body of troops, 
either horse, foot, or artillery ; the infan¬ 
try consisting of one or more battalions, 
and commanded by a colonel or lieutenant- 
colonel.- Regimentals, the uniform cloth¬ 

ing of the army. 

RE'GION ( rcgio ; from rego, I govern : 
Lat.), in Geography, a large extent of land 
inhabited by many people of the same nation 
and in closed with in certain limits or bounds. 

REG'ISTER ( registre : Fr.), an official ac¬ 
count of the proceedings of a public body, 
or a book in which are entered and recorded 
memoirs, acts, and minutes, for the purpose 
of preserving them, or making them easi¬ 
ly accessible for reference.— Register, in 
printing, such an accurate arrangement of 
the lines and pages, that those printed on 
one side of the sheet shall fall exactly on 
those of the other.-Among letter-found¬ 

ers, the inner part of the mould in which 

the printing types are cast.- Register, in 

chemistry and the arts, an aperture with a 
lid, stopper, or sliding plate, in a furnace, 
stove &c., for regulating the admission of 
air, and thus increasing or diminishing the 

heat of the fire.- Parish Register, a book 

in which are recorded the baptisms of chil¬ 
dren, and the marriages and burials in a 
parish.- Register ship, a ship which ob¬ 

tained permission from the King of Spain, 
or the Council of the Indies, to trade to the 
Spanish West Indies ; and was registered 
before sailing. 

REGISTRATION OF DEEDS, the obliga¬ 
tion, by law, which exists in certain places, 
of registering certain deeds. Its intention 
was to give notice to purchasers of incum¬ 
brances existing on estates. But a party 
actually or constructively aware of incum¬ 
brances not registered, is bound by such 
Knowledge. 

RE'GIUM DO'NTJH (a royal gift: Lat.), 


[regetlus 

an annual grant of public money in aid of 
the maintenance of the Presbyterian clergy 
in Ireland. It was first given by William 
III. in 1690, and the grant was remodelled 
in 1790. 

RE'GIUS PROFES'SOR (a royal profes¬ 
sor: Lat.), in Literature, a title given to 
five readers or lecturers in the university 
of Oxford ; so called from these professor¬ 
ships having been founded by Henry VIII. 
In the Scottish universities this name is 
given to professors for whom a chair has 
been created with an endowment front the 
crown. 

REG'LET, or RIG'LET (a dim. of regie, a 
rule: Fr.), in Architecture, a flat narrow 
moulding, used chiefly in panels and com¬ 
partments, to separate the parts or members 
front each other, and to form knots, frets, 

and other ornaments.-In Printing, a 

ledge or thin slip of wood exactly planed, 
used to separate lines and make the work 
more open. 

REGRA'TER (regrattier, to forestall: Fr.), 
one who buys and resells in the same fair 
or market. He differs from aforestaller, who 
is one that buys on the road to the market. 

REG'ULA (a rule : Lat.), in Archteology, 
the book of rules, &c. of a monastery. 

REG'ULAR BODIES, in Geometry, those 
which are comprehended by like equal and 
regular plane figures, whose solid angles 
are all equal. 

REG'ULAR FIGURES, in Geometry, equi¬ 
lateral and equiangular polygons. Circles 
can be described within and about such 
figures. 

REG'ULARS, in Military affairs, that 
part of the army which is entirely at the 

disposal of government.-In ecclesiastical 

history, regulars are such as live- under 
some rule of obedience, and lead a monastic 
life. In this sense the regular differs from 
the secular clergy of the Roman Catholic 
Church, which performs parochial duties, 
as a matter of course. 

REG'ULATOR iregulo, I direct: Lat.), in 
Machinery, any contrivance which produces 
a uniform movement; thus, a Fly, Fly-wheel, 

Governor, &c.-In Horology, an apparatus 

attached to the hair-spring of a watch, which, 
by practically lengthening or shortening 
the spiral spring attached to the balance, 
causes the watch to go slower or faster; in 
modern watches, it is generally a mere 
index; in those of older date, it is a pinion 
and segment. In each case, one end of the 
spring passes freely, but, in contact, 
through an aperture in a small piece which 
is movable along the spring. 

REG'ULUS (a little king: Lat), a term 
formerly employed by chemists, to denote 
metallic matters when separated from 
others by fusion. This term was used, be¬ 
cause the alchemist expected to find gold, 
the king of metals, collected at the bottom 
of the crucible. Thus, regulus of antimony, 

of bismuth, &c.- Regulus, or the Lion’s 

Heart, a star of the first magnitude in the 
Lion ; a constellation of the northern hemi¬ 
sphere; it is the a Leonis of astronomers.- 

Regulus, in Ornithology, a genus of birds 
belongingtotlie family of Sylviadce ,of which 
two species are found in this country. The 
























Scientific anti 


688 


ftEIN-DEER] 


crested wren is about the size of the 
common wren ; the head, neck, and back 
are of a mixed green and gray colour; its 
breast and belly of a pale gray, and its 
wings variegated with black and yellow. 
The head of the male is ornamented with 
an orange-coloured crest or crown ; whence 
the name regains. 

REIN'-DEER ( renntliier: Ger.), the Tav¬ 
ern dux rangifer of zoologists, the caribou 
of the Canadians, is a cervine quadruped 
which inhabits the northern regions of 
Europe, Asia, and America. It varies a 
good deal in size and colour, but in winter 
its coat is always white. It carries a pair 
of large antlers, which are shed annually. 
In America this animal is only known as a 
beast of chase, being hunted for food by 
thelndians and Esquimaux ; but in Lapland 
and amongst the Ichukches, a people dwel¬ 
ling in the corner of Asia abutting on Beh¬ 
ring’s Straits, the rein-deer has been domes¬ 
ticated. It serves the Laplanders in place 
of horse, ox, and sheep, providing them 
with milk, cheese, flesh meat, and clothing; 
whilst yoked to a sledge it draws its master 
over snow many miles in a day. Its chief 
food in the wild state is the lichen, called 
reindeer moss, which grows luxuriantly in 
cold regions. 

RE INFO'ROE ( renforcer , to strengthen : 
Fr.), in Artillery, the part of the gun which 
is nearest the breech ; it is made stronger, 
to resist the explosive force of the powder. 
- Reinforce rings, flat hoop-like mould¬ 
ings, on the reinforce, next the breech. 
There are generally two, the first of which 
is the larger. 

REUTERS ( reiters , riders: Ger.), Ger¬ 
man cavalry of the 14th and 15th centuries ; 
they served on the Protestant side in the 
religious wars in France. 

REJOIN'DER (rejoindre, to join : Fr.), in 
Law, the defendant’s answer to the plain¬ 
tiffs replication; it is the fourth stage in 
the pleadings in an action. 

RELA'TION (relatio : Led.), in Logic, one 
of the ten predicaments or accidents belong¬ 
ing to substance. Relation, inhctrmonical, 

in Music, a term to express that some harsh 
and displeasing discord is produced in 
comparing the present note with the pre¬ 
ceding chord. 

REL'ATIVE (relativus: Lot.), in general, 
a term signifying not absolute, but con¬ 
sidered as belonging to or respecting 

something else.- Relative, in Grammar, a 

word which relates to or represents another 
■word, called its antecedent, or to a sentence 
or member of a sentence, or to a series of 
sentences, which constitutes its antecedent. 
— Relative terms, in Logic, terms which 
imply relation, as guardian and ward; hus¬ 
band and wife ; master and servant. 

RELAY' ( relais: Fr.), a supply of horses 
ready on the road to relieve others, in order 
that a traveller may proceed without delay. 
In hunting, a relay signifies a fresh set of 
dogs, or horses, or both, placed in readiness, 
in case the game comes that way. 

RELE'ASE, in Law, is a discharge or 
conveyance of a person’s right in lands 
or tenements, to another who has some 
former state in possession. The words 


generally used in it are, ‘ remised, released, 

and for ever quit-claimed.’-Also, a release 

of a right of action which may be pleaded 
in bar. A release ‘of all demands’ dis¬ 
charges of all sorts of actions, rights, &c. 

REL'ICS ( reliquiae: Lat.), in the Roman 
Catholic church, the remains or supposed 
remains of saints, martyrs, or other holy 
persons, or something appertaining or be¬ 
longing to them, devoutly preserved in 
honour of their memory. At first these 
objects were only held in high esteem ; but 
on the return of the crusaders from the 
East, relics greatly multiplied, and even¬ 
tually superstition ascribed to them miracu¬ 
lous powers. 

RELIE'F, in Feudal Law, a fine formerly 
paid to the king by every one ■who came to 
an inheritance of land held in capite, or 

military service.- To relieve guard, in 

military tactics, to bring fresh men for the 
relief of those that were on guard before. 

RELIE'VO, or RELIEF ( rilievo: Ttal.), in 
Sculpture, the prominence of a figure that 
rises from the ground or plane on which it 
is formed. There are three degrees of re¬ 
lievo : alto, basso, and mezzo. The alto 
relievo, called also haut-relief, or high-relief, 
is that in which the figure projects accord¬ 
ing to the natural proportions. Basso-relievo, 
bas relief, or low'-relief, is that usual on 
medals; and mezzo relievo, demi-relief, or 
half-relief, is -where one half of the figure 
rises from the plane. 

RELI'GION ( retigio, a system of divine 
worship: Lat.), any system of worship 
of a Being superior to man. Religion is 
different from theology, inasmuch as the 
latter is speculative and the former prac¬ 
tical. Religion is a system of duties; 
theology a system of opinions. Theology 
inquires into the nature of the power or 
powers to whom all visible things are in 
subjection; religion is the sentiment which 
springs from thatinquiry. History informs 
us that religion has ever had a powerful 
influence in moulding the sentiments and 
manners of men. In one region or age it 
lias been favourable to civilization and re¬ 
finement ; in another it has been so directed 
as to fetter genius or warp the human 
mind. That, however, depends on the 
purity of the doctrine, and the liberality of 
its teachers. 

RELIGIOUS HOUSES, different es¬ 
tablishments or habitations for priests, 
still existing in Roman Catholic countries, 
and before the Reformation abounding in 
England. They consisted of abbeys, mo¬ 
nasteries, priories, hospitals, friaries, and 
nunneries, supported by a vast amount of 
land and enormous bequests left them by 
zealous and wealthy individuals. Nearly 
the whole, more than 3000 in number, were 
dissolved, and their wealth seized, by 1 
Henry VIII.; the monks, nuns, and officers 
being allowed pensions. 

RELIQ'UIjE (Lat.), in Roman Antiquity 
the ashes and bones of the dead, remaining 
after their bodies were burned, and fa¬ 
thered up for the purpose of being put into 
urns, which were deposited in tombs. 

REMAIN'DER (remaneo, I remain • Tat) 
in Arithmetic,what is left,-when one ouan- 























639 


Etterarg 


[REPRESENTATIVE 


tit.y is subtracted from another. Also, wliat 
is left, when the dividend does not exactly 
contain the divisor. Sometimes It is an 
integer : thus, if 7 is divided by 3, the 
quotient will be 3, and 1 will be left. It is 
not correct to consider $ also as the re¬ 
mainder in this case, for $ is part of the 
quotient, since 2] is the exact third of 7. 

- Remainder, in law, an estate in lands, 

tenements, or rents, not to be enjoyed till 
after a term of years or another person’s 
decease. There is this difference between 
a Remainder and a Reversion; in case of a 
reversion, the estate granted, after the 
limited time, reverts to the grantor or his 
heirs; but by a remainder it goes to some 
third person or a stranger. Unlike arever- 
sion, a remainder does not arise by opera¬ 
tions of the law, but by the act of parties. 

REMINIS'CENCE ( reminiscens , recalling 
to mind: Lat.), that faculty of the mind 
by which ideas formerly received into it, 
but forgotten, are recalled or revived in the 
memory. 

REMIS'SION ( remissio , a letting down: 
Lat.), in Medicine, the abatement of a dis¬ 
order which does not entirely leave the 
patient; in distinction from intermission, 
when it goes entirely away for a time. 

REMON'STIIANCE (re, against: and mon- 
stro, I point out: Lat.), a strong represen¬ 
tation of reasons against a measure, either 
public or private. When addressed to a 
public body, a prince, or magistrate, it may 
be accompanied with a petition or suppli¬ 
cation for the removal or prevention of 
some evil or inconvenience. 

REMON'STRANTS (same deriv.), in Eccle¬ 
siastical History, the appellation given to 
the Arininians who remonstrated against 
the decisions of the synod of Dort, in 
1618. 

REM'ORA (Lat., literally, a delay; be¬ 
cause the ancients imagined it had the 
power of stopping a ship by attaching itself 
to the rudder). In Ichthyology, the sucking- 

fish, a species of Fclieneis. -In Surgery, an 

instrument for setting a broken bone. 

REN'ITENCE, or REN'ITENCY (renitor, 
I struggle against: Lat.), a term formerly 
used in physics to express the effort of 
matter to resume the place or form from 
which it has been driven by the impulse of 
other matter; the effect of elasticity, or 
the resistance of a body to pressure. 

REN'NET, or RUN'NET (rinnen, to 
curdle: Gcr.), the liquor prepared by 
steeping the inner membrane of a calf's 
stomach in water ; or the membrane itself. 
Either is used for coagulating milk, or 
converting it into curd in the making of 
cheese. 

RENT (rente: Fr., from reditus: Lat.), in 
Law, a sum of money issuing yearly from 
lands and tenements; a compensation or 
return, in the nature of an acknowledg¬ 
ment, for the possession of a corporeal 

inheritance.- Rack-rent, a rent of the full 

value of the tenement, or near it.-A fee- 

farm rent, is a rent-charge issuing out of 
an estate In fee, of at least one-fourth of 
the value of the lands at the time of its re¬ 
servation. . . 

RENT'AL, a schedule in which the rents 


of manors are set down. It contains the 
lands let to each tenant, with their names, 
and the several rents arising. 

RENT CHARGE, in Law, a charge of 
rent upon land, with a clause of distress in 
case of non-payment. 

RENVERS'E, (renversts, overturned : Fr.), 
in Heraldry, set with the head down¬ 
wards, or contrary to the natural posture. 

REPAND' (repcindus, bent backwards: 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a leaf, the 
rim of which is terminated by angles hav¬ 
ing sinuses between them, inscribed in the 
segment of a circle; or which has a bending 
or waved margin without any angles. 

REPEAT' (repeto, I recommence: Lat.), 
in Music, a character showing that wliat 
was last played or sung must be repeated. 

REPEAT'ER, a kind of watch, which, by 
means of a spring, is made to repeat or 
strike the hour. 

REPEL'LENTS (repello, I drive back: 
Lat.), medicines which drive morbid hu¬ 
mours from the part where they have 
settled; or which prevent such an afflux 
of fluid to a part as would raise it to a 
tumour. 

REPENT'ANCE (repenter, to repent; 
from peniteo, I am sorry : Lat.), in a religi¬ 
ous sense, sorrow or deep contrition for sin, 
as an offence and dishonour to God, and a 
violation of his holy law; but to render it 
acceptable, it must be followed by amend¬ 
ment of life. Repentance, excited by the 
fear of penalties, may exist without an 
amendment of life. 

REP'ERTOB.Y (repertorum, fromreperio, I 
And : Lat.), a place in which things are dis¬ 
posed in an orderly manner, so that they 
can easily be found, as the index of a book, 
a common-place book, &c. 

REPLEV'IN, in Law, a remedy granted 
on a distress, by which a person, whose ef¬ 
fects are distrained, has them restored to 
him on his giving security to the sheriff 
that he will pursue his action against the 
party distraining, and return the goods if 
the talcing them shall be adjudged lawful. 
[See Distress.] 

REPLICATION (replicatio, literally a 
folding back: Lat.), in Law, the plaintiff’s 
answer to the defendant’s plea. It is the 
third stage in the pleadings in an action. 

-In Logic, the assuming or using the 

same term twice in the same proposition. 

REPRESENTATIVE ( repreesento, I make 
present again :£at.),onewho lawfully repre¬ 
sents another for the performance of any 
duty, according to the wishes of the other 
and to his own honest judgment. A mem¬ 
ber of the house of commons is the repre¬ 
sentative of his constituents, and of the 
nation. In matters concerning his consti¬ 
tuents only, he is supposed to be bound by 
their instructions; but in the enacting of 
laws for the nation, he is supposed not to 
be bound by their instructions, as he acts 
for the whole nation. Any other construc¬ 
tion of his duty would be derogatory to 
him as a free and independent member of 

the senate.- Representative Forms, 

races or species of animals or plants in ono 
locality which take the place of allied races 
or species in another locality. 

























Cl;c Jrctenttftc antr 640 


reprieve] 


REPRIE'VE (re, again; and privo, I re¬ 
lease : Lat-.), in Law, a warrant for suspend¬ 
ing the execution of a malefactor. 

1 REPRODUCTION (reproduire, to repro¬ 
duce: Fr.), in Physiology, the production, 
from a plant, or an animal, of a being like 

Itself.-Also, and more properly, the 

power of an organized being to form anew 
parts which have been cut off. Some an¬ 
nuals possess this faculty in an eminent 
degree; thus, the Hydra viridis, or fresh 
water polype, when divided into many 
pieces, reproduces the necessary organs in 
each piece, so as to form from it a perfect 
hydra. Snails can produce new horns, and 
even a part of their heads; lobsters and 
spiders new legs: newts and lizards new 
tails. 

REPTILES (reptilis, creeping: Lat.), in 
Zoology, a class of cold-blooded vertebrate 
animals, all of which have lungs and a 
heart composed of two auricles and one 
ventricle. That division of reptiles which 
have gills during the whole or a part of 
their lives are placed by some naturalists 
in a separate class, that of amphibia. Rep¬ 
tiles in a zoological scale are ranked be : 
tween birds and fishes. Their bodies are 
destitute of hair and feathers, nor do they 
possess teats. Muscular energy is less than 
that of quadrupeds, and in cold or temperate 
climates most of them pass the winter in 
a state of torpor. The smallness of their 
pulmonary vessels allows the aquatic 
species to suspend respiration, without 
arresting the course of the blood, and 
to dive with more facility, and remain 
under water longer than the mammalia or 
birds. Reptiles are either oviparous orovo- 
viparous ; in the former case they never 
hatch their eggs. They may be divided 
into scaly reptiles and shielded reptiles, 
the former comprising snakes and lizards, 
the latter tortoises, crocodiles, and amphis- 
btenians. In former geological ages there 
lived larger reptiles than any now exist¬ 
ing. [See Ichthyosaurus, Iguaxo- 
dox, Megalosaurus, Ptergdactylus, 
&c,] 

REPUB'LIO (respublica: Lat), in Poli¬ 
tics, a state in which the exercise of the 
sovereign power is lodged in the people. If 
it is an aristocracy , like what the republic 
of Venice was, the authority is vested in a 
few privileged individuals; if a democracy, 
it is vested in rulers chosen by and from 
the whole population, or in representatives 
selected by it. Sometimes, as in Switzer¬ 
land, aristocracy and democracy are com¬ 
bined. In modern usage it differs from a 
state, in which the people exercise the 
powers of sovereignty in person ; yet the 
democracies of Greece are often called re¬ 
publics. - Republic of letters, the collective 

body of learned men. 

REPULLULA'TION ( repullulo, I sprout 
again : Lat.), in Botany, the act of budding 
again. 

REPUL'SION (rcpulsio; from repello, I 
drive back : Lat.), in Physics, that property 
in bodies by which they mutually fly from 
each other. On account of repulsion, a fine 
needle will lie on water without touching 
it; and drops of water will roll over a cab¬ 


bage leaf without leaving the least trace be¬ 
hind. 

REQUESTS, Court op, in Law, an an¬ 
cient Court of Equity inferior to Chancery, 
in which the lord privy seal was chief 
judge. Also the court of conscience in 
London, and several local courts through¬ 
out the country. But the establishment 
and extension of county courts, for the 
recovery of debts under 501, has, with few 
exceptions, abolished all such courts. 

RE'QUIEM, in Music, a prayer in the 
Roman Catholic Church, which begins with 
Requiem ceternam dona eis Domine (give 
them eternal rest, O Lord: Lat.); whence, 
‘ to sing a requiem,' is to sing a mass for 
the repose of the souls of deceased persons. 

RERE'DOS (arrilre, behind; dos, the 
back : Fr.), in Architecture, the screen or 
wall behind an altar in a church; also, the 
back of a fireplace. 

RE'SCRIPT (rescriptus, written in reply: 
Lat.), the answer of an emperor when con¬ 
sulted on some difficult question. This an¬ 
swer serves as a decision of the question, 
and is therefore equivalent to an edict or 
decree. 

RES'CUE, in Law, the forcible retaking 
of a lawful distress from the distrainor, or 
from the custody of the law; also, the for¬ 
cible liberation of a defendant from the 
custody of the officer. 

RESERVATION (reservo, I keep back: 
Lat), in Law, a clause or part of an instru¬ 
ment by which something is reserved, not 

conceded or granted.- Mental reservation, 

is the withholding of something that 
affects a proposition or statement, and 
which if disclosed would materially vary it3 
import. 

RESER'VE (same dcriv.), or Corps de re¬ 
serve, in Military affairs, the third or last 
line of an army drawn up for battle ; so 
called because they are reserved to sustain 
the rest, as occasion requires, and not to 
engage but in case of necessity. 

RES'ERVOIR (Fr.; from same), a place 
where water is collected and reserved, in 
order to be conveyed to distant places 
through pipes, or to supply a fountain, &c. 

RES'IDENCE (resideo, I reside : Lat), of 
clergymen, on theirbeneflc.es is obligatory, 
except in certain cases. An incumbent is 
considered non-resident, if absent for one 
or more periods, exceeding in the whole 
three calendar months, in each year. Li¬ 
cence for non-residence may sometimes be 
given by the bishop; and there are statu¬ 
tory exceptions, in favour of several offi¬ 
cers of cathedral and collegiate churches, 
&c. The penalties for non-residence are 
fixed on a graduated scale, depending on 
the value of the benefice. 

RESIDENTIARY (same deriv), a canon 
or other ecclesiastic installed into the pri¬ 
vileges, &c., of residence. 

RESID'UAL FIGURE (residuus, that re¬ 
mains over: Lat), in Geometry, the figure 
remaining after subtracting a lesser from a 
greater. 

RESID'UAL ROOT (same deriv), in Alge¬ 
bra, a root composed of two parts or mem¬ 
bers, connected together by the negative 
sign. 










G41 


Httcmrij Crtatfurg* 


[resuscitation 


RESID'UARY LEGATEE'. [See Residue] 

RESI'DUE (Fr.; from residuum , what is 
left behind: Lat.), in Law, the remainder 
of a testator’s estate, after the payment of 
debts and legacies. If this residue is be¬ 
queathed to any one he is the residuary 
legatee. A lapsed legacy, that is one be¬ 
queathed to a person who dies before the 
testators, falls into the residue. 

RESILIENCE ( recilio , I leap back: Lat.), 
the property^ or act of leaping or springing 
back, or the act of rebounding ; as, the re¬ 
silience of a ball, or of sound. 

RES'IN, or ROS'IN (resina: Lat), inflam¬ 
mable substances exuding from trees: as 
the common resin, or turpentine, from 
Pines, mastich from the Pistacia; sanda- 
racli from the Thuya, &c. Pure resins are 
soluble in alcohol, and are generally sepa¬ 
rable into two portions, by acting on them 
with both cold and hot alcohol. They differ 
from gums, which are soluble in water, and 
from gum resins, which are partially solu¬ 
ble in water, and partially in alcohol. 
Almost all resins are translucid, not often 
colourless, but generally brown. When 
heated they melt more or less easily into a 
thick viscid liquid. The common resin of 
commerce is the solid product left after 
distilling turpentine.- Ifesinous electri¬ 

city, is that electricity which is excited by 
rubbing bodies of the resinous kind, and 
which is generally negative. 

RESISTANCE ( resisto, I withstand: 
Lat.), or Resisting Force, any power 
which acts in an opposite direction to 
another, or which prevents the effect of 
another power; the resistance of wood to a 
cutting instrument; that of air to the mo¬ 
tion of a cannon-ball; or of water to the 
motion of a ship.—We use the term resist¬ 
ing medium, when we speak of a substance 
which opposes the passage of a body 
through it. 

RESISTANCE OF FLUIDS. The re¬ 
sistance of fluids to bodies moving in 
them is, at least within certain limits, as the 
square of the velocity—that is, doubling 
the velocity—renders the resistance four 
times as great, trebling it nine times as 
great, and so on. It varies directly as the 
surfaces of bodies ; that Is, those which have 
twice as great a surface will experience 
twice as great resistance. And when the 
incidence of the resisting fluid is oblique to 
the surface, the resistance varies as the 
square of the sine of the angle of incidence. 
But these laws arc modified by the form of 
the body ; by the adhesion of the molecules 
of the fluid which is greatest, when the 
motion is slow; by the depth to which the 
body remains under the fluid, for it is 
sometimes more or less raised out of the 
fluid by the velocity of transit; moreover 
the pressure of the fluid increases as we 
descend, and by the quantity of fluid 
dragged along by the body, &c. 

RESOLUTION ( resolutio, literally, an 
untying : Lat.), the operation or process of 
separating the parts which compose a com¬ 
plex idea or mixed body.-;—The determin¬ 
ation or decision of a legislative body; or 
a formal proposition offered for legislative 
determination.-In Chemistry, the re¬ 


ducing a body to its component parts.- 

In Mathematics, a method by which the 
truth or falsehood of a proposition is dis¬ 
covered.-In Surgery, the dispersing of 

tumours.- Resolution of forces, in 

Mechanics, the dividing any force or mo¬ 
tion into others which act in other direc¬ 
tions ; but which, taken together, shall 
have the same effect as the single one. 

RESPIRA'TION ( respiratio, from respiro, 
I breathe back : Lat.), an important func¬ 
tion of the animal body, consisting in the 
alternate inhalation and exhalation of air, 
by which the lungs and chest are alter¬ 
nately dilated and contracted. Respiration 
changes the dark venotis into red arterial 
blood, carbon being removed from it. 
Hence the oxygen of the air leaves the 
lungs in the form of carbonic acid. This 
colour will be given to blood by the atmo¬ 
sphere, even when it has been removed from 
the body; and hence, meat which when 
freshly cut is dark, becomes very soon of a 
bright red. A man breathes about twenty 
times in a minute, during which time he 
inhales about eighteen pints of air. 

RES'PIRATOR (respiro, I breathe back: 
Lat.), an instrument made of a series of 
extremely thin perforated metal plates, or 
of fine wire, fitted to cover the mouth, over 
which it is fastened by bandages; its ob¬ 
ject being to warm the inspired air, before 
it enters the lungs, with the heat it re¬ 
ceived from that which was expired. Per¬ 
sons afflicted with asthmatic complaints, 
or lungs diseased from other causes, have 
received benefit from its use. 

RESPOND'ENT (respondeo, I reply: Lat.), 

in Law, one that answers in a suit.-In 

the Schools, one who maintains a thesis in 
reply, and whose province is to refute ob¬ 
jections or overthrow arguments. 

RES'TORATION (restauratio: Lat.), re¬ 
newal; revival; reestablishment. In Eng¬ 
land, the return of king Charles II. in 1660, 
is, by way of eminence, called the Restora¬ 
tion ; and the 29th of May was kept as an 
anniversary festival, in commemoration of 
the re-establishment of monarchy. 

RESULT'ANT, in Mechanics, a force 
which is the combined effect of two or more 
forces, acting in different directions. 

RESU'PINATE (resupinus, bent back: 
Lat.), in Botany, reversed. A resupinate 
leaf is when the upper surface becomes the 
lower, by the twisting of the stalk. 

RESUSCITA'TION (resuscitatio: from 
resuscito, 1 revive: Lat.), the restoring of 
persons apparently dead to life; chiefly con¬ 
fined to the restoring of those who appear 
to be dead from being immersed in water 
or from hanging. In the efforts made by a 
drowning person, or animal, to draw in air, 
the water rushes into the mouth and throat, 
which parts immediately contract in such 
a manner as to shut up the passage into the 
lungs. The contracted state continues as 
long as the muscles retain the principle of 
life, upon which the power of muscular 
contraction depends; when that is gore, 
they become relaxed, and the water enters 
the windpipe, and completely fills it. As 
soon as the body is taken out of the water, 
it should be stripped of any clothes it may 
XT_ 













retainer] 


v£])C Jbctcnttftc anft 


C42 


have on, and he immediately well dried. It 
should then he wrapped in dry, warm 
blankets, or in the spare clothes taken from 
some of the by-standers, and he removed as 
quickly as possible to the nearest house, 
in which a Are is ready or can be made. 
Whatever mode of conveyance he adopted 
particular care should he taken that the 
head he neither suffered to hang backwards, 
nor to bend down with the chin upon the 
breast. When arrived at the house, the 
body should be laid on a mattress, or a 
double blanket, spread upon a low table, 
or upon a door supported by stools, the 
head and chest being elevated by pillows. 
The greatest aid to recovery lies in the 
reration of the blood, by the artificial intro¬ 
duction of fresh air into the lungs; for 
the purpose of restoring the function of 
respiration. After hanging, the vessels of 
the brain often require to be unloaded, by 
venesections in the jugular vein. Elec¬ 
tricity is sometimes tried in these cases ; 
but rarely with any effect. No time should 
ever be lost, nor should hope of restoring 
suspended animation ever be abandoned, 
until unequivocal signs of death appear. 

RETAINER ( retenir , to retain; from 
retineo: Lat.), in old English Law, a servant 
not employed in any particular office, but 
wearing the badge and livery of his master. 
It was a relic of the times of private war¬ 
fare ; and was forbidden by many statutes. 
The latter have been repealed, but the cus¬ 
tom has nearly ceased.- Retainer, or 

Retaining fee, in the language of the 
Bar, a fee given to counsel, to retain his 
services, or according to some, merely to 
prevent his being employed by the oppo¬ 
site party. It is either special or general. 
A special retainer is for a particular case ; a 
general, for any case that may come on in 
the court which that council attends. A 
general retainer prevents the acceptance 
of a brief from, the opposite party, until 
after twenty-four hours’ notice that such a 
brief has been offered, when it may be ac¬ 
cepted, if no brief or special retainer has 
been received from the party by whom the 
general retainer was paid. 

RE'TE MUCO'SOM (the mucous net: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, a membrane between 
the epidermis and the cutis, which is one 
part of the skin, and the principal seat of 
colour in the human species. 

ltETTCENCE, or RETTCENCY(reticcnfia, 
literally a keeping silence : Lat.), in Rhe¬ 
toric, a figure by which a person really 
speaks of a thing, while he makes a show as 
if he would say nothing on the subject. 

RETIO'ULATE (reticulatus, net-like: 
Lat.), in Natural History, having distinct 
veins crossing like net-work; as, a reticulate 
petal or corolla. 

RET'IFORM ( rete, a net; and forma, a 
form: Lat.), composed of crossing lines 
and interstices, like a net; as, the retiform 
coat of the eye. 

RET'INA (a dim. of rete, a net: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, the expansion of the optic nerve 
on the internal surface of the eye, where 
the sense of vision is first received, and of 
which it is the true organ. 

RET'INITE, or RET'INASPHALTUM 


(retin?, resin ; and asphaltos, bitumen: Gr.), 
in Mineralogy, a native pitch, of a resinous 
appearance, and of various colours, rarely 
homogeneous, and often containing crys¬ 
tals of feldspar and scales of mica. Digest¬ 
ed in alcohol it yields some resin, and 
asphalt remains; which has led some to sup¬ 
pose that bitumens are of resinous origin, j 

RETIRA'DE ( retirer, to retire: Fr.), in 
Fortification, a kind ox retrenchment in the 
body of a bastion or other work, which is 
to be disputed inch by inch, after the de¬ 
fences are dismantled. 

RETIRED FLANK, in Fortification, a 
flank having an arc of a circle, with its 
convexils turned towards the place to be 
defended. 

RETORT' ( retortus, bent back: Lat.), a 
chemical vessel used in distillation. Any 
substance intended to be acted upon by 
heat being put into it, is exposed in it over 
a lamp, or other lire, and on being vapour¬ 
ized or volatilized, passes through the end 
into any other vessel adapted to receive it. 
It is of the shape of an egg placed on one 
end, and having its upper end drawn out 
into a tube, which is turned downwards. 
If there is a small neck for a cork, or 
ground glass stopper, placed at its highest 
part, it is termed a tubulated retort. It is 
an extremely convenient apparatus for dis¬ 
tilling, and a great number of other pur¬ 
poses. 

RETRAX'IT (he has withdrawn : Lat.), a 
legal term signifying a proceeding in an 
action by which a plaintiff withdraws 
from the prosecution of it. It is a bar to 
any future action for the same cause. 

RETRENCH'MENTcretra7icfteme«t; from 
retranclier, to intrench : Fr.), in the art of 
war, any kind of work raised to cover a post 
and fortify it against the enemy, such as 
fascines loaded with earth, gabions, sand¬ 
bags, &c. 

RE'TRO (backwards: Lat.), a prefix to 
many words, as in retrocession, retrograda- 
tion, &c.; implying a going backward. 

RETROCES'SION OF THE EQ'UINOXES, 

( retroccssus, a going backwards: Lat.), in As¬ 
tronomy, the going backwards of the equi¬ 
noctial points. [See Precession of the 
Equinoxes.] 

RET'ROFLEX (retroflecto, I bend back: 
Lat.), in Botany, bent in different directions, 
•usually in a distorted manner; as, a retro¬ 
flex branch. 

RET'ROFR ACT, or RETROFR ACT'E D ( re¬ 
tro, backwards; and fractus, broken : Lat.), 
in Botany, bent back towards its insertion, 
as if it were broken ; as a retrofract peduncle. 

RETROGIIADA'TION ( retrogradion, I go 
backwards : Lat.), in Astronomy, an appa¬ 
rent motion of the planets by which they 
seem to go backwards in the ecliptic, and to 
move contrary to the order and succession 
of the signs. 

RETURN' (retoumer, to return: Fr.), in 
Architecture, a moulding, wale, &c., con¬ 
tinued in a different, or opposite direction. 

-In Law, a certificate from sheriffs and 

bailiffs of what is done in the execution of 

a writ.- Return days, certain daysin term 

time for the return of writs.-In Military 

and Naval affairs, an official account, report, 




, 






























343_ Htterarg Cmtfurj). [rex 


or statement rendered to the commander; 
as, the return of men lit for duty; or the 

return of provisions, ammunition, &c.- 

Returns, in commerce, that which is received 

for merchandise sold.- Returns of a mine, 

in fortification, the windings and turnings 
of a gallery leading to a mine. 

REVE'ILLB (awake : Fr.), in Military af¬ 
fairs, the heat of drum about break of day, 
to give notice that it is time for the soldiers 
to rise, and for the sentinels to forbear 
challenging. 

REVEL A'TIONS, Book op. [See Apo¬ 
calypse.] 

REV'ENUE (Fr)., in a general sense, is an 
annual or continual income, or the yearly 
profit that accrues to a man from his lands 
or possessions; but in modern usage, revenue 
is generally applied to the annual produce 
of taxes, excise, customs, duties, &c. which 
a nation or state collects or receives into 

the treasury for public use.-The royal 

revenue is that which the British constitu¬ 
tion has vested in the sovereign, to support 
the regal dignity and power. This is either 
ordinary or extraordinary. There was a 
period when the ordinary revenue of the 
crown was sufficient to defray the expenses 
of government, without recurrence to 
taxes; but much of this is, at the present 
day, in the hands of lords of manors and 
other subjects, to whom it has been grant¬ 
ed from time to time by the kings of Eng¬ 
land. From this cause, the crown has 
become almost dependent on the people for 
its ordinary support and subsistence ; and 
though at first sight it might seem desir¬ 
able that now, as heretofore, the executive 
power were in possession of an hereditary 
estate and hereditary claims, adequate to 
the burdens of the community, without the 
assistance of imposts; yet the least reflec¬ 
tion convinces us that the security of 
political liberty consists in the reverse. 
The ordinary revenue of the crown is now, 
as above remarked, but trifling: the extra¬ 
ordinary, which includes the whole amount 
of the taxes yearly voted by parliament, is 
that which is applied to the expenses of 
government, and out of which the civil list, 
or more immediate revenue of the crown, is 
granted. Out of the civil list are paid the 
salaries of the ministers, judges, &c.; and 
only a comparatively small part really 
belongs to the personal expenditure of the 
sovereign. 

REVER'BERATORY FUR'NACE trover- 
hero, I beat back,A««.),is one of such a con¬ 
struction that the flame is reflected or re¬ 
verberated upon the bottom 'where the 
material to be-acted on is placed. 

REV'ERIE (Fr.), the wandering thoughts 
of a person in a dreamy frame of mind. 

REVER'SION (reversic, a turning back: 
Lat.), in Law, is when the possession of an 
estate which was parted with for a time 
returns to the donor or his heirs. Also the 
right which a person has to any inheritance 
or place of profit, after some event; such as 
the decease of another. 

REVET'MENT, in Fortification, a strong 
wall on the outside of a rampart, intended 
to support the earth and increase the dif- 
Iculty of escalade. 


REVIEW, Bill of, in Chancery, a bill 
where a cause has been heard; but some j 
errors in law appearing, or some new matter 
being discovered after the decree was made, 
this bill is given for a fresh examination 

into the merits of the cause.- Review, in 

Literature, a critical examination of a new 
publication. Also a periodical publication 
containing critical examinations and analy¬ 
ses of new works. The person who performs 

this duty i3 called the reviewer. - Review, 

in Military tactics, the display of a body of 
troops, for the purpose of exhibiting the 
state of their appearance and discipline 
before some superior olllcer or illustrious 
personage. 

REVI'SE ( revisus , seen again: Lat.), a 
second proof-sheet of a work, for therevisal 
or re-examination of the errors corrected. 

-The act of revising a book or writing for 

publication is termed a revision. 

REVI'VOR; in the court of Chancery an 
abated suit may be revived by an order of 
revivor. In the courts of common law it 
may becomo necessary to revive a judg¬ 
ment, in which case the person entitled to 
execution must sue out a writ of revivor. 

REVO'KE (revoco, I call back : Lat.), to 
reverse or repeal. A law, decree, or sen¬ 
tence is revoked by the same authority 
which enacted or passed it. A devise may 
be revoked by the devisor, a use by the 

grantor, and a will by the testator.-A 

law may cease to operate without an ex¬ 
press revocation. To revoke at cards Is not 

to play to suit when it is possible to do so ; 
to play a trump, for instance, at whist, in¬ 
stead of the suit which was led, when the 
player has some of that suit in his hand. 

REV'OLUTE ( revolutus, rolled back: Lat.), 
in Botany, rolled back or downwards ; as, 
revolute leaf, when the sides of the leaf in 
the bud are rolled spirally back or towards 
the lower surface. 

REVOLUTION (revolutio: Lat.), in Poli¬ 
tics, a material or entire change in the 
constitution of government. Thus the re¬ 
volution in England, in 1(188, consisted in 
the abdication of king James II., the 
establishment of the house of Ox - ange upon 
the throne, and the restoration of the con¬ 
stitution to its primitive state. In like 
manner, though with very different conse¬ 
quences, the revolution in France in 1792 ef¬ 
fected an entire change of constitution : 
Revolution, in Physics, the circular motion 
of a body on its axis ; as, the revolution of a 

wheel, &c.- ReviAution, in Astronomy, the 

motion of any heavenly body iq its orbit 
until it returns to the same point again. 

REX SACRO'RUM (king of sacred things: 
Lat.), among the Romans, a person appoint¬ 
ed to preside in certain sacred duties. He 
generally performed such office as the kings 
of Rome were supposed to have reserved to 
themselves, before the abolition of their 
power. He was chosen, at the command of 
the consuls, by the college of Pontiffs; and 
inaugurated by the Augurs. The office 
was instituted at the establishment of the 
commonwealth, that the name of king 
might not be wholly extinct; and lie was 
not permitted to have the least share in 
civil affairs. 

















rhapsody] 0)c Jrncnttfic antf 644 

RHAP'SODY ( rhapsodia ; from rhapto, I 
sew together; and ode, a song: Or.), a col¬ 
lection of passages, composing a new 
piece; but without necessary dependence 
or natural connection. 

RHE'IN, an inodorous, bitterish matter, 
obtained by gently heating powdered rhu¬ 
barb with nitric acid of a certain strength ; 
evaporating to the consistence of syrup, 
and diluting with water. 

RHET'ORIC ( rhetorike : from rhetor, a 
public speaker: Gr.), the art of speaking 
with propriety, elegance, and force; or, as 
Lord Bacon defines it, the art of applying 
and addressing the dictates of reason to the 
fancy, and of recommending them there 
so as to affect the will and desires. Rhe¬ 
toric and oratory differ from each other as 
the theory from the practice ; the rhetori¬ 
cian being the one who describes the rules 
of eloquence, and the orator he who uses 
them to advantage. The parts of rhetoric 
are, invention, disposition, and elocution. 
The forms of speech by which propriety 
and elegance are produced are denomi¬ 
nated tropes and figures. The general man¬ 
ner in which the orator employs his words 
for the formation of his speech is called 
style, which is variously distinguished. Rhe¬ 
toric divides an oration or speech into five 
parts ; the Exordium, Narration, Confirma¬ 
tion, Refutation, and Peroration. The Exor¬ 
dium is the part in which the speaker pre¬ 
pares the minds of the auditors for what he 
is about to advance. It ought to be ex¬ 
pressed with considerable care and perspi¬ 
cuity, and the matter and manner should 
be to the purpose, brief, and modest. The 
Narration is the recital of facts or events ; 
and should have the qualities of clearness, 
pi-obability, brevity, and consistency. The 
Confirmation establishes the proofs of a dis¬ 
course, and arranges them in the manner 
best adapted to enforce conviction. The 
llefutation, or anticipation, furnishes argu¬ 
ments to answer the assertions that may 
be opposed to the narration. The perora¬ 
tion, or conclusion, should recapitulate the 
whole with condensed force and energy. 

RHEUM ( rheuma : Gr. ; from rhes, I flow), 
in Medicine, an inflammatory action of the 
mucous glands, attended with increased 
discharge and an altered state of their se¬ 
creted fluids.- Rheum ( rheo , I flow : Gr., 

because it causes purging), in Botany, a 
genus of plants inhabiting Asia and Africa. 

RHEUM'ATISM ( rheumatismos ; from 
rheuma, a catarrh : Gr.), in Medicine, a 
painful disease affecting the muscles and 
joints of the body, chiefly the larger joints, 
as the hips, knees, shoulders, &c. It may 
arise at all times of the year, when there 
are frequent vicissitudes of the weather, 
from heat to cold; but the spi-ing and 
autumn are the seasons in which it is 
most prevalent. It is sometimes accompa¬ 
nied by fever, in which case it constitutes 
acute rheumatism or rheumatic fever; the 
joints are then much swollen and very 
painful. In this form of the disease its 

translation to the heart is not unusual.- 

Chronic rheumatism, leads occasionally to 
permanent distortions of the joints; and 
affects the periosteum, tendons, and liga- 

ments; it is most common when the health 
has been broken by previous disease, or over 
exertion of body or mind. 

RHINO'CEROS ( rhin , a nose ; and Jceras, 
a horn : Gr.), in Zoology, a genus of pacby 
dermatous mammalia. The rhinoceros is 
only exceeded in size by the elephant; its 
nose is armed with a horny substance, 
which projects, in the full grown animal, ( 
from two to three feet, and is a weapon of 
defence that secures him from almost every 
attack. Even the tiger, with all his fero 
city, is but rarely daring enough to assail 
him. The skin of the rhinoceros is in some 
parts so thick that it is scarcely penetrable 
by the sharpest sabre or even a musket- 
ball. He is not ferocious unless provoked, 
runs with great swiftness, and rushes 
through brakes and woods with an energy 
to which everything yields. The rhinoceros 
delights in retired places near lakes and 
streams, and appears to derive one of his 
greatest pleasures from rolling in the mud. 
The African rhinoceros has two horns. 

RHINO'CEROS-BIRD, in Ornithology, a 
bird of the genus Buceros, having a revert¬ 
ed horn of large size attached to the base 
of the upper mandible. 

RHIZOM'E ( rhizoma , that which has 
taken root: Gr.), in Botany, a rootstock, a 
horizontal stem more or less under ground, 
which sends out roots from its under side, 
and leaf buds from its upper side. 

RHO'DIUM ( rhodon , a rose : Gr., from 
the colour of some of its salts), in Minera¬ 
logy, a metal discovered among the grains 
of crude platinum by Dr. 'Wollaston. It is 
of a whitish colour ; when pure is brittle, 
and requires a much higher temperature 
for its fusion than any other metal, unless 
perhaps iridium. It readily alloys with 
every other metal, except mercury, and is 
insoluble in all acids. Certain of its alloys 
are, however, soluble. Its spec. grav. is 
about 11. 

RRODODEN'DRON ( rhodon , a rose; and 
dendron, a tree: Gr.), in Botany, a genus 
of shrubs, nat. ord. Ericacece, which have 
their head-quarters in North America and 
the Himalayas. 

RIIO'DONITE ( rhodon , a rose: Gr.), a 
mineral of a reddish hue and splintery 
fracture, occurring compact or fibrous in 
parts of Germany. It is a silicate of man- 1 
gancse. 

RIIOM'BOID ( rhombos , a rhombus; and 
eidos, form : Gr.), in Geometry, a quadrila¬ 
teral figure whose opposite sides and angles 
are equal, but which is neither equilateral 
nor equiangular. 

RHOMB-SPAR, a mineral of a grayish 
white colour, and crystallized in rhomboids; 
occurringmassive, and imbedded in chlorite i 
slate, limestone, &c. It consists chiefly of 
carbonates of lime and magnesia. 

RHOM'BUS (rhombos : Gr.), in Geometry, ! t 
an oblique angled parallelogram, or a quad¬ 
rilateral figure whose sides are equal and 
parallel two and two: but the angles un¬ 
equal, two of the opposite ones being ob¬ 
tuse, and two acute.- Rhombus, in Ich- ■ 

thyology, a genus of flat fishes including 
the turbot, brill, and whiff. 

RHOPAL'IC VERSES (rhopalon, a club: 1 

---~ 
























645 


JUterary Ereatfttrg. 


[ricochet 


Or.'), are verses each line of which begins 
with a word of one syllable ; then comes a 
word of two syllables, then a word of three, 
and so on to the end. 

RHU'BARB (rha barbara, foreign rheum : 
Or.), a valuable medicinal root growing in 
China, Turkey, and Russian Tartary, of 
which that from Turkey is the most es¬ 
teemed. It is the produce of plants be¬ 
longing to the genus Rheum, of which the 
6pecies are numerous; as the palmated or 
true Chinese rhubarb ; the compact or Tar¬ 
tarian ; the undulated,or waved-leaf Chinese 
rhubarb ; and the currant rhubarb of Mount 
Libanus. There is also a well-known species 
cultivated in our gardens. 

RHUMB, a circle on the earth’s surface, 
making a given angle with the meridian of 
the place, and marking the direction of an 

object through which it passes.-Also, 

one of the divisions on the compass card. 

RHUMB LINE, in Navigation, the track 
of a ship, which cuts all the meridians at 
the same angle. It is called, also, the Loxo- 
dromic curve. Being the simplest curve, it 
is the route usually pursued at sea; but a 
ship sailing on it never looks direct for 
her port until it comes in sight. 

RHUS ( rous: Gr.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Anacardiacece, including 
the sumach and the Japanese varnish tree. 

RHYME ( rhuthmos, literally a measured 
motion: Gr.), in Versification, the corres¬ 
pondence of sound between the last syllable 
or syllables of one verse, and the last syllable 
or syllables of a verse succeeding immedi¬ 
ately, or at no great distance. To consti¬ 
tute this correspondence in single words or 
In syllables, it is necessary that the vowel 
and the final articulations or consonants, 
should be the same, or have nearly the same 
sound. The initial consonants may be dif¬ 
ferent, as in hope and rope, live and give, &c. 
When only the last syllables correspond it 
is a male rhyme ; when the two last, it is a 
female rhyme; when the three last,it is an 
Italian form of rhyme, termed sdrucciolo— 
never allowed in English, except in bur¬ 
lesque poetry. In Arabian and Persian poe¬ 
try, the correspondence sometimes extends 
through the entire lines. When the con¬ 
sonants of the last syllables are identical, 
the rhyme, in English, is faulty. Two syl¬ 
lables may rhyme, though spelled very dif¬ 
ferently, thus woo, and pursue ; and two 
syllables may not rhyme, though spelled 
the same way, thus gone and alone. 

RHYTHM ( rhuthmos: Gr.), the consonance 
of measure and time, in poetry, prose, 
music, and even in dancing. Each verse or 
period is to be considered as a whole; with¬ 
in which, with certain limited variations, 
the rhythm is perfect. The parts which are 
to receive the stress are termed arsis (ele¬ 
vation), and the remainder constitute the 
thesis (depression). The former, particu¬ 
larly in words whose pronunciation may 
not be known, is often remarked by an '. 
A long syllable should have double the 
time of a short one. The poetical rhythm 
requires a succession of motions of regular 
duration,which,variously interrupted, must 
yet be obvious, and combined so as to form 
an harmonious whole. 


RI'AL, a gold coin which was current in 
the reign of Henry VI. for 10s., and in that 
of Elizabeth for 15s. 

RIB ( ribbe: Sax.), in Anatomy, a bone 
which forms a part of the frame of the 
thorax. In the human body there are 
twelve ribs on each side, proceeding from 
the spine to the sternum, or towards it, 
and serving to inclose and protect the 
heart and lungs. In the language of com¬ 
parative anatomy, the ribs are the pleura- 
pophyses of the centrum. In man, only 
seven of them form a complete hoop, by 
connecting the centrum with the haemal 

element, the breast-bone or sternum.-In 

Naval Architecture, a piece of timber which 

forms or strengthens the side of a ship.- 

In Botany, the continuation of the petiole 
along the middle of a leaf, and from which 
the veins branch out. 

RIB'BON ( ruban: Fr.), a narrow web of 
silk, worn either as a badge or as an orna¬ 
mental part of dress. Ribbon-weaving is 
an important branch of manufacture, giving 
employment to numerous hands, and dis¬ 
playing much taste and skill. Coventry is 
the chief seat of the ribbon manufacture. 

-Ribbon, in Naval Architecture, a long 

narrow flexible piece of timber, nailed upon 
the outside of the ribs, from the stem to 
the sternpost, so as to encompass the ship 
lengthwise. 

RICE ( oryza: Lat.), a cereal plant, the 
fruit of which forms an article of very ex¬ 
tensive consumption. It is cultivated in 
many parts of Europe, and in most warm 
countries throughout the world. With the 
husk on the grain, it is called Paddy. The 
plant belongs to the order of grasses, and 
is the Oryza sativa of botanists. Some 
varieties are grown on moist soils, others 
on mountain slopes. 

. RICE PAPER, a material employed for 
various fancy articles, is the pith of a water 
plant growing in China ; the Aralia papyri- 
fera of botanists, belonging to the nat. ord. 
which includes our common ivy. The pith 
is cut round and round from the outside 
towards the centre with a sharp knife, and 
it is then made flat by pressure. The name 
originated in a mistake. 

RICK'ETS, or RACHI'TIS {rachitis, from 
rachis, the spine: Or., the part chiefly affect¬ 
ed), in Medicine, a diseasewhicli affects chil¬ 
dren, and in which the joints become knot¬ 
ted, and the legs and spine grow crooked. 
It appears to arise from a deficiency of the 
salts of lime in the bones, and is frequently 
symptomatic of a scrofulous state of the 
glands and viscera. It sometimes disap¬ 
pears to a great extent, as the growth 
advances. Where the bones are inclined to 
bend, the weight should as much as pos¬ 
sible be kept off of them. 

RICO'CHET-FIRING, in Gunnery, the 
firing of guns, mortars, or howitzers with 
small charges, and elevated a few degrees, 
so as to carry the balls or shells just over 
the parapet, and cause them to roll or 
slightly rebound along the opposite ram¬ 
part. The term ricochet is derived from the 
French, and signifies the bounding of a 
ball along the mound which it strikes at 
intervals. 











646 


dje ^cicnttftc antf 




ride] 

HIDE, a term made use of in a variety of 
senses with reference to a ship’s position 
or motion. 

ItlDEATT'(a curtain: Fr.), in Fortification, 
a rising ground commanding a plain ; also 
a trench covered with earth in form of a 
parapet, to shelter soldiers. 

Iil'DER, or RI'DER-ROLL, in Law, a 
schedule, or small piece of parchment, often 
added to some part of a record or act of 
parliament. 

REDING (corrupted, according to Black- 
stone, from trithing, third), one of the three 
jurisdictions into which the county of York 
is divided; anciently under the government 
of a reeve. 

RIDOT'TO, (literally, a retreat: Ital.), a 
favourite amusement in Italy, consisting of 
music and dancing. 

RIFACIMEN'TO, (reestablishment: Ital,), 
a remaking or furbishing up anew. Its 
most usual application is to the process of 
recasting literary works, so as to adapt 
them to a somewhat different purpose, or to 
a changed state of circumstances. 

RI'FLE, a gun having several spiral 
grooves or channels cut in the barrel. The 
object is, to give the ball a rotatory motion, 
about the axis of progression ; which pre¬ 
vents any inconvenience from irregularity 
in the position of its centre of gravity, or 
from its friction against only one side of 
the gun. Such friction would make the 
nail revolve, so as to have its path seriously 
deflected, and in a direction which could not 
be provided against, in taking aim, as it 
could not be previously known at what side 
its frictiou would occur. Various forms 
have been recently given to the ball, to fa¬ 
cilitate and steady its passage through the 
air, and to cause expansion against the 
surface of the grooves, so as to fill them 
more perfectly &c. The jEnfield rifle has 
three spiral grooves ; its bullet is cylindro- 
conclioidal, and has recessed into its back 
end a tapering piece of box, which being 
forced by the explosion farther into the 
bullet, causes the sides of the latter to ex¬ 
pand, until the lead completely fills the 
grooves at their breech ends. With the 
Mime rifle, a cylindro-conic bullet, which 
easily enters the barrel, is used ; it has a 
conical opening behind, into which a little 
cup of sheet iron is driven by the explosion 
so as to press the lead forcibly into the 
grooves. Circular channels round the out- 
side.atthe back or larger end,were supposed 
to steady the (light; but when our govern¬ 
ment adopted this rifle, they were discard¬ 
ed, not only as of no use, but as actually 
lowering the velocity; also, the bullets 
were rendered of more uniform density, 
and therefore less likely to deviate from the 
proper direction, by being made mechani¬ 
cally instead of being cast. Other kinds of 
rifled firearms have been invented. And 
cannon balls are propelled from rifled artil¬ 
lery with a certainty of aim,apow r er, and a 
range far exceeding anything attained in 
former times. Indeed, such have been the 
the late improvements, that the mode of 
carrying on war, particularly at sea, is being 
entirely remodelled. Thus, on account of the 
alterations made in artillery, and those in 


the construction of steam vessels, the finest 
ships of an older construction have been 
rendered almost worthless ; and the navy, ■* 
with all its equipments, has to be created ;| 

anew. 

RI'GEL, a star of the first magnitude in 
the constellation Orion; the /9 Orionis of 
astronomers. 

lllG'GING, the ropes belonging to a 
ship, by which the masts are sustained and 
ascended, and the sails managed. The rig - ; 

ging is of two kinds, standing rigging, as i 
the shrouds and stays, an&running rigging, 
as braces, sheets, halliards, &c. 

RIGHT {rigt: Sax.), in Geometry, some¬ 
times means straight; as,a right line, but, 
more generally, it is opposed to oblique; 
thus, a right angle is one formed by two 
lines meeting perpendicularly; a right 
prism, one whose sides are perpendicular 
to the base.- Right ascension, in Astro¬ 

nomy, the angle at the pole of the equator, 
formed by two great circles, one of which 
passes through the first point of Aries, and 
the other through a celestial body; and 
measured, therefore, by the arc of (he 
equator intercepted between these circles, m 
Right ascension and declination are the two i 
coordinates, to which the positions of 

heavenly bodies are referred.- Right 

sphere, in Geography, the position of the 
sphere, when the equator cuts the horizon 
at right angles. 

RIGID'ITY ( rigiditas, stiffness : Lat.), in 
Mechanics, resistance to a change of form. 
The rigidity of cordage causes the effective i 
and the calculated mechanical effects to be 
extremely different. 

RIMO'SE ( rimostis, full of cracks : Lat.), 
a zoological term, denoting that the surface ’ 
of any part possesses numerous minute 
narrow excavations, running into each 
other, so as to resemble the bark of a tree. 

RIN'FORZANDO (strengthening: Ital.), 
or crescendo, in Music, a direction given 
to the performer, that the sound is to be 
increased. This is indicated also by an 
angle, having its point turned to the left; 
the Diminuendo, or opposite change, being 
represented by an angle turned in the op¬ 
posite direction. 

RING-BONE, in Farriery, a callus grow¬ 
ing in the hollow circle of the little pastern 
of a horse, just above the coronet. 

RING'DOVE, the largest of the European 
species of pigeons. [See Dove.] 

RIN'GENT ( ringor, I open the mouth 
wide, to show the teeth: Lat.), in Botany, 
an epithet applied to an irregular mono- 
petalous labiate corolla, when the upper lip 
is arched, and a distinct gap separates it 
from the lower lip. 

RING'WORM, in Medicine, a disease 
which appears in circular patches on the 
neck, forehead, or scalp. It begins with 
clusters of little pustules, which form 
scales, leaving a red pimply surface, and 
destroying the roots of the hair as it spreads 
over the head. It is very contagious, and 
is so capricious that what will effect a cure 
in one case is found quite ineffective in 
another. 

RI'OT, in a general sense, means a tumult 
uous assembling of three or more persons, 













__ JLttcrarp 

who do not disperse upon proclamation.- 

Biot Act, an act of parliament prohibiting 
riotous or tumultuous assemblies, which 
being read by a magistrate or peace onicer, 
to the mob, obliges all persons to disperse 
within an hour, on pain of being appre¬ 
hended as rioters, 

RIPO'SO i Ital. ), a name given in art to 
the subject of the Holy Family resting on 
the way during their flight to Egypt. 

.KITE (ritus: Lat.), a formal act of reli¬ 
gion or other solemn duty ; the manner of 
performing divine service as established by 
law or custom. 

RITORNEL'LO fa return: Ital.), in 
Music, a short repetition, such as that of 
an echo or the last words of a song; parti¬ 
cularly, if it is made after a voice by one 
or more instruments. It is, however, a term 
now used to express all symphonies, played 
before the voices begin, and seeming to 
prelude or introduce what follows. 

RIT'UAL (ritualis, relating to religious 
rites: Lat.), a book containing the rites, 
or directing the order and manner to be 
observed in celebrating religious cere¬ 
monies, and performing diviue service in 
the church. 

RIV'ERS ( rivas, a brook: Lat.), large 
streams of water flowing through channels, 
or low parts of the surface of the earth, 
and pursuing their course towards the sea. 
They have from the very infancy of civili¬ 
zation been always considered of the 
highest importance, as a means of fertiliz¬ 
ing the land ; and effecting an easy com¬ 
munication between different regions. 
Hence they were deified, and held in the 
greatest veneration, by the ancients; and 
their importance lias been greatly increased 
in modern times, on account of the facili¬ 
ties for navigating them afforded by steam. 
Most large rivers have their sources in 
mountains, or high tablelands; and nearly 
ail are higher at one part of the ocean than 
others. This swelling generally happens in 
winter; but when it is due to the melting 
of the snows, as in those rivers which have 
their origin in very lofty mountains, it 
takes place towards the autumn. The time 
at which it occurs is modified also by the 
period at which rainy seasons happen. 
These, within the tropics, begin about the 
time the sun passes the Meridian towards 
the tropics; and continue till his return to 
the same place. No river lias been so cele¬ 
brated for tho regularity and importance of 
its annual increase as the Nile. On its 
i n undation has ever depended whether there 
should be the greatest abundance or ttie 
most disastrous famine in Egypt. The 
largest rivers in the world are the Amazon 
and La Plata, in Soutli America; the Mis¬ 
sissippi,Missouri, and St.Lawrence.ln North 
America ; the Kian Kiou, the Hoanho, the 
Lena, the Ganges, the Indus, and the Eu¬ 
phrates, in Asia; the Nile, in Africa; and 
the Volga, the Danube, and the Rhine, in 
Europe. Many of the largest rivers mingle 
with the sea by means of a single outlet, 
while others beforetheir termination divide 
into several branches. Tliia circumstance 
will depend upon the nature of the soil 
through which a river flows. A delta, of I 


Cmtfurt). [roads 


greater or less magnitude, is found at the 
mouth of most rivers ; it arises partly from 
the water becoming comparatively still, on 
account of the meeting of the tidal current 
and the river ; and partly from the di¬ 
minished velocity due to increase in width ; 
both which cause the matters mechanically 
suspended in the waters, or rolled forward 
by it,-to come to a state of rest, and, in cer¬ 
tain circumstances, to accumulate so as to 
form patches of dry land, which thus mul¬ 
tiply the channels by which the river dis¬ 
charges itself into the sea. In this way, 
the mouths of the Nile xvere formed, and 
have been multiplied even within the period 
of historical record. The earth, gravel, &c., 
which is thus deposited, is naturally shaped 
by the current at each side of it into a 
Delta, or Greek a, that is, a triangle whose 
vertex points up the stream. The follow¬ 
ing are the lengths of some of the most 
important rivers. 


The Thames 
The Rhine . 
The Danube 

Europe. 

Miles. 
. 180 
. 810 
. 1750 

Asia. 

The Euphrates. 

The Gauges. 

The Kang-tse, in China . 

. 1750 
. 1800 
. 3870 

TheNile 

Africa. 

. 2330 

America. 

The Mississippi. 3420 

The St. Lawrence, including the Lakes 4050 
The Amazon, not including the Ara- 

guay. 4095 


RIX-DOI/LAR (a corruption of reichstha- 
ler, a dollar of the empire: Germ.), a silver 
coin in Germany, Denmark, and Sweden; 
it is of different values in different coun¬ 
tries. In Prussia it is worth about 3s. 

ROACn (reohche: Ang. Sax.), tlie Lends- 
cus riLtilus of Ichthyologists, a river fish 
belonging to the carp family, and known by 
the red colour of its pectoral, ventral and 
anal fins.-Also, the curve or arch gene¬ 

rally cut in the foot of some square sails, 
from one clue to tho other, to keep them 
clear of stays and ropes. 

ROADS (rad : ,S'ax.) for wheeled carriages 
are now principally made by stones, broken 
up into small pieces, and bound together 
with the earth, which is called macadami¬ 
zing, from the name of the person with 
whom the plan originated. The formation 
of good roads gives the greatest facility to 
commerce, and contributes in an eminent 
degree to the progress of civilization; for 
wherever the means of internal communi¬ 
cation are deficient the people are ill sup¬ 
plied with many of the necessaries, as well 
as tho luxuries, of life. The Romans were 
so well acquainted with the importance of 
good roads that, on subduing a country, the 
flrst care was to furnish it with a mode of 
communication between its different parts 

























roasting] 


ULX)t Jj?cteiittftc auft 


648 


They considered this indispensable, even in 
a military point of view. Hence many ves¬ 
tiges of their roads are found in the most 
distant portions of their empire ; and some 
remains of them in this island, even at the 
present day. Their labours and skill in this 
department -would bear comparison with 
the greatest efforts of modern times. It is 
only recently that good roads have been 
constructed in this country, or that their 
advantages were appreciated; in 1763 there 
was but one coach between Edinburgh and 
London; it started once a month from each 
place, and took a fortnight to perform the 
journey. Though good roads are still of 
great utility, the construction of railways 

has diminished their importance. -Road, 

or Roadstead ( rade: Fr.), a place lit for 
anchorage, at some distance from the shore. 

ROAST'ING ( rosten , to roast: Germ.), in 
Metallurgy, the separation of volatile bodies 
from those which are more fixed, by the 
combined action of air and fire; and is 
generally the first process in the reduction 
of metals. The ores are kept for some time 
at a temperature below their fusing points, 
which drives off the sulphur, arsenic, car¬ 
bonic acid, water, &c. 

ROBIN'IA, a genus of handsome legu¬ 
minous trees and shrubs, mostly deciduous 
and natives of North America. Some of 
the species are well known on our lawns, 
under the erroneous name of acacia. 

ROC'AMBOLE, the Allium scorodoprasum 
of botanists, a wild garlic, with a purple 
flower, a native of Denmark. Cultivated 
forms of it are eateu. 

ROCHEL'LE SALT, the popular name of 
the tartrate of potash and soda; it is em¬ 
ployed as a purgative, being one of the in¬ 
gredients of seidlitz-powder. 

ROCH'ES MOUTONNES (Fr.), in Geology, 
a term for protuberances of hard rock with 
a smooth rounded or dome-shaped outline, 
such as are seen on the borders of glaciers. 

ROCH'ET (Fr.), a kind of surplice worn 
by dignitaries in the Roman Catholic 
church; at mass the alb is placed over it. 

ROCK. Geologists give the name rock to 
those distinct mineral masses which form 
the crust of the globe, whether composed 
of hard or soft materials, clay and sand 
being included in the term. With refer¬ 
ence to their origin rocks may be classed 
as 1. Aqueous or sedimentary, the result 
of deposition in water. These are stratified, 
that is arranged in layers or beds, and most 
of them are fossiliferous. 2. Volcanic rocks, 
those that have been produced at the sur¬ 
face of the earth by the action of subterra¬ 
nean heat. Basalt and Trachyte belong to 
this class. 3. Plutoni c rocks, those that have 
been produced by subterranean heat deep 
within the earth and under great pressure, 
such as Granite and Syenite. Metamor- 
phic rocks, those that were originally 
sedimentary, and still retain more or less 
the marks of stratification, but have been 
made to assume a crystalline structure by 
the action of heat. To this type , belong 
Gneiss and mica schist. The rocks of the 
last two classes seldom contain fossils, and 
those of the second only occasionally and 
by accident. Rocks may be studied pale¬ 


ontologically, that is with reference to the 
organic remains imbedded in them; or 
lithologically, that is with reference to 
-their mineral structure. [See Geology.] 

ROCK-CRYS'TAL, in Mineralogy, one of 
the forms of quartz consisting, when pure, 
entirely of silica, but frequently coloured 
with other matter. Its most usual form is 
that of hexagonal prisms, surmounted by 
hexagonal pyramids. 

ROCK'ET ( rochetto: Ital.), in Pyrotechny, 
an artificial firework, consisting of a cylin¬ 
drical case of paper, filled with a composi¬ 
tion of combustible ingredients. This 
being tied to a stick and fired, ascends into 
the air and bursts, presenting a shower of 
stars, coloured according to the nature of 
the composition. [See Congreve Rocket, 

and Pyrotechny.]-Rocket, the popular 

name of ornamental plants, belonging to 
the genus Resperis, nat. ord. Crucifercc. 

ROCK'ING-STONES, called also Loggan 
or Loggan stones. There are several of 
these among the picturesque barriers of 
the British coast. They consist of an im¬ 
mense mass, with a slightly rounded base 
resting on a flat surface of rock below, 
which is so nearly balanced, that an indi¬ 
vidual can move or rock it. These stones 
have been variously accounted for by anti¬ 
quarians, and there are many traditions 
connected with them. 

ROCK'-SALT, fossil or mineral salt, dug 
from the earth. [See Salt.] 

ROD (rmde: Belg.), a measure of length, 
containing 5i yards, or 16J feet. In many 
parts of England the word Rod is univer¬ 
sally used for Pole or Perch : four rods make 
a Gunter's chain. 

RODENTS (rodo, I gnaw : Lat), or Glires, 
an order of clawed mammals. They have 
two long chisel-shaped incisors in each 
jaw; between the incisors and molars 
there is a vacant space without canines, 
and the lower jaw is so articulated as to 
allow a horizontal motion only from back to 
front. To this order belong the beaver, 
liai-e, squirrel, rat and porcupine. 

RO'EBUCK, in Zoology, the Capreolus 
caprce, a species of deer with erect cylindri¬ 
cal branched horns, forked at the summit. 
This animal is remarkable for its elegant 
shape and activity; is one of the smallest 
of the cervine genus: and, like the goat, 
prefers a mountainous country. It was 
formerly common in our island. 

ROGA'TION (rogatio; from rogo, I ask), 
in the Roman jurisprudence, a demand 
made by the consuls, or tribunes of the 
people, when a law was proposed to be 
passed.- Rogatio is also used for the de¬ 

cree itself made in consequence of the peo¬ 
ple giving their assent to this demand, to 
distinguish it from a senatus consuUum, or 
decree of the senate. 

ROGA'TION DATS (same deriv.), the 
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday next 
before Ascension-day. The public supplica¬ 
tions, or litanies, were anciently termed ro¬ 
gations. 

ROGUES' TARN, a yarn of a different 
twist and colour from the rest, inserted in 
the royal cordage, to render its identifica¬ 
tion easy if stolen. 




















649 ^Literary 


ROLL (role: Fr.), an official writing; a 
list, register, or catalogue ; as a muster roll, 

a court roll, &c.-In Law, a schedule of 

parchment, that may be turned up with the 
hand, in the form of a pipe. All pleadings, 
memorials, and acts of court are entered on 
rolls ; and being filed with the proper offi¬ 
cers, become records of the court.- Roll 

call, the calling over the names of the men 
who compose any part of a military body. 
-Rolls of parliament, the manu¬ 
script registers, or rolls of the proceedings 
of our ancient parliaments ; which, before 
the invention of printing, were all engross¬ 
ed on parchment, and proclaimed openly 
in every county. In these rolls are also con¬ 
tained decisions of points of law. 

IlO'LLER, the Coracias garrula of orni¬ 
thologists, a handsome African bird allied to 
the bee-eaters and kingfishers, which some¬ 
times finds its way into Britain. Great num¬ 
bers cross the Mediterranean into Europe 
in the spring, and return to Africa in the 

autumn.- Roller, a piece of wood, iron, 

brass, &c. of a cylindrical form, used in the 
construction of several machines, both in 

husbandry and the arts.-In Surgery, a 

long and broad bandage, usually of linen 
cloth, to be rolled round any part of the 
body.-A name given by seamen to un¬ 

usually heavy waves that set on a coast 
without wind. 

RO'LLING-MILL, a machine for work¬ 
ing metals into plates, or bars which are 
required of an even thickness. Rolling- 
mills are chiefly used for drawing out iron 
bars after they have been manufactured 
into bar iron by the fowge hammer. 

RO'LLING-PRESS, in Mechanics, an 
engine consisting of two cylinders, by 

which cloth is calendered, waved, &c.-A 

machine or press for taking impressions 
from steel or copper-plate engravings. 
There are also a variety of rolling-presses 
used in other branches of manufacture. 

ROLLS, MASTER OF THE. [See Mas¬ 
ter.] 

ROMA'IC, the language of modern 
GrG6C6, 

RO'MAN, a member of the Christian 
church at Rome, to which St. Paul ad¬ 
dressed an epistle; and which consisted of 

converts from Judaism or Paganism.- 

In Literature, the ordinary printing cha¬ 
racter now in use, in distinction from the 
Italic. 

RO'MAN CATH'OLICS, that society of 
Christians whose members acknowledge 
the pope as visible head of the church. 
[See Catholic.] 

ROMAN'CE (roman: Fr.), in Literature, 
a tale or fictitious history of extraordinary 
adventures. The Romance differs from the 
Novel, as it treats of great actions and 
extravagant adventures, soaring beyond 
the limits of fact and real life. [See Novel.] 
Romances have of late years given way to 
historical novels ; and even such as are occa¬ 
sionally published are very different from 
those of the olden time. 

ROMAN'CE LAN'GUAGES. These are the 
modern languages derived from the ancient 
Roman or Latin. They are six in number, 
the languages of Spain, Portugal, France, 


treasury. [roof 


Italy, Wallachia, and the Swiss Grisons. 
These are all corrupt forms of Latin 
mingled with many words of the ancient 
dialects of the country. [See Provencal.] 

B,OMANES'QUE, in Architecture, a style 
that arose in the north of Italy about the 
tenth century, to which the East contri¬ 
buted the cupola and the symbol of the 
cross, whence it is sometimes termed By¬ 
zantine. In the Rhine country, at a later 
date, various modifications were made. A 
spire was added, but the apse was retained, 
and round-headed arches continued to be 
used. There are many beautiful specimens 
of this style at Cologne, Bonn, and other 
Rhenish towns. 

RON'DEAU (Fr.), a species of poetry, 
usually consisting of thirteen verses: of 
which eight have masculine and five femi¬ 
nine rhymes, or vice versa. [See Rhyme.] 
The two or three first words of the first 
verse serve as the burden, and recur in 
that shape after the eighth and thirteenth 
verses. 

RON'DO, in Music, either vocal or instru¬ 
mental. This generally consists of three 
strains ; the first of which closes in the 
original key ;• while each of the others is so 
constructed as to reconduct the ear in an 
easy and natural manner to the first strain. 
It is sometimes spelled Rondeau. 

ROOF (hrof: Sax.), in Architecture, the 
timber-work which sustainsthe slates, tiles, 
lead, &c., that form the coverings of build¬ 
ings. The elevation of a roof depends on 
the climate; the more northern the coun¬ 
try the greater its pitch should be. It is 
supposed that, considering the inclination 
of a roof at the equator to o, or Zero, we 
may add three degrees of inclination for 
every climate, that is, every 2° 42' 30" of 
latitude, and this gives very nearly the in¬ 
clinations used by the ancients in different 
places. In Its simplest form it consists 
merely of two rafters, whose lateral thrust 
against the walls on which they rest is 
counteracted by tying them together with 
a collar, placed some way up the lengths; 
and if necessary, by a tie beam placed at 
their feet. Beyond certain lengths it is 
clear that the tie beam itself will have a 
tendency to sink down in the middle ; it 
must then be suspended at its centre,from 
the junctions of the rafters, by a king post. 
If the rafters are long, they also have a 
tendency to sink in the middle ; which 
must be prevented by struts, or oblique 
pieces, abutting against the sides of the 
lower extremity of the king post. The 
whole now would form a frame called a 
truss. Sometimes the upper ends of the 
rafters, instead of abutting against each 
other, abut against the extremities of a 
horizontal piece, called a collar, which is 
placed between them, to keep them apart. 
Instead of the king post there are then 
two vertical pieces, called queen posts, 
which hang from the extremities of this col¬ 
lar, and support, at their lower ends, struts 
tending in various directions, for the sus¬ 
taining of various points. Purlines are 
strong pieces placed across the principal 
rafters to steady them, and to support the 
common rafters, which are fixed at theordt 












rook] 


€3)e J?rienttfu aulf 


650 


nary small distances apart. Some roofs 
are very complicated and ingenious; but 
the principles on which they are con¬ 
structed can always be easily understood, 
from what has been said. When sufficiently 
Jong beams cannot be obtained in one 
piece, two or more pieces are scarfed to¬ 
gether ; that is, their extremities are en¬ 
tangled in each other, by the way they are 
cut and notched ; and they are kept toge¬ 
ther by iron bolts. The various parts of a 
frame roof, also, are kept united by iron 
Straps and bolts. 

ROOK ( hroc: Ang. Sax., the Corvus frugi- 
legus of ornithologists, a bird that differs 
from the crow by his gregarious habits, in 
feeding on insects and grain, not carrion, 
and in having the base of the bill covered 
with a rough scabrous skin, the latter how¬ 
ever being the result of the bill being 
thrust into the ground in search of worms 
and larvm. Rooks are very destructive of 
corn, especially of wheat; and it behoves 
the husbandman to keep a watchful eye on 
his newly-sown fields ; for if neglected 
three or four days, when the blade first ap¬ 
pears, a good crop may be destroyed in 
embryo ; the good they do, in destroying 
grubs and noxious insects, is supposed 
greatlv to exceed the mischief. 

ROOT {rot: Goth.), in Botany, that part of 
a plant which is under ground and serves to 
support it in an erect position ; while by 
means of its fibrils i t imbibes from the earth 
a nourishment which ascends to the stem, 
branches, and fruit.- Root, in Arithmetic, 


in the Roman Catholic church, a string of 
beads, or a chaplet consisting of five or 
fifteen decades of beads. It is used for 
counting the Ave Marias, or prayers ad¬ 
dressed to the Virgin Mary: one paternoster, 
or Lord’s prayer, is said for every ton ave 
Marias or hail Mary’s. The chaplet is con¬ 
sidered to contain only five decades, the 
rosary fifteen; but this distinction does 
not seem to be always observed. Other 
sects also use chaplets, for counting re¬ 
peated prayers. [See Chaplet.] 

ROSE ( rosa, Lot.), in Architecture, an 
ornament cut in the form of that flower, 
chiefly used in cornices, friezes, vaults of 
churches, &c., and particularly in the mid¬ 
dle of each face in the Corinthian abacus. 

- Rose, the flower of plants belonging to 

the botanical genus Rosa, of which many 
species are in cultivation. A great number 
of varieties have been produced by crossing 
the species. The ancient poets say, that 
the first rose was brought into the world by 
the hands of the god of love ; and the 
occasion was, a desire to bribe Harpocrates, 
the god of silence, to an engagement that 
he would discover none of the secrets of 
Venus. Hence it became a custom to place 
a rose in rooms devoted to mirth and enter¬ 
tainment, as a symbol in the presence of 
which all restraint might be laid aside; 
accordingly the proverb * under the rose,’ 
denotes secrecy and inviolable silence. The 
rose is also from the same cause the direct 
emblem of silence. Besides being used at 
the feasts and convivial meetings of the 


a number or quantity which, multiplied by ancients, the rose was frequently laid upon 
itself, produces a higher power : thus, 2 is the tombs of the dead: either to signify the 
the square root of 4, and the cube root i silence of death, or an offering grateful to 

of 8. - the deceased.- Rose, in Politics, a badge 

ROPE {rap: Ang. Sax.), a large kind of , of distinction formerly assumed by the 
cordage, formed by the twisting of several [ houses of York and Lancaster, the former 


strands of yarn together; the smallest sort 
of rope is called Cord, and the larger kinds 
Cable. Large ropes are distinguished into 
two maiu classes, viz. the cable-laid and 
liawser-laid. The former are composed of 


of whom took the white rose, and the latter 
the red. On the union of the two houses 
by the marriage of Henry VII. with Eliza¬ 
beth, daughter of Edward IV., the two 
roses were united in one, which became 


nine strands, while the latter consist only j the royal badge of England.- Rose op 


of three. Ropes of from one inch to two 
inches and a half in circumference are 
usually hawser laid; those from three to 
ten inches, are either hawser or cable-laid ; 
but when more than ten inches, they are 
always cable-laid.- Rope making, the pro¬ 

cess of twisting yarm into ropes, by means 

of a wheel or other machinery.- Rope- 

walk, a long covered walk, or a long build¬ 
ing where ropes are manufactured. 

RORQUAL, the Balcenoptera rostrata of 
zoologists, a marine mammal allied- to the 
whales, and the largest of living animals. 
The throat and belly are wrinkled with deep 
folds of skin. As the rorqual yields little 
oil it is not sought after by whalers. 

RQSA'CEJE {rosa, a rose : Lat.), a natural 
order of exogenous polypetalous plants, con¬ 
sisting of herbs and shrubs. Amongst 
British wild plants the dog rose, bramble, 
strawberry, potentilla, agrimony, and mea¬ 
dow-sweet belong to this order, which may 
be recognised by the five petals, the nume¬ 
rous stamens arising from the calyx just 
within the petals, and the superior ovary. 

RQ'SARY {rosarium, a rose garden : Lat.), 


Jericho, the name of a cruciferous plant, 
the anastatica hierochuntina of botanists, 
the withered stems of which roll up into a 
ball during the dry season, and are blown 
about the deserts of Syria for years, only 
unfolding in a time of rain. 

RO'SEMARY ( rosmarinus , literally soa- 
dew: Lot.), an evergreen shrub of the genus 
Rosmarinus, nat. ord. Labiaice. It is a native 
of the maritime districts of the Mediterra¬ 
nean. The flowers are of adull leaden hue, 
or even white. It is used in an infusio^i, 
ns a remedy for the headache ; and is em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of Hungary 
water. The leaves have a fragrant sme'.i, 
and a warm pungent flavour. 

ROSE-NOBLE, an ancient English gold 
coin, stamped with the figure of a rose; 
first struck in the reign of Edward III. and 
current at 6s. 8 d. Another larger coin, some 
times so called, passed for 16s. 

ROSET'TA STONE, a block of stone found 
near Rosetta, in Lower Egypt,and preserved 
in the British Museum. It bears three in¬ 
scriptions: namely, one in hieroglyphics, 
another in the ancient vernacular language 





























651 


Ettcrani dTmgury. 


of Evypt, called enchorial, and the third in 
Greek, all recording the services rendered 
by Ptolemy V. to his country. This stone 
has acquired much celebrity from its hav¬ 
ing afforded Dr. Young a key to the inter¬ 
pretation of Egyptian characters. It was 
one of the objects collected hy the French 
when they invaded Egypt, and canie into 
the possession of the British army in con¬ 
sequence of the capitulation of Alexandria 
in 1801. 

RO'SE-WOOD, a fragrant wood used hy 
cabinet makers; is the produce of some 
Brazilian leguminous trees belonging to 
the genus Trioptolomea. 

ROSICRU'OIA'NS (rosa, a rose ; and erne, 
a cross: Lat.), from their device; which 
was a rose issuing out of a cross, the same 
as Martin Luther’s device.-A name as¬ 

sumed hy a sect of heretical philosophers, 
who first appeared in Germany, as is gene¬ 
rally supposed, about the beginning of the 
17th century, though they claimed a higher 
antiquity. They made great pretensions 
to science, and to be masters of many im¬ 
portant secrets, particularly that of the 
philosopher’s stone. Their origin and de¬ 
signs have been the subject of much dis¬ 
cussion. 

ROSTRUM (Lat,), in Roman Antiquity, 
the prow of a ship. It was a most important 
part of vessels of war, which were hence 
called Naves rostratce ; was made of wood 
and brass; was fastened to the prow to 
annoy the enemy’s vessels. The first rostra 
were long and high; but they were after¬ 
wards short and strong, and placed so low 
as to pierce the enemy’s ships under water. 
Some ships of war, constructed recently by 
ourselves, are furnished with a similar ap¬ 
paratus, and for the same purpose.-The 

term Rostrum was applied metaphorically 
to the pleading place or pulpit, in the Ro¬ 
man Forum : because decorated with the 
beaks of vessels taken at Antium. The 
Rostrum was transferred by Caesar to a cor¬ 
ner of the Forum. 

ROT (rotan, to rot: Sax.), a fatal disease 
incident to sheep in wet seasons and moist 
pastures. It is extremely difficult to pre¬ 
vent the rot, if the year prove very wet, 
especially in May and June. Salt marshes, 
and lands where broom grows, are the best 
places for the animals so affected. The 
livers of sheep dying of the rot are found 
to be infested with worms called flakes, 

which see.- Rot, in timber work [see 

Dry Rot]. 

RO'TA, the name of an ecclesiastical 
court at Rome, composed of twelve prelates. 
This is one of the highest tribunals in 
Rome; taking cognizance of all suits in the 
territory of the church, hy appeal; and of 
all matters beneficiary, and patrimonial. 

ROTATION (rotatio, from rota, a wheel: 
Lat.), the act of turning, like a wheel or 
solid body on its axis, as distinguished from 
the progressive motion of a body revolving 
round another body or a distant point. Thus 
the daily turning of the earth on its axis, 
is a rotation; its annual motion round the 

sun, is a revolution. -In Geometry, the 

term is applied to the circumvolution of 
any surface round a fixed aud immovable 


[roundrobin 


line, which is called the axis of its rotation. 

- Rotation, in Agriculture, a change of 

crops; which is useful chiefly by allowing 
more of the substance which a certain crop 
has exhausted to be liberated from the 
soil, before it is grown again.- Rota¬ 

tion also implies the course hy which per¬ 
sons filling official situations leave their 
places at certain times, and arc succeeded 
by others. 

ROTATOR (one who causes to revolve : 
Lat.), in Anatomy, the two apophyses in 
the upper part of the thigh-bone, otherwise 
called trochanters, which are distinguished 
into major and minor. 

ROTATO'RIA (same cleriv.), or ROTT'- 
FERA (rota, a wheel; fern, I carry : Lat.), 
Wheel Animalcules, a tribe of microscopic 
animals forming a section of those denomi¬ 
nated Infusoria. They all live in water, 
through which they move with great ra¬ 
pidity, and are usually found in great num¬ 
bers wherever there is organized water in 
a state of decay. The majority have cilia 
so disposed on the anterior part of the body 
as to afford the appearance of revolving 
wheels when in motion. These animals 
are as yet imperfectly known. They belong 
to the class of Annelida amongst Arti- 
CULATA. 

ROT'TEN-STONE, in Mineralogy, a soft 
kind of stone found in Derbyshire ; which 
is used for all sorts of finer grinding and 
polishing, forcleaning metallic substances, 
and sometimes for cutting stones. It re- 

RpmhlPQ / 7V?'nn7<> 

’ ROTUN'DA, 'or ROTUN'DO (rotundas, 
round: Lat.), a name given to any building 
that is round both on the outside and in¬ 
side ; but more particularly to a circular 
building at Rome, -which was anciently 
called the Pantheon, which see. 

ROUE' (Fr.), a term applied to a person, 
in the fashionable world, who, regardless 
of moral principle, devotes his life to sen¬ 
sual pleasures; but whose conduct, exter¬ 
nally at least, is not so gross as to exclude 
him from society. 

ROUGE (Fr.), a red paint extracted from 
the safflower, a plant called hy botanists 
carihamus tinctorius. It is used for paint¬ 
ing the checks; and is the only cosmetic 
which can be applied to this purpose with¬ 
out producing ultimate injury to the com¬ 
plexion. 

ROUGH'-CASTING, a kind of plastering, 
with mortar containing gravel, and some¬ 
times even very small stones ; and used as 
a covering for external walls. It is thrown 
on roughly, instead of being plastered on. 

ROUND'-HEADS, in British History, a 
name given, during the civil war, to the 
puritans or members of the parliamentarian 
party, from the practice which prevailed 
among them of cropping the hair close. 

ROUND'ROBIN (rond ruban, round rib¬ 
bon : Fr.), a term applied to a memorial or 
remonstrance drawn up by any body of 
men (though the practice is almost entirely 
confined to the army and navy), w'ho have 
determined to stand by each other in mak¬ 
ing a statement of their common grievances 
to the government, or some person high in 
authority. The term was adopted on ac- 
















royal] 


autf 


652 


count of the signatures being written round 
the remonstrance, or in a circular form, so 
that it cannot be seen who signed it first. 

ROYAL, among seamen, a small sail 
spread immediately above the top-gallant- 
sail; sometimes termed the top-gallant 

royal. -Royal Academy of London, a 

corporation instituted by George III. for 
the advancement of drawing, painting, en¬ 
graving, sculpture, modelling, and archi¬ 
tecture.- Royal Institution, a corpora¬ 

tion erected in the year 1800 ; the great 
object of which is to render science appli¬ 
cable to the comforts and conveniences of 
mankind.- Royal Society, a society in¬ 

corporated by Charles II. under the name 
of ‘ The President, Council, and Fellows of 
the Royal Society, for the Improvement of 
Natural Philosophy.’ 

ROYALS, the name given to the first re¬ 
giment of foot: supposed to be the oldest 
regular corps in Europe. 

ROW-PORT, a small square hole in the 
side of light vessels of war, near the surface 
of the water, for the use of an oar for row¬ 
ing in a calm. 

ltUB'BLE, loose angular gravel; or slight¬ 
ly compacted brecciated sand-stone.- 

Rubble Work, masonry, in which the 
stones are used without being squared. 

RU'BEFACIENT ( rube-facio, I make red: 
Lat.), in Medicine, an external application 
which produces redness of the skin, not 
followed by a blister. 

RU'BELLITE ( rubellus, reddish : Lat.), 
in Mineralogy, red shorl or red tourmalin, 
a silicious mineral of a red colour of various 
shades. It occurs in accumulated groups, 
with straight tube-like striae. In a red 
heat it becomes white. 

RUBE'OLA (rubeo, I am red: Lat.), the 
Measles, which see. 

RU'BICEL, in Mineralogy, a variety of 
the ruby, of a reddish colour, from Brazil. 

RU'BIDIUM (ruber, red: Lat.), one of 
the metals lately discovered by means of 
spectrum analysis. The German chemist 
Bunsen first detected it in some mineral 
water, in which it formed only a two-mil¬ 
lionth part of the weight of the water. It 
has since been found in extremely minute 
quantities in beet-root, and in the ashes of 
tobacco, tea leaves, and coffee berries. Its 
name was suggested by its dark red colour. 

ItU'BIGO (Lat.), in Botany, a kind of mil¬ 
dew which appears on the leaves and stems 
of many plants, and has been found to con¬ 
sist of a small fungus, supposed to arise 
from moisture. 

RU'BLE, a Russian silver coin, value 
abou t 3s. 2d. 

RU'BRIC (rubrica; from ruber, red: Lat.), 
any writing or printing in red ink. The 
date and place on a title page, being fre¬ 
quently in red ink, and many books printed 
in one place having the name of another 
upon them, the word rubric has been some¬ 
times used to signify the false name of a 
place on a title page. But the word is most 
usually applied in Ecclesiastical matters to 
signify the directions printed in red letters 
in missals, &c.; and hence, is often used to 
express the liturgy itself. 

RU'BY (rubis: Fr.; from ruber, red: 


Lat.), a precious stone, next to the diamond 
in hardness and value. Its constituents 
are alumina, magnesia, and chromic acid— 
its colour being due to the latter. The 
most esteemed, and, at the same time, 
rarest colour, of the oriental ruby, is pure 
carmine, or blood red of considerable in¬ 
tensity, forming, when well polished, a 
blaze of 'the most exquisite and unrivalled 
tint. It is, however, usually more or less 
pale, and mixed with blue in various pro¬ 
portions ; hence it occurs rose-red and red¬ 
dish white, crimson, peach-blossom red, 
and lilac blue—the latter variety being 
named oriental amethyst. A ruby, perfect 
both in colour and transparency, is much 
less common than a good diamond, and 
when of the weight of three or four carats, 
is even more valuable than that gem. The 
king of Pegu, and the monarchs of Siam 
and Ava, monopolize the rarest rubies ; the 
finest in the world is in the possession of 
the first of these kings; its purity has 
passed into a proverb. 

RUDD, or RED EYE, the Leuciscus cry- 
throphthalmus of ichthyologists, a river 
fish belonging to the Cyprinidce, with a 
deep body like the bream, but thicker, a pro¬ 
minent back, and small head. The scales 
are of a golden-coppery tint, and the iris is 
orange-red. 

RUD'DER (rother: Sax.), in Navigation, 
part of the helm of a ship; consisting of a 
piece of timber hung on hinges at the stern- 
posts, which by being turned either way 
directs the course of the vessel. It is 
managed by means of the tiller or wheel. 
In vessels drawing much water, the middle 
is deep and narrow; in others, shallow and 
broad; in Chinese vessels, it is broad, to 
give it leverage; but pierced with holes to 
diminish resistance from the water. 

RU'DIMENTS (rudimenta ; from rudis, in 
the natural state : Lat.), the first elements 
or principles of any art or science. 

RUDOL'PHINE TA'BLES, a celebrated 
set of astronomical tables, constructed by 
Kepler, and thus entitled in honour of the 
emperor Rudolphus II., at whose expense 
they were made. They were published in 
1627, and were the first ever calculated on 
the supposition that the planets move in 
elliptical orbits. They contributed greatly 
to the progress of Astronomy. 

RUFF, the Machetes pugnax of ornitho¬ 
logists, a bird allied to the snipes, and 
deriving its name from the disposition of 
the long feathers of the neck, which stand 
out like the ruff formerly worn ; it is, how¬ 
ever, only the male that is furnished with 
this appendage, which he does not obtain 
till the second year. Ruffs are birds of 
passage, appearing at certain seasons of the 
year in great numbers in the north of 
Europe. They are generally taken in large 
nets. When fattened they are dressed like 
the woodcock, and their flesh is highly 
esteemed. Their pugnacious disposition is so 
strong, that when they are kept for the pur¬ 
pose of fattening, their place of confinement 
must be dark, for the moment any light is 
admitted they attack each other with fury. 

RULE (regole. Sax. ; from regula: Lat.), 
that which is established as a principle, or 















653 


Xitrrarn Crr&Surtn 


eettled by authority for guidance and di¬ 
rection. Thus, a statute or law is a rule of 
conduct for the citizens of a state; prece¬ 
dents in law are rules of decision to judges. 

-In Grammar, an established form of 

construction, in a particular class of words. 
— Rule, in Monasteries, Corporations, or 
Societies, a law or regulation to be observed 
by the society and its particular members. 

RULE OF THREE, in Arithmetic, a rule 
which directs, when three terms are given, 
now to find a fourth, which shall have the 
same ratio to the third term as the second 
has to the first. It is an application of the 
doctrine of proportion [which see], being 
called also the rule of proportion. 

RUM, a well known spirituous liquor, 
distilled from molasses and the refuse of 
the cane juice, in the West Indies, whence 
it is imported in large quantities. Rum of 
a brownish transparent colour, smooth oily 
taste, strong body and consistence, good 
age, and well kept, is the best; and that 
from Jamaica obtains a decided preference. 
It is customary in some of the West India 
islands to put sliced pine-apples in punch¬ 
eons of rum; this gives the spirit the flavour 
of the fruit; and hence the designation 
‘pine-apple rum.’ 

RU'MEN ( Lat .), in Comparative Anatomy, 
the paunch, or first stomach of such ani¬ 
mals as chew the cud, thence called rumi¬ 
nating animals. The only true ruminating 
are the cloven-footed quadrupeds, as oxen, 
sheep, &c. 

RU'MINANTS ( mmino , I chew the cud : 
Lat.), the name given by Cuvier to an order 
of hoofed mammals, feeding exclusively on 
vegetables, and including those having a 
complicated stomach of four cavities dis¬ 
posed so as to allow rumination, and a clo¬ 
ven hoof. The ox, deer, giraffe, and camel, 
belong to this order. 

RU MINATION (same deriv.), the act by 
which food, chewed and swallowed, is sub¬ 
mitted a second time to mastication. 
Coarsely masticated food passes into the 
rumen, or paunch, or first cavity of the sto¬ 
mach ; water, with which the second cavity, 
called the reticulus, is almost exclusively 
filled, is gradually mixed with the food in 
the rumen; after which, a portion of the 
mass is moulded into a ball, in the muscu¬ 
lar canal, at the termination of the oesopha¬ 
gus; and by an inverted action of the mus¬ 
cles is driven into the mouth, where it is 
more fully masticated, and mixed with 
saliva, before it is again swallowed. It 
then passes into the psalterium, or third 
stomach, where the superfluous moisture, 
which might dilute the gastric juice too 
much, is absorbed; after which it passes 
gradually into the abomasus, or fourth sto¬ 
mach, in which digestion is really effected. 
In the camel, there are water cells at the 
sides of the rumen ; and the psalterium is 
not separated from the abomasus. 

RUN'CIN ATE ( runcina, a large saw: Lat.), 
in Botany, a leaf is said to be runcinate 
when each side is coarsely divided into tri¬ 
angular lobes more or less directed towards 
the base ; as in the leaf of the dandelion. 

RU'NIC, a term applied to certain ancient 
characters, the earliest of which were found 


[ RYE 


upon monumental stones. They were em¬ 
ployed by both Scandinavians and Ger¬ 
mans, but whence derived is not known. 
Some have suggested the Phoenician alpha¬ 
bet as their source. Their number was 
originally sixteen. Their great antiquity 
is much doubted, since they cannot be 
clearly traced back beyond the end of the 
twelfth century. They have been the sub¬ 
ject of much debate amongst antiquarians; 
mystery and superstition are supposed to 
have been connected with them. 

RUN'NER, in Sea Language, a rope be¬ 
longing to the garnet, and to the two bolt- 
tackles. It is reeved in a single block, 
joined to the end of a pennant, and is used to 
increase the mechanical power of the tackle. 

RUPEE', a coin current in Britisli India. 
The gold rupee is worth about 2s. sterling. 
Of the silver rupees, the new and the old 
are of different values. 

RUP'TURE ( ruptio , a breaking: Lat.). 
[See Hernia.] 

RUSH ( ruse: Sax.), a name given to dif¬ 
ferent plants. The common rush belongs 
to the genus Juncus, of which several 
species grow in watery places. The pith 
was formerly used for the wicks of lamps. 
The bullrush, which also grows in wet situa¬ 
tions, belongs to the genus Typha. The 
fllweriny rush belongs to the genus Buto- 
mus, and is found by the sides of rivers and 
ditches. 

RUS'SI A COM'PANY, a company for con¬ 
ducting the trade with Russia. It was in¬ 
corporated by charter of Philip and Mary, 
and sanctioned by act of parliament, in 1566. 

RUS'SIA LEATH'ER, the tanned hides 
of oxen, manufactured in a manner pecu¬ 
liar to the Russians; and much esteemed 
as a material for binding books and making 
many articles where a superior kind of du¬ 
rable leather is required. One of the best 
tests of genuine Russia leather is its throw¬ 
ing out a strong odour of burnt hide upon 
being rubbed. 

RUST (Sax.), the oxide of a metal. Hence 
metals become rusty when exposed to air 
or water, by abstracting the oxygen; but 
grease and varnish protect them, because 
they prevent contact with moisture and 

the atmosphere.- Rust, the Uredo rubigo 

of botanists, a minute fungus in theshapeof 
an orange powder which infests grainplants. 

RUS'TIC-WORK (rusticus, rural: Lat.), 
in Architecture, a term used when the 
stones, &c. in the face of a building, or the 
groins, &c., are hacked or indented, so as 
to be rough. 

RU'TA BA'GA, the Swedish turnip. 

RUTH, Book of, a canonical book of the 
Old Testament, being a kind of appendix to 
the book of Judges, and an introduction to 
those of Samuel. Its title is derived from the 
person whose story it principally contains. 

RU'TILITE (rutilus, red : Lat.),in Minera¬ 
logy, an oxide of titanium, of a red or 
brownish red colour. It occurs massive, 
disseminated, membranous, and In crystals. 

RYE (ryge: Sax), the Secale cerealeot 
botanists, an esculent grain that in its 
growth resembles wheat. It is easily cul¬ 
tivated, and in many parts of thecontinent, 
as well as in the north of England, is made 
















ryot] 


ClIjc <g>cteuttftc autt 


0 54 


into bread ; but much coarser than that of 
wheat flour. All soils will produce rye, 
provided they are not too moist; and many 
barren lands which are unsuitable to the 
cultivation of wheat may be sown with 
this grain to advantage. 


RY'E-GRASS, a species of strong grass, 
of the genus Lolium. 

RY'OT (a subject: Arab.), in Hindostan, 
a renter of land by a lease which is con¬ 
sidered as perpetual, and at a rate fixed by 
ancient surveys and valuations. 


S 


S, the nineteenth letter and fifteenth 
consonant of our alphabet, is a sibilant ar¬ 
ticulation, the sound being formed by dri¬ 
ving the breath through a narrow passage 
between the palate and the tongue elevated 
near it, together with amotion of the lower 
jaw and teeth towards the upper. It is a 
kind of semivowel, for it can be pronoun¬ 
ced, though imperfectly, without the aid 
of a vowel. The sound of this letter varies, 
being soft in some words, as in this, thus, 
&c., and like z in words which have a final 
e, as muse, wise, &c. It is generally doubled 
at the end of words. In a few words it is 
silent, as in isle and viscount. As an abbre¬ 
viation, R was used by the ancients for 
Senntus ; thus S.P.Q.R. senatus populusque 
How anus (the Senate and Roman people). 
Sp. for spurius, &c. We use it for Sanctas, 
thus S.T.P. Sanctce Theologies Professor (Pro¬ 
fessor of Sacred Theology.) For Ship : as 
H.M.S. Her Majesty's Ship. ForSigilli: as 
L.S. locus sigilli (the place of the seal). For 
Style : as N.S. new style. For socius, societas, 
south, &c., as S.E. for south-east, S.S.E. for 
south-south-east, & c. In Music, for Solo. 

SABJS'ANS, or SA'BIANS ( zaba , Lord: 
Heb., whence Sabaoth'), idolators of the 
East, who in all ages, whether converted in 
part to Judaism, Christianity, or Moham¬ 
medanism, or unacquainted with either, 
have worshipped the sun, moon, and stars. 
Some of the Sabseans, who acknowledge the 
name of Christ, are* distinguished by the 
title of ‘ Christians of St. John,’ on account 
of their attachment to the baptism of that 
forerunner of the Messiah. Sabmanism 
bears the marks of a primitive religion ; to 
the adoration of the stars it joins a strong 
inculcation of respect for agriculture. 

SAB'AOTH, a Hebrew word signifying 
armies. 

SABBATARIANS, in Church History, 
sects which at various periods insisted on 
the observance of the Jewish sabbath, as 
obligatory on Christians. The name is par¬ 
ticularly applied to a subdivision of the 
Anabaptists, in the sixteenth century. 

SAB'BATH (rest: Heb.), the seventh day 
of the week, a day appointed by the Mosaic 
law for a total cessation from labour, and 
for the service of God, according to the 
command, * Remember that ye keep holy 
the Sabbath day,’ &c. Christians observe 
the first day of the week as the day of 
rest. 

SABBAT'ICAL YEAR, in the Jewish eco¬ 
nomy, every seventh year, in which the 
Israelites were commanded to suffer tlrcir 
3elds and vineyards to rest, or to lie without 


tillage. The first sabbatical year celebrated 
by the children of Israel was the fourteenth 
vear after their coming into the land of 
Canaan; because they were to be seven 
years in making themselves masters of it, 
and seven more in dividing it amongst 
themselves. 

SABEL'LA, in Natural History, a genus 
of marine annclides, inhabiting eases which 
are usually of a leathery texture. There 
are many species. 

S A BE L'L IANS, a sect of Christians 
founded by Sabelllus, at Ptolemais, in the 
third century. Their doctrine was, that 
the Father was the sole person of the Tri¬ 
nity ; the Son and Holy Ghost being merely 
attributes, or emanations from Him. 

SA'BLE, the Martes zibellina of natural¬ 
ists, an animal of the weazel family, a 
native of the north of Europe and Asia. It 
is equal to the polecat in size. In summer 
the colour is brown, in winter it becomes 
much darker, and the fur is then much 
prized. The Russian or crown sable ob¬ 
tained in Siberia is the most valuable, hut 
this is nearly monopolized by the Imperial 
Family. The Hudson’s Bay sable is lighter 
in colour and is dyed darker. The animal 
burrows in the earth or under trees; in 
winter and summer subsisting on small 

animals, and in autumn on berries.- 

Saule, in Heraldry, the tincture of black; 
represented in engraving, by perpendicular 
and horizontal lines. 

SAC'BUT, or SACK'BUT, a musical wind 
instrument; a kind of trumpet so con¬ 
trived that it can be drawn out or shortened 
according to the tone required. 

SACCA'DE (a jerk: Fr.), in the Menage, 
a sudden and violent check of a horse, by 
drawing or twitching the reins on a sud¬ 
den, and with one pull. 

SACCHAR'IC ACID ( saccharum, sugar: 
Lot.), in Chemistry, an acid formed along 
with oxalic acid, when sugar is oxidized 
with nitric acid. It crystallizes in long 
colourless needles. 

SACOHAR'OID (sac char on, sugar : Lat.; 
and eidos, appearance: Or.), a term applied 
to rocks which have a texture resembling 
that of loaf sugar. 

SACCHAROM'ETER (sac char on, sugar: 
Lat.; and metior, I measure: Lat..), an instru¬ 
ment fur determining the specific gravity of 
brewers’ and distillers’ worts, the density 
of which is almost exactly proportional to 
the quantity of sugar they hold in solution- 
on which, also, depends the quantity of 
spirit that will be formed by the subsequent 
fermentation. 












655 lUterary dTrearfwy. [safety 

SACCHOLAC'TIG ACID ( saccharon, sugar; 
and lac, milk : Lot.), in Chemistry, the acid 
obtained by digesting sugar of milk with 
nitric acid. It is identical with that obtained 
from gum, and termed mucous acid. 

SACK, a wine much esteemed by our 
ancestors. It was brought from Spain, 
and is supposed to have been very similar 
to sherry; Falstaff calls it Sherris Sack. 
Its name is derived by some from sec (dry: 
Fr.), because it was a dry wine ; by others, 
from the sacks made of skin, in which the 

Spaniards usually carried it_Among 

our rude ancestors, a kind of cloak of a 
square form, worn over the shoulders and 
body, and fastened in front by a clasp or 
thorn. It was originally made of skin, 
afterwards of wool.-2b sack, is to plun¬ 

der or pillage a town when taken by as¬ 
sault. 

SACON'TALA, a Sanscrit drama of great 
celebrity in Indian literature, written by 
Calidasa, who died in 56 B.c. It has been 
translated into English, French, and Ger¬ 
man. The plot turns upon a ring. 

SAC'RAMENT (sacramentum, a sacred 
thing: Lot.), in Christian ritual, an outward 
sign of a spiritual grace, annexed to its use. 
Tiie Roman Catholic church recognises 
seven sacraments; baptism, confirmation, 
the eucliarist, penance, extreme unction, 
ordination, and marriage. The SabasanChris¬ 
tians admitted four; the eucliarist,baptism, 
ordination, and marriage. The Protestant 
churches acknowledge only two, the euch- 
arist or Lord’s supper, and baptism ; but 
they agree with the Roman Catholic church 
in styling the eucliarist, pre-eminently, the 
holy sacrament. The eucharist is also 
known among Roman Catholics by the 
name of * the host.’ 

SACRAMENTA'LIA (same deriv.), in 
Ecclesiastical history, certain sacramental 
offerings formerly paid to the parish priest 
at Easter, &c. 

SACRAMEN'TUM MILITA'RE, in anti¬ 
quity, the name of the oath taken by the 
Roman soldiers, after the levies were com¬ 
pleted. 

SAC'RIFICE (sacrificium: Lat.'), a solemn 
act of religious worship, consisting in the 
dedication or offering up something ani¬ 
mate or inanimate on an altar,by the hands 
of the priest; either as an expression of 
gratitude to the Deity for some signal 
mercy, or to acknowledge our dependance 
on him, and conciliate his favour. The 
Jews had two sorts of sacrifices, taking the 
word in its most extensive signification: 
the first were offerings of tithes, first-fruits, 
cakes, wine, oil, honey, &c., and the Hast, 
offerings of slaughtered animals. Their 
principal sacrifices consisted of bullocks, 
sheep, and goats; but doves and turtles 
were accepted from those who were not ablo 
to offer the others ; and whatever the sa¬ 
crifice might be, it must be perfect and 
without blemish. The rites of sacrificing 
were various, all of which are veryminutely 
described in the Pentateuch. 

SAC'RILEGE ( sacrilegium: Lat.), the 
crime of violating or profaning sacred 
things ; or the alienating to laymen or to 
common purposes what has been appropri- 

ated or consecrated to religious persons or 
uses 

SA'CRUM, or OS SACRUM (the sacred 
bone : Lat.), in Anatomy, a portion of the 
vertebral column, consisting in man of 
five bones, which in the adults become 
soldered together. The sacrum is strongly 
united on each side to the liip bone, the 
ilium ; and below it is the Coccyx. [Seo 
Veiitebr^e.] 

SAD'DUCEES, a sect among the ancient 
Jews, esteemed as free-thinkers, rather 
than real Jews ; though they assisted at 
all the ceremonies of worship in the 
Temple. Their origin and name is derived 
from Sadoc, who flourished in the reign of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 250 years b.c. 
They denied the immortality of the soul 
and the existence of all spiritual and irnma-^ 
terial beings. They acknowledged, indeed, 
that the world was formed by the power of 
God, and superintended by his providence; 
but that the soul at death suffered one 
common extinction with the body, re¬ 
wards and punishments being altogether 
confined to this life. They held the scrip¬ 
tures alone to be of divine authority, and 
obligatory upon men as a system of religion 
and morals; and paid no regard to those 
traditionary maxims and human institu¬ 
tions which the Jews in general so highly 
extolled, and the Pharisees reverenced 
oven more highly than the scriptures them¬ 
selves. 

SAFE-CON'DUCT, a pass or warrant of 
security given by a sovereign to any person 
guaranteeing his safe coming into and 
passing out of his kingdom. Generally 
speaking, passports have superseded the 
use of special safe conducts. 

SA'FETY LAMP, a lamp invented by Sir 
Humphry Davy for the use of miners in the 
coal-mines, to prevent the fatal explosions 
which have arisen from the use of common 
lamps. It consists of a lamp surrounded 
by a wire-gauze, which, by confining the * 
flame from the fire-damp, enables the 
miners to work in safety. Flame is merely 
vapour, ata whiteheat; when cooled down, 
as it is by the wire gauze, it ceases to be 
flame; and, at the same time, ceases to be 
capable of exploding the mixed gases. A 
flame may bo hot, and at the same time not 
luminous: thus, that of hydrogen. Its heat 
will be rendered evident by throwing into 
it particles of lampblack, or holding within 
it a platinum wire ; they will become white 
hot. The higher the temperature of the 
flame the more difficult to intercept it with 
wire gauze, because the more difficult to 
cool it down ; hence the flame of burning 
hydrogen will pass through gauze, when 
that of a candle or coal gas will not. The 
inflammable gas enters the lamp through 
the gauze, and is gradually consumed. 
When the external air is safe there is no 
change in the flame; but on the ap¬ 
proach of fire-damp it becomes more or 
less enlarged ; and when the mixture is 
highly explosive, the interior of the lamp 
seems filled with a blue lambent flame, its 
own flame being for the time apparently 
extinguished, and rekindled when the air 
again becomes pure; but if the fire-damj 

















safety] CTjc Jrctcntttfc autf 656 

greatly predominates, it is put out entirely. 
The miner, however, having been put on 
his guard, has time to escape. 

SA'FETY-YALVE, a valve by means of 
which a boiler is preserved from bursting 
by the force of steam. It is loaded, accord¬ 
ing to its surface, with a certain weight, 
being the number of pounds to the square 
inch, to the pressure of which it is intended 
to expose the boiler ; as soon as this pres¬ 
sure is exceeded the steam lifts the valve, 
and some of it escapes. That a safety-valve 
may be relied on, it must be frequently 
examined; as it is liable to adhere to its 
seat. This greatly increases the steam 
pressure required to open it ; and in many 
cases to a degree which the boiler is unable 
to bear, and which, therefore, may cause 
an explosion. 

SAF'FLOWER, or BASTARD SAF'- 
FRON, a deep red fecula, separated from 
orange-coloured flowers, particularly those 
of the Garthamus tinctorius. The flowers 
which are sometimes sold under the name 
of saffranon are the only parts employed 
in dyeing. The fine rose colour of safflower, 
extracted by crystallized soda, precipitated 
by citric acid, then slowly dried, and ground 
with the purest talc, produces the beautiful 
rouge known by the name of rouge vegUale. 
[See Rouge ] 

SAF'FRON ( safran: Fr.; from saphar: 
Arab.), a sort of filamentous cake, prepared 
from the stigmas, with a proportion of the 
style, of a perennial bulbous plant, the 
Crocus sativus. It contains a yellow mat¬ 
ter called polychroite, a small quantity of 
which is capable of covering a great body 
of water. It is grown in some of the 
eastern counties of England; and is also 
imported from Sicily, France, and Spain. 
Saffron is used to tinge confectionary ar¬ 
ticles, liqueurs, and varnishes; and some¬ 
times in colouring butter and cheese. It 
was also formerly employed extensively in 
medicine, as well as in the arts ; but is not 
much used at present. It is often adulte¬ 
rated with the petals of other plants, parti- 
cularly those of the marigold. 

SAGAPE'NUM ( sagapenon: Gr.), in Phar¬ 
macy, a gum-resin brought from the East, 
in granules and masses. It is of a compact 
substance, heavy, of a reddish colour, with 
small whitish or yellowish specks. Its 
odour is something like that of assafoetida, 
but weaker. It is occasionally used in me¬ 
dicine, as a nervine and stimulating expec¬ 
torant. 

SAGIT'TA ( Lat .), in Astronomy, the arrow 
or dart, one of Ptolemy’s forty-eight con¬ 
stellations, in the northern hemisphere, 

near the eagle.-In Trigonometry, the 

versed sine of an arc so called by the older 
writers, because it is like a dart or an 
arrow standing on the chord of the arc. 

6AGITTA'RIA ( Sagittarius , pertaining to 
an arrow : Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
aquatic perennial plants, nat. ord. Alisma- 
cece.. One species, the arrow head, grows 
in Britain. 

S AGITTA'RIUS (the Archer: Lat.), in 
Astronomy, the tenth of the twelve signs 
of the Zodiac. 

SA'GITTATE (sa^itta, an arrow : Lat.), in 

Botany, an epithet for a leaf, stipule, or 
anther, whose shape is triangular, and hol¬ 
lowed at the base, like the head of an 
arrow. 

SA'GO, an article of food consisting of 
nearly pure starch; is chiefly obtained from 
the pith of several species of palm, espe¬ 
cially those belonging to the genus Sagus, 
indigenous in the Indian Archipelago. After 
the fecula has been washed clear of the 
woody fibre, and has been roasted, it be- ' 
comes the pearl sago of commerce. Further 
treatment converts it into tapioca. Sago is 
largely consumed by the natives of the 
Eastern Archipelago. ‘ To see sago manu¬ 
factured by the natives is an extraordinary 
sight. A whole tree, trunk about twenty 
feet long and five feet in circumference, is 
by a few days’ labour converted into human 
food. A good sized tree will produce thirty 
bundles of raw sago, weighing about thirty fl 
pounds each bundle, and when baked yield¬ 
ing about sixty cakes of three to a pound. 

Two of these cakes are a meal for a man, or 
about five cakes a day ; and as a tree pro¬ 
duces 1800 cakes, it gives food for one man 
for about a year. The labour to produce 
the raw sago, by breaking up and washing 
the pithy substance of the trunk, is about 
ten days for one man, which labour pro¬ 
vides him with food for a year.’ — A. R. 
Wallace. In Japan and elsewhere sago is 
obtained from the interior of the stems of 
some species of Cycas. 

SAHA'RA, or ZAHARA (desert: Arab.). 

The great Sahara, in the north west of 
Africa, is more than equal to the area of 
Europe. The Arabs style deserts ‘ seas 
without water,’ and the camel * the ship of 
the desert.’ 

SAH'LITE, in Mineralogy, a variety of 
Augite, from the silver mine of Sahla, in 
Sweden. 

SAICK (saica: Ital.), a Turkish or Gre¬ 
cian vessel, very common in the Levant ; a 
kind of ketch which has no top-gallant-sail, 
nor mizen-top-sail. 

SAIL(segd: Sax.), in Navigation, a large 
piece of canvas composed of several 
breadths sewed together, which when ex¬ 
tended, by means of lines, is fitted to re¬ 
ceive the impulse of wind by which a ship 

is driven.- To make sail, is to spread an 

additional quantity of sail for the sake of 
increasing a ship’s speed. To set sail, to ex¬ 
pand the sails; and hence, to begin a 
voyage. To strike sail, is to lower the sails 
suddenly, as in saluting, or in sudden gusts 
of wind. 

SAIL'ING, properly denotes the art of 
navigating and working a ship, or of causing 
her to observe such motions and directions 
as are assigned by the navigator ; in which 
latter sense sailing differs from the art of 
navigation, and must be learned by practice 

on shipboard. - Sailing also denotes a 

particular method of navigation ; in which 
sense we say, Mercator's sailing, plane sail¬ 
ing, parallel sailing, middle latitude sailing, 
and great circle sailing. [See Navigation.] 

SAINT (Fr: from sanctus, holy : Lat.), in 
a limited but the most usual sense of the 
word, signifies certain individuals whose 
lives were deemed so eminently pious that 
















657 Ettcrary 


the cliurch of Rome has authorized the 
rendering of public worship to them. The 
doctrine of saints, and the ideas and usages 
which grew out of it, form one of the main 
points of difference between the Protest¬ 
ants and Roman Catholics. 

SAL'AMANDER (salamandra: Gr.), in 
Zoology, a genus of Batrachian reptiles, 
now limited to the terrestrial species of 
the longtailed Caducibrancliiate Batrachi- 
ans; or those which lose their gills before 
arriving at maturity, hut retain their tails. 
The female brings forth her young alive; 
they are hatched in the oviduct. The sala¬ 
mander is a harmless animal, which dwells 
in cold damp places, among trees or hedges, 
avoiding the heat of the sun ; yet ignorance 
and superstition have ascribed to it the 
power of resisting fire. 

SAL AMMO'NIAC, in Chemistry, Muriate 
of Ammonia, or, perhaps more correctly, 
Chloride of Ammonia, a salt found originally 
neartlie templeof Jupiter, Ammon inLybia, 
and hence its name. It is made abundantly 
In Egypt from the soot of camel’s dung, 
which is burnt in Cairo instead of wood; 
and in every part of Egypt, but especially 
In the Delta, peasants are seen driving 
asses loaded with bags of that soot, on 
their way to the sal ammoniac works. Va¬ 
rious animal offals develop, during their 
spontaneous putrefactive fermentation, or 
their decomposition by heat, a large quan¬ 
tity of free or carbonated ammonia among 
their volatile products ; and upon this prin¬ 
ciple many sal ammoniac works have been 
established. It is made in large quantities 
from gas liquor, which contains the carbon¬ 
ate and other compounds of ammonia. These 
are changed into muriates or chlorides by 
hydrochloric acid; are then separated by 
concentration and crystallization, and re¬ 
sulting sal ammoniac is purified by sub¬ 
limation. The best sal ammoniac is in white 
semi-transparent spheroidal cakes, each 
weighing about a quarter of a cwt. It is 
principally used in tinning of cast iron, 
wrought iron, copper, and brass; and for 
making the various ammoniacal prepara¬ 
tions of pharmacy. 

SAL'ARY ( salaire: Fr., from salarium, 
literally, the money given to soldiers for 
salt: Lat.), the stipend or remuneration 
paid to a man for his services—usually a 
fixed annual sum; in distinction from 
wages, which is for day labour; and pay, 
which is for military service. 

SAL'EP, or SALOP', in the materia me- 
dica, the dried root of the orchis mascula. It 
consists chiefly of a modification of gum, 
resembling tragacanth, with a small quan¬ 
tity of starch, and is sometimes used as 
food. That which is imported from India 
is in white oval pieces, hard, clear, pellucid, 
and without smell; as an article of diet, it 
is said to be light and nutritious. 

SAL'IC, or SALTQUE LAW, the Law of 
the Ripuariau Franks, governing those who 
lived between the Rhine and the Loire. 
Some believe the name derived from the 
river Saale, in Saxony, on the banks of 
which it is supposed that these people 
originally lived. This body of law was re¬ 
formed and republished by Charlemagne; 


Ci*ca£ut‘in [salix 


according to it ‘no portion of Salic land 
can fall to females but what was meant 
by Salic land has been the subject of endless 
discussion among French antiquaries. The 
Salic law, which excluded females from the 
throne of France, was supposed to be de¬ 
rived from this ancient code. It was the 
subject of long wars between England and 
France, when, in opposition to it, Edward 
III. claimed the sovereignty of France by 
a title prior to that of Philip of Valois. It 
has been recognised in all countries of 
which the crown has devolved on the royal 
family of France ; and formed the founda¬ 
tion of the pretensions of Don Carlos to 
the crown of Spain. It was observed with 
reference to the great fiefs which had been 
granted to princes of the blood royal, by 
way of appanage; and hence,on the death of 
Charles Duke of Burgundy, without a male 
heir, that dukedom reverted to Louis XI. 
Hanover, which was so long united to the 
crown of England, ceased to be so on the 
accession of Queen Victoria; as its suc¬ 
cession is regulated by the Salic law. 

SAL'ICINE (salix, the willow: Lat.), an 
alkaloid obtained from the bark of the 
white willow (Salix alba), and some others, 
from that of the aspen-tree and some pop¬ 
lars. It is employed as a febrifuge, and 
its crystals form a beautiful polarising 
object for the microscope. 

SA'LIENT (saliens, leaping: Lat.), in 
Heraldry, an epithet applied to a lion or 
other beast, represented in a leaping pos¬ 
ture, with his right foot in the dexter point, 
and his hinder left foot in the sinister base 
of the escutcheon: hy which it is distin¬ 
guished from rampant. - Counter-sali¬ 

ent is when two beasts on the same es¬ 
cutcheon are salient, the one leaping ono 
way, and the other in an opposite direction, 
so that their bodies cross. 

SA'LIENT ANGLE, in Geometry, and For¬ 
tification, the angle of a polygon, which 
projects outwards from the figure. All the 
angles of any regular figure are salient. An 
angle which points to the interior of the 
figure, is reentering. 

SALIFI'ABLE BASES (sal, salt; and/a- 
cio, I make : Lat.), in Chemistry, substanc es 
which, when combined with acids, form 
salts. 

SALINOM'ETER, an apparatus connected 
with the boilers of steam engines, for tho 
purpose of ascertaining the density of tho 
water therein when salt water is employed. 
When of more than a certain density, the 
water is ‘blown off,’ as its further use 
would be attended with danger. 

SALI'VA (Lat.), the fluid secreted by cer¬ 
tain glands, by which the food is moistened 
before it is conveyed into the stomach. 
Those glands which secrete the saliva are 
termed salivary, and are situate in the 
mouth. 

SALIVA'TION (salivatio: Lat.), in Medi¬ 
cine, an increased secretion of saliva, the re¬ 
sult of the exhibition of certain medicines. 

SA'LIX (Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Salicacece. All the species 
of Salix are either trees or bushes, and are 
known as willows, very hardy, remarkably 
fast growers, and several of them attain a 
U U 














sally] m)t £ttentffc antf 653 

considerable height when permitted to run 
up to standards. Some equal large forest 
trees, thus the Salix alba; while others, 
like the Salix herbacea, are so small as to 
he lost in the grass in which they grow. 
They are generally the most abundant, 
and of most prosperous growth, in watery 
situations. 

SAL'LY ( sallie: Fr.), in the Military art, 
the issuing out of the besieged from a town 
or fort, and falling upon the besiegers in 
their works, in order to cut them off, or 

harass and exhaust them.-‘ To cut off a 

sally,' is to get between those that made the 
sally and their town. 

SAL'LY-PORT, in Fortification, a postern 
gate, or a passage under ground from the 
inner to the outer works ; such as from the 
higher flank to the lower, or to the pommu- 
nication from the middle of the curtain to 
the ravelin. Sallyports are called also, •pos¬ 
tern gates. - Saury-port, a doorway on 

each quarter of a fire-ship, out of which the 
men make their escape into the boats, as 
soon as the train is fired. 

SAI/MON (salmo: Lat.),the Salmosalar of 
ichthyologists, a fish without spines in the 
fins, with abdominal ventral fins, and with 
a rudimentary fin behind the first dorsal. It 
is found in the seas washing the shores of 
Europe, Asia, and America; ascending the 
rivers for spawning in spring, and pene¬ 
trating to their head streams. It is remark¬ 
ably strong, and will even leap over consi¬ 
derable falls which lie in the way of its pro¬ 
gress. It generally varies from about 12 
to 24 pounds in weight; but sometimes sal¬ 
mon are taken weighing from 50 to up¬ 
wards of 80lbs. It furnishes a delicious 
dish for the table, and is an article of com¬ 
merce. Tlieprocessof spawning frequently 
occupies more than a week: during which 
the eggs deposited by a single fish some¬ 
times amount to 20,000. The spawning 
season extends from the end of October 
to the beginning of February. The eggs 
of tnc salmon remain in the gravel for 
several months, exposed to the influence 
of running water. In the course of the 
month of March the fry areevolved. When 
i.-. vvly hatched they are scarcely an inch 
in length, of the most delicate struc- 
. turn, and for a while connected with the 
egg. Upon leaving the spawning bed, the 
fry betake themselves to the neighbouring 
pools, where they speedily increase to two 
or three inches in length. In April, May, 
and Jane they migrate towards the sea, 
keeping near the margin, or still water, in 
the river ; and when they reach the estu¬ 
ary, they betake themselves to a deeper and 
more sheltered course, and escape to the 
unknown haunts of their race, to return 
shortly after as grilses, along with the more 
aged individuals. All these seaward migra¬ 
tions of the parent fish and the fry are in¬ 
fluenced, and greatly accelerated, by the 

occurrence of the floods in the rivers.- 

The I. ondon market, where the consump¬ 
tion is immense, is principally supplied 
from the Scotch rivers. The Tweed fishery 
is ( lie first in point of magnitude of any in 
the kingdom ; and such is its abundance, 
'hat several hundreds have been frequently 

taken by a single sweep of the net. When 
the season is at its height, and the catch 
greater than can be disposed of fresh, it is 
salted, dried, or pickled, for winter con¬ 
sumption at home. [See Fisheries.] 

SALOON' ( salone: ltal.), in Architecture, 
a lofty spacious hall, vaulted at the top, 
and generally comprehending two stories, 
with two ranges of windows. In Italy, it 
is used as a state room in palaces, for the 
reception of ambassadors and other visitors. 

SAL'PA (Lat.), a genus of small animals 
which swim freely in the ocean, and belong 
to the Tunicata. 

SALSES, small mud volcanoes, which 
may be considered as phenomena interme¬ 
diate between thermal springs and erup¬ 
tions of larva. On their first outbreak they 
are generally accompanied by flames. 

SAL'SOLA ( salsus, salt: Lat.), in Botany, 
a genus of plants, nat. ord. Chenopodiacerv, 
often called saltworts, from the large yield 
of soda. 

SALT (sealt: Sax.), in the popular sense, 
is a saline crystallization, used to season or 
preserve meats. This is usually called com¬ 
mon salt, which is procured by evaporating 
sea-water, or the water of salt springs; or 
is dug in mines. White salt and bay salt 
are of the former kind; and fossil or rock 
salt of the latter. In sea salt prepared by 
rapid evaporation, the insoluble portion i3 
a mixture of carbonate of lime with carbo¬ 
nate of magnesia, and a fine silicious sand; 
and, in the salt prepared from Cheshire 
brine, it is almost entirely carbonate of 
lime. The insoluble part of the less pure 
pieces of rock salt ia chiefly of a marly 
earth, with some sulphate of lime. In 
Garamania, in Asia, Chardin tells us, rock 
salt is so abundant, and the atmosphere so 
dry, that the inhabitants use it as stone for 
building their houses. This mineral is also 
found on the whole elevated table laud of 
Great Tartary, Thibet, and Hindostan. 
Extensive plains in Persia are covered with 
a saline efflorescence. Rock salt has also 
been found in New South Wales. The 
principal deposit of this substance in Great 
Britain is in Cheshire. The beds alternate 
with clay and marl, which contain gypsum. 

It occurs also at Droitwich in Worcester¬ 
shire. The salt mines in the neighbour¬ 
hood of Northwich are very extensive. 
They have been wrought since 1670; and 
the quantity of salt obtained from them is 
greater, probably, than is obtained from 
any other salt mines in the world. The 
Cheshire salt, in its solid form when dug 
from the mine, is not sufficiently pure for 
use. It is purified by solution in sea 
water, from which it is afterwards sepa¬ 
rated by evaporation and crystallization. 
The beds or masses of rock salt are occa¬ 
sionally so thick, that they have not been 
yet bored through, though mined for many 1 
centuries; but it is sometimes dissemi¬ 
nated in small masses or veins among the 
calcareous and argillaceous marls which 
accompany or overlie the greater deposit. 

In the places where there are salt springs, 
and salt works are carried on at them, the 
work-house where the salt is made is al¬ 
ways called the toych-house; it is supposed 































G69 Httcrani Ci'fatfurii. [sanctuary 


{hat wych was an okl British word for salt, 
as all the towns in which salt is made end 
in wych : as Namptwych, Droilwych, Middle- 
wych, &c.—Thcro are places in America 
where the sea occasionally overflows; and 
the water evaporating leaves the salt be¬ 
hind. These are called licks, and are the 
resort of vast crowds of different quadru¬ 
peds. Salt is next in importance to bread. 
And the most serious disturbances have 
occasionally occurred in countries where a 
comparatively heavy tax has been laid upon 
it. The annual consumption in Great Bri¬ 
tain alone, without including Ireland, is 

180,000 tons. 300,000 tons are exported.- 

Salt, in Chemistry, has a more extended 
sense; and includes all compounds of an 
acid and a base, such as sulphate of potash; 
or of the radical of the acid and the base of 
the oxide, as iodide of potassium. A salt 
consisting of an oxacid and an oxide is 
1 termed an oxysalt; one consisting of the 
i radical of the acid and the base of the oxide 
a haloid salt. There are acid, alkaline, and 
| neutral salts. In the first the acid, in the 
second the alkali, and in the third neither 
predominates. Salts assume various other 
designations, depending on the acid, the 
base, or both. [See Chemistry.] Some¬ 
times a salt is hydrous; that is, contains 
water in combination; sometimes anhy¬ 
drous, containing no water. 

SALT'IRE ( saltiere: Fr.), in Heraldry, one 
of the eight greater ordinaries; a St. An¬ 
drew's cross. Charges such as swords, ba¬ 
tons, &c. placed in the direction of Saltire, 
aro said to be borne saltire-wise. 

SALTPE'TRE. [See Nitre.] 

SALU'TE (saluto, I greet: Lat), in Mili¬ 
tary discipline, a testimony or act of respect 
performed in different ways, according to 
circumstances. In the army, the officers 
salute by dropping the point of the sword ; 
also by lowering the colours and beating 
the drums. In the navy, salutes are made 
by discharges of cannon,strikingthe colours 
or top-sails, or by volleys of small arms. 
Ships always salute with an odd number of 
guns. The vessel under the wind of the 
other fires first. 

SAL'VAGE (salvo, I save : Lat.), in Com¬ 
merce, a recompense allowed to such per¬ 
sons as have assisted in saving goods from 
fire,loss at sea, or ships from shipwrecks,&c. 

SALVATEL'BA, in Anatomy, the vein 
which runs along the arm, and terminates 
in the little finger; so named from salus, 
health, because the opening of it was for¬ 
merly thought to be of singular use in hy¬ 
pochondriacal affections. 

SAMAll'ITAN, an inhabitant of Samaria, 
or one that belonged to the sect which de¬ 
rived their appellation from that city. After 
the fall of the kingdom of Israel, the peo¬ 
ple remaining in its territory, and consist¬ 
ing of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, 
mingled with some Assyrian colonists, were 
called Samaritans by the Greeks, from the 
city of Samaria, around which they dwelt. 
When the Jews, on their return from cap¬ 
tivity, rebuilt the temple of Jerusalem, the 
Samaritans desired to aid in the work; but 
their offers were rejected by the Jews, who 
looked upon them as unclean, on account 


of their mixture with heathens; and the j 
Samaritans revenged themselves by hinder- 1 
ing the building of the city aud temple. 
Hence the hatred which prevailed betweeu 
the Jows and Samaritans, which, in the 
time of Jesus, when the latter were con¬ 
fined to a narrow strip of country between 
Judea and Galilee, prevented all intercourse 
between them, and still continues. In their 
religious opinions aud usages they resem¬ 
ble those Jews who reject the Talmud, and 
differ from the rabbinical Jews, in receiv¬ 
ing only the Pentateuch, and in rejecting j 
all the other portions of the Bible, as well 
as the Talmud and rabbinical traditions; 
but in their manners, rites, and religious 
ceremonies, they adhere strictly to the 
Mosaic law. 

SA'MIAN EARTH and STONE (from the 
isle of Samos), the name of a species of 
marl, formerly used in medicine as an as¬ 
tringent ; and by goldsmiths, for brighten¬ 
ing and polishing gold. 

SA'MIEL (Turk.), the name for a hot, 
suffocating wind of the desert of Arabia. 
It blows in the months of July and August, 
aud approaches the very gates of Bagdad, 
but is said never to affect a person within j 
its walls. It frequently passes with the velo¬ 
city of lightning, and there is no way of 
avoiding its dire effects, but by falling on 
the ground, aud keeping the face close to 
the earth. Those who are negligent of this 
precaution experience instant suffocation. 
It is identical with the Simoon of the Ara¬ 
bians ; it derives its qualities from blowing 
over parched and sandy deserts. 

SAM'PHIllE (Saint Pierre: Fr.), an um¬ 
belliferous plant, the Crithmummaritimum 
of botanists. It grows on rocks near the 
seashore, where it is washed by the salt 
water. It is used for pickling. 

SAM'SHOO, the name of a spirit obtained 
from rice, and largely consumed by the 
Chinese. 

SAM'UEL, Tite Books of, two canonical 
books of the Old Testament, so called, as 
being usually ascribed to the prophet Sa¬ 
muel. The books of Samuel and the books 
of Kings are a continued history of the 
reigns of the kings of Israel and Judea.— 
The first book of Samuel comprehends the 
transactions under the government of Ell 
and Samuel, and under Saul the first king ; 
and also the acts of David while ho lived 
under Saul. The second book is wholly 
occupied in relating the transactions of 
David’s reign. 

SAN-BEN'ITO, a kind of linen garment, 
painted with hideous figures, and worn by 
persons condemned by the Inquisition. Also 
a coat of sackcloth used by penitents on 
their reconciliation to the church. 

SANC'TUARY (sanctuarium: Lat), in a 
general sense, any sacred asylum ; but more 
especially, The Sanctum-sanctorum, the 
most retired part of the temple at Jeru¬ 
salem, called also the Holy of Holies ; in 
which was kept the ark of the covenant, 
and into which no person was permitted to 
enter except the high-priest, and he only 

once a year, to intercede for the people.- 

Sanctuary, in the Roman Catholic church, 
that part of the church immediately round 




































sand] 


)t Scientific antf 


660 


the altar. Also, certain churches and 
shrines, to which criminals might fly for 
shelter. They were originally intended to 
preserve them from sudden and revengeful 
punishment. In England, anyone who fled 
to a sanctuary, and within forty days gave 
signs of repentance, was secure from pun¬ 
ishment, if he subjected himself to banish¬ 
ment. [See Refuge, cities of.] 

SAND, fine particles of stone, particularly 
of the silicious kind, ,but not reduced to 
powder or dust. Sand is of great use in the 
glass manufacture, the white writing sand 
being employed for making the white glass, 
and a coarse greenish looking sand for the 

green glass.- Sands, in the plural, tracts 

of land, consisting of sand, like the deserts 
of Arabia and Africa. 

SAN'DAL ( sandalon: Gr.), in Antiquity, 
a kind of costly slipper, worn by the Greek 
and Roman ladies; made of silk or other 
precious stuffs, and ornamented with gold 
or silver. 

SAN'DAL-WOOD, or SAN'DERS-WOOD, 
the wood of the Pterocarpus santalinus, a 
large tree, growing on the coast of Coro¬ 
mandel, and other parts of India, especially 
of Ceylon. It is of a red colour, has little 
taste or smell, and is principally used as a 
colouring drug. Other kinds of sandal¬ 
wood were used by the Oriental nations, for 
burning in their houses, and thus producing 
a fragrant odour ; also for the manufacture 
of a powder, of which they form a paste, 
used in anointing their bodies. 

SAN'DARACH, or GUM SAN'DARACH, a 
resinous substance exuding from the Calli- 
tris quadrivalvis, a coniferous tree that 
grows in Barbary. It is used in powder 
under the name of pounce, to prevent ink 
from spreading on paper. 

SAND'BAGS, bags fitted for holding sand 
or earth, and used in preparing breaches in 
fortifications, &c. 

SAND'-BOX, a West Indian tree, the 
Hum crepitans, nat. ord. Eupliorbiacece. It 
is said that the pericarp of the fruit will 
burst in the heat of the day with a loud re¬ 
port, and throw the seeds to a distance. 

SAN'DEVER, or SAN'DIVER (sandever : 
Fr.), a whitish salt which is cast up from 
the materials of glass in fusion, and, float¬ 
ing on the top, is skimmed ofE. A similar 
substance is thrown out in eruptions of 
volcanoes. It is used in the fusion of cer¬ 
tain ores, and is also employed in medicine. 

SAND'PIPER, in Ornithology, wading 
birds of the genus Tringa, subgenus Teta¬ 
nus, and of various species, many of which 
are widely diffused. 

SAND'STONE, in Mineralogy, masses of 
stone, composed of agglutinated grains of 
sand, which may be either calcareous or 
silicious. Sandstones usually consist of the 
materials of older rocks, as granite, broken 
up and comminuted, and afterwards de¬ 
posited again. 

SANG FROID (Fr.), freedom from agita¬ 
tion or excitement of mind. 

SAN'GIAC, or SAN'J AK, a governor of a 
district in Turkey, forming part of a Pa- 
shalic. Before the loss of Greece and the 
Caucasus, there were 290 sangiacates in the 
Turkish empire. 


SAN'GUINE ( sanguineus, blood-coloured: 
Lat.), in Heraldry, an epithet for a dark red 
colour; represented in engraving by lines 
hatched across one another diagonally. 

SAN'HEDRIM ( Heb .), a word said to be 
derived from the Greek, and signifying the 
great public council, civil and religious, of 
the ancient Jewish republic or hierarchy. 
This council consisted of seventy-one or 
seventy-two members, and was composed 
of chief priests, elders, and scribes. They 
received appeals from other tribunals, and 
had power of life and death. 

SA'NIES (Lat.), in Medicine, a thin, un¬ 
healthy purulent discharge from wounds 
or sores. 

SAN'SCRIT, the ancient language of In¬ 
dia, now extinct, from which most of the 
languages there spoken are derived. It 
belongs to the Aryan or Indo-European 
group of tongues. It was declared by Sir 
William Jones to be more perfect than the 
Greek, more copious than the Latin, and 
more refined than either. The literature i3 
abundant. The earliest existing work is 
the Vedas. These, and the Puranas, are 
religious writings, but there are also Epic 
poems, dramas, and philosophical composi¬ 
tions. The Sanscrit has been much inves¬ 
tigated of late years, not only on account 
of its literature, but with reference to the 
history and connection of the whole group 
of languages to which it belongs. The 
literal meaning of the word Sanscrit is 
said to be ‘polished’; in India the lan¬ 
guage is called Sura Cani, or the language 
of the heavenly regions. It is now publicly 
taught at several of the German universi¬ 
ties, as well as at Oxford, Cambridge, and 
London. 

SANS-CULOTTES (sans, without; culottes, 
breeches : Fr.), the name given in derision 
to the popular party, by the aristocratical, 
in the beginning of the French revolution 
of 1789; but though in the first instance 
applied by way of contempt, yet when the 
fiercest principles of republicanism pre¬ 
vailed, sans-culottism became a term of 
honour; and some of the bravest generals, 
in their dispatches announcing their vic¬ 
tories, gloried in the name. 

SAP (scepe: A. Sax.), the juice of plants, 
which is absorbed from the earth by the 
roots; rises through the tissue of the 
stem, dissolving the secretions it meets 
with in its course, and thus acquiring new 
properties; it is conveyed thence to the 
leaves, where it is assimilated and altered ; 
and from the leaves to the bark. In its 
crude state it consists of little more than 
water, holding earthy and gaseous matter, 
particularly carbonic acid, in solution. It 
passes, in its upward motion, through all 
the tissue of the stem which is permeable; 
and probably through all the tubes and ves¬ 
sels of the wood, and their intercellular 
passages. The sap is to the tree what the 
blood is to the animal; it supplies all that 

is required for sustenance or growth__ 

Sap, in Fortification, a trench or approach 
made under cover of gabions, &c. 

SAPONA'RIA ( sapo , soap : Lat.), in Bota¬ 
ny, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Silenaceas, 
including the S. officinalis, or soapwort, a 





















661 


Ettcrnr» Crearfurg. 


[satin 


British plant, of which a decoction is used 
to cleanse and scour woollen cloths; the 
poorer people in some countries use it 
instead of soap for washing. 

SAPPAN-WOOD, the produce of a legu¬ 
minous tree growing in India, the Ccesal- 
pinia Sappan of botanists ; it is employed 
in dyeing. 

SAPPHIC, pertaining to Sappho, a Gre¬ 
cian poetess ; as Sapphic odes, &c. The 
Sapphic verse consists of eleven syllables 
in five feet, of which the first, fourth, and 
fifth, are trochees, the second a spondee, 
and the third a dactyl, in the first three 
lines of each stanza, and a dactyl and spon¬ 
dee in the fourth line. 

SAP'PHIRE ( sappheiros: Gr.), a very hard 
gem, consisting of alumina. It is of va¬ 
rious colours, the blue being generally 
called the sapphire; the red the oriental 
ruby ; and the yellow the oriental Topaz. 
Sapphires are found in various places; 
as Pegu, Calicut, Cananor, and Ceylon, in 
Asia; and Bohemia and Silesia, in Eu¬ 
rope. The asterias, or star-stone, is a very 
beautiful variety, in which the colour is 
generally of a reddish violet, with an opa¬ 
lescent lustre. 

SAP ROLLER, in Siege operations this 
consists of two concentric gabions placed 
one inside the other, each six feet long, the 
space between them beiDg filled with logs 
of hard wood. When a sapper is engaged 
at the head of an approach or trench in 
pushing the work towards the enemy, a sap 
roller is employed to protect him. 

SAR'ABAND ( Span .), a dance and a tune 
used in Spain, said to be derived from the 
Saracens. 

SAR'COCOL, or SAR'COCOLLA (sarx, 
flesh ; and kolla, glue: Gr.), a gum resin 
brought from the northern parts of Africa, 
in small grains of a light yellow or red 
colour. It is obtained from the penda sar- 
cocolla ; it resembles gum-arabic, but is 
soluble in alcohol; and its aqueous solution 
is precipitated by tannin. 

SAR'COLITE (sarx, flesh ; and lithos, a 
stone: Gr.), a species of Zeolite, of a flesh 
colour. 

SARCOL'OGY (sarx, flesh; and logos, a 
discourse; Gr.), that part of Anatomy which 
treats of the soft parts of the body; as the 
muscles, fat, intestines, vessels, &c. 

SARCO'MA (Gr.; from sarx, flesh), any 
fleshy excrescence on an animal body. 

SARCOPH'AGUS (sarkophagos.tvoni sarx, 
flesh; and phagein, to eat: Gr.), a species 
of limestone of which ancient coffins were 
made; and which, according to Pliny, had 
the power of destroying within forty days 
the corpses put into them. This quality 
brought the stone into very common use; 
and thus the name came to be applied to 
all coffins of stone, though often used for 
a contrary purpose to that which the name 
expresses. Of the great number of sarco¬ 
phagi, which have comedown to us, several 
are known by particular names; as, the 
sarcophagus of Homer, in the Besborodko 
gardens at St. Petersburg; and that of 
Alexander the Great,in the British Museum, 
once in the Mosque of St. Athanasius at 
Alexandria, It was taken by the British 


from the French, during their memorable 
campaign in Egypt. 

SARDON'IC LAUGH ( risus sardonicus), 
so called from the herb sardonia, which 
grows in Sardinia, and, being eaten, is said 
to cause a deadly convulsive laughter, or 
spasmodic grin. 

SAR'DONYX ( sardonux, the Sardinian 
onyx: Gr.), agenus of semi-pellucid gems, 
of the onyx structure, zoned or tabulated ; 
and composed of the matter of the onyx, 
variegated with that of the red or yellow 
carnelian. It is often blood red, by trans¬ 
mitted light. 

SARGASSO SEA. In the middle of the 
Atlantic ocean, and to the west of the Cana¬ 
ries and the Cape Verde Islands there is a 
large tract of quiet water many hundred 
square miles in extent,covered with floating 
seaweed, of which that called Sargasso is 
the principal Another species, the Macro- 
cystispyrifera of botanists, has stems more 
than a thousand.feet long, but only of the 
thickness of a finger, while it branches into 
thread-like divisions. This vast oceanic 
meadow is the abode of myriads of small 
crustaceans, and minute organisms. Ves¬ 
sels avoid this calm tract, but Columbus 
was entangled in it on his first voyage, and 
imagined when he first met with it that he 
was in the neighbourhood of land. 

SARMEN'TOUS ( sarmentosus, full of 
twigs: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a 
stem that is filiform and almost naked; or 
has leaves only in branches at the joints or 
knots, where it strikes root. 

SARSAPARIL'LA, the roots of plants 
growing in South America and the West 
Indies; species of Smilax, valued in Medi¬ 
cine for their mucilaginous and demulcent 
qualities. 

SARTORIUS MUSCLE ( sartor, a patcher: 
Lat.), a muscle of the thigh, which bends 
the leg obliquely inwards, when the thighs 
are crossed, as those of tailors usually are.- 

S AS'SAFRAS, a tree of the genus Lauras, 
whose bark has an aromatic smell and taste, 
and is used in medicine. 

SAS'SOLINE, in Chemistry, native Bora- 
cic acid, found in saline incrustations on 
the borders of hot springs near Sasso, in 
the territory of Florence. 

SAS'TRA, among the Hindoos, a book 
containing sacred ordinances. The six great 
Sastras, in the opinion of the Hindoos, con¬ 
tain all knowledge, human and divine. 
These are called the Veda, Upaveda, Ve- 
danga, Purana, Dherma, and Dersana. 

SAT'ELLITE ( safeties, an attendant: 
Lat.), in Astronomy, a small planet revolv¬ 
ing round another. [See Astronomy, Pla¬ 
net, &c.] A secondary, which revolves 
round a primary planet. The earth has one 
satellite, the moon; Jupiter has four; Sa¬ 
turn, eight; Uranus, four; aud Neptune, 
probably two. 

SAT'IN ( Fr .), a soft closely woven silk, 
with a glossy surface. In the manufacture 
of other silken stuffs, each half of the warp 
is raised alternately ; but in weaving satin, 
the workman dhly raises the fifth or the 
eighth part of the warp; in which way it 
acquires that lustre and brilliancy which 
distinguish it from most other kinds of 




















satire] Jrrieuttfic autf 862 

silks. The chief seats of the satin manu¬ 
facture are Lyons in France, and Genoa and 
Florence in Italy. 

S ATT RE (Fr.; from satira: Lat.), in Li¬ 
terature, a species of writing, the object of 
which is always castigation. It presupposes 
i not merely much natural wit, but also acute 
! observation, and familiarity with varied life 
and manners to call this wit into exercise. 

; SATURATION ( saturatio , a satisfying: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, that point at which a 
body ceases to have the power of dissolving 
or combining with another; thus when 
nitric acid has dissolved lime to its fullest 
extent, it is said to be saturated with lime. 

SAT'URDAY, the last day of the week. It 
was dedicated by the Romans to Saturn, 
and hence called dies saturni (Saturn’s day). 
The Scandinavians, and from them the 
Saxons, had a deity named Seater, from 
whom some believe the English name is 
derived. 

SATURETA {Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Labiatce. The species are 
garden herbs, well known by tho name of 
savory. 

SATURN, in Astronomy, a conspicuous 
planet, though not so brilliant as Jupiter, 
Venus, or even Mars. Its diameter is 
about 76068 miles; and his volume nearly 
1000 times that of tho earth. He revolves 
at the distance of about 890 millions of 
miles from the sun, and the period of 
his sidereal revolution is about 29i years. 
His orbit is nearly circular; and, at 
the beginning of the present century, it 
was inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of 
2° 29' 35", that eccentricity being sub¬ 
ject to a decrease of 0T55" annually. Ho 
rotates about his axis, in lOh. 29m. 10’8s.; 
thisrapid motion produces great centrifugal 
force; and hence he is very much flattened 
at the poles. Unlike any other planet of 
the solar system, Saturn has three rings— 
one Laving been discovered lately; they 
lie in the same plane, and are concentric 
with the planet and each other. The exte¬ 
rior ring is 21146 miles in width ; the next 
34351 miles; they aro 1791 miles from each 
other; and the inner one 19090 miles from 
the planet; they are not more than 250 
miles in thickness. The third ring is very 
faint and dusky ; but there is no doubt of 
its existence. These rings consist of solid 
matter, ns appears from the shadow they 
cast; and they revolve round their centres. 

SATURNA'LIA (Lat.), in Antiquity, 
feasts in honour of Saturn. The Saturnalia 
are by some supposed to have had their 
origin in Greece; but by whom they were 
Instituted or introduced among the Romans 
is not known, as their origin is lost in the 
most remote antiquity. They were cele¬ 
brated with such circumstances as were 
thought characteristic of the golden age; 
particularly the overthrow of distinction 
and rank. Slaves were reputed masters 
during tlie three days they lasted; were at 
liberty to say what they pleased; and, in 
fine, were served at table by their owners. 
These festivities, in which men indulged in 
riot without restraint, were held annually 
towards the end of December. 

SATYR (saturos • Go,in HeathenMytho- 

logy, a sylvan deity or demi-god, represent¬ 
ed as a monster, half man and half goat; j 
having horns on his head, a hairy body,with 
the feet and tail of a goat. Satyrs are usually ! 
found in the train of Bacchus, and have been , 
distinguished for lasciviousness and riot. 

SAU'CISSE (a sausage: Fr.), in the art of | 
war a long pipe or bag, made of cloth well j 
pitched, or of leather; filled with powder, 
and extending from the chamber of tho 
mine to the entrance of the gallery. It 
serves to communicate fire to mines, cais- | 
sons, bomb-chests, &c. 

SAUCISSON'S (same clcriv.), in Fortifica¬ 
tion, faggots, or fascines, made of great 
boughs of trees bound together ; their use 
being to cover men, or to make epaule- 
rnents, &c. 

SAU'RIAN (sauros, a lizard : Or.), an epi¬ 
thet applied to reptiles of the lizard tribe. 

SA US'SURITE, in Mineralogy, a variety 
of Nephrite: so called in honour of Saus- 
sure, who discovered it on the banks of the 
lake of Geneva. 

SAVAN'NA,orSAVAN'NAII, an extensive 
open plain, destitute of trees; found on the 
banks of the Missouri and Mississippi. 

SAX'IFRAGE (saxifragus ; from saxum, a 
stone ; and frango, Ibreak: Lat.— on account 
of its supposed effect on stone in the blad¬ 
der), in Botany, a genus of plants of many 
species. Also, a medicine that has the re¬ 
putation of being a solvent for the stone. 

SCA'BIES (Lat.), in Medicine, a disease of 
the skin, accompanied by itching, caused 
by insects breeding in the parts affected. 

SCADIO'SA (last: because supposed to 
cure it), in Botany, a genus of plants, nat. 
ord. Dipsacece. The species are nearly all 
perennials, as the Alpine scabious, &c. 

SCAGLIO'LA ( Ital .), in Architecture, a j 
composition which is an excellent imitation 
of marble. It is composed of gypsum, or 
sulphate of lime, calcined and reduced to a 
fine powder, and made Into a paste with 
water, when the colour to be coated has 
been prepared with a surface of lime and 
hair; tho calcined gypsum, previously 
passed through a sieve, is mixed with glue 
and isinglass, and laid on with wooden 
moulds, the proper colours being put in 
during the operation. When set it is 
smoothed with a pumice stone, and at tho 
same time washed with a sponge and water; 
it is then polished with tripoli, &c., and 
finished with pure oil. 

SCALE (scala, a flight of steps: Ital.), in 
Music, a series of sounds, rising in acute¬ 
ness, or falling in gravity, through degrees 
into which all the harmonic intervals are 
conveniently divided.- Scale, in Arithme¬ 

tic, the order of progression on which any 
system of notation is founded; as the binary 

decimal, &c.-Scale, in Mensuration,a line 

or rule of a definite length, divided into a 
given number of equal parts; for the 
purpose of measuring other linear mag¬ 
nitudes. The scales of thermometers ant 
graduated from some arbitrary point in 

degrees, which are also arbitrary.- Scale, 

in Zoology, small thin plates, which grow 
out of and defend the skin of fishes. They 
appertain to the system of the rate viucosum 
beneath the true epidermis. The so called 

































G63 Htterarj) 


scales of serpents and other reptiles are 
modifications of the epidermis itself. 

SCA'LE STONE, or SCHAAL'STEIN, a 
rare mineral, of a grayish or pearly white 
colour, tinged with green, yellow, or red. 
It is also called Tafel-spath, and tabular spar; 
and is composed of thin laminm collected 
into largo prismatic concretions. 

SCAL'LOP ( escallop : Fr.), a species of 
Pecten. The scallop shell was worn hy 
Itoman Catholic pilgrims. 

SCAL'PEL {scalpellum : Lat .), in Sur¬ 
gery, a knife used in anatomical dissections 
and surgical operations. 

SCAM'MONY (scammonia: Gr.), gum- 
resin, obtained from a plant of that name. 
It is of a blackish gray colour, a strong 
nauseous smell, and a bitter and very acrid 
taste. It is a strong and efficacious purga¬ 
tive. The best scammony comes from Alep¬ 
po, in light spongy masses, easily friable. 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM (a slander 
against persons of rank: Lot.), in Law, a 
defamatory speech or writing made or pub¬ 
lished to the injury of a person of dignity. 
It is not necessary that it should be such 
as would be actionable at common law, in 
the caseof aperson of inferior station. This 
action has not been .brought for a long 
period; the last instance of it seems to have 
been in the eighth year of Queen Anne. 

SCAN'NING ( scaiuio , I measure verses, 
literally, I climb: Lat.), in Latin poetry, the 
examining a verse by counting and exa¬ 
mining the feet, to see if the quantities are 
duly observed ; or, according to modern 
usage, to recite or measure verse by distin¬ 
guishing the feet in pronunciation. 

SCAN'SORES {Lat., from scando, I climb), 
climbing birds. An order which includes 
those possessing the power to turn one toe 
back, so as to have two toes before. This 
order has been divided into four families: 
1. Rampliastidce, the toucans. 2. rsittacidce, 
parrots. 3. PLcidce, woodpeckers. 4. Cucu- 
lidce, cuckoos. 

SCAPE ( skapos, a stalk: Lat.), in Botany, 
a stem bearing the fructification without 
leaves, as in the narcissus and hyacinth. 

SCA'PE-GOAT, in the Jewish ritual, a 
goat which was brought to the door of the 
tabernacle, where the liigh-priest laid his 
hands upon him, confessing the sins of the 
people, and putting them on the head of 
the goat; after which the goat was turned 
loose into the wilderness.—Levit. xvi. 

SCA'PEMENT, in Horology, the manner 
of commuriicatingthe impulseof tliewlieels 
to the pendulum. Common scapements 
consist of the swing wheels and pallets 
only; but modern improvements have added 
other levers or detents. 

SCAP'OLITE ( scapos, a stalk ; and litlios, 
a stone: Gr.), a mineral, the crystals of 
which are often collected in groups of 
parallel, diverging, or intermingled prisms, 
whence its name. 

SCAP'ULA {Lat.), in Anatomy, the should¬ 
er-blade ; a bone which is fixed to the upper, 
posterior, and lateral part of the thorax, 
extending front the first to about the 
seventh rib. The uses of the scapula are 
to sustain the arms, and join them to the 
body ; to serve for the insertion of several 


Ctfrttfttry. [SCARLATINA 


muscles; and to add somewhat to the de¬ 
fence of the parts contained within the 
thorax. It is of various shapes in different 
animals; and, in most fishes, is articulated to 
the back of theskuil. 

SCAP'ULAR (from last), in Ornithology, 
the name given to a feather which springs 
from the shoulder of the wing, and lies 
along the side of the back. 

SCAP'ULAltY (same deriv.), a part of the 
habit of certain religious orders in the Ilo 
man Catholic church; consisting of two 
narrow slips of cloth worn over the gown, 
covering the back and breast, and extend¬ 
ing to the feet. Simon Stock, an English¬ 
man, in the 13th century, under the autho¬ 
rity of a vision, introduced the notion that 
the scapulary is a distinctive mark of devo¬ 
tion to the Virgin Mary; since which time 
a conviction has been very commonly en¬ 
tertained among devotees, that those wear¬ 
ing it at the hour of death are specially 
fortified against the consequences of their 
transgressions. The scapular worn by the 
laity on ordinary occasions consists of two 
small square pieces of stuff, united by pieces 
of tape, and having the symbol which 
indicates the Virgin’s name, &c., embroi¬ 
dered upon them. 

SCAIlABiE'US {Lat., from skarabos, Gr.), 
the name formerly given by entomologists 
to a genus of beetle now so numerous that 

they are divided into several genera.- 

ScAitABiEUS, in Antiquities, a symbol an¬ 
ciently worn by the Egyptians and Etrus¬ 
cans, as an amulet. Amongst Egyptian car¬ 
vings there are many representations of 
these sacred Scarabseus, the emblem of their 
deity, Phtha, or Vulcan, the god of eternal 
fire. 

SCARF'-SKIN, in Anatomy, the first and 
outermost of the three layers of which the 
skin is composed. The Cuticle or Epider¬ 
mis. [See Skin.] 

SCARIFICA'TION {scariflcatio: Lat.), hi 
Surgery, the operation of making several 
incisions in the skin, with a lancet or a 
cupping instrument. 

SCARLATI'NA, in Medicine, the scarlet 
fever. It is a highly contagious disease, and 
assumes two forms. The one comes on 
with languor, chills, and the usual symp¬ 
toms of fever. On the third or fourth day 
there appears a scarlet efflorescence on the 
skin, which ends, in three or four days, by 
the skin peeling off in brawny scales; the 
febrile symptoms, and sore throat, if there 
had been any, disappear; and the patient 
gradually recovers—a dropsical swelling, 
which lasts but a short time, sometimes 
following the disease. In the other form, 
the febrile symptoms are more serious; 
there i3 bilious vomiting; great soreness 
and ulceration of the throat ; and the erup¬ 
tion, instead of mitigating the symptoms, 
is accompanied by their dangerous increase. 
The body becomes swollen, the nose and 
eyes inflamed, the breath fetid, and the in¬ 
flammation of the throat terminates in grey¬ 
ish sloughs. If the patient recover, drop¬ 
sical swellings and glandular tumours fol¬ 
low, and leave his state very precarious. 
This disease occasionally assumes a highly 
malignant form. Scarlet fever is known 


























CI)c Jj>rienttftc antr 664 


scarlet] 


from measles, by the greater extent, and 
want of elevation, of the eruption; and by 
its not assuming the form of semilunar 
patches. Besides, there is no cough, nor 
the running from the eyes and nose, with 
which measles begin. 

SCAR/LET-OAK, in Botany, the Quercus 
coccifera, or kermes oak, producing small 
glandular excrescences, called kermes or 
scarlet-grain, which are used for dyeing 
scarlet. 

SCARP, in Fortification, the interior talus 
or slope of the ditch next the place at the 

foot of the rampart.-In Heraldry, the 

scarf which military commanders wear for 
ornament. 

SCENE (Fr., from skene: Or.). In the 
drama this word has four significations: its 
first, or primitive, denotes a theatre, in ac¬ 
cordance with its meaning(a tent, or booth); 
its second, the decoration of a theatre, as 
the painting exhibited between the acts; 
its third, a scene representing the place in 
which an action is performed, as a room 
or a garden; and its fourth, that portion 
of a drama which belongs to the same per¬ 
son or persons, in one place. 

SCENOG'RAPHY (slcenographia; from 
skene, a scene; and grapho, I write: Or.), 
in Perspective, opposed to Ichnography 
and Orthography. Ichnography is the 
ground-plan; orthography, the elevation or 
i a flat view of a front of an object; and 
scenography, the perspective view, which 
takes several sides, and represents every¬ 
thing in its apparent proportions. 

SCEP'TICISM ( skeptomai , I examine: Or.) 
—called also Pyrrhonism from its founder 
Pyrrho,who lived under Alexander the Great 
—the doctrine of a sect of philosophers, 
who maintained that no certain inferences 
can be drawn from the senses, and who 
therefore doubted of everything. [See 
Philosophy.] 

SCEP'TRE (sleeptron ; from skepio, I lean 
upon: Gr.), a short staff, the emblem of 
sovereign power. It is an ensign of royalty 
of greater antiquity than the crown. It 
j was at first an unornamented staff, or 
baton; but became, afterwards, covered 
with ornaments in ivory, gold, &c. At 
present, the sceptre and ball form the two 
most important emblems of royal and im¬ 
perial power. 

SCHED'ULE (Fr.; from schedula, a small 
piece of paper: Lat.), in Law, a scroll of 
paper or parchment appended to a will or 
i deed. Also a list of names or things. 

SCHE'LIUM, or SCHEE'LIN, in Mine¬ 
ralogy, another name for tungsten ; given 
to it in honour of Scheele, its discoverer. 
[See Tungsten.] 

SCHE'RIF (lord, or master: Arab.), a 
title given, in the east, to those who are 
descended from Mahomet, through his 
daughter Fatima and son-in-law Ali. They 
are called also Emir, and Seid, and have 
the privilege of wearing green. 

SCHERO'MA (scheros, dry : Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine, a dryness of the eye, from a want of 
the lachrymal fluid. 

SCHE'SIS (Gr.), in Medicine, an appella¬ 
tion designating the general state or dis¬ 
position of, the body or mind_In Rhe¬ 


toric, a figure of speech in which a certain 
affection or inclination of the adversary is 
feigned, on purpose to be answered. 

SCHIL'LER-SPAR (schillern, to change 
colours : Ger.), a mineral of a pearly lustre, 
and changeable hues. 

SCHISM ( schisma; from schizo, to cleave : 
Gr.), in a theological sense, a division or 
separation in a church or society of Chris¬ 
tians ; or breach of unity among people of 
the same religious persuasion. Hence, one 
who separates from an established church 
or religious faith is termed a schismatic. 

SCHIST ( scliistos, cloven : Gr.), in Geology, 
various rocks composed of crystalline ma¬ 
terials, arranged in layers, are termed 
schists. The principal kinds are Mica-schist, 
a very abundant rock, composed of quartz j 
and mica; Hornblende-schist, usually black, 
composed of hornblende and felspar,the for- j 
mer predominating; Chlorite-schist, a green i 
slaty rock, abounding with foliated plates 
of chlorite; Talcose-schist, composed of talc 
and quartz, or talc and felspar. All these 
belong to what is called the metamorphic ; 
series [see Gneiss], and some of them are 
found in all mountainous regions, usually 
in the neighbourhood of granite and gneiss. 
A schistose rock means a rock that splits 
like slate in laminae, more or less thin. 

SCHOLAS'TICS (scholastikos ; from schole, 
leisure: Gr.), a class of philosophers or 
schoolmen, who arose in the middle ages, 
and taught a peculiar kind of philosophy ; 
which consisted in applying the ancient di¬ 
alectics to theology, and intimately uniting 
both. On account of the excessive subtilty 
which prevailed in the scholastic philoso¬ 
phy, the expression scholastic has been 
used for the extreme of subtilty. After tlio 
Reformation and the revival of letters, the 
system gradually declined, till it gave place 
to the enlightened philosophy of Lord Ba¬ 
con and the great men who have followed 
in his track and carried out his principles. 

SCHO'LIA (scliolion, a comment; from 
schole, leisure: Gr.), notes or annotations 

on an ancient author.- Scholiast, one 

who writes scholia, for the purpose of illus- j 
trating ancient authors. 

SCHOOL (scole: Sax.; from schole: Gr.). 
In modern usage the word school compre- I 
liends every place of education, whether a 
college, an academy, a primary school, or a 
school for learning any single art or accom¬ 
plishment. The changes which have taken 
place in science, and in the whole condition 
of modern nations, who are no longer de¬ 
pendent, like those of the middle ages, for 
their means of intellectual culture, on the 
remains of ancient civilization, necessarily 
make the character of school instruction 
very different from what it was formerly, 
when the whole intellectual wealth of Eu¬ 
rope was contained in two languages ; and 
though these noble idioms will always re¬ 
tain a high place in a complete system of 
education, yet their importance is com¬ 
paratively less; while that of the natural 
sciences, history, geography, politics, &c. 
has very much increased. All this has had 
a great influence upon schools, and will 
have a still greater. The importance of 
education, moreover, is now set in strong 
























665 Etfcrarj) [scorpj 


roliefby the general conviction, entertained 
in free countries, that a wide diffusion of 
knowledge is the only true security for 
well-regulated liberty, which must rest on 
a just sense of what is due from man to 
man. And few results can he attained hy 
the student of history and of mankind 
more delightful than this of the essential 
connection of light and liberty ; not that 
great learning necessarily leads to liberty ; 
history affords many instances which dis¬ 
prove this; but that a general diffusion of 
knowledge always tends to promote a gene¬ 
ral sense and love of what i3 right and just, 
as well as to furnish the means of securing 

it. - School, among painters, the style 

and manner of painting common to the 
great masters of the art at any particular 
period, as the Italian, Flemish, Dutch, 

Spanish, and English schools.- School, 

in Philosophy, a system of doctrine deli¬ 
vered by particular teachers, as the Platonic 

school, the school of Aristotle, &c. - School, 

in the middle ages, a seminary for teaching 
logic, metaphysics, and theology, charac¬ 
terized by academical disputations and sub- 
tilties of reasoning. Hence school divinity 
is the phrase used to denote that theology 
which discusses nice points, and proves 
everything by argument. 

SCHOON'ER, a small sharp-built vessel, 
with two masts; of considerable length 
and rake; with small top masts, and fore 
and aft sails. It carries a square topsail, 
and top-gallant sail. 

SCIAG'RAPHY, or SKIOG'RAPHY ( skia, 
a shadow; and grapho, I write: Gr.), in 
Architecture, a profile or section of a build¬ 
ing to exhibit its interior structure.-In 

Astronomy, the art of finding the hour of 
the day or night, by the shadows of objects, 
caused by the sun, moon, or stars.——In 
Painting, the art of delineating shadows 
on mathematical principles. 

SCIAT'IC ( sciatique: Fr.; from ischion, 
the hip-joint: Gr.) Artery, in Anatomy, a 

branch of the internal iliac.- Sciatic 

Nerve, a branch of a nerve of the lower ex¬ 
tremity, formed by the union of the lumbar 

and sacral nerves.- Sciatica, a painful 

affection of this nerve.- Sciatic Vein, the 

vein which accompanies the sciatic artery 
in the thigh. 

SOI'ENCE ( [scientia; from scio, I know: 
Lat.), the regular development of any 
branch of knowledge. The difference be¬ 
tween science and art is, that the first is 
speculative, and the second practical. 
Science deals with principles, art with their 
application. Facts do not constitute sci¬ 
ence, though they are its foundation, and 
: material science consists in the systemati¬ 
sing of facts under general laws. 

SCIL'LA ( skilla: Gr.), in Botany, a genus 
of plants, nat. ord. Liliacece. The species are 
bulbous, and consist of the different varie¬ 
ties of the Squill. 

i SCI'ON (Fr.; from scindo, I cut asunder: 
Lat.), a graft or young shoot of a tree. 

SCIOP'TICS (slcice, a shadow; and opsomai, 
I shall see: Gr.), the science of exhibiting 
images of external objects received through 
a double convex glass in a darkened room. 
«— Scioptic, a sphere or globe of wood with 


a hole in which is placed a lens, so construct¬ 
ed that it may be turned round every way, 
and used in making experiments with the 
camera obscura. 

SCI'RE FA'CIAS (Lat.), a judicial writ 
founded on some matter of record, as judg¬ 
ments, andletters patent, on which it lies to 
enforce the execution of them or to set them 
aside. It is so called because the writ di¬ 
rects the sheriff that he give knowledge 
(quod scire facias) to the defendant respect¬ 
ing the matter in hand. The most usual 
application of this writ is for repealing let¬ 
ters patent, for enforcing judgments 
against individual shareholders of certain 
joint-stock companies when the assets of 
the company are insufiicient to satisfy the 
debt. 

SCIU'RUS (Lat.; from sTciouros; skia, a 
shadow; and oura, a tail: Gr.—on account 
of its large tail), in Zoology, a genus of ro¬ 
dent mammalia, known as squirrels. 

SCLAYO'NIAN, or SCLAVON'IC, per¬ 
taining to the Sclavi, or their language— 
a people that anciently inhabited the coun¬ 
try between the rivers Save and Drave. 
Hence the word came to denote the lan¬ 
guage which is now spoken in Poland, 
Hungary, Bohemia, &c. The Sclavonic lan¬ 
guages may be thus classed; in the east 
are the Russian, the Bulgarian, and the 
Illyrian, the last comprehending the Ser¬ 
vian and Croatian dialects. The Bible 
was translated into the ancient Bulga¬ 
rian in the middle of the ninth century, 
and this is said to be still the author¬ 
ized version for the whole Sclavonic race. 

In the west we find the languages spoken in 
Poland, Bohemia, and Lusatia; the last 
spoken by the Wends. 

SCLEROT'ICA (skleros, hard: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, one of the tunics or coats of the j 
eye ; it is hard, opaque, and extended from j 
the cornea to the optic nerve; its anterior 
part, which is transparent, is called the j 

cornea. -Medicines which harden and 

consolidate the parts to which they are ap¬ 
plied are termed sclerotics. 

SCOL'OPAX (skolopax, a -woodcock : Gr.), 
in Ornithology, a Linnman genus of birds, 
including the woodcock and the snipe. 

SCOLOPEN'DRA (Gr.), the generic name 
for the Centipedes, a genus of carnivorous 
Annulosa, belonging to the Myriapoda. [See j 
Centipede.] 

SCOM'BER (skombros: Gr.), in Ichthy- | 
ology, a genus of fishes including the mack¬ 
erel, which see. 

SCORE, in Music, the original draught ' 
of the whole composition, in which the 
several parts are distinctly marked. 

SCO'RIiE (skuria: Gr.), in Metallurgy, 
the dross of metals in fusion; or, more 
strictly speaking, that vitreous mass which ! 
is produced in obtaining metals from their 
ores, and which when cold is brittle, and 
insoluble in water. Hence, scoriaceous, per¬ 
taining to dross; and scarification, the 
operation of reducing a body into scoria. 

SCOR'PIO (Lat.; from skorpios: Gr.), : 
one of the signs of- the zodiac. When it 
rises Orion sets; and hence the fable that 

Orion died by the sting of a scorpion.- 

Scorpio, the name of an ancient military i 





























scorpion] Cije J^CtCllttftC iintf 666 

engine, used chiefly in defending the walls 
of a town. It resembled the balista in 
' form; consisting of two beams hound to¬ 
gether by ropes, from the middle of which 
rose a third beam, called the stylus, so 
disposed as to be pulled up and let down at 
pleasure. On the top of this were fastened 

iron hooks.- Scorpio w'as the name also 

of a sort of scourge, which was furnished 
with small spikes that lacerated the body of 
tlic sufferer. 

• SCOR'PION (same deriv.), in Zoology, a 

1 genus of Araclunida, distinguished from 
spiders, by having the abdomen articulated, 

! and the tail tenuated by a curved sting, be¬ 
neath the extremity of which are two ori¬ 
fices that discharge a poisonous fluid. The 
scorpion is not unlike a lobster in appear¬ 
ance ; it is found in the south of Europe, 
where it seldom exceeds four inches in 
length; but in tropical climates it grows to 
the length of five or six inches. The sting 
of the larger kinds is much dreaded; and 
is sometimes fatal to life. 

SCOT ( sceat , part or portion, in the sense 
> of contribution : Sax.), an old word signi¬ 
fying a customary contribution, laid upon 

1 all subjects according to their ability: and 
found in several expressions; thus, scot- 
free, &c. In Law, paying ‘ scot and lot’ is 
understood to mean paying parochial rates. 
Formerly persons assessed to any contribu¬ 
tion, though not by equal portions, were 
said to pay scot and lot. 

SCOTIA (darkness : Gr.), in Architecture, 

| a hollow moulding, so called from the sha¬ 
dow which was formed by it, and seemed 
to envelope it in darkness. From its resem¬ 
blance to a common pulley, it is sometimes 
- called a trochilus. 

SCOTTSTS, a sect of school-divines and 
philosophers, thus called from their foun¬ 
der, Duns Scotus, a Cordelier; who main¬ 
tained the immaculate conception of ,the 
Virgin, or that she was bom without origi¬ 
nal sin, in opposition to Thomas Aquinas, 
and the Thomists. The present pope has 
Bettled the question, by makingtlie opinion 
! of Scotus an article of Roman Catholic faith. 

SCREW (jecrou: Fr.), one of the six me¬ 
chanical powers, consisting of a spiral 
thread or groove cut round a cylinder. 
When the thread is on the outside it is a 
male or convex screw ; but when it is cut 
along the inner surface of the cylinder it is 
a female screw, otherwise called a nut. The 
screw is reducible to an inclined plane; and 
its efficiency is increased by diminishing 
the distance between the threads, which is 
equivalent to diminishing the height of the 
plane; or by increasing its diameter, which 
is the same as increasing the length of the 
plane. [See Inclined Plane.] —Arciii- 
siedean Screw, in Hydraulics, a spiral tube 
arranged as a spiral and turned on an axis; 
It is employed for raising water; so called 

from its inventor Archimedes.- Endless 

Screw, a wheel turned by a screw, which, as 
it never ceases to be in contact with some 
of the teeth of the wheel, is practically 
endless. 

SCREW PINES, a genus of tropical trees 
of remarlcablo appearance, more nearly 
allied to palms than to other plants. A 

mealy substance is obtained from the 
seeds,which is eaten. ‘Wonderingat the 
capricious vagaries of nature, the traveller 
contemplates these extraordinary trees, 
which have leaves arranged in spiral 
order, like the dragon trees, trunks like 
those of palms, fruit-cones like the coni¬ 
fers, and yet having nothing in common 
with any of these plants, so that they form 
a family by themselves ( Pandanacece ). On 
one of the Nicobar islands we saw some of 
these trees with slim smooth stems forty 
to fifty feet high, which are nourished by 
and supported upon a pile of aerial roots 
ten or twelve feet high, resembling a coni¬ 
cal piece of wickerwork. Many of the roots 
did not reach the soil. From the branches 
depended beautiful massy fruit cones, a foot 
and a half in length, by one in thickness, 
which when ripe are of a bright orange 
hue.’— Voyage of the Novara. 

SCREW PROPEL'LER, sometimes, but 1 
improperly, termed an Archimedean screw. 

An instrument for propelling vessels. It 
consists of two or more blades, somewhat 
like the varies of a windmill, fixed on an 
axis running parallel to the keel of a ves¬ 
sel, and revolving under water at the stern 
—a water-tight opening being made for its i 
axis, or shaft, just inside the sternpost. It 
is driven by a steam engine, placed within 
the ship; and by screwing itself, as it were, 
into the water, presses the vessel before it. 
The threads of this screw must be greatly ; 
deeper than if it worked in metal or wood ; 
and hence the blades are made of consider¬ 
able width, and of a length nearly sufficient 
to react from the keel to the surface of the 
water. The latter Is prevented from enter¬ 
ing where the screw shaft passes out at the 
stern, by a stuffing box. Screw propellers 
are supposed to havo been used by the 
Chinese for sculling vessels, from a very 
early period, and they were often proposed 
as a means of moving ships, in Europe, be¬ 
fore they were actualiy used for that pur¬ 
pose. Different numbers, forms, and pitch 
of blades, have at various times been em¬ 
ployed, but the most usual and simple pro¬ 
peller has only two blades. From experi¬ 
ments made on the subject, there is reason 
to believe that the screw is rather more ad¬ 
vantageous than the paddle wheel, wheu- 
the vessel is deep in the water; but the 
contrary when the immersion is light, or at 
a medium. Also, the slip, or backward mo¬ 
tion of the water, which is so much power 
lost, is estimated at one-third of the dis¬ 
tance run with paddle wheels ; but at 
considerably less, with a propeller. Screw 
ships are not so well adapted to go head to 
wind as those with paddles; but they are 
more conveniently used as sailing vessels, 
should circumstances require them partly, 
or altogether, to depend on the wind ; and 
they are less exposed to the violent effects 
of a storm or heavy sea. To be effective, 
the screw must revolve with considerable 
velocity. For let us suppose that the ves¬ 
sel is to move at the rate of ten miles per 
hour, or 880 feet per minute, with a propel¬ 
ler of twelve feet pitch, not taking the slip 
into account, it must make the twelfth part 
of 880, or 73 revolutions per minute, a speed 



























c r >7 ICiterarj) Eventfuiy. [scutage 

1 — 

much higher than that usually expected 
from marine engines. The velocity re¬ 
quired is obtained either by increasing that 
which is derived from the engines, by 
means of a pinion on the screw shaft, and 
a wheel on the crank axle, or by suiting 

1 the construction of the engines to the at¬ 
tainment, at once, of the required speed— 
which seems the better mode of.proceeding. 

SCRIBE ( scriba: from scribo, I write: 
Lat.), a principal officer in the Jewish law, 
whose business was to write and interpret 
scripture. Originally the scribes had their 
name from their employment, which was 
transcribing the law, and multiplying co¬ 
pies of it; but in time they exalted them¬ 
selves into public ministers and expositors 
of it. 

SCROPH'ULA (Lat., literally a dim. of 
scrofa, a sow), in Medicine, a disease indi¬ 
cated by hard indolent tumours of the 
conglobate glands in various parts of the 
j body, but particularly in the neck, behind 
the ears, and under the chin, which after a 
’ time suppurate and degenerate into ulcers. 

: It was called by the Greeks Ghoiras, or 
swine’s disease. It is not contagious, but 
hereditary; though, under favourable cir¬ 
cumstances, it may be entirely dormant 
during a generation. It is most common 
among children of fair complexion, and 
inclined to rickets; and is favoured by 
damp and variable climates. It first ap¬ 
pears between the third and seventh years, 
and rarely shows itself after puberty. 

SCROPHULARIA'CEiE, a liat. ord. of 
exogenous plants with monopetalous corol¬ 
las and capsular fruit. Several of our well- 
known wild flowers belong to this order, 
for example, the foxglove, eyebright, toad¬ 
flax, snapdragon, and mullein. It includes 
[ many handsome garden and conservatory 
! plants, such as the species of Calceolaria, 
Antirrhinum, Pentstemon, Mimulus, Mau- 
randya, and Veronica. Few of the species 
are of much use to man, but many contain 
a dangerous principle, which, however, in 
the case of tho foxglove, is used medi¬ 
cinally under the name of Digitaline. 

SCRUTINY ( scrutinium , a search : Lat.), 
in Law, an examination of suffrages or votes 
! at an election, for the purpose of ascertain¬ 
ing whether they are good or not.—In the 
: primitive church an examination of cate¬ 
chumens who were to receive baptism on 
Easter-day. 

SCULPTURE ( sculptura , from sculpo, I 
carve : Lat.), the art of giving form and ex¬ 
pression, by means of the chisel and other 
: implements, to masses of stone or other 
hard substances, so as to represent figures 
i of every description, animate and inanimate, 
j It is supposed that sculpture had its origin 
from idolatry, as it was found necessary to 

1 place before the people the images of their 
gods to enliven the fervour of their devo- 
! tion. But to form conclusions concerning 
, the rise and progress of the arts and 
sciences, without the aid of historical evi- 
! dence, by analogies which are sometimes 
accidental, and often fanciful, is a mode of 

1 reasoning which, at best, must ever be 
; liable to suspicion. In whatever country 
the earliest attempts were made, the Egyp- 
i 

tians were the first who adopted a certain 
style of art. Their works were gloomy and 
grave, but still they were full of deep sen¬ 
timent, and connected, as would appear by 
the hieroglyphics which covered them, with 
poetry and history, and by the mummies, 
with the belief of immortality. Interesting 
as the subject would doubtless prove, it is 
far beyond our limited means to trace the 
progress of this beautiful art through all its 
stages in the classic days of Greece, till its 
decline in Rome, where, though all tho 
treasures of the Grecian sculptors had been 
carried to deck the Roman capital, the art 
never becamo naturalized. During tho 
long and gloomy interval of barbarism that 
succeeded the downfall of imperial Rome, 
sculpture, with the sister arts, lay dormant 
and forgotten. At length, however, through 
the genius of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 
and the skill aud perseverance of some of 
his distinguished successors, seconded by 
the patronage of the illustrious house of 
Medici, the treasures of antiquity w r ere col¬ 
lected and modern art nobly tried to rival 
the grace and sublimity which existed in 
tho ancient models. The sculptor’s art, a3 
Sir Joshua Reynolds observes, is limited in 
comparison of others, but it has its variety 
and intricacy within its proper bounds. 
Its essence is correctness ; and when to 
correct and perfect form i3 added the orna¬ 
ment of grace, dignity of character, aud 
appropriate expression, as in the Apollo, the 
Venus, the Laocoon, the Moses of Michael 
Angelo, and many others, this art may be 
said to have accomplished its purpose. 

SCUP'PERS, or SCUPPER-HOLES (Scha- 
pen, to draw off : Belg.), in a ship, channels 
cut through the water-ways and sides of a 
vessel at proper distances, and lined with 
lead for carrying off the water from tho 
deck.- Scupper-liose, a leathern pipe at¬ 

tached to the mouth of the scuppers of tho - 
lower deck of a ship, to prevent the water 
from entering. 

SOUR'VY (scurf, a dry scab : Ang. Sax.), in 
Medicine, a disease characterized by great 
debility, a pale bloated face, livid spots on 
the hands and feet, weakness in the legs, 
offensive breath, &c. The scurvy is a 
disease of a putrid nature, much more pre¬ 
valent in cold climates than in warm ones ; 
and it very generally arises from eating too 
much salt provisions. It has been found 
that in the cure of this disease much more 
is to be done by regimen than medicines. 
-Fresh vegetables, farinaceous sub¬ 
stances, brisk fermented liquors, good air, 
and proper exercise, have nearly banished 
it from the navy. The beneficial effect sup¬ 
posed to be caused by lemon juice and other 
acids has been rendered doubtful by recent 
researches. 

SCUR'VY-GRASS, the Cochlearia offici¬ 
nalis of botanists, a British plant that 
grows on rocks near tho sea, has an acrid, 
bitter taste, and, when eaten raw as a salad, 
is considered an excellent remedy for the 
scurvy. 

SCUTAGE ( scutum , a shield: Lat.), in 
English history, a tax or contribution levied 
upon those who held lands by knight-ser- j 
vice. 

----—r- 






















scuttle] Cfju Jrctcnttftc antt 


SCUT'TLE ( scutella, a nearly square sal¬ 
ver : Lot.— which the lid of the hatchway 
resembles), a small hatchway or opening in 
the deck of a ship, large enough to admit a 
man, and with a lid for covering it; also a 
similar hole in the side of a ship, and 
through the covering of her hatchways, &c. 

-To scuttle the decks, is to cut holes in 

them to let down water from them into the 

hold.-To scuttle a vessel, is to cut holes, 

for the purpose of sinking it.- Scuttlebutt, 

a cask of water, with a large hole in it, for 
the ship’s use. 

SCU'TUM (Lat.), in Antiquity, a sort of 
buckler of both a semicylindrical and an 
oval form ; in the former case, it was termed 
imbricatum ; in the latter, ovatum. 

SCYL'L A (Lat., from slculla: Gr.), a rock 
in the sea between Sicily and Italy, which 
was very formidable to the mariners 
among the ancients. It was opposite to the 
whirlpool Charybdis. 

SCYTHE, an instrument for mowing. It 
consists of a thin steel blade attached at 
right angles to a handle of six or eight feet 
long. When used for cutting corn there 
is frequently an addition made to it, called 
a cradle. 

SEA (See: Sax.), in Geography, a term 
sometimes applied to the ocean, or that 
vast tract of water encompassing the whole 
globe; but, more properly, to a particular 
part or division of the ocean ; as the Irish 
Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Ited Sea, 
the Sea of Marmora, the Black Sea, the 
Baltic, &c. [See Ocean.] 

SEA-ANEMONES, the popular name of 
marine polypes belonging to the family of 
Actinidce. They are of gelatinous or fleshy 
substance, more or less cylindrical in shape, 
with a base usually attached to a rock or 
other body. At the upper end is a disk, in 
the middle of which is the mouth leading 
to the stomach. The remains of the food, 
after digestion, are ejected again by the 
mouth. Upon this disk are placed rows of 
tentacles, threadlike bodies, capable of ex¬ 
tension and contraction, by means of which 
these animals seize their prey. These ten¬ 
tacles somewhat resemble the stamina of a 
flower, and have suggested the popular 
name. They are furnished with weapons in 
the shape of minute darts, that seem to 
possess the property of poisoning, and these 
they can project at will. They have no 
special organs of sense, nor has any ner¬ 
vous system been discovered. Some of the 
sea-anemones increase by spontaneous di¬ 
vision, others by budding. In some the 
sexes are united in one individual; in others 
they are separate. Their eggs, after having 
been hatched, have a resemblance to the 
infusoria, and are freely locomotive by 
means of cilia. In this state they usually 
issue from the body of the parent; but 
sometimes they are developed into per¬ 
fect animals.before they come forth. 

SEA-CALF, in Zoology, the seal, which 
see. 

SEA-DEVIL, a name given by seamen 
to a large cartilaginous fish, of the Bay 
kind. It is also applied to the Angler, the 
Lophius piscatorius of Linnaeus. [See Lo- 

FHICOj 


66 8 
_ 

SEA-GULL. [See Gull.] 

SEA-HEDGEHOG. [See ECHINUS.] 

SEA-HOLLY, a British umbelliferous 
plant, Eryngium maritimum, which grows 
near the sea, and has blue flowers. 

SEA-HORSE, in Zoology, the Morse or 
Walrus : also the Hippocampus, which see. 

SEA-KAIL, or SEA-CALE, a plant of 
the genus Grambe. The whole plant is en¬ 
tirely smooth and glaucous; the stems are 
about two feet high and branching, bear- i 
ing fleshy leaves, some pinnatifld, and 
others sinuate, undulate, and crisped. It i 
is now very common, though its introduc- j 
tion into gardens as a culinary vegetable 
is but of recent date. It should be planted 
in a deep sandy soil, and blanched either j 
by sand, ashes, litter, or by covering with 
flower pots. No plant is so easily forced; j 
and, unlike asparagus, it yields produce j 
the first spring after being raised from | 

S66(l. 

SEA-LION, the Phoca jubata, a species j 
of seal, the male of which has a large mane | 
on the neck. 

SEAL (sele: Sax.), the Phoca vitulina of 
zoologists, a four-limbed marine mammal, 
found abundantly on the coasts of Labra¬ 
dor and Newfoundland; and not unfre- 
quently on the British shores. The hind 
feet are placed at the extremity of the 
body, in the same direction with it, and 
serve the purpose of a caudal form; the 
fore feet also are adapted for swimming. 
The limbs would rather resemble fins than 
feet, if they had not sharp strong claws. 
Seals are from four to six feet in length ;■ 
they are covered with short, stiff, glossy 
hair, with a smooth head without external 
ears, and the fore legs are deeply immersed 
in the skin. They are gregarious; and 
their companions come to their assistance 
if attacked. Their courage, however, only 
enables the fisherman to increase his booty 
The seal not only furnishes food for the 
Esquimaux’s table, oil for his lamp, and 
clothing for his person ; but even the bones 
and skin supply materials for his light port¬ 
able boats and his summer tents. It has 
been remarked that the brain of this ani¬ 
mal is of greater proportionate magnitude 
than that of any quadruped ; and that not 
only does it exhibit in its countenance the 
appearance of sagacity, but its intelligence 
is in reality far greater than in most land 
animals. Dr. Harwood observes, that, 
aware of its disposition to become familiar, 
and its participation in the good qualities of 
the dog, it is astonishing that mankind 
have not chosen this intellectual and finely- 
organized quadruped, for aquatic services 
scarcely less important than some of those 
in which the dog is employed on land. 
There are several species of seal besides 
the one named above. The operation of 
taking seals and curing their skins is 
called sealing ; and a voyage made for that 
purpose is called a sealing-voyage. 

SEAL, in Law, the impression or device 
printed on wax, which is put to any deed by 
way of ratification. The great seal is the 
seal used for the united kingdom of England 
and Scotland, and sometimes of Ireland. 
The privy seal is that which the king use* 
























669 lUtetatj) [secant 


to such grants, &c., as arc to pass the great 

seal.- Seal, a piece of metal having coats 

of arras or some other device engraven 
upon it; also the print in wax made L>y the 

seal. 

SEAL'ING-WAX ( sigillmn , a seal: Lat.), 
a composition of gum lac, melted and in¬ 
corporated with resin, to which some pig¬ 
ment is added to give it the required colour, 
as vermillion, ivory black, verditer, &c. 
Gold sealing-wax is made simply by stirring 
gold-coloured mica spangles into the melted 
resin. Sealing-wax is an article that is now 
j comparatively but little used, on account 
j of the very general adoption of adhesive 
envelopes. 

I SE'AMAN, one engaged in navigating 
1 ships or other vessels upon the high seas. 
An able seaman is one who is complete in 
his profession; an ordinary seaman, one 
I who is less competent; and a landsman, 
one who is fresh from shore. Various regula¬ 
tions have been enacted with respect to 
the hiring of seamen, their conduct, and 
the payment of their wages. 

SE'AMANSHIP, an acquaintance with the 
art of managing and navigating a ship; 
applicable both to officers and the men, 
and indispensably necessary in those who 
have the ship under their command. 

SE'A-MEW, a name given to some of the 
gulls. 

SE'A NEEDLE. [See Garfish.] 

SE'A-OTTER,the Enhydra lutris, a species 
of otter that has hind feet, resembling the 
seal. It feeds on shell-flsh. 

SE'A-PIE, the Hcematopus ostralegus of 
ornithologists, a wading bird allied to the 
plover; called also the oyster-catcher, from 
its thrusting its beak into oysters when 
open, and taking out the fish. 

SE'A-SERPENT. At various times, with¬ 
in the last quarter of a century, marvellous 
accounts have been published regarding 
an enormous marine animal seen on the 
coasts of America, of a size and length 
varying according to the opinions of those 
who assert that they have seen it; some 
describing it as 100 feet long, while others 
make it nearly as many yards. All accounts, 
however, agree as to the protuberances on 
its back, its vertical sinuosities, and its 
serpent-shaped head. It is highly probable 
that pieces of wrecks, seaweed, or some 
other objects, seen from a distance, have 
been mistaken for living bodies ; and their 
size exaggerated by the fertile imagination 
of seamen. [See Kraaken.] 

SEA-SICKNESS, a disorder iucident to 
most persons on their first going to sea, 
occasioned by the agitation of the vessel. 
Though it continues in general only for the 
first day or two, it is extremely harassing 
to some people at intervals, especially on 
any increased motion of the vessel; and 
with many it lasts the entire voyage, how¬ 
ever long, at least at any rising of the sea. 
No good remedy has yet been found for it; 
perhaps the most effective is lying on the 
back in a horizontal position ; but this must 
not be too long persevered in, lest the suf¬ 
ferer become incapable of exertion during 
the voyage. After a day or two, the patient 
must exert himself, however difficult the 


effort may be at first; and then, with a 
little exposure to the fresh air, &c., com¬ 
parative comfort will be generally secured 
for the rest of the time. The ancient 
writers recommend acid fruits, or bread 
and vegetables soaked in vinegar, after 
the stomach has been cleansed by vomiting, 
but not before. An old remedy for sea¬ 
sickness, and a very common one among 
sailors, is a draught or two of sea-water; 
which though disagreeable enough, par¬ 
ticularly at such a time, has been found to 
produce the desired effect. But there are 
many simple remedies which prove useful 
enough in a short voyage, that are ineffec¬ 
tive or inadmissible in a long one. Some 
do not during their entire lives, however 
trying the circumstances, experience the 
least tendency to this most painful and 
overpowering malady. 

SE'ASONS ( saisons: Fr.), the four divi¬ 
sions or portions of the year, namely, 
Spring, when the sun enters Aries ; Sum- 
mer, when he enters Cancer; Autumn, 
when he enters Libra; and Winter, when 
he enters Capricorn. Hence Spring is sup¬ 
posed to commence about the 2lst of March; 
Summer, about the 22nd of June ; Autumn, 
about the 23rd of September; and Winter, 
about the 23rd of December. The diversity 
of the seasons depends upon the oblique 
position of the sun’s path through the hea¬ 
vens; in consequence of which this lumi¬ 
nary rises to different heights above tho 
horizon, making the day sometimes longer, 
and sometimes shorter, than the nights. 
When the sun rises highest at noon, its 
rays fall most nearly in the direction of a 
perpendicular, and consequently a greater 
number is received upon a given spot; 
their action also, at the same time, con¬ 
tinues the longest. These circumstances 
make the difference between summer and 
winter. It is found that the sun does not 
rise so high in summer, nor descend so low 
in winter, at the present time as it did 
formerly ; in other words, the obliquity of 
the ecliptic, which is half the difference 
between the sun’s greatest and least meri¬ 
dian altitudes, is growing less and less 
continually. But there is no doubt that 
this diminution will never exceed a certain 
small quantity; and that after a period, 
not ascertained by astronomers, the ob¬ 
liquity will begin again gradually to in¬ 
crease. [See Equator.] 

SE'A-URCHIN. [See Echinus.] 

SE'A-WOLF. [See Wolf-fish.] 

SEBA'CEOUS GLANDS (sebum, grease: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, small glands seated in 
the skin, which secrete a fatty matter. 

SEBA'CIC ACID (same deriv.), an acid ob¬ 
tained by the destructive distillation of 
fatty substances. It forms small pearly 
crystals. 

SEBES'TEN, the drupaceous fruit of some 
trees belonging to the genus Cordia, which 
grow in tropical Asia and Africa. 

SE'CANT (secans, cutting: Lat.), in Geo¬ 
metry, a line that cuts another, or divides it 
into two parts. The secant of a circle is a 
line drawn from the circumference on one 

side, to a point without it on another.- 

In Trigonometry, a secant is a right line 



















second] 


^riri'ftftc antf 


670 


drawn from the ccntro of a circle, which, 
cutting the circumference, proceeds till it 
meets with a tangent to the same circle. 

SEO'OND (Fr.; from secundus, subordi¬ 
nate : Lat.), in Geometry, Chronology, &c., 
the sixtieth part of a minute, whether of a 
degree, or of an hour; it is denoted by two 

small accents, thus (").-In Music, an 

interval of a conjoint degree, being the dif¬ 
ference between any sound and the next 

nearest sound above or below it.- Second, 

one who attends another in a duel to aid 
him, and see that all the proceedings be¬ 
tween the parties are fairly conducted.- 

Second terms, in Algebra, those where the 
unknown quantity lias a degree of power 
less than it has in the term where it is raised 
to the highest. 

SEC'ONDAItY ROCKS ( secundarius , be¬ 
longing to the second class: Lat.), in Geo¬ 
logy, the series of formations which inter¬ 
vene between the primary rocks and the ter¬ 
tiary, including the Triassic or upper new 
red sandstone group (which rest upon the 
Permian or magnesian limestone group, the 
uppermost portion of the primary division), 
the liassic, oolitic, and cretaceous groups. 
There is so marked a difference between the 
fossils of this series, and those of the ear¬ 
lier and later series, as to induce geologists 
j to believe that an indefinite series of ages 

elapsed between them.- Secondary circles, 

\ in Astronomy, circles passing through the 
poles of some great circle; thus the meri¬ 
dians and hour circles are secondaries to 
the equinoctial. There are also secondaries 
passing through the poles of the ecliptic, 
by means of which all stars are referred to 
the ecliptic. 

SECOND SrGHT, a superstitious notion, 
prevalent in the Highlands of Scotland, by 
which certain persons arc supposed to be 
gifted with-a kind of supernatural sight; or 
the power of seeing future or distant events 
as if they really happened. 

SEC'RETARY ( secretaire: Fr.; from se- 
crctus, private : Lat.), an officer whose duty 
it is to write letters and other instruments, 
for and under the orders and authority of a 

public body or an individual.- Secretary 

of State, in British policy, an officer of the 
crown who transacts and superintends the 
affairs of a particular department of govern¬ 
ment. There are five principal secretaries 
of state. The secretary for the Home De¬ 
partment, the Colonial Secretary, the secre¬ 
tary for Foreign Affairs, the secretary for 
the War Department, and the secretary for 
India; each having a salary of 60001. per 
annum. In each of these departments 
there are two under secretaries, one of 
whom remains in office when the ministry 
goes out. The principal secretaries are al¬ 
ways ex officio cabinet ministers, and mem¬ 
bers of the privy-council; and have autho¬ 
rity to commit persons for treason, and 
other offences against the state ; being ex 
officio conservators of the peace at common 
law, or justices of the peace throughout 
the kingdom. 

SECRETION ( secretio, a separation : 
Lat.), the process by which a gland or set of 
vessels in the animal system changes a fluid 
of one quality into a fluid of another quality. 


The organs of secretion in the animal eco¬ 
nomy are of very various form and struc¬ 
ture ; but the most general are those deno¬ 
minated Glands, which see. 

SECT (sccta; from seco, I cut off: Lat.), 
a body of persons adhering to some philo¬ 
sophical or religious system. Most sects 
have originated in a particular person, who 
taught and propagated some peculiar no¬ 
tion’s in philosophy or religion, and who is 
considered to have been its founder. 

SECTA'RIAN (same dcriv.), one of a party 
in religion which has separated itself from 
the established church; or which holds 
tenets different from those of the prevail¬ 
ing denomination in a kingdom or state. 

SEC'TILE ( sectilis, that may be cut: Lat.), 
a term for a mineral that is 6oft enough to 
be easily cut. 

SECTION ( sectio, a cutting off: Lat.), in 
general, denotes a distinct part or portion 
of something which is divided ; or the divi¬ 
sion itself. Such are the subdivisions of a 
chapter, called also paragraphs and arti¬ 
cles.- Section, in Geometry, a side or sur¬ 

face of a body or figure cut off by another; 
or the place where lines, planes, &c., cut 
each other.- Section, in Drawing, the re¬ 

presentation of the interior of a building or 
a machine, on the supposition that it has 
been cut through in some given direction. 

SECTOR (secteur: Fr.; from seco, I cut 
off : Lat.), in Geometry, a rart of a circle 
comprehended between two radii and the 
arch; ora mixed triangle, formed by two 
radii and the arch of a circle.-A mathe¬ 

matical instrument so marked with lines of 
sinhs, tangents, secants, chords, &c., as to 
fit all radii and scales; and be useful in find¬ 
ing the proportion between quantities of 
the same kind. 

SEC'ULAlt (secularis, pertaining to the 
age : Lat.), something that is temporal, in 
which sense the word stands opposed to 
ecclesiastical; thus we say, secular power, 
secular jurisdiction, &c. Among Roman 
Catholics, secitlar is more peculiarly used for 
an ecclesiastic who lives at liberty in the 
world, not confined to a monastery, nor 
bound by t he special vows or subjected to 
the particular rules of any religious com¬ 
munity; in which sense it stands opposed to 
regular. Thus we say, the secular clergv, 
and the regular clergy.-The act of ren¬ 

dering secular the property of the clergy is 
cal I ed secularization. 

SEC'ULAR GAMES (ludi seculares), in 
Antiquity, solemn games held among the 
Romans, notwithstanding their name, at no 
stated period. They lasted three days and 
three nights, during which time sacrifices 
were performed, theatrical shows exhibited, 
with combats, sports, &c., in the circus. 
They are said to have been instituted at 
Rome by Valerius Publicola—the first con¬ 
sul created after the expulsion of the kings. 
At the time of the celebration of the secu¬ 
lar games, heralds were sent throughout 
the whole empire, to intimate that every 
one might come and see those solemnities, 
which he never yet had seen, nor would 
ever see again. 

SECUN'DUM ARTEMtfmf.), accordingto 
the rules of art.-In Medicine, a term fro 


































G71 Httcrarg 


quently used in prescriptions to denote that 
the recipe must bo made up with particular 

care.- Secundum naturam, according to 

the course of nature. 

SECUTO'RES (Lat. ; from sequor, I fol¬ 
low), in Antiquity, a description of gladia¬ 
tors among the Romans, who fought 
aganst the retiarii. The secutores were 
armed with a sword and a buckler, to keep 
off the net or noose of their antagonists; 
and they also wore a casque. This name was 
also given to such gladiators as took the 
place of those killed in the combat, or who 
fought the conqueror. 

SED'ATIVES ( sedatio , an assuaging: Lat.), 
medicines which have the power of dimin¬ 
ishing animal energy without destroying 
life. They generally induce sleep ; and di¬ 
minish irritability. 

SE DEFENDEN'DO (in self defence: 
Lat.), in Law, a plea used for one who is 
charged with the death of another, by alleg¬ 
ing that he was under a necessity of com¬ 
mitting the act in his own defence. 

SEDGES (scecg : Sax.), an extensive order 
of grass-like plants, the Cyperacece of bo- 
; tanists. They are easily distinguished 
from grasses by having the stem destitute 
of joints. The roots are perennial and 
fibrous; the leaves hard and rough on the 
edge. They are found in all soils, but the 
greater proportion grow in marshes. The 
papyrus of the Nile, and the cotton grass 
of Britain, belong to this order. 

SEDITION ( seditio: Lat.), in Politics, a 
moro or less organized resistance to the 
laws, or the administration of justice, and in 
; disturbance of the public peace. In general, 
it signifies a local or limited opposition to 
civil authority; a commotion of less extent 
i than an insurrection, and consequently less 
( than rebellion, 

[ SED'LITZ, or SEID'LITZ WATER, a 
I mineral water, obtained from a village of 
| that name in Bohemia. The waters are 
| saline and purgative, limpid, sparkling, and 
! of a bitter and salt taste ; being composed 
: principally of the sulphates of magnesia and 

i lime, and carbonic acid.- Seidlitz poivders 

' are intended to produce a similar effect, 
though their composition is different. They 
I are generally sold in blue and white pa- 
! pers ; a blue paper contains two drachms of 
tartrate of soda, with two scruples of bicar¬ 
bonate of soda; the whitepaper thirty-five 
1 grains of finely powdered tartaric acid. The 
contents of the former are to be dissolved 
in half a pint of water, that of the latter in 
i a separate wine glass full; the solutions are 
to be mixed, and the mixture taken while 
effervescing. 

SEED, the fecundated mature ovule of a 
I plant, containing the embryo, or germ of a 
new plant. In order that the ovule should 
become capable of producing a plant, its 
fertilization by means of the pollen is 
necessary. When this has been done cer¬ 
tain changes take place, the ovule enlarges 
and hardens, until the seed is ripe. It may 
then be separated from the parent plant, 
and if placed in favourable circumstances 
its embryo grows into a new plant, capable 
in its turn of producing seeds. The seeds 
of the great majority of plants are enclosed 


CtTfftfUfJh [SEISMOMETER 


in a seed-vessel or pericarp. Such plants j 
are termed angiospermous (aggeion, a vessel; 
sperma, a seed: Gr.). Seed vessels have j I 
great variety of form. [See.BAcOA, Capsule, 1 
Drupe, Follicle, Legume, Nut, Pepo, | 
Siliqua], There are, however, some plants, | 
such as those of the coniferous order/which ! 
have seeds that are destitute of a covering ! 
vessel, and these are termed gymnospermous 1 
(i gumnos, naked: Gr.). A seed consists of an 
external skin, separable into several mem¬ 
branes, and the embryo. The latter is fre¬ 
quently surrounded by a deposit of solid 
matter, consisting of starchy and nitrogen- ; 
nous compounds, and called albumen or 
perisperm, which varies in its nature, and 
sometimes is so loaded with oil that tho 
latter is expressed as an article of com- ! 
merce. The embryo is composed of the 
plumule or gemmule, which on expanding be- i 
comes the stem of the new plant, the radicle j 
which descends into the soil and becomes 
the root, and the cotyledons or rudimentary 
leaves, which usually differ from those 
subsequently put forth. [See Cotyledons.] 
Seeds differ much in size and external ap¬ 
pearance. Sometimes the skin is polished 
and prettily coloured, as in French beans ; ! 
others are rough, or pitted, or hairy, as in j 
the cotton ; the hairs of the seeds, in tills j 
case, yielding the cotton of commerce. As 
to the vitality of seeds after a lapse of time, 
the statement of the germination of wheat 
obtained from Egyptian mummies is now 
generally doubted, the proof not being clear 
that the seeds experimented upon really 
came from the mummies. Professor Henslow 
says, that in the fens of Cambridgeshire, 
after the surface has been drained, and the 
soil ploughed, large crops of white and 
black mustard invariably appear. Millar 
mentions a case otjPlantago Psyllium having 
sprung from the soil of an ancient ditch 
which was emptied at Chelsea, although 
the plant had never been seen In tho , 
memory of man. Do Candolle says, M. 
Girardin succeeded in raising kidney beans 
from seeds at least 100 years old, taken out 
of the herbarium of Tournefort. 

SEEL'ING ( ciller, to wink: Fr.), in Fal¬ 
conry, the running of a thread through the 
eye-lids of a hawk when first taken; so that 
she may see very little, or not at all; to 
make her the better endure the hood. 

SEG'MENT ( segmentum ; from sero, I cut 
off: Lat.), in Geometry, any part cut from a 

figure by a line or plane.- Segment of a 

circle, a part cut off by a chord, or that por¬ 
tion comprehended between an arc and a 
chord. Segments of different circles are 
semicircular, when their arcs contain the 
same number of degrees. 

SEIGN'IORAGE (seigneur: Fr., from 
senior, an elder: Lat.), a royal right or 
prerogative of the kings of England, by 
which they claim an allowance of gold and 
silver brought in the mass to be exchanged 
for coin. 

SEIS'MOLOGY (seismos, an earthquake; 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), a science con¬ 
structed from the study of earthquake 
phenomena. 

SEISMOM'ETER (seismos, an earthquake; 
and metron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument 


















SEIZIN} 


672 


djc ^ctntttftc auif 


for measuring the shock of earthquakes, 
and other violent concussions. 

SE'IZIN, or SE'ISIN ( saisir, to seize : 
Fr.), in Law, possession. Seizin in fact, or 
deed, is actual or corporal possession ; seizin 
in law, is when something is done which 
the law accounts possession or seizin, as 
enrolment; or when lands descend to an 
heir, hut he has not yet entered on them. 
In this case the law considers the heir as 
seized of the estate, and the person who 
wrongfully enters on the land is accounted 
a disseizor. 

SELE'NIATE, in Chemistry, a compound 
of selenic acid with a base. 

SEL'ENITE, in Mineralogy, foliated or 
a-ystallizcd sulphate of livie. There are two 
varieties, massive and acicular. 

SELE'NIUM (selene, the moon: Or.), an 
elementary substance, obtained from a 
copper-mine at Fahlun, in Sweden. It 
bears a strong resemblance to sulphur, 
with which it is found associated in some 
varieties of iron pyrites. It is brittle, and 
opaque, with an imperfect metallic lustre, 
tasteless and inodorous; somewhat of the 
appearance of lead, but, when reduced to 
powder, of a deep red colour. Its spec, 
grav. is about 4'3. It becomes soft and 
tenacious at 212°, perfectly liquid at 220°, 
boils and sublimes at 650°. It is not solu¬ 
ble in water, nor altered in air. Oxidized 
under the blow pipe, it emits a strong dis¬ 
agreeable odour. It forms three combina¬ 
tions with oxygen, two of them being acids. 

SELENIU'RET, in Chemistry, the com¬ 
pound of selenium with some other sub- 
stance 

SELENOG'RAPHY ( selene , the moon ; 
and grapho, I write : Or.), a description of 
the surface of the moon; as geography is a 
description of that of the earth. 

SELEU'CIDZE, .<33RA OF, or the Syro- 
Macedonian asra, is a computation of time, 
commencing from the establishment of the 
Seleucidas, a race of Greek kings, who 
reigned as successors of Alexander the 
Great, in Syria, as the Ptolemies did in 
Egypt. This era is mentioned in the book 
of the Maccabees, and on a great number 
of Greek medals, struck by the cities of 
Syria, &c. The Rabbins call it the cera of 
contracts, and the Arabs the cera of the two 
horns. According to the best accounts, the 
year 312 of the era of the Seleucidse began 
on the 1st of September in the Julian year 
preceding the first year of our era. Hence, 
to reduce a Macedonian date to the com¬ 
mon era, subtract 311 years and 4 months. 

SELT'ZER WATER, or more accurately 
Setters ivater, a mineral water from Selters, 
about ten miles from Frankfort-on-the- 
Maine. It contains a quantity of free car¬ 
bonic acid, with common salt, and the car¬ 
bonates of lime, magnesia and soda. 

SEMAPHORE ( sema, a sign; and phero, I 
bear: Or.), a term nearly synonymous 
with telegraph. 

SEME' (sown: F>\), in Heraldry, a term 
used to indicate a field or charge powdered 
or strewed over with figures, such as stars, 
crosses, &c. 

SEMEIOT'ICS, or SEMEIOL'OGY ( semeio - 
tikos, portending; semeion, a sign; and 


logos, a discourse: Or.), the doctrine of 
signs ; terms used in medical science to 
denote that branch of it which teacheshow 
to judge of all the symptoms in a human 
body, whether it is in a state of health or 
disease. 

SEM'I (inf.), a prefix, signifying half; as 
semicircle, half a circle, &c. 

SEMI-AMPLEX'ICANT (inf.), in Botany, 
embracing the stem half way, as a semi-am- 

plexicant leaf. 

SEM'I BREVE, half a breve (semi, half; 
and amplexo, I embrace : Lat.), in Music, the 
note by which all others are regulated. It 
contains the time of two minims, which are 
divided either into four crotchets, eight 
quavers, sixteen semiquavers, or thirty-two 
demi-semiquavers. 

SEM'ICOLON (semi, half: Lat.; and kolon, 
the member of a sentence: Or.), in Gram¬ 
mar and Punctuation, the point [;] the mark 
of a pause to be observed in reading, of less 
duration than the colon, double the dura¬ 
tion of the comma, or half the duration of 
the period. [See Punctuation.] 

SEMI-COLUM'NAR, flat on one side, and 
round on the other; a term of botany, ap¬ 
plied to a stem, leaf, or petiole. 

SEMI-DIAM'ETER, in Geometry, a right 
line drawn from the centre of a circle or 
sphere to its circumference or periphery; a 
radius. 

SEMI-DIAPA'SON, in Music, a defective 
octave, or an octave diminished by a minor 
semitone. 

SEMI-DIATES'SARON, in Music, an im¬ 
perfect or defective fourth. 

SEM'I-DITONE, in Music, a lesser third. 

SEM'I-METAL, a term applied by the 
older chemists to metals which were brittle, 
such as zinc, &c. 

SEM'INARY (semmamum; from semen, 
seed: Lat.), in Gardening, a seed-plat, or 
place for raising plants, and keeping them 
till they are fit to be removed into the gar¬ 
den or nursery.-Any place of education, 

in which young persons are instructed in 
the several branches of learning. 

SEMINA'TION (seminatio :Lat.), the na¬ 
tural manner of shedding and dispersing 
the seeds of plants, which is variously ef¬ 
fected. Some are heavy enough to fall 
directly to the ground; others are fur¬ 
nished with a pappus, or down, by means of 
which they are dispersed by the wind; 
while others are contained in elastic cap¬ 
sules, which, bursting open with consider¬ 
able force, throw out the seeds. 

SEMI-PELA'GIANS, a sect of Christians, 
who differ from the Pelagians by holding 
that grace, necessary for the practice of 
virtue, may be obtained by an effort of the 
human will. 

SEMI-QUAR'TILE, or SEMI-QTJAD'- 
RATE, in Astrology, an aspect of the pla¬ 
nets, when distant from each other the 
half of a quadrant, or forty-five degrees. 

SEM'iyUAVER, in Music, a note of half 
the duration of the quaver; being the six¬ 
teenth of the semibreve. 

SEMI-SEX'TILE, in Astrology, an aspect 
of the planets when they are distant from 
each other the twelfth part of a circle, or 
thirty degrees. 





















573 


Ettcrarj) Cvws’ury, 


BKMI'TIC, a term derived from Shem, the 
eon of Noah, applied to a group of lan¬ 
guages including the Chaldee, Syriac, Ara¬ 
bic, Hebrew, Samaritan, Phoenician, and 
Ethiopic. 

SEM'ITONE, in Music, half a tone, being 
the smallest interval admitted in modern 
music. The semitonic scale consists of 
twelve degrees, or thirteen notes in the 
octave. 

SEM'I-VOWEL, in Grammar, a half 
vowel, or consonant which, resembling a 
vowel, can be in some degree pronounced 
without tho aid of another letter. The 
semivowels are b, d, c, g, k, p, s,t,v,x, and z. 

SEN'ATE (senatus, from senex, an old 
man : Lat.), an assembly or council of sena¬ 
tors : that is, a body of the principal inha¬ 
bitants of a state, invested with a share 
in the government. The senate of ancient 
Rome was, of all others, the most cele¬ 
brated ; it appointed judges, either from 
among the senators or knights, to deter¬ 
mine processes; it also appointed governors 
of provinces, and disposed of the revenues 
of the commonwealth, &c. Yet the whole 
sovereign power did not reside in it, since 
it could not elect magistrates ; it did not, 
ordinarily', make laws, or decide on war 
and peace; in all which cases it was obliged 
to consult the people. The senate originally 
consisted only of patricians; its number, it 
Is said, was at first 100, but was doubled on 
the addition of the Sabines, then increased 
to 300 by Tarquinius Priscus, on the incor¬ 
poration of the Luceres. The older were 
distinguished from the last created, by 
their names: the former being termed 
patres majorum gentium (fathers of the 
greater houses); and the latter patres mi- 
norum gentiumituthers of the lesser houses). 
The senate was subsequently increased to 
500 or 600; and ultimately, by the Emperors, 
to on one occasion, at least, 1000. The mem- 
oers were first chosen by the kings ; after¬ 
wards by the consuls, military tribunes, 
and finally the censors; but certain offices 
gave a right to the privilege of belonging 
to the senate. At first the senate had su¬ 
preme power; but this was lost when the 
right of intercession, or negativing their 
proceedings, was given to the tribunes of 
the people. Under the Commonwealth, 
nowever, it remained always very great. 
The senate subsisted till the occupation of 
Italy by the Goths. The provincial towns 
aad senates, in imitation of that at Rome. 

-In the United States of America, senate 

denotes the higher branch or house of 
legislature, viz. the upper house of con¬ 
gress ; and in most of the states, also, the 
higher and least numerous branch of the 

legislature is called the senate.- Senate- 

house, a building in which the senate 

meets, or a place of public council.- 

Senate, in the university of Cambridge, is 
equivalent to the convocation at Oxford ; 
it consists of all masters of arts, and higher 
graduates, being masters of arts, who have 
each a voice in every public measure, in 
granting degrees, in electing members of 
parliament, a chancellor, &c. 

SENA'TUS AUCTOR'ITAS, a vote of the 
Roman senate, drawn up in the same form 


[sense 


as a decree, but without its force; as hav¬ 
ing been prevented from passing into a 
decree by some of the tribunes of the peo¬ 
ple. 

SENA'TUS CONSUL'TUM, a decree of the 
Roman senate pronounced on some ques¬ 
tion or point of law; which, when passed, 
made a part of the law. 

SEN'EGA ROOT, the root of the Poly¬ 
gala senega, a North American plant. This 
root is woody, branching, and about half 
an inch in diameter. Its medicinal virtues, 
as a cure for the bite of a rattlesnake, have 
been greatly exaggerated, and also its effi¬ 
cacy as a remedy in pulmonary complaints. 
The plant grows to the height of about a 
foot, producing several herbaceous stems, 
and its blossoms resemble those of the'pea. 

SEN'ESCHAL (Ur.), in France, an office 
and dignity, derived from the middle ages, 
and answering to our steward and high 
steward. Originally seneschals were the 
lieutenants of the dukes, and were some¬ 
times termed Baillis, or Bailiffs. When 
the dukedoms reverted to the French 
crown they were continued as judges and 
superintendents, but gradually lost their 
power, by encroachment of the sovereign. 
In Ireland the term is still employed to 
designate the stewards of baronies. 

SEN'NA, the leaves of the Cassia senna, 
a leguminous shrub, which are imported 
here from Alexandria for medicinal use. 
They have rather a disagreeable smell, 
and a sub-acrid, bitterish, nauseous taste. 
They are in common use as a purgative; 
and are given as an infusion, tincture, or 
made into an electuary. Senna is often 
adulterated with the leaves of the Cynan- 
chum olei folium or Arghel, from which, how¬ 
ever, it may be known by being ribbed. 

SENOC'ULAR (seni, six each ; and occur 
lus, an eye: Lat.), in Entomology, an epi¬ 
thet for such insects as have six eyes. 

SENSE (sensus, from sentio, I feel: Lat.). 
The external organs of sense are usually 
classed under five heads, viz. those of sight, 
hearing, feeling, smell, and taste. The 
nerves and the brain are the organs of sen¬ 
sation. If the external organ be destroyed, 
no sensation can be produced ; where there 
are no nerves there is no sensation; where 
the nervous branches are most numerous 
there is most sensation; If the nerve be 
destroyed, sensations cannot be produced 
from those parts to which the nerve be¬ 
longs, which are further from the brain 
than the injured parts. The nerves of sen¬ 
sation terminate in the brain. If the brain 
is compressed, sensation is suspended; if 
the brain is considerably injured, sensation 
ceases. The accuracy and extent of the 
perception depends on the vividness and 
efficaciousness of the compound sensations 
and the number of them received from the 
same or similar objects in different situa¬ 
tions, and through the medium of different 
senses. The object, therefore, of early edu¬ 
cation should be to invigorate the organs 

of sense.- Common sense, is that power 

of the mind which, by a kind of instinct, 
or a short process of reasoning, perceives 
truth, the relation of things, cause and 
effect, &c., and hence enables the possessoi 














sensibility] Jj>ctenttfxc anti 071 

to discern what is right and expedient, and 
adopt the best means to accomplish his pur¬ 
pose. - Moral sense, that mental faculty 

which has the power of distinguishing be¬ 
tween right and wrong. 

SENSIBIL'ITY ( sensibilis , perceptible by 
the senses : Gr.), acuteness of perception, 
or that quality of the mind which renders it 
susceptible of impressions ; delicacy of feel¬ 
ing; as sensibility to pleasure or pain, 
shame orpraise. - In Physiology, the capa¬ 

bility which a nerve possesses of conveying 
the sensation produced by the contact of 
another body with it. 

SENSITIVE PLANT, a native of tropi¬ 
cal America, but often seen in our green¬ 
houses. It shrinks and folds up its leaves 
on the slightest touch. [See Mimosa.] 

SENSO'ftIUM, or SEN'SORY (sensus, the 
faculty of feeling : Lat.), the brain and 
nerves, the seat of sense. According to 
some writers, it not only denotes the dif¬ 
ferent organs of sense, but also that living 
principle or spirit of animation which re¬ 
sides throughout the body, without being 
cognizable to our senses, except by its 
effects. 

SENTENCE (senteniia; from sentio, I per¬ 
ceive : Lat.), in Grammar, a number of 
words containing complete sense, and fol¬ 
lowed by a full pause; a period. A simple 
sentence consists of one subject and one 
finite verb ; as, ‘the man walks.’ A com¬ 
pound sentence contains two or more sub¬ 
jects and finite verbs. - In Law, a judicial 

decision publicly and officially declared in a 
criminal prosecution. In civil cases, the 
decision of a court is called a judgment. 

SENTIMENT (Fr. ; from sentio, I feel: 
Lat.), in its primary sense, signifies a 
thought prompted by passion or feeling. 
Also, the decision of the mind, formed by 

deliberation or reasoning. - Sentiments, 

in Poetry, and especially the dramatic, are 
the thoughts which the several persons ex¬ 
press ; whether they relate to matters of 
opinion, passion, &c. 

SENTINEL ( sentinelle: Fr.; from sentio, 

I observe : Lat.), or SENTRY (sentire, to 
perceive: Ital.), in Military affairs, a pri¬ 
vate soldier placed in some post, to watch 
any approach of the enemy, to prevent sur¬ 
prises, and to stop such as would pass with¬ 
out order, or have no business where he is 
posted. 

SE'PIA (Lat.; from sepia: Gr.), in Zoo¬ 
logy, a genus of Cephalopoda, to which the 
true cuttle fishes belong. Their internal 
shells form what is called cuttle bone. 
There is a very curious play of colours on 
the skin of the living animal, which may be 
seen after it is taken out of the water. The 
sepice possess a bag in which they secrete 
a thick fluid of an intense dark brown co¬ 
lour. This they eject on being alarmed, and 
thus make their escape whilst the water 
around them is discoloured. The pigment 
called sepia is prepared from cuttlefish ink. 
This matter has been found fossilized, and 
thus an animal that died a countless num¬ 
ber of years ago might be painted with 
its own ink. 

SE'POYS (a corruption of the Indian word 
Sipalii, a soldier), the name given to the 

native troops in India, of whom there were 
formerly nearly 200,000, chiefly infantry, 
but including several regiments of cavalry 
and some companies of artillery. They 
were all disciplined after the European 
manner ; and were considered, in some cir¬ 
cumstances, as being good soldiers ; but the 
great Indian mutiny has greatly diminished 
confidence in native troops. Their dress 
consisted of a red jacket, with a white cot- 
ton vest, trowsers reaching only half-way 
down the thighs, and a light turban. 

SEPT ( septum , an enclosure: Lat.), in 
Irish history, a clan, race, or family, pro¬ 
ceeding from a common progenitor. 

SEPTA'RIA (same dcriv.), in Mineralogy, 
a name given to nodules or spheroidal 
masses of calcareous marl, whose interior 
presents numerous fissures or seams of 
some crystallized substance, which divide 
the mass. When calcined and reduced to 
powder, they furnish roman cement. 

SEPTEM'BER (Lat. ; from septem, seven), 
the seventh month of the ancient Roman 
year. 

SEPTEMBRISA'DE, in Politics, a terra 
in use during the revolutionary commotions 
in France for any horrid massacre like that 
which disgraced the 2nd and 3rd of Sep¬ 
tember, 1792, and in which the state pri¬ 
soners were murdered. 

SEPTEN'NIAL (septennium, a period of 
seven years : Lat.), happening or returning 
every seven years, as septennial parliaments. 

SEPTENTRIONAL (septentrio, a con¬ 
stellation near the north pole, consisting 
of seven stars : from septem, seven, and trio, 
a ploughing ox: Lat.), pertaining to the 
north, or northern regions of the globe. 

SEPTIC (septikos, putrefying : Gr.), in i 
Chemistry, an epithet for any substance 
that promotes the putrefaction of bodies ; ; 
as antiseptic is for whatever tends to pre¬ 
serve them from putrefaction. 

SEPTUAGES'IMA (septuagesimus, the 
seventieth : Lat.), in the calendar, the third 
Sunday before Lent, about seventy days 
before Easter. 

SEP'TUAGINT ( septuaginta, seventy: 
Lat), a Greek version of the books of the 
Old Testament; so called because the trans¬ 
lation is supposed to have been made by 
seventy-two Jews, who, for the sake of 
round numbers,are usually called the seventy 
interpreters. It is said to have been made- 
at the request of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
king of Egypt, about 280 years before the 
birth of Christ. It is that out of which all 
the citations in the New Testament from 
the Old are taken. It was also the ordinary 
and canonical translation made use of by 
the Christian church in the earliest ages ; , 

and is still retained in the churches both 
of the east and west. According to the 
chronology of the Septuagint there were 
fifteen hundred years more from the crea¬ 
tion to Abraham, than according to the 
present Hebrew copies of the Bible. 

SEPTUM (a partition : Lat.), in Anatomy, 
&c., a plate or wall which separates two 
adjoining cavities. Thus the septum auris 

or drum of the ear. - Septum Cehebelli, 

a process of the dura mater, dividing the 
cerebellum into two equal parts. Septum 

-—- =*} 






















675 


Ettmtrj) Erearfttrg. 


[SERGEANT 


Cordis, the partition between the two 

ventricles of the heart.- Septum Narium, 

the partition between the nostrils. 

SEP'ULCHRE ( sepulcntm, from sepelio, I 
inter : Lat.), a place destined for the inter¬ 
ment of the dead. This term is chiefly used 
in speaking of the burying places of the 
ancients, those of the moderns being usually 
called tombs. Sepulchres were held sacred 
and inviolable, and the care taken of them 
has always been held a religious duty, 
j Those who have searched or violated them 
have been thought odious by all nations, 

I and were always severely punished. The 
J Egyptians called sepulchres eternal houses, 
in contradistinction to theirordinaryhouses 
; or palaces, which they called inns, on ac- 
I count of their short stay or pilgrimage on 
1 earth. The sepulchres of the Hebrews were 
sometimes hollow places dug out of rocks. 
Thus Abraham is said to have buried Sarah 
his wife in the cave of Maclipelab(Gen.xxiii. 
10). In such sepulchres, also, the bodies 
of Lazarus and Jesus Christ were buried 
(John xi. 38, Matthew xxvii. 60). And the 
same custom prevails in the East to this 
day, according to the account of modern 

travellers.- Knights of the Holt Se- 

FULcmtE, a military order, instituted in 
Palestine about the year 1114. It was after¬ 
wards established in France by Louis VII., 
was united to that of Malta by Innocent 
VIII., and was taken under the protection 
of Louis XVIri. in 1814. 

SEPULTUMtA (a burial; from scpulto, I 
keep buried: Lat.), in Archaeology, an of¬ 
fering wade to the priest for the burial of 
a dead body. 

SE'QUENCE (sequeno, following: Lat.), 
in Music, a regular succession of similar 
sounds.-In Gaming, a set of cards im¬ 

mediately following each other, in the same 
suit, as a king, queen, knave, &c.; thus we 
say, a sequence of three, four, or five cards, 
i SEQUESTRATION {sequestratio; from 
sequestra, I give up for safe keeping : Lai.), 
in Chancery, a prerogative process, ad¬ 
dressed to certain commissioners, empower¬ 
ing them to enter upon the defendant’s real 
estates, and sequester the rents thereof, 
and also his goods and chattels, and per¬ 
sonal estate, until he clears himself of his 
contempt. Also, a species of execution for 
debt, in the case of a benefleed clergyman, 
issued by the bishop of the diocese, on 
receipt of a writ for the purpose ; the profits 
of the benefice are paid over to the credi¬ 
tors until his claim is settled. 

SE'QUIN, or ZE'CHIN ( zecchino, from 
. zccca, a mint: Ital.), a gold coin of Venice 
and Turkey, of different values in different 
places; but generally about 9s. 

SERAG'LIO {Ital,; corrupted from Serai, 
an oriental word), the palace of the Turkish 
sultan in Constantinople. Its principal 
gate is that of Babi Humayun, or Sublime 
Gate; whence is derived the title Sublime 
Porte, to signify the Sultan’s ministry. In 
this building are also kept the females of 
the harem. [See Harem.] 

SERAM, a large building for the accom¬ 
modation of travellers, common in the East. 
In Turkey they are called khans; in Persia, 
caravanserais, which we write caravansa¬ 


ries ; but in Tartary and India, simply se¬ 
rais. 

SER'APH (to purify: Ileb.), a spirit of 
the highest rank in the hierarchy of angels; 
thus called from their being supposed to 
be most inflamed with divine love, or holy j 
zeal, owing to their more immediate at¬ 
tendance at the throne of God. The Hebrew l 
plural is seraphim. They are almost always 
spoken of in connection with the cherubim, 
whom they resemble in rank and attributes. 

SER'APHINE, a musical wind instru¬ 
ment : a kind of chamber organ. 

SERASMCIER (head of an army: Pers.), 
a Turkish general or commander of land 
forces. 

SERENA'DE {serenata: Span; from sere- 
nus, clear: Lat.), music performed in the 
open air during the silence of night. It is 
generally instrumental, but the voice is 
sometimes added. Hence, an entertain¬ 
ment of music given in the night by a lover 
to his mistress under her window is styled j 
a serenade. 

SERF {servus: Lat.), a servant or, as is 
the case in some countries, a peasant slave, 
attached to the soil and transferred with 
it. 

SERGE {Fr.), a kind of woollen quilted 
stuff. 

SER'GEANT.or SER'JEAHT(se?-£reuf: Fr.; 
from serviens, serving; Lat.), in Military J 
affairs, a non-commissioned officer in a 
company of infantry or troop of cavalry, 
whose duty is to order and form the ranks, 

and see discipline preserved.- Sergeant- 

Major, a non-commissioned officer, who 
assists the Adjutant; he was formerly a 

field officer, of the same rank as Major. - 

Colour-Sergeants, non - commissioned 
officers, appointed to attend those who 

have charge of the colours.- Sergeant- 

at-Arms, officers whose duty is to attend 
the person of the King, and the Lord High 
Steward, when sitting in judgment on a 
traitor, &c. They are appointed by letters 
patent for life, and their number atpresent 
is eight; two of them, by royal permission, 
attend the houses of parliament during its 
sittings, and have large emoluments—par¬ 
ticularly the one connected with the Com¬ 
mons. The one who attends in the court 
of Chancery is usually the Sergeant-at-arms 

of the House of Lords.- Sergeants- 

at-Law ; these are gentlemen who have 
been advanced by the Lord Chancellor to 
this dignity, the highest at the bar, after 
ten years’ standing. As the obtainment of 
the rank is attended with considerable cost, 
and as the sergeants have no longer ex¬ 
clusive audience in the court of Common 
Pleas, the dignity is not so much sought 
for as formerly. By way of distinguishing 
mark their wigs have a black patch on the 
crown, and in court they are always ad¬ 
dressed as ‘ brother’ by the Judges, as the 
occupants of the bench are invariably made 
sergeants if not previously of this dignity. 
On the appointment of a sergeant it is an 
ancient custom for him to distribute gold 
rings, bearing an appropriate motto, to the 
Sovereign, the Lord Chancellor, and the 
Judges. The Sergeants have an Inn to 
themselves.-—C ommon-Sergeant, an ofifi- 






























series] 


HLfyc g&ttenti&t antr 


676 


cer of the city of London, who attends the 
lord-mayor and court of aldermen on court- 
days ; and is in council with them on all 

occasions.- King’s Sergeant, one or 

more of the Sergeants-at-Law, who are sup¬ 
posed to plead for the King, in causes of a 

public nature.- Sergeantry, in the old 

English law, is of two kinds. Grand ser¬ 
geantry is a kind of knight service, by which 
the tenant was bound to do some special 
honorary service to the king in person ; as 
to carry his banner or sword, or be his 
champion at his coronation, &c. Petit ser¬ 
geantry was a tenure by which the tenant 
was bound to render to the king annually 
some small implement of war, as a bow, a 
sword, a lance, &c. 

SE'RIES ( Lat .; from sero, I plant), a con¬ 
tinued succession of things in the same 
order— —Series, in Mathematics, a num¬ 
ber of terms, whether arithmetical or other¬ 
wise, increasing or decreasing according to 
a certain law.- Series, in Natural His¬ 

tory, an order or subdivision of some class 
of natural bodies ; comprehending all such 
as are distinguished from others of that 
class by certain characters, which they pos¬ 
sess in common, and which the rest of the 

bodies of that class have not.- Infinite 

Series, a series consisting of an infinite 
number of terms, at the end of which it is 
impossible ever to arrive; so that let the 
series be carried on to anyassignable length, 
or number of terms, it can be carried still 
farther. 

SERPENTA'RIUS ( serpens , a serpent: 
Lat.), in Astronomy, a constellation in the 
northern hemisphere represented by the 
figure of a man grasping a serpent. 

SER'PENTS {Lat.; from serpo, I crawl: 
Lat ), in Zoology, an order of reptiles which 
has been divided into two suborders:—1. 
Viperina, Rattlesnakes and Vipers, or 
those serpents which are poisonous. 2. 
Colubrina, Boas, Pythons, and water 
snakes which are not poisonous. Serpents 
are vertebrateanimals which are destitute of 
limbs, except occasionally in a very rudi¬ 
mentary form [see Python]. The general 
form of their elongated tapering scaly 
bodies without a distinct neck is well 
known. The jaws are not articulated to¬ 
gether, but are capable of being separated 
from each other when any large object is 
being swallowed. They advance along the 
ground by a sinuous motion, but when 
about to attack their prey, they usually 
erect their heads, and spring forward, the 
hinder part of the body serving as a ful¬ 
crum. The upper jaws of the poisonous 
serpents have moveable fangs, which are 
grooved on the outer edge, and along this 
groove the poison flows from a gland 
situate under the eye into the wound in¬ 
flicted by the teeth. When not in use the 
fangs lie in a fold of the gums. Some ser¬ 
pents are oviparous, and of these some de¬ 
posit their eggs in a sort of chain, leaving 
them to be hatched in a warm situation, 
whilst others, like the pythons, incubate 
their eggs. On the other hand, some ser¬ 
pents are viviparous, their eggs being 
hatched inside their bodies. The fascina¬ 
tion which it has been often stated serpents 


exercise over other animals is perhaps 
nothing more than a stupefaction, the re¬ 
sult of terror which their appearance 

excites. 

SER'PENTINE, or SER'PENTINE 
STONE, in Mineralogy, a magnesian rock, 
of various colours, but usually greenish, 
sometimes speckled like the back of a ser¬ 
pent. Common serpentine will stand heat 
and is therefore sometimes made into cook¬ 
ing pots. When it veins limestone, it ; 
forms verde antique. Precious serpentine : 

is translucent of a rich green colour.- 

Serpentine verses, in Poetry, verses which { 
begin and end with the same words. 

SERPI'GO (serpo, I creep: Lat.), in Me¬ 
dicine, a species of herpes ; called in popu¬ 
lar language, a ringworm. 

SER'PULA (a little serpent: Lat.), a 
genus of marine worms, inhabiting twisted 
calcareous tubes, which are generally at¬ 
tached to shells or other objects. The 
animal has its aerating organs in the shape 
of threads arranged in two fans on the 
head, and it closes the mouth of its tube 
with a plug. 


SER'PULITE ( serpula , and lithos, a stone : 
Gr.), petrified shells or fossil remains of the 
genus Serpula. 

SER'RATE, or SER'RATED (serratus; 
from serra, a saw: Lat.), in general, some¬ 
thing notched or indented on the edge, like 

a saw.-In Botany, a leaf is said to be 

doubly serrate when the edges of the large 
serratures are again serrated with lesser 

indentings of the same kind.-A serrate- 

ciliate leaf is one having fine hairs, like the 
eye lashes, on the serratures. A serrulate 
leaf is one finely serrate, with very small j 
notches or teeth. 

SERRA'TULA (Lat.; from serratus, in¬ 
dented like a saw), in Botany, a genus of 
composite plants. The British species, 
Serratula tinctoria, is called saw-wort. 

SERRICOR'NIA (serra, a saw; and corun, 
a horn: Lat.), a family of coleopterous in¬ 
sects, comprehending those which have 
serrated antennae, a simple external lobe to 
the maxillae, five jointed tarsi, and ample 
elytra. 

SE'RUM (Lat.), that part of the blood in 
which the red globules are suspended. It 
consists of albumen, fibrin, and water. It 
coagulates at a temperature of from 150° to 

170°.-Also ivhey, or the remainder of the 

milk after its richer parts have been taken 
away. 

SER'VAL, the Felis serval of Zoologists, 
an animal resembling the lynx in form and 
size, and the panther in its spots. It is a 
native of India and Thibet. 


SER'VICE (servitium; from servus, a ser¬ 
vant : Lat.), in a general sense, labour, 
whether of body or mind, or of both united, 
performed in pursuance of duty, or at the 

command of a superior.-The duty which 

a tenant owes to his lord for his fee is 

called personal service. -The word service 

is also applied to the duty of naval or 
military men when serving their country ; 
as home service, foreign service, limited ser¬ 
vice, &c. 



! 

! ( 


SER'VICE-TREE (a corruption of sor- 
bus: Lat.), the Pyrus sorbus of botanists. 


t 


























677 


Ettcrarj) Crearfurg. 


nat. ord. Pomacece. The fruit of this tree is 
a powerful astringent, and therefore often 
used in cases of dysentery. 

SER'VITOR (. Lat .), an undergraduate at 
Oxford partly supported by college funds. 
Servitors are the same class as the sizers at 
Cambridge; they formerly attended on 
other students, whence their name. 

SESAMOI'DEA OS'SA, or SESAMOID 
BONES ( sesamon, a kind of seed, and eidos, 
form : Gr.), in Anatomy, little bones found 
at the articulations of the toes, so called 
from their supposed resemblance to the 
seeds of the sesamum. 

SE'SAMUM {Lat.; from sesame: Gr.), a 
genus of plants of the natural order Peda- 
liacece, supposed to have been originally 
natives of India, but now cultivated in 
many other countries. Their seeds are 
used as food; and yield a fine oil, constitut¬ 
ing an extensive article of commerce in 
the East. The word sesame is well known 
to readers of the ‘Arabian Nights’ Enter¬ 
tainments.’ 

SESQUI (once and a half: Lat), a term 
being commonly used in compound scien¬ 
tific terms, and signifying that a something 
is taken one and a half times.-In Geo¬ 

metry, the expression of a ratio, in which 
the greater term contains the less once, 

| leaving a certain aliquot part of the less 
I over; when the part remaining is half the 
less term, the ratio is called sesquialtera ; 
when a third, sesquitertia ; and so on. The 
word sesquiduplicate is used when, in a ratio, 

S the greater term is twice and a half times 
the less. 

SESQUIAL'TERAL (sesquialter, one and 
a half: Lat.), in Botany, a term applied to 
a large fertile floret, accompanied by a 
small abortive one. 

SES'QUITONE, in Music, a minor third, 
or interval of three semitones. 

SES'SILE (sessilis, sitting: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, an epithet for a leaf or a flower which 
issues directly from the stem or branch, 
without a stalk. 

SES'SION ( sessio: Lat.), in Law, a sitting 
of justices in court upon their commission, 

as the session of oyer and terminer, &c.- 

The session of a judicial court is called a 
term; a court may have two sessions an¬ 
nually. The term sessions, or quarter ses¬ 
sions, is applied to those „quarterly meet¬ 
ings of justices of the peace, when minor 
offences are tried, or business performed 
■which requires the sanction of two or more 
of them.- Session of parliament, the sea¬ 

son and space between its meeting and its 
prorogation. 

SES'TERCE ( sestertius , contracted from 
senis terthis, the third minus a half, that is 
two asses and a half : Lat.), in Antiquity, a 
Roman coin, the fourth part of a denarius, 
and worth about twopence. It was of the 
value of two asses and a half; and hence 
was represented by L.L.S. (libra, libra, semis, 
a pound, a pound, and a half pound), or by 

the abbreviation H.S.-The sestertium, 

a contraction for mille sestertionis, contained 
one thousand sesterces ; and a numeral ad¬ 
jective joined with it signified so many 
thousand sestertia: thus decern sestertia, 
ten sestertia, or ten thousand sesterces. A 


[settlement 

I numeral adverb joined to it, or standing by 

itself, indicated so many hundred thou¬ 
sand : thus decies sestertia, or decies, ten 
hundred thousand sesterces. The sester¬ 
tium in the time of Augustus was 81.17s. Id .; 
and, after that, 71. 16s. 3d ; and it may always 
be roughly estimated at 81. One qualifica¬ 
tion of a Roman knight was the possession 
of estate of the value of four hundred 
thousand sesterces; that of a senator was 
double this sum. 

SETA'CEOUS (seta, a bristle: Lat), in 
Natural History, bristle-shaped; being in 
size and length like a bristle. 

SET'-OFF, is a term used in law when the 
defendant acknowledges the plaintiff’s de¬ 
mand, but makes a demand of his own, to 
set-off or counterbalance the debt either 
wholly or in part.—— Set-off, in Architecture, 
a horizontal projection left in a wall, where 
the thickness diminishes. 

SE'TON (seta, a bristle : Lat.), in Surgery, 
a sort of issue, generally in the neck; 
formed by means of horsehair or fine 
threads drawn through the skin by a large 
needle, by which a small opening is made 
and continued for the discharge of humours. 

SETO'SE (setosus, covered with bris¬ 
tles : Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a leaf 
or receptacle, the surface of which is set 
with bristles. 

SETTEE, in the marine, a vessel of from 
60 to 100 tons burden, with, generally, two 
masts, equipped with triangular or lateen 
fails. Settees are used in the Mediterranean 

for transporting cannon, stores, &c.-A 

kind of couch or sofa. 

SETTLEMENT (setol, to settle : Sax.), in 
Law, the right acquired by an individual to 
parochial assistance. It is obtained by 
birth; bastard children follow the settle¬ 
ment of their mothers, until they are six¬ 
teen ; legitimate children follow the settle¬ 
ment of their father, and after his death of 
their mother, until they become twenty- 
one years of age, or are married. A woman 
acquirestbe settlement of her husband, and, 
after his death, retains his last settlement, 
until she acquires a new one. A person 
bound apprentice, and inhabiting, under 
such apprenticeship, any town or parish 
during the last forty days, acquires a settle¬ 
ment in that town or parish. A person 
actually occupying and actually paying a 
rent of 101. for at least one year, and dwel¬ 
ling forty days in the parish in which such 
tenement is situated, acquires a settlement 
in it, provided he has been rated to and paid 
the poor’s rate for at least one year. A per¬ 
son, having an estate in lands or tenements, 
and having resided in the parish in which 
such an estate is situate for at least forty 
days, acquires a settlement; but no settle¬ 
ment is acquired by the purchase of pro¬ 
perty for which 301., at least, has not been 
really paid, and such right of settlement is 
retained no longer than the person resides 
within ten miles of the parish. The pay¬ 
ment of parish taxes and levies, such as 
poor-rate, church-rate, or land-tax, with 
respect to a tenement worth 101. per annum, 
gives a settlement. Poor people becoming 
chargeable to a parish in which they have 
no settlement may, by an order of two jus* 






















sexagesima] 5TIjc fi'crcuttHc anti 

tlces, be removed to that in which they 
have a settlement. A certificate is a written 
acknowledgment, by the churchwardens 
and overseers, that a particular person is 
legally settled in their parish. 

SEXAGES'IMA ( sexagesimus , the six¬ 
tieth : Lot .), the second Sunday before 
Lent, or the next to Shrove Sunday; so 
called, as being about the 60th day before 
Easter. 

SEXAGESIMAL ARITHMETIC (same 
deriv.), a mode of computing by sixtieths ; 
such as the division of a degree into sixty 
minutes, and a minute into sixty seconds, 
&c. 

SEXDE'CIMAL (sex, six; and decent, ten: 
Lat.), in Crystallography, an epithet used 
when a prism or the middle part of a crys¬ 
tal has six faces with two summits; and, 
taken together, ten faces. 

SEXDUODECIMAL (sex, six; and duo- 
decim, twelve: Lat.), in Crystallography, an 
epithet for a crystal when the prism has six 
faces with two summits; and, taken toge¬ 
ther, twelve faces. 

SEXTAIN (sextaneus, containing six: 
Lat.), in Poetry, a stanza containing six 
lines. 

SEX'TANT (sextans, the sixth part: Lat.), 
in Mathematics, the sixth part of a circle, 
or an arc comprehending sixty degrees. 
Also, an astronomical instrument like a 
quadrant, except that it measures no more 
than sixty degrees. [See Quadrant.] 

SEX'TERY-LANDS, in Law, lands given 
to a church or religious house for the main¬ 
tenance of the sexton or sacristan. 

SEX'TILE (sextilis, pertaining to the 
sixth : Lat.), in Astrology, the position or 
aspect of two planets when distant from 
each other sixty degrees, or two signs—the 
sixth part of the ecliptic. 

SEX'TILIS (Lat.), the sixth month of the 
early Roman year, but the eighth of a later 
period. It xvas under the protection of 
Geres; and was afterwards called August, 
in honour of Augustus. 

SEX'TON (corrupted from sacristan), an 
under officer of the church, whose business 
it is to take care of the vessels, vestments, 
&c., to attend the officiating clergyman, and 
perform other duties pertaining to the 
church. He was anciently called the sa¬ 
cristan— as he is still, in the Roman Catholic 
Church. ■ 

SFORZA'TO, in Music, an Italian term 
signifying that the note over which it is 
placed must be struck with force. 

SHAB'RACK, a Military term, of Hun¬ 
garian origin, used for the cloth furniture 
of a cavalry officer’s troop-horse or charger. 

SHAD'DOCK, the fruit of an Indian tree, 
the Citrus Decumana* nat. ord. Aurantiacece, 
and therefore allied to the orange and 
lemon trees. This fruit has a white, thick, 
spongy rind, and a red or white pulp; of a 
sweet taste mingled with acidity. 

SHAD'OW, in Optics, a privation or dimi¬ 
nution of light, by the interposition of an 
opaque body. Shadow differs from shade, 
as the latter implies no particular form, or 
definite limit; whereas a shadow repre¬ 
sents inform the object which intercepts 
the light; as, the shadow of a man, of a 

tower, &c.- Shading, or shadowing, in 

Painting, the art of duly representing 
light and shade in a picture.- To sha¬ 

dow, to represent faintly, imperfectly, or 

typically. 

SHAFT, in Architecture, the body of a 
column, between the base and the capital. 

-In Machinery, a strong bar, usually of 

a cylindrical form, employed to convey 
motion from the prime mover to the work. 

-In Mining, a pit, or long narrow vertical 

opening into a mine. 

SHAGREE'N, in Commerce, a kind of 
grained leather, supposed formerly to be 
prepared from the skin of a species of 
shark. It is, however, now known that 
the material is the strong skin, cut along 
the chine, from the neck to the tail, of the 
ass or horse. The skin is first cut and 
scraped till it becomes scarcely thicker than 
a bladder. It is then, while wet and soft, 
fastened to a frame, the flesh side upper¬ 
most ; and the upper or grain side is 
strewed over with the hard round seeds of 
a species of chenopodium ; a felt is then 
laid over it, and the seeds arc trodden 
deeply into the soft yielding skin. The 
frames are next placed in the shade till the 
skin becomes dry, and the seeds will shake 
out of their holes. After this the skin is 
rasped till the sides of the holes are worn 
down almost to a level with their bottoms; 
it is then soaked, first in water, and after¬ 
wards in an alkaline ley; and, as it be¬ 
comes soft, those parts of the skin which 
were merely depressed by the seeds being 
forced down upon them, rise above the parts 
which had been rasped, presenting a granu¬ 
lar or pustular surface. The skin is then 
stained superficially of a green colour by 
copper filings and sal ammoniac, and is 
afterwards allowed to dry; lastly, the grains 
or protuberances are rubbed down toalevel 
with the rest of the surface, which thus 
presents the appearance of white dots on a 
green ground. Astracan is the seat of this 
manufacture, and vast quantities were im¬ 
ported into this country when it was the 
fashion to use it for watch and spectacle- 
cases, and a variety of other purposes. 

SHAH (prince: Pers.), a name given by 
Europeans to the monarch of Persia, whoso 
real title is Padishah, which see. 

SHAKE (sceacan, to shake: Sax.), in 
Music, an embellishment, consisting of an 
alternate reiteration of two notes, compre¬ 
hending an interval not greater than one 
whole tone, nor less than a semitone. 

SHALE, in Geology, a species of schist, 
or slate clay, generally of a bluish or yel¬ 
lowish gray colour; but sometimes blackish 
or inclining to green. Its fracture is slaty, 
and in water it moulders into powder. It 
is often found in strata in coal mines, and 

commonly bears vegetable impressions.-- 

Bituminous shale is a variety of argillaceous 
slate, which is impregnated with bitumen, 
and burns with flame. 

SHAM'ANISM, a belief that certain indi¬ 
viduals possess an influence over evil spirits 
entertained by some tribes of Finnish race 
in the old world, and by the Eskimos and 
some Indian tribes in the northern part of 
the new world. The individuals who claim 


















679 mtcrarg 

such an influence are called Shamans, and 
they profess to have the sole power of com¬ 
municating with the unseen world, of 
foreseeing deaths, and foretelling events. 
The evil spirits are propitiated through the 
shamans, and they are consulted if any un¬ 
toward event occurs to one of the tribe. 
These sorcerers are consequently looked 
upon with respect and awe. 

SHAM'MY ( chamois , Fr.), a kind of 
leather prepared from the skin of tlie 
chamois, a species of antelope, inhabiting 
the mountains of Savoy, Piedmont, and the 
Pyrenees. It is dressed in oil or tanned ; 
and muchesteemed for its softness, pliancy, 
and the quality of bearing soap without 
injury A great part of the leather which 
bears this name is counterfeit, being made 
of the skin of the common goat, the kid, or 
even of sheep. 

SHAM'ROCK {scam rag : Irish), the Irish 
name for a trifoliate plant, which some 
think is the trefoil, and others the wood- 
sorrel. According to legendary tradition, 
when St. Patrick landed near Wicklow, to 
convert the Irish, in 433, the Pagan inhabit¬ 
ants were about to stone him ; but having 
obtained a hearing, he endeavoured to ex¬ 
plain to them the Trinity in Unity ; but 
they could not understand him, till, pluck¬ 
ing a shamrock leaf from the ground, he 
said, ‘ Is it not as possible for the Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost, as for these leaves, to 
grow upon a single stalk?’ Upon which 
(says the legend) the Irish were immedi¬ 
ately convinced. 

SHARK, the name given to a tribe of 
voracious fishes which abound in all seas, 
several species having been taken on our 
coasts. They form the section Squalidce of the 
order Plagiostomi, fishes with cartilaginous 
skeletons. Some of the species are small, 
others grow to a great size, and do not 
hesitate to attack man himself in the water. 
Such is the strength of the jaws and the 
sharpness of the teeth that the body of a 
man has been cut in two by a single bite. 
The most singular form is the Hammer¬ 
headed shark, which has ahead like a ham¬ 
mer, with an eye at each end of the cross¬ 
piece. 

SHARP'ING, in Archaeology, a customary 
present of corn made about Christmas, by 
farmers in some parts of England, to the 
smiths; for sharpening their iron instru¬ 
ments of husbandry. 

SHAS'TER, among the Hindoos, a sacred 
book containing the dogmas of the religion 
of the Bramins, and the ceremonies of their 
worship. It consists of three parts ; the 
first containing the moral law of the Hin¬ 
doos; the second the rites and ceremonies 
of their religion ; the third the distribution 
of the people into tribes or classes, with 
the duties pertaining to each. [See Sas- 

tra.] . . 

SHAWL, (cMle: Fr.), a garment used as 
a loose covering for the neck and shoulders. 
Shawls are made of various materials, as 
fine wool, silk, or wool and silk mixed, and 
of various sizes. They were originally 
manufactured in the heart of India, from 
the fine silky wool of the Thibet sheep; but 
the best shawls now come from Cashmere. 


Cvca^ttni* [sheik 

-At Kilghiet, in the district of Soudah, 

twenty days’ journey from Cashmere, is held 
the great mart for the worsted employed in 
the manufacture of the soft stuffs used as 
shawls. There are two qualities of worsted; 
that which is most readily dyed is white ; 
the other; species is of a light ash colour, 
which cannot, without some difficulty, be 
rendered sufficiently white, and is more 
frequently used of the natural colour. One 
goat rarely furnishes more than two or 
three pounds of worsted per year. When 
the shearing is finished, the two qualities 
arc carefully separated; after which they 
undergo repeated washings in rice water. 
Great importance is attached to the opera¬ 
tion of washing; and theCa3hmerians attri¬ 
bute much of the delicacy of their unrivalled 
productions to the fine qualities of the 
waters of their valley. The form, size, and 
border of the shawls vary according to the 
different markets for which the manufac¬ 
turer designs them. 

SHAWM, in Antiquity, an instrument 
used in. the sacred music of the Hebrews. 

SHEATH'ING ( tchawme: 2’eut.), in Naval 
Architecture, sheets of copper nailed all 
over the outside of a ship's bottom, to pro¬ 
tect the planks from the pernicious^cffects 
of worms. 

SHEAVE, in Mechanics, a solid wheel 
having a groove in its circumference, fixed 
in a channel, and movable about an axis. 
It is the wheel in which the rope works in 
a block, and is made either of wood or 

metal.- Sheave-hole, a channel cut in a 

mast, yard, or timber, in which to fix a 
sheave. [See Block.] 

SHEEP, a well-known animal, of which 
there are many varieties. They belong to 
the genus Ovis of zoologists, a member of 
the tribe of Bovidce. In our island the 
breeding of sheep has received much atten¬ 
tion, and the various breeds are well distin¬ 
guished frpm one another. The points 
which are most looked to aro the quality 
of the flesh for food, and the quality and 
abundance of the wool. Every part of the 
animal is of use. ‘ The dressed skin,’ says 
Pennant ‘ forms different parts of our ap¬ 
parel, and is used for covers of books. The 
entrails, properly prepared and twisted, 
serve for strings for various musical instru-. 
ments. The bones, calcined (like otlrerbones 
in general), form materials for tests for the 
refiner. The milk is thicker than that of 
cows, and consequently yields a greater 
quantity of butter and cheese; and in some 
places is so rich, that it will not produce 
the cheese without a mixture of water to 
make it part from the whey. The dung is 
a remarkably rich manure. To conclude; 
'whether we consider the advantages that 
result from this animal to individuals in 
particular, or to these kingdoms in general, 
we may, with Columella, consider this, in 
one sense, as the first of the domestic quad¬ 
rupeds.’ 

SHEIK (Arab.), an elder or chief of the 
Arabic tribes or hordes. The Sheiks ar6 
very proud of their long line of noble ances¬ 
tors ; and some of them take the title of 
Emir. The Mohammedans also call the 
heads of their monasteries sheiks, and tho 
















shekel] 


CTjt i£>cmxttfic anti C80 


Mufti of Constantinople is called sheik ulis- 
lam, or chief of the true believers. 

SHE'KEL ( Heb .), a Jewish silver coin, 
worth about 2s. Id. The Shekel of the Sanctu¬ 
ary was used in calculating the offerings of 
the temple, and the sums connected with 
religion ; the royal, or profane shekel, in 
secular matters ; their relative values are 
not known. 

SHEL'DRAKE, the Tadorna vulpanser 
of ornithologists, one of the most ornamen¬ 
tal of our wild ducks. 

SHELL (seyll: Sax ), in Gunnery, a hollow 
cast iron ball to throw out of mortars, &c., 
having a vent through which the powder is 
put that is to burst it; when it is filled, the 
fusee for setting fire to the powder is driven 
firmly into the hole. The fusee is a wooden 
tube filled with a composition consisting 
of sulphur, saltpetre, and mealed powder ; 
and of such a length as to explode about 
the time that the shell reaches the ground. 

-In ships, the shell of ablock signifies the 

outer frame or case, in which the sheave or 
wheel is contained.- To shell, in the Ve¬ 

terinary art, is said of an aged horse 
that has the teeth completely bare ana un¬ 
covered. 

SHELLS,the protective envelopes of many 
mollusca. Three-fourths of these animals 
have univalve shells, the rest have chiefly 
bivalve shells, but some have shells of sev¬ 
eral pieces. Shells are usually external, 
but amongst the cephalopoda they are in¬ 
ternal when present, and in some genera of 
other classes they are concealed by a man¬ 
tle. They are composed of carbonate of 
lime with a little animal matter. The tex¬ 
ture of shells has been expressed by the 
term porcellanous, which refers to the 
dull lustre some exhibit when broken, 
nacreous or pearly, fibrous, horny, and 
glassy. The peculiar play of light upon 
pearly shells arises from a minute undulat¬ 
ing membrane which alternates with layers 
of carbonate of lime in their structure. In 
many shells there is a nacreous layer next 
the animal, and this furnishes the mother 
of pearl of commerce. The cellular structure 
of shells can only be made out in thin sec¬ 
tions with the aid of the microscope. On 
the outside of a shell there is a membranous 
coat called epidermis, or periostracum, which 
is sometimes thin, sometimes thick, and 
extended into hairs. It is that part of the 
animal called the man tie, which is concerned 
in forming of the shell, which is being con¬ 
tinually added to as the animal grows. 
Lines of growth may usually be perceived 
upon shells, and in some univalves the 
revolute mouth of the shell is not removed, 
but may be traced along the spire in the 
shape of ridges called varices. The forms 
of shells vary greatly, and being character¬ 
istic of families and genera are studied by 
conchologists. Their elegance, combined 
with beauty of colouring, has caused them 
to be sought for in all ages. The hardening 
principle of shell is generally carbonate of 
lime,almost pure; the animal principle, in 
porcellanous shells, a small quantity of sol- 
nble gelatine ; in mother of pearl shells, 
albumen. Hence the latter, when steeped 
in dilute muriatic acid, leave a cartilaginous 


residue, while the former are entirely dis¬ 
solved. The variety in the figure, colours, 
and other characters of sea shells, is almost 
infinite. The most beautiful come from the 
East Indies and the Red Sea. The sun, by 
the great heat that it gives to the countries 
near the line, heightens the colours of the 
shells produced .there, and gives them a 
lustre and brilliancy which is wanting in 
those of colder climates. [See Concho- 
logy, Geology, &c.] 

SHEL'TIE, the appellation given to a 
small but strong horse in Scotland; so called 
from Shetland, where it is bred. 

SHEPHERD KINGS : in Egyptian History 
these were kings styled Hyksos, who ob¬ 
tained possession of Egypt during the fif¬ 
teenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth dynas¬ 
ties, driving the rightful sovereigns into 
Ethiopia. They came from the side of 
Syria about 2100 b.c., and were not expelled 
until after they had reigned 511 years. It 
is said that they then founded Jerusalem. 
According to tradition, they had red hair 
and blue eyes. There is much mystery 
about them, and various conjectures have 
been put forward, some supposing them 
to have been Scythians, others that they 
belonged to some Semitic nation, and were 
perhaps Jews. 

SHER'BET (shariat: Arab.), a drink com¬ 
posed of sugar, lemon juice, and water, 
sometimes with perfumed cakes dissolved 
in it, with an infusion of a small quantity 
of rose-water. Another kind is made with 
honey, the juice of raisins, violets, &c. 

SHER'IPF (originally shire reeve, gover¬ 
nor of the shire : Sax.), an officer in each 
county of England, annually nominated by 
the crown. He is invested with a judicial 
and ministerial power, and takes precedence 
of every nobleman in the county, during 
the time of his office. His judicial autho¬ 
rity consists in hearing and determining 
causes in his county court (the judicial 
business of which, however, has been, for 
the most part, transferred to the County 
Courts), in superintending the election of 
knights for the shire, coroners, &c. He 
keeps the peace of the county, being by the 
common law the principal conservator of 
the peace there ; for which reason he is to 
assist the justices, and raise the posse 
comitatus when occasion requires. As a 
minister, he is bound to execute all pro¬ 
cesses issuing from the king’s courts of 
justice. In the commencement of civil 
causes he is to serve the writ, to arrest, 
and to take bail; when the cause comes to 
trial he must summomand return the jury; 
when it is determined he must see the 
judgment of the court carried into execu¬ 
tion. In criminal matters, he also arrests 
and imprisons ; he returns the jury ; he has 
the custody of the accused ; and he executes 
the judgment of the court. It is also his 
duty to preserve the rights of the crown ; 
to seize all lands devolved thereto by at¬ 
tainder or escheat; to levy fines and for¬ 
feitures ; to seize and keep all waives, 
wrecks.estrays, &c., if they fall immediately 
to the crown; and to collect the regal 
rents, if so commanded by process from the 
exchequer. To execute these various duties. 























681 


Httarari? Crragurg* 


[ship 


the sheriff has under him many inferior 
officers ; an under-sheriff, who is always an 
attorney-at-law ; bailiffs and gaolers; and 
the under-sheriff, in reality, transacts nearly 
the whole business here described. The 
duties performed by the sheriff himself are 
now merely of an honorary character ; but 
he is responsible for the acts of those uhder 
him. 

SHER'RY, a Spanish wine, made in the 
neighbourhood of Xeres de la Frontera, 
in the province of Andalusia, near Cadiz. 
Red and white grapes are used indiscrimi¬ 
nately in its manufacture ; that which we 
call dry sherry is the most esteemed. Sherry 
contains from 20 to 23 per cent, of alcohol; 
it is a wine much imitated and adulterated. 

SHEW'-BREAD, in the Jewish rites, the 
loaves of unleavened bread which the priest 
placed on the golden table in the sanctuary. 
These loaves were twelve in number, re¬ 
presenting the twelve tribes of Israel; and 
were to be eaten by the priest only. 

SHIB'BOLETH (a flood: Heb.), a word 
which was made the criterion by which to 
distinguish the Ephraimites from theGilead- 
ites, after the defeat of the former by Jepli- 
thah. The Ephraimites pronounced the word 
sibboleth. See Judges xii. Hence, when 
I some characteristic or peculiarity of a party 
I is observed, it is common to speak of it as 
the shibboleth or watch-word of that party. 

SHIELDS, a broad piece of defensive 
[ armour, formerly borne on the left arm, as 
a defence against arrows, darts, lances, and 
other weapons. The shields of the ancients 
were of different shapes and sizes, and ge¬ 
nerally made of leather, or wood covered 
[ with leather. The surface, or as it is called 
1 in Heraldry, the field, of the shield, or es- 
| cutcheon, appears to have been in all ages 
decorated with figures emblematical or his¬ 
torical, serving to express the sentiments, 

! record the honours, or at least distinguish 
the person of the warrior. 

SHIL'LING, an English silver coin, equal 
■i in value to twelve pence. The word is sup- 
] posed, by some, to be derived from the Latin 
I siciZicws, which signifies aquarter of an ounce 
j or the 48th part of a Roman pound. In sup¬ 
port of this etymology, it is alleged that the 
\ Saxon shilling was also the 48th part of the 
| Saxon pound. At the time of the conquest, 

1 the shilling was worth fourpence. After- 
] wards the French solidus of twelvepence, 
I which was in use among the Romans, was 
I called by the name of shilling ; and the 
I; Saxon shilling of fourpence took the Nor- 
| man name of groat or great coin, because it 
I was the largest English coin then known. 

It is supposed to have obtained its present 
I relative value in the reign of Edward I. 
[ Many other countries have a coin of this 
1 name ; the Hamburgh shilling is worth Id. 
*. English. 

I SHIN'GLE ( schindel: Teat), in Architec¬ 
ture, a thin board used for covering sheds 

I and other buildings.- Shingle, pebbles 

I rounded by the sea on the beach. 

SHIN'GLES (a corruption of ceingle, a 
belt: Fr.), in Medicine, an eruptive disease, 
j which spreads round the body like a girdle. 

It is a troublesome, but not a contagious 
* of dangerous disease; and probably arises 


from indigestion or suppressed perspira¬ 
tion. 

SHIP, a general name for all largo ves 
sels which are built upon a peculiar prin 
ciple, and adapted for the purposes of navi¬ 
gation ; more particularly those equipped 
with three masts and a bowsprit, the masts 
being composed of a lower mast, top-mast, 
and top-gallant mast, each of which is pro¬ 
vided with yards, sails, &c. They have 
gradually increased in bulk from the open 
galleys of the ancients of fifty or sixty tons 
to a ship of 5000 tons, and, as in the Great 
Eastern, to one of 20,000 tons. The ballast 
is placed on the bottom ; it consists of iron 
pigs or stones, and is intended to steady 
the vessel when she is without cargo. 
Pieces of wood, called dunnage, rest on the 
ballast, and sustain the iron tanks on the 
casks containing the fresh water. The 
hold, in large ships, is divided into the fore, 
main, and after. The gunner’s, boatswain’s, 
and carpenter’s store rooms, are in the 
forehold of a man-of-war; also, a powder 
magazine when there are two, water, 
wood for firing, coals, &c.; water, stores, 
chain cables, &c., are stowed in the main 
hold ; provisions in the after hold, in which 
also is the spirit room and a powder maga¬ 
zine. In the shallow part behind is the 
biscuit room. The sail room is over the 
fore hold; the hemp cables are kept over 
the main hold ; and also immediately over 
the holds are the fore and after cockpits : the 
whole of this deck being called in large 
ships, the orlop deck. The men mess and 
sleep on the lower deck, which is imme¬ 
diately above the orlop deck ; in large ships, 
this is the lower gun deck. The largest ships 
carry three tiers of heavy cannon; the 
lowest being on the middle deck, the next 
on the mam deck. The upper deck consists 
of the forecastle and the quarter deck, both 
furnished with guns. The deck over this, 
reaching from the after extremity to a 
little before the mizen mast, is called the 
poop ; on the after part of these decks, from 
the mizen mast, are the cabins of the ad¬ 
miral, captain, and officers; that of the 
officers being called, in ships of the line, 
the ward room ; and in frigates, the gun 
room. The length of a ship of the largest 
class is about 200 feet at the water line, 
her extreme breadth, 54 feet; her draught 
of water, about 26 feet; the height of her 
truck above water, 210 feet; her whole 
weight with crew, provisions, &c., 4600 
tons, of which the hull weighs about one- 
half. But these dimensions are greatly 
exceeded by those of the Great Eastern. 
[See Navigation.] The great power of 
rifled cannon, and the improvement of ar¬ 
tillery, has introduced a new class of ves¬ 
sels, of great strength, having all, or nearly 
all, their exposed surface covered with 
plates of the very best iron 4h inches in 
thickness, and supported interiorly by a 
great mass of the strongest wood.- Ship¬ 

ping, whatever relates to ships, including 
every sort of vessel employed upon the 
water, together with the laws, customs, 
and regulations connected therewith, &c. 

SHIP'-BUILDING, the practical branch 
of naval architecture, or the art of con- 




















ship] 


^Tljc j^ctenttftc an33 


682 


structing vessels for navigation, particu¬ 
larly ships and other vessels of a large kind, 
bearing masts; in distinction from boat¬ 
building. To give an idea of the enormous 
quantity of timber necessary to construct a 
ship of war, we may observe that 2,000 tons, 
or 3,000 loads, are computed to be required 
for a seventy-four. Now, reckoning fifty 
oaks to the acre, of 100 years’ standing, and 
the quantity in each tree at a load and a 
half, it would require forty acres of oak- 
forest to build one seventy-four; and the 
quantity increases to an immense extent 
for the largest class of line-of-battle ships. 
A llrst-rate man-of-war requires about 
60,000 cubic feet of timber, and uses 180,000 
pounds of rough hemp, in the cordage and 
sails. The average duration of these vast 
machines, when employed, is computed to 
be fourteen years. Ship-building made but 
very slow progress until the introduction of 
the compass, when the application of astro¬ 
nomy to nautical purposes at once set the 
mariner free from the land. Thenceforward 
he was thrown* upon the wide ocean, was 
brought into contact with unknown perils, 
to obviate which he was led to untried ex¬ 
periments. The art of navigation has since 
strode forward with giant steps. To the 
Italians, Catalans, and Portuguese, belong 
most of the advances in the earlier days of 
its revival; the Spaniards followed up the 
discovery of the new world with a rapid 
improvement in the form and size of their 
ships, some of which, taken by the cruisers 
of Elizabeth, carried 2000 tons. In modern 
times, to the British, French, and Ame¬ 
ricans, belong the credit of the pi-ogress 
which has been made in this important 
branch of art. 

SHIP'-MONEY, in English history, an 
ancient impost upon tlieports, towns, cities, 
boroughs, and counties of the realm, for 
providing ships for the king’s service. This 
demand was revived by Charles I. in the 
year 1634; and, being laid by the king’s 
writ under the great sea!, without the con¬ 
sent of parliament, was held to be contrary 
to the laws and statutes of the realm, and 

subsequently abolished.-It was one of the 

chief causes which led to the great rebel¬ 
lion. 

SHIP’S PAPERS, certain papers or do¬ 
cuments, descriptive of the ship, its owners, 
the nature of the cargo, &c. They consist 
—1st, of the certificate of registry, licence, 
charter-party, bills of lading, bill of health, 
&c. which are required by the law of Eng¬ 
land ; and, 2dly, those documents required 
by the law of nations to be on board neutral 
ships, to vindicate their title to that cha¬ 
racter. 

SHIRE (Seyr; from scyram, to divide: 
Sax.). In English Topography, the same 
with County. Alfred is said to have made 
divisions which he called Satrapias; and 
which took the name of Counties, after 
Earls, Comites, or Counts were set over 
them. , He also subdivided the Satrapias 
into centurias or hundreds; and these into 
Decennas, or tenths of hundreds, now called 
Tithing s. 

SHI'RE-MOTE, the ancient name in Eng¬ 
land for the county court. 


SHIT'TIM-WOOD, in Scripture, a kind 
of precious wood of which the tables, altars, 
and boards of the tabernaclo were made. 
It is said to be hard, smooth, and very 
beautiful. 

SHIV'ER, in Mineralogy, a species of 
blue slate, schist, or shale. 

SHI'VER-SPAR, in Mineralogy, a car¬ 
bonate of lime; so named from its slaty 
structure; it is sometimes called slate- 
spar. 

SnOAD-STONE, inMineralogy the Cornish 
term for a small smooth stone, of a dark 
liver colour with a shade of purple. Shoad- 
stones are found in loose masses at the en¬ 
trance of mines, sometimes running in a 
direct line from the surface to a vein of .ore. 
They usually contain mundic, or marcasitic 
matter, and a portion of the ore of the 
mine. 

SHOAL ( sceole: Sax.), a shallow piece of 
water, or a shallow part of the sea near the 
coast, which often proves dangerous to 
navigation. Also, an immense multitude 
of fish, called school by the fishermen. 

SHOE ( sceo: Sax.), a covering for the 
foot, usually made of leather, the material 
for the sole being thick and hard, and that 
for the upper part soft. The finest sort of 
shoes is made in London ; but the manu¬ 
facture is carried on upon the largest scale 
in Northamptonshire and Staffordshire. In 
former times the people had an extravagant 
way of adorning their feet; they wore the 
beaks or points of their shoes so long that 
they encumbered them in walking, and 
were forced to tic them up to their knees ; 
the fine gentlemen fastening theirs with 
chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others 
with laces. This ridiculous custom was in 
vogue from the year 1382, but was prohibit¬ 
ed, under a penalty of 20s., and the pain of 

cursing by the clergy, in 1467.-The shoes 

of the Romans, like those of the Jews and 
Greeks, covered half of the leg, were open 
before, and tied with thongs called corrigicc. 
Black shoes were worn by the citizens of 
ordinary rank, and white ones by the wo¬ 
men. Red shoes were sometimes worn by 
the ladies, and purple by the coxcombs of 
the other sex. Red shoes were put on by 
the chief magistrates of Rome on days of 
ceremony and triumphs. The shoes of sena¬ 
tors, patricians, and their children, had a 
crescent upon them which served for a 
buckle; these were called calcei lunati. 
Slaves wore no shoes; hence they were 

called cretati from their dusty feet.-The 

shoe of an anchor is a small block of wood, 
convex on the back, with a hole to receive 
the point of the anchor fluke. It i6 used 
to prevent the anchor from tearing the 
planks of the ship’s bow, when raised or 
lowered. 

SHOOT'ING STARS. [See Falling Star.] 

SHORE, the coast or land adjacent to 
the sea or some large river; the sea-shore 
has been divided by some writers into three 
portions, the first of which is that tract of 
land which the sea just reaches in storms 
and high tides, but which it never covers; 
the second part of the shore is that which 
is covered in high tides, but is dry at other 
times ; and the third is the descent from 









































683 Etterarg 


this. -Shore, in Architecture, a piece of 

timber, placed to prop up a wall, &c. 

SHORL, in Mineralogy, a substance 
usually of a black colour, found in masses 
of an indeterminate form, or in prisms of 
three or nine sides. The surface of the 
crystals is longitudinally streaked. The 
amorphous sort presents thin, straight, dis¬ 
tinct columnar concretions, sometimes pa¬ 
rallel, at other times diverging or stelliform. 
The mineralogists of the last century com¬ 
prehended a great variety of substances 
under the name of short, which later ob¬ 
servations havo separated into several spe¬ 
cies, and which are now known as actino- 
lite, augite, leucite, &c. 

SHOR'LITE, a mineral of a yellowish 
green colour, found in irregular oblong 
masses or columns, inserted in a mixture of 
quartz and mica or granite. 

SHOT, a general name for any missile 
discharged from cannon and firearms of all 
kinds. Shot used in war isof various kinds; 
as— 1 , round-shot or balls, those for cannon 
made of iron, those for muskets and pistols 
of lead; 2, double-headed shot or bar shot, 
consisting of a bar with a round head at 
each end; 3, chain-shot, being two balls 
fastened together by a chain; 4, grape-shot, 
consisting of a number of balls bound to¬ 
gether with a cord in canvas on an iron bot¬ 
tom ; 5, case shot or canister shot, by whicli 
is meant a great number of small bullets 
enclosed in a cylindrical tin box; 6, lan- 
grel or langrage, whicli consists of pieces 
of iron of any kind. Musket balls are call¬ 
ed small shot; and those small globular 
masses of lead used by sportsmen in killing 
birds and other small game are known by 
the name of shot, of different numbers ac¬ 
cording to their size. In the manufactur¬ 
ing of this, the liquid metal is allowed to 
fall like rain from a great elevation into 
water, and the cohesive principle gives ro¬ 
tundity to the drops. In their descent 
they become truly globular, and before they 
reach the end of their fall are hardened by 
cooling. The truly spherical are separated 
from those which are imperfect, by causing 
all of them to roll down an inclined plane 
when those which are imperfect run off at 
the sides. The different sizes are separated 
by passing them through holes of various 
dimensions.- Shot op a Cable, the splic¬ 

ing of two cables together, or the two 
cables thus united; thus, it is said, a ship 
will ride easier in deep water with one 
shot of cable thus lengthened than with 
three short cables. 

SHOT'-RACKS, in a ship, wooden frames 
bolted to the crampings and head-ledges 
round the hatchways on the decks, to con¬ 
tain the different shot.- Shot-locker, a 

long piece of wood, pierced with holes like 
cups, in which shot are placed. 

SHRAP'KEL SHELLS, in Gunnery,shells 
illled with musket balls which, when the 
shell explodes, are projected about 150 
yards farther. They are fired from guns, 
mortars, &c. 

SHREW, the Sorex araneus of Zoology, 
a small harmless animal resembling the 
mole in its long taper cartilaginous snout, 
and minute eyes, and in other parts the 


[SIDEROGRAPHY 


common mouse ; it burrows in the ground, 
and feeds on corn, insects, &c. 

SHRIKE, the Butcher bird, or Lanins, 
which see. 

SHROUDS, a range of large ropes ex¬ 
tending from the head of a mast to the 
right and left sides of a ship, to support the 
mast. There are main shrouds, fore shrouds, 
mizen shrouds, bowsprit shrouds, &c. 

SHROVE-TU'ESDAY (preterite of shrive, 
to confess), the Tuesday after Quinqua- 
gesima Sunday, or the day immediately pre¬ 
ceding the first of Lent; being so called 
from having been employed by the people 
in confessing their sins to the priest, and 
thereby, as was supposed, qualifying them¬ 
selves for a more religious observance of 
the approaching fast. 

SHRUB, a small woody plant between a 
herb and a tree. 

SHUTTLE, an instrument used by weav¬ 
ers for shooting the thread of the woof 
from one side of the cloth to the other, 
between the threads of the warp, in weav¬ 
ing. 

SIAL'AGOGUE ( sialon, saliva; and agdgos, 
a leading: Or.'), a medicine that promotes 
the salivary discharge. 

SIB'ERITE, in Mineralogy, red tourma¬ 
lin; the finest specimens of which have been 
found in Siberia. 

SIBYLS ( sibyllo: Lai.), in Antiquity, cer¬ 
tain women who pretended to be endowed 
with a prophetic spirit. They resided in 
various parts of Persia, Greece, and Italy, 
and were consulted on all important occa¬ 
sions. They delivered oracular answers, 
and, as it i3 pretended, VTOte certain pro¬ 
phecies on leaves in verse, which arc called 
Sibylline verses; but these Sibylline oracles 
seem to have been composed to answer 
political purposes. The number of Sibyls, 
according to Yarro, was ten. The most 
celebrated w T ere the Sibyl of Cuma, said to 
have been consulted by iEneas; and the 
Sibyl who offered her books to Tarquin the 
proud. The Romans kept these books with 
infinite care; and had recourse to them, on 
great occasions, with the utmost credulity. 

SIDERA'TION (sideratio; from sidus, a 
constellation: Lat.), the blasting of trees 
with great heat and drought. It was sup¬ 
posed to be produced by the malign influ¬ 
ence of the stars. 

SIDE'REAL (sidereus, pertaining to the 
stars : Lat.), in Astronomy, pertaining to 
the stars. A sidereal day is the time in 
which any star appears to revolve from the 
meridian to the meridian again, which is 
23 hours 56 minutes 4 - 09 seconds. The si¬ 
dereal year is the time in which the earth 
performs a complete revolution, relatively 
to the fixed stars, in its orbit; which is 
365'2563612 mean solar days, or 365 ds. 6 hrs. 
9 min. 9'6 sec. It is 20 min. 19 9 sec. longer 
than the Tropical year. 

SIDE'RITE ( siderites of iron: Or.), in 
Mineralogy, sparry iron ore, a native car¬ 
bonate of iron. 

SIDEROCAL'CITE (sideros, iron: Or.; 
and calx, limestone: Lat.), in Mineralogy, 
brown spar. 

SIDEUOG'RAFHY ( sideros , iron; and 
grupho, I write: Gr.), the art or practice of 
























sideroscope] 


QLfyz J?ctcnttftc autr 


684 


engraving on steel, by rtfeans of which 
impressions may be transferred from a steel 
plate to a steel cylinder, in a rolling-press 
constructed on a peculiar principle. Hence 
the term siderographic art, applied to steel 
plate engraving. 

SIDE'ROSCOPE ( sideros, iron; and slco- 
peo, I examine: Or.), an instrument of 
French invention, for detectingsmall quan¬ 
tities of iron in any substance, mineral, 
animal, or vegetable. Its construction is 
founded on the supposition that the small 
quantity oE magnetism they manifest is 
due to the presence of iron. 

SIEGE (Fr.), in the art of War, the en¬ 
campment of an army, before a fortified 
place, with a design to take it. A siege 
differs from a blockade, for in a siege the 
investing army approaches the fortified 
place, to attack and reduce it by force ; but 
in a blockade the army secures all the 
avenues to the place, to intercept all sup¬ 
plies, and waits till famine reduces the 
besieged to surrender. The operations 
of a siege may be thus sketched. The en¬ 
gineers of the besieging party examine 
as well as they are able the different parts 
of the fortification to be attacked; they 
then make a plan of the work and the 
ground around it. The army, meanwhile, 
is employed in forming an encampment out 
of the range of the guns of the place, and 
in cutting timber and brushwood for the 
construction of the materials required for 
the siege, such as gun platforms, wood for 
lining galleries, &c., and especially Ga¬ 
bions, Sap rollers and Fascines. Bags 
are filled with earth, to the number of many 
thousands. All being now ready, and the 
point of attack having been selected, a work¬ 
ing party of men, each carrying a fascine, 
pickaxe, and shovel, and protected. by an 
armed force, begin to dig with all speed 
a trench parallel to the fortification. This 
will probably have a length of 2000 yards, 
as planned by the engineers. With the 
earth taken out of the trench a bank is 
raised on the side next the enemy. This is 
the first parallel, and it is intended as a road 
along which men, guns, and munitions 
shall travel without being exposed to the 
fire, and out of the view of the enemy. Bat¬ 
teries are then erected on the side next the 
fortification. The besiegers will by this 
time have become aware what front of 
their work will be attacked. They there¬ 
fore strengthen their defences, place a dou¬ 
ble line of palisades in the covered way 
[See Fortification], erect traverses to 
lessen the effect of the enfilade and rico¬ 
chet fire of the besiegers, open fresh em¬ 
brasures on the ramparts, drive mine gal¬ 
leries under the glacis, and so on. The 
attacking fire is of four kinds; direct, to 
batter down the walls of the place ; enfilad¬ 
ing, to rake along a line; ricochet, to send 
balls bounding down the faces of the ram¬ 
parts, and damage the artillery; and verti¬ 
cal, from mortars, to destroy magazines, 
barracks, &c. within the enclosure. The 
firing having continued for some days, ano¬ 
ther trench is dug out of the first parallel 
towards the place, pursuing a zigzag direc¬ 
tion, with the view of preventing the enemy 


obtaining any raking fire along the road 
thus formed. At a proper distance a second 
parallel is constructed, connected with the 
first by the zigzag road. New batteries are 
formed, from which a fresh fire is poured 
into and against the place. Another zigzag 
road is then made approaching still nearer 
to the fortification, and fresh lodgments, 
called demi-parallels, are effected at a dis¬ 
tance of only 150 yards from the work to be 
reduced. In order to keep down the fire of 
riflemen, and to hinder the prosecution of 
repairs to the defences, stone mortars are 
placed in the wings of the demi-parallels, 
and these keep up a ceaseless discharge of 
balls, grenades, &c., upon the front, and 
this is replied to by small mortars, called 
royals and cohorns. Sapping is now em¬ 
ployed to advance the approaches. The 
first workman, protected by a sap roller 
pushed in front, places a gabion between 
himself and the fortress. This he fills 
with earth from the trench as rapidly as 
he can. His comrades increase the size of 
the trench, and thus, when sandbags have 
been placed in the hollows between the 
gabions, a safe cover is obtained. A third 
parallel is in time formed at the foot of the 
glacis, and the besiegers endeavour to gain 
the covered way of the fortress, either by 
the slower process of sap and mine or by 
assault. If this should be won by the be¬ 
siegers, breaching batteries are constructed 
and a hole made in the wall, the rubbish of 
which falls into the ditch and makes a 
slope for the assent of the assaulting party. 
The troops for this duty are brought up by 
a subterranean gallery leading from the 
trenches into the ditch. Should the garri¬ 
son persist in defending the place, then 
mining is resorted to, whilst a system of 
countermining is adopted by the enemy. 
Supposing the besiegers to work their way 
onwards, globes of compression and sur¬ 
charged mines are employed to blow up the 

enemy’s works.-To raise the siege, is 

to abandon the attack, and the works 
thrown up against a place. 

SIER'RA, a term used for a hill, or chain 
of hills; particularly in Spain, the west 
coast of Africa, and the coasts of Chili and 
Peru. 

SIGILLA'RIA (Lat.; from sigilla, a little 
image : Ant.), fossil plants, found in the coal 
formations. 

SIGN (signum: Lat.), in a general sense, 
a visible token or representation of any¬ 
thing. Also, any motion, appearance, or 
event which indicates the existence or ap¬ 
proach of something else.- Sign, in As¬ 

tronomy, the twelfth part of the ecliptic. 
On account of the precession of the equi¬ 
noxes, the positions of the constellations 
in the heavens no longer correspond with 
the divisions of the ecliptic of the same 
name, but are now considerably in advance 
of them. [See Zodiac.] 

SIG'NA {Lat.), in Antiquity, standards or 
ensigns among the ancients; those of the 
Romans usually bore the figure of an eagle, 
but those of the Greeks the figures of 
various animals. 

SIG'NABS (Fr.), certain signs agreed upon 
between parties at a distance ; for the pur- 
















685 


Htterarn Crotfurg* 


[silk 


pose of conveying instantaneous informa¬ 
tion, orders, &c. Signals are particularly 
useful in the navigation of fleets, and in 
naval engagements. They are made hy the 
admiral or commander-in-chief of a squad¬ 
ron, either in the day, or by night, whether 
for sailing, lighting, or the better security 
of the merchant ships under their convoy. 
They are very numerous and important, 
being all appointed and determined by the 
lords of the admiralty, and communicated 
in the instructions sent to the commander 
of every ship of the fleet, or squadron be¬ 
fore their putting to sea.- Bay-signals are | 

asually made by the sails, by flags and 
pendants, or guns; night-signals, by lan¬ 
terns disposed in certain figures, rockets, 
or the firing of guns; fog-signals, by guns, 
drums, bells, &c. There are signals of evolu¬ 
tion addressed to a whole fleet, to a division, 
or to a squadron ; signals of movements to 
particular ships; and signals of service, 
general or particular. The signals used in 
the army are usually made by beat of drum, 

or the sound of the bugle.- Signals, on 

Railways, the means used to give notice of 
the dangerous proximity of one train to 
another. By day they are generally a modi¬ 
fied form of the old telegraph with move- 
able arms; by night, coloured lamps, explo¬ 
sive balls placed on the line, &c. But no 
perfectly satisfactory system has yet been 
devised. 

SIG'NATURE (Fr.; from signo, I mark 
with a seal: Lat.), the name of a person 

written or subscribed by himself.-In 

Music, the flats and sharps, placed after 
the clef, at the beginning of the staff; they 
affect all the notes of the same letter, in 

the movement.-In Printing, a letter put 

at the bottom of the first page at least, in 
each sheet, as a direction to the binder, in 
folding, gathering, and collating them. 

SIGN-MAN'UAL, in English polity, the 
royal signature. In a general sense, it is 
the signature of any one’s name in his own 
hand-writing. 

SI'LEX, or SIL'ICA ( silex , a flint: Lat.), 
substances in nature. It is a constituent 
in most rocks and stones, and common 
quartz, flint and agate, consist almost en¬ 
tirely of it. It may be obtained in a sepa¬ 
rate form by heating pure and colourless 
rock crystal to redness, and quenching it 
in water; it is then opaque and friable, and 
reduced to powder is nearly pure silica. 
It consists of one atom of silicon or sili- 
cium, and probably three atoms of oxygen ; 
it forms salts with bases, and hence is often 
called silicic acid. It is found in either the 
soluble or insoluble form. Its specific 
gravity is about 2'6; it can only be fused 
by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. If fused 
with three parts carbonate of potash it 
forms a soluble glass, the solution obtained 
from which was formerly called liquor of 
flints. [See Water-Glass.] But, if the 
proportions are reversed, that is, if three 
parts silex and one part carbonate of potash 
are used, the result will be insoluble or 
ordinary glass. 

SIL'HOUETTE (Fr.), the representation 
of an object in a black colour, with the 
prominent features generally lightened, and 


the shadows indicated by being touched 
with gum. 

SILTCATES, in Chemistry, compounds 
of silica, or silicic acid, with certain bases, 
as alumina, lime, magnesia, soda, &c., con¬ 
stituting the greater number by far of the 
hard minerals which encrust the globe. 

SILI'CIUM, or SIL'ICON, in Chemistry, 
the undecomposed base of silica. It may 
be obtained by bringing potassium in con¬ 
tact with pure silex, heated to whiteness. 
It is dark coloured, without lustre; is pro¬ 
bably not metallic; and bears a great analogy 
to boron. It is a non-conductor of elec¬ 
tricity ; it burns if heated in the air, and 
is converted into silica. Sulphur and chlo¬ 
rine also act upon it. Hydro-fluoric acid is 
the only acid that will dissolve it. 

SIL'IQUA, or SIL'IQUE (siliqua, a pod : 
Lat.), in Botany, a long narrow seed vessel, 
shaped like a pod, with a membraneous 
division called a replum along the middle. 
When ripe it splits open by two valves from 
the base. When the seed vessel is broad 
and short it is termed a silicula. Seed ves¬ 
sels of this kind are possessed by cruciferous 
plants. 

SILK, and SILK'-WORM. Silk, in its ori¬ 
ginal state, is an animal fluid hardened by 
the air; being an extremely soft and glossy 
thread, spun by the Bonibyx mori, or silk¬ 
worm. From a small egg, of the size of a 
pin’s head, proceeds a minute dark-coloured 
worm, the food of which is the mulberry 
leaf. After casting its skin three or four 
times, as its bulk increases, it becomes at 
length a caterpillar about three inches in 
length, of a white colour, more or less tinc¬ 
tured with blue or with yellow. The period 
of its existence in this state being arrived, 
it ceases to eat, and soon begins to form 
the silken ball which renders it so famous. 
On the first day of its work, it makes the 
web,or loose outward silk by which it fastens 
its nest to the branch, paper, or other sub j 
stance that nature or art puts in its way. 
On the second day it begins to form its fol- 
liculus or ball; and on the third is quite 
hid by its silk. At the end of ten days, the 
work is finished, and the transformation of 
the insect complete. In a state of nature 
everything now remains quiet till the pupa 
becomes a moth. Where the insect is bred 
as an article of trade, the ball is taken from 
the mulberry tree in the condition at which 
it is now described to be, and the silk-worm 
having been killed by heat, is unwound. 
If the animal were left to itself, it would 
pierce its way through, and spoil the silk. 
As soon as the worms have produced their 
balls, or cocoons, they become an article of 
commerce ; for in those countries where 
silk is cultivated, few persons reel off their 
cocoons, but sell them to others, who make 
this operation a separate business. The 
silk, as formed by the worm, is so very 
fine, that if each ball, or cocoon, was reeled 
separately it would be totally unfit for the 
purpose of the manufacturer; in the reeling, 
therefore, the ends of several cocoons are 
joined and reeled together out of warm 
water, which, softening their natural gum, 
makes them stick together so as to form 
one strong thread.-The first silk known 











silk] 


El )t ^Ctcuttrtc autf 


686 


in Europe appears to have been brought 
from China. For, though a trade in silk 
began in a very early age, it was not before 
a.d. 555 that the arts of rearing the worms 
and working the silk were known to the 
western world. When silk was first intro¬ 
duced into Rome it was so costly that it 
sold for its weight in gold, and was only 
used by a few ladies of the patrician rank. 
In the beginning of the reign of Tiberius 
a law was passed, that no man should dis¬ 
grace himself by the effeminate practice of 
wearing silken garments; but Heliogabalus 
broke this law, by wearing a dress com¬ 
posed wholly of silk. The example was 
quickly followed, and from the capital the 
practice soon extended to the provinces. 
Greece was distinguished not only for the 
rearing of silk-worms, but for the skill and 
success with which the manufacture was 
cai’ried on by the inhabitants of Thebes, 
Corinth, &c. In time it spread to Italy; 
and in 1480 it was introduced into France. 
For a long time the English were indebted 
for silk to foreign nations; James I. en¬ 
deavoured to introduce the breeding of 
the silk-worm into this country, but failed; 
the climate does not appear to be suited to 
it. But in consequence of the persecution 
of the Protestants in France, in the year 
1685, on the revocation of the edict of 
Nantes, nearly 50,000 of the inhabitants 
fled from that country and took refuge In 
England; and many of them being silk 
manufacturers, we may trace to them the 

origin of the silk trade in Spitalflelds.-As 

a specimen of individual enterprise in this 
branch of manufacture, we must notice Sir 
Thomas Lombe, who, about the year 1719, 
erected in an island on the Derwent, near 
Derby, a curious mill for the manufacture 
of silk, the model of which he had brought 
from Italy, at the hazard of his life. This 
machine was deemed so important that, at 
the expiration of Sir Thomas’s patent., par¬ 
liament voted him 14,0001. for the risk he 
had incurred, and the expense attending the 
completion of the machinery. It contained 
26,586 wheels; one water-wheel moved the 
whole, and iu a day and night it worked 
318,504,980 yards of organzine silk thread. 
Such, however, have been the extraordinary 
improvements in the arts, that this once 
wonderful piece of workmanship has been 
disused for some years ; and more efficient 
machinery erected, which performs twice 
the work. 12,077,9311bs. of raw silk were im¬ 
ported in 1857; upwards of 33,000 persons, 
in above 300 manufactories, were engaged 
in manufacturing it; the value of the im¬ 
ported article was 13,143,8391.; and the 
manufactured article was exported to the 
value of 2,889,8291. Silk changes its name 
as its manufacture progresses. When 
wound off the cocoons it is raiu silk; 
when one of the reeled threads is twisted 
to give it strength it is singles ; when two 
j or more threads are twisted together, it is 
tram, and is generally used as the * shoot,’ 
or‘weft’; when two or more singles are 
twisted together, in a direction contrary 
to their own twist it is thrown silk; the 
process is called organzining, the silk thus 
I manufactured organzine, and it serves for 


the ‘ web’ of the best silk stuffs. The silk 
which the silk-worm first forms,bythrowing 
the thread in different directions, and also 
that from any cause not reeled off, is floss 
( filoselle: Fr.), and is used for carding and 
spinning. 

SILK-COT'TON TREES; these are East 
Indian trees of noble aspect, which belong 
to the genus Bombax, nat. ord. Sterculiacece. 
They are so called from the cottony hair3 
which envelope the seeds. It cannot, how¬ 
ever, be employed in manufactures, on ac¬ 
count of the shortness of the fibre. 

SILK'-THROWER, or SILIv'-THROW- 
STER, one who winds, twists, spins, or 
throws silk, to prepare it for weaving. 

SILL (syl: Sax.), in Architecture, the 
horizontal piece at the bottom of a framed 

case, such as a door or window.- Ground 

sills, the timbers on the ground upon which 
are placed the posts and superstructure of 
a wooden building. 

SIL'LIMANITE, a greyish-brown mine¬ 
ral, occurring in long, slender, rhombic 
prisms; found in Connecticut, and named 
in honour of Professor Silliman. It consists 
of silica and alumina, with a trace of oxids 
of iron. 

SIL'LON, in Fortification, a work raised 
in the middle of a ditch, to defend it when 

it is too wide. 

SILU'RIAN SYSTEM, in Geology, a series 
of formations, belonging to the primary 
period, so named by Sir. R. Murchison from 
having been studied by him in part of 
Wales and some contiguous English coun¬ 
ties, which were once inhabited by the Si- 
lures, a tribe of ancient Britons. It has 
been divided into three portions, Dpper, 
Middle, and Lower. The Upper Silurian 
consists of: 1. the Ludlow formation, sub¬ 
divided into the Upper Ludlow rocks, the 
Aymestry limestone and the Lower Lud¬ 
low rocks ; these have a total thickness of 
probably 2800 feet, and they abound with 
marine mollusca, especially Brachiopoda, 
placoid fishes, the oldest piscine remains yet 
discovered,trilobites,and other crustaceans. 
2. The Wenlock formation, more than 2000 
feet thick, divided into Wenlock limestone 
and Wenlock shale. The fMiddle Silurian 
rocks consist of the Caradoc formation, 
composed chiefly of sandstones and shelly 
limestone, having a total thickness of 2000 
feet. The Lower Silurian rocks consist of 
the Llandeilo formation, composed chiefly 
of dark calcareous flags, with slates and 
sandstones, the total thickness amounting 
to no less than 20,000 feet, the greater part 
of which has accumulated as mud in a deep 
ocean. The Silurian system has underneath 
it the Camurian group, and above it the 
Devonian series. 

SILU'RIDiE, a large family of malacop- 
terygian fishes, which includes several 
curious forms. Many of the species are fur¬ 
nished with long filamentary appendages 
on the head, which serve as feelers. Some 
small fishes belonging to this family have 
been expelled from active volcanoes in 
South America, at a height of 16,000 or 17,000 
feet above the sea, a fact that has given 
rise to much speculation. The Malapteru~ 
rus elcctricus, a fish living in the Nile and 





























€S 7 &t ter ary 

Senegal, and possessing electrical organs, 
Is also a member of this family. If touched 
on the head an electrical discharge imme¬ 
diately ensues, causing a pain more or less 
severe, accompanied by numbness. Even 
a Qsli only seven inches long will commu¬ 
nicate a shock. 

SIL'VElt, a well-known precious metal, 
of a brilliant white colour; next to gold, 
the most malleable of all metals. It is Very 
tenacious, and soft when pure; it affords 
leaves not more than the —of an inch 
thick ; and wire much liner than a human 
hair. It is rendered harder by the addition 
of a small quantity of copper. Its spec, 
grav.is 10'5, it is not altered by air or mois¬ 
ture, but is blackened or tarnished by sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogeu. Melted in open ves¬ 
sels it absorbs oxygen, which it gives out 
in cooling; a small per centage of copper 
prevents this. It melts at about 1230° 
Falir. The only pure acids which act on 
silver are the nitric and sulphuric; the 
former dissolves it without the aid of heat; 
and any gold which may have been com 
bined with the silver remains undissolved, 
as a black powder. The solutions of the ni¬ 
trate or sulphate are decomposed by some 
of the other metals, copper being most 
convenient for the purpose, and the silver 
is thrown down in the metallic state. Any 
solution containing a salt of silver is preci¬ 
pitated, or, if the quantity is small, ren¬ 
dered turbid by chlorine, or a soluble 
chloride; the insoluble chloride of silver 
being found, and thrown down. Silver is 
found in different parts of the earth; but 
it is in the centre of the Andes, in situa¬ 
tions which, though exposed to the per¬ 
pendicular rays of the sun, are constantly 
covered with snow, that nature has most 
abundantly distributed this metal. The 
silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed 
in value the whole of the European and 
Asiatic mines; for we are told by Hum¬ 
boldt that three of them, in the space of 
three centuries, afforded 310,023,883 pounds 
troy of pure silver; and he remarks that 
this quantity would form a solid globe of 
silver, 91,206 English feet in diameter. The 
most important silver mines of Europe at 
present are those of Saxony, Hungary, and 
the Hartz. The annual produce of these 
united is about 180,0001. Within the last 
quarter of a century there has been a great 
increase in the produce of silver from the 
Bussian mines. The celebrated mines of 
Konigsberg, in Norway, once so rich in na¬ 
tive silver, are now nearly exhausted. Silver 
has also been obtained from some of the 
lead mines of Great Britain. Different 
methods are employed in different coun¬ 
tries to extract silver from its ores. In 
Mexico, Peru, &c., the mineral is pounded, 
roasted, washed, then triturated with mer¬ 
cury in vessels lilled with water; and a mill 
being employed to keep the whole in agi¬ 
tation, the silver by that means combines 
with the mercury. The alloy thus obtained 
is afterwards washed, to separate any fo¬ 
reign matters from it, and then strained 
and pressed through leather. This being 
done, heat is applied to drive off the mer¬ 
cury from the silver, which is then melted 


ClTaSUni. [SIMULATION 


and cast into bars or ingots. Amalgama¬ 
tion with mercury is practised also in 
Europe; but it does not answer when the 
ore contains more than 7 pounds of lead or 
I pound of copper per cent., as the lead 
would render the amalgamation very im¬ 
pure, and the copper would be wasted. The 
silver ore is sometimes operated on by a 
saturated solution of common salt; which 
at a boiling temperature dissolves chloride 
of silver, and deposits it when cooled and 
diluted. 

SIT/VERING, the application of silver- 
leaf to the surface of metals, glass, &c., or 
the art of covering the surfaces of bodies 
with a thin film of silver. Copper and brass 
are the metals on which the silverer most 
commonly operates. When silver-leaf is to 
be applied, the methods prescribed for gold- 
leaf are suitable. [See Gilding.] 

SII/VER-TREE, the Leucadendron argon- 
teum of botanists, nat. ord. Proteacece, is a 
shrub growing at the Cape of Good Hope, 
with foliage covered with a dense short 
pile of white hairs; whence its name. 

SIMFIDA3 (Lett.; from simus, flat-nosed), 
in Zoology, a family of quadrumanous ani¬ 
mals, including those belonging to the old 
world. The true apes, or those without 
tails, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee, 
the long-.armed apes [see IIylobates], the 
capped apes of Asia, the monkeys with 
long tails and large cheek pouches, and the 
baboons [see Cynocephalus], all belong to 
this family. 

SIM'ILE ( similis , resembling : Lat.), in 
Rhetoric, a comparison of two things, 
which, though different in some respects, 
agree in others ; by which comparison the 
character or qualities of a thing are illus¬ 
trated or presented in an impressive light. 

SIMO'NIANS, in Church History, a sect 
of ancient heretics; so called from their 
founder,. Simon Magus, or the magician, 
who pretended to be the great virtue and 
power of God, sent from heaven to earth. 
Their system was a compound of the philo¬ 
sophy of Plato, the mythology of the hea¬ 
thens, and the doctrines of Christianity. 
They believed in the transmigration of 
souls, and denied the resurrection of tho 
body. They are considered the first heretics 
in the church. 

SIM'ONY ( simoine : Fr.), in Law, the 
illegal buying or selling ecclesiastical pre¬ 
ferment ; or the corrupt presentation of 
any one to a benefice for money or reward. 
The word is derived from the Simon Magus, 
the Chaldman, who, according to the Acts 
of the Apostles, wished to buy of them the 
power of working miracles. 

SIMOON', a hot suffocating wind, that 
blows occasionally in Africa and Arabia, 
and is generated by the extreme heat of the 
parched deserts and sandy plains. Its ap¬ 
proach is indicated by a redness in the air, 
and its fatal effects are to bo avoided, only 
by falling on the face and holding the 
breath. [See Samiel.] 

SIM'PLE CON'TRACT, in Law, a term 
applied to a contract which is neither as¬ 
certained by matter of record nor contained 
in a deed under seal. 

SIMULATION (simulatio; from Simula, 
















sinapism] flTIje ^ctetittCtc mttr 688 

I assume the appearance of: Lat.), the as¬ 
sumption of a deceitful appearance or cha¬ 
racter. It differs from dissimulation, inas¬ 
much as it assumes a false character, while 
dissimulation only conceals the true one; 
but both are justly designated by the word 
hypocrisy. 

SIN'APISM (sinapismos ; from sinapi, 
mustard: Or.), in Medicine, a mustard 
poultice; a mixture of mustard and vinegar 
generally applied to the calves of the legs 
or soles of the feet as a stimulant, and em¬ 
ployed in low states of fevers and other 
diseases. 

SIN'CIPUT (Lat, perhaps a contraction 
of semicaput, half the head), in Anatomy, 
the forepart of the head, reaching from the. 
vertex to the eyes in mammals; and from 
the vertex to the base of the beak in birds. 

SINE (sinus, a curved surface: Lat.), in 
Geometry, aright line drawn from one end 
of an arc perpendicular to the radius drawn 
to the other end. 

SI'NECURE (sine-cura, without solicitude: 
Lat.), a church benefice without cure, or 
care, or guardianship of souls; as where 
there is a parish without church or inhabi¬ 
tants. The word is applied to any post that 
brings profit without labour. 

SI'NE DI'E (without a day: Lat.), in Par¬ 
liamentary language, a phrase applied to 
the adjournment of a debate when no date 

is named for it to be resumed.-In Law, 

a term applied to a defendant when judg¬ 
ment is given in his favour, and he is suf¬ 
fered to go sine die, or dismissed the court. 

SINGING. [See Music, Melody, &c.] 

SIN'ISTER (left: Lat.), usually signifies 
unlucky, although the Romans understood 
it in a different sense, a bird or thunder, 
on the left hand, being considered a lucky 

omen.-In Heraldry, a term denoting the 

left side of the escutcheon.- Sinister as¬ 

pect, in Astrology, an appearance of two 
planets happening according to the succes¬ 
sion of the signs; as, Saturn in the same 
degree as Aries, &o. 

SINK'ING FUND. Alarmed by the rapid 
progress of the National Debt, many per¬ 
sons had proposed schemes for its reduc¬ 
tion, and amongst these was the device of 
a sinking fund, which Dr. Price advocated 
in a pamphlet published in 1771. In 1786, 
when Mr. Pitt was Chancellor of the Ex¬ 
chequer, an act of parliament was passed to 
establish a sinking fund, the plan of which 
was to set aside a million annually to be 
invested by commissioners in the purchase 
of stock. The dividend of the fund so ac¬ 
quired was to go on accumulating for a 
time, with the final object of being applied 
in discharge of the national debt. This 
scheme was carried out for many years, 
until the commissioners had acquired up¬ 
wards of 188 millions. But the time came 
when it was seen that the sinking fund was 
not only a clumsy but a costly imposture. 
In those times the debt was increased with 
fearful rapidity, for the war occasioned ex¬ 
penses that far exceeded the annual income. 
If is now clear to us that a sinking fund on 
3uch a plan is a mere chimera, unless the 
nation can, in addition to the sums set 
apart to maintain it, discharge the interest 

of the existing debt and pay their current 
expenses. Unless this can be done a new 
debt may accumulate with twice the ra¬ 
pidity that the old one can be cancelled. 
The only fund now applied to the cancelling 
of the national debt is that arising from 
any chance surplus of income over expendi¬ 
ture. 

SIN'NET, or SEN'NIT ( seven knit), in sea¬ 
men’s language, rope yarn bound about 
ropes to prevent them from galling. Also, a 
flat plait of rope yarns, more pliable than, | 
but as strong as, a rope containing the 
same quantity of material. 

SI NON OM'NES (if not all: Lat.), in 
Law, a writ on association of justices, by 
which, if all in commission cannot meet at 
the day assigned, it is allowed that two or 
more of them may proceed to finish the 
business. ' 

SIN'TER (a scale : Oer.), in Mineralogy, a 
substance which appears under different 
forms, and is variously designated. Cal¬ 
careous sinter is a variety of carbonate of 
lime, composed of successive layers, con¬ 
centric, plane, or undulated. Silicious sin¬ 
ter is of a dull grayish white colour, and of 
a light, brittle, and fibrous texture. These 
two species of sinter are deposited by hot 
mineral waters when they come to the sur¬ 
face of the earth. Opaline silicious sinter is 
whitish, with brown, black, or blueish spots, 
and its fragments appear to be dendritic. 
Pearl sinter, or florite, has a gray hue, and 
occurs in cylindrical, stalactitic, and glo¬ 
bular masses. 

SINTOO, or SINSYU, the original na¬ 
tional religion of Japan, upon which Budd¬ 
hism has been grafted. 

SIN'UATE ( sinno, I curve: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, an epithet to a leaf that has a margin 
that curves in and out. 

SI'NUS (Lat.), in Anatomy, a cavity in a 
bone or other part, wider at the bottom 
than at the entrance. The veins of the 

dura mater are so termed.-In Surgery, a 

long, hollow, narrow track, leading to some 
abscess, in which pus is collected. 

SI'PHON, or SY'PHON (siphon: Gr.), in 
Hydraulics, a bent pipe or tube whose ends 
are of an unequal length; used for drawing 
liquor out of a vessel, by causing it to rise 
over the rim. The short end being inserted 
in the liquor, the air is exhausted by being 
drawn through the longer one. The pres¬ 
sure of the atmosphere makes the liquor 
rise to supply the vacuum, till it reaches 
the top of the vessel, and it then flows over 
and will continue to run till it is all ex¬ 
hausted. If the syphon is filled with the 
liquid, and the longer extremity closed 
until the shorter is placed in the vessel, 
there will be no necessity for exhausting 
the air; and it may be kept constantly 
ready for action, if the fluid is retained in 
it, by a cock placed in its longer end. The 
legs of a syphon may be equal, as its action 
depends on the difference between the 
length of the column above the fluid in the 
vessel, in one leg, and the length of the 
column of fluid in the other; as long as 
the column in the external leg is longet 
than the unsupported column in the in¬ 
ternal leg, the instrument will act; and 























689 Httcrarn 

the liquid will flow with a velocity propor- 
tlonal to this excess of length in the ex¬ 
ternal column. 

SIPHO'NIA ELAS'TICA, the systematic 
name of the tree which produces the South 
American India rubber. It belongs to the 
nat. ord. Fuphorbiacece, and it grows only 
on the low-lands of the Amazon region. 
In bark andfoliage it is not unlike the ash ; 
its trunk, however, is very tall and without 
branches below. The value of the India 
rubber annually exported from Para is 
about 400,000i. The rubber that comes to 
us from India and Africa is the produce of 
various species of Ficus. [See Caouchouc]. 

SI'REN (Lat.; from Seiren: Gr .), in Anti¬ 
quity, a fabulous being, something like the 
mermaids of later times. The sirens are 
represented by Ovid, &c. as sea.monsters, 
with women’s faces and the tails of fish; 
and by others decked with plumage of 
various colours. The three sirens were 
supposed to be the three daughters of the 
river god Achelous by the muse Calliope, 
and were called Parthenope, Ligea, and 
Leucosia. Homer mentions only two 
sirens, and some others reckon live. Virgil 
places them on rocks where vessels are in 
danger of splitting. Some represent them 
as such charming monsters, who sung so 
harmoniously, that sailors were wrecked on 
their rocks without regret, and even ex¬ 
pired in raptures.- Siren, a genus of Ba- 

trachian. The Siren lacertina, the mud-eel 
of North America, is shaped like an eel, 
saving that it has a pair of feet. It has 
permanent gills as well as lungs. It is 
allied to the Proteus. 

SI'REX, in Entomology, a genus of 
Hymenopterous insects, of which the Sirex 
gigas may be considered the type. The 
extremity of the abdomen is prolonged into 
a horn. 

SIRI'ASIS (seireasis ; from seirios, 
scorching: Gr.), in Medicine, an inflamma¬ 
tion of the brain, often proceeding from 
the intense heat of the sun. It is peculiar 
to children, and attended with a hollowness 
of the eyes and a depression of the fonta¬ 
nel, or space between the frontal and parie¬ 
tal bones. 

SIR'IUS (Lat.; from seirios, literally 
scorching: Gr.), in Astronomy, the Dog- 
star, a very bright star of the first magni¬ 
tude, in the mouth of the constellation of 
the Great Dog; it is the « Canis Majoris of 
astronomers. Its distance from us is cal¬ 
culated to be 130,000 millions of miles. This 
is one of the earliest named stars in the 
heavens, and is supposed by some to be the 
nearest to the earth. Hesiod and Homer 
mention only four or five constellations, or 
stars, and this is one of them. Sirius and 
Orion, the Hyades, Pleiades, and Arcturus, 
comprise almost the whole of the old poeti¬ 
cal astronomy. The three last the Greeks 
formed of their own obser ration, as appears 
by the names; the two others were Egyp¬ 
tian. According to some, Sirius was so 
called from the Nile, one of the names of 
that river being Siris; and the Egyptians, 
seeing that river begin to swell at the time 
of a particular rising of this star, paid 
divine honours to it, as the star of the Nile. 


Crfrlgttrg. [8l£ALB8 


SIROC'CO ( Ital .), a periodical wind which 
generally prevails in Italy and Dalmatia 
every year, about Easter. It blows from 
the south-east by south, and is attended 
with heat, but not rain; its ordinary period 
is twenty days, and it usually ceases at sun¬ 
set. When the sirocco does not blow in 
this manner, the summer is almost free 
from westerly winds, whirlwinds, and 
storms. The wind is prejudicial to plants, 
drying and burning up their buds; and 
also causes an extraordinary weakness and 
lassitude in men. 

SIliVENTE, poems of the Provencals, 
the object of which was war, politics, or 
satire. They usually consisted, like the 
chansons or love songs, of five stanzas and 
an envoy. 

SIS'TRUM ( seistron , from seis, I shake : 
Gr.), in Antiquity, a musical instrument, of 
an oval shape, used by the Egyptians in the 
worship of Isis. It was a kind of timbrel. 

SIVA, the third of the Hindoo triad of 
divinities, who amongst a thousand names 
bears also that of Mahadeva. His worship¬ 
pers are spread over India, and the sects 
are very numerous. The greatest confusion 
exists as to his attributes ; now he is said 
to be the destroyer, and now the creative 
principle. The chief mark of his worship 
is the linga, a conical black stone, which is 
to be seen in all his temples. He has ap¬ 
peared on earth in various avatars (incarna¬ 
tions), like Vishnu. He is represented with 
five faces, from four to ten hands, with a 
third eye in the middle of the forehead, with 
earrings of snakes, and a collar of skulls. As 
the lord of dread he is rendered as hideous 
as possible. In one of his characters he 
delights in bloody sacrifices, and with refer¬ 
ence to this the temple of Juggernaut was 
built, and the notoriously cruel rites of the 
devotees practised. His consort Sakti was 
the goddess of the Thugs. 

SI VATHE'RIUM (Siva, and therion , a wild 
beast: Gr.), an extinct genus of ruminant 
animals, the fossil remains of which have 
been found in the tertiary strata of the 
Sivalik sub-Himalayan range. They were 
larger than any known ruminant, and had 
four horns. 

SIXTH, in Music, an interval formed of 
six sounds, or five diatonic degrees. There 
are four kinds of sixths: two consonant and 
two dissonant. 

SIZAR, the lowest class of students at 
Cambridge, &c. Sizars have usually free 
commons, and receive various emoluments, 
through the benefactions of founders and 
others. The name is derived from the 
college word size, the portion of bread, 
meat, &c., allotted to a student. [See Ser¬ 
vitor.) 

SIZE ( sisa: Ital.), a glutinous substance 
prepared from different materials, and used 
by plasterers, painters, and others. It is 
made from the shreds and parings of lea¬ 
ther, parchment, vellum, &c. 

SIZ'EL, in Coining, the residue of bars of 
silver, or other metal, after the pieces are 
cut out for coins. 

SKALDS ( Skalda, ancient Norsk), ancient 
Scandinavian poets who lived from the 
tenth to the thirteenth century. ‘ One of 
Y Y 



















skate] 


[ 

tCIjc Jbdcirttftc mts 


the chief features of the Skaldic poetry 
(says Max Muller) was this, that nothing 
should be called by its proper name. A ship 
was the beast of the sea; blood, the dew of 
pain, or the water of the sword ; a warrior 
was an armed tree, the tree of battle ; a 
sword, the flame of wounds. In this poeti¬ 
cal language there were 150 names for Odin; 
an island could be called by 120 synony¬ 
mous titles.’ 

SKATE, the popular name of some carti¬ 
laginous fishes of the genus Eaia, to which 
the rays also belong. What is called the 
True skate is the Raia batis of ichthyologists, 
a voracious fish which sometimes is taken 
of the weight of 2001bs. It is used as food. 

SKEL'ETON (a dried body: from skello, 

I make dry: Or.), in Anatomy, a collection 
of the bones of an animal cleansed, dis- 
I posed in their natural situation, and kept 
| in that order by means of wires, &c. When 
the bones are connected by the natural 
ligaments, it is called a natural skeleton; 
when by other means, it is termed.an arti¬ 
ficial skeleton. 

SKEW BACK, in Architecture, the slop¬ 
ing abutment, in brickwork or masonry, 
for the ends of the arched head of an aper- 
i ture. 

SKEW BRIDGE. When an arch is carried 
across a road or stream at any angle other 
than a right angle, it is made askew, and , 
its figure is derived from that of a symme-1 
trical arch by distortion in a horizontal 
j plane. Railway bridges are frequently skew 
bridges. 

SKIN, in Anatomy, one of the principal 
[ integuments of the body, consisting of 
j three layers composed of cells; namely,) 
i the epidermis cuticle, or scarf skin, which is 
the outermost; the rete mucosum, or se- j 
cond; and the cutis vera corium, this being 
the part which forms leather when tanned, j 
There are many papillm upon it, and in 
these the nerves of general sensation ter¬ 
minate. There is also a network of blood¬ 
vessels which forms what is called the vas¬ 
cular layer. The epidermis is insensible, 
being destitute both of nerves and blood- 
I vessels. This is the layer of which the 
scales of reptiles, the nails and claws of 
mammals, and the hard casing of crusta- ; 
ceans, are modifications. The scales of fishes 
and the feathers of birds grow from the 
i vascular layer cutis vera, or real skin, the 
j third. On viewing the surface of the skin, 

I even with the naked eye, we find it porous ; 

! more so in some places than others; and 
the pores are also larger in some parts than 
others. Some of these pores are ducts of 
; sebaceous glands, and others serve not only 
to transmit hairs, but, it is supposed, the 
greatestpart of the perspirable matter itself. 
The rete mucosum gives the colour to the 
skin; it is black in the negro [See Negro] ; 
white, brown, or yellowish, in the Euro¬ 
pean. The skin is extremely distensible 
and elastic; it is thickest on those parts 
which bear weight and pressure; for ex- 
; ample, on the back, the soles of the feet, 
and the palms of thehands; thinner on the 
forepart of the body, on the insides of the 
arms and legs, and where two surfaces 
touch. -Skin, in Commerce, the hairy or 


other membrane stripped off any animal, 
to be prepared by the tanner, skinner, or 
parchment-maker. 

SKINK (skinkos : Gr.), a scaly reptile of 
the lizard order, the Scincus officinalis of 
zoologists. It is from six to eight inches 
long, and of a yellowish colour, with black 
cross bands. It lives on insects and haunts 
sandy places in Africa, in Sicily, and some 
of the Greek islands. It was formerly used 
as a remedy in various diseases. 

SKOL'IZITE (skolios, twisting: Gr.), a 
mineral, occurring crystallized, and mas¬ 
sive, colourless and nearly transparent. 
tVlicn a small portion of it is placed in tlio 
exterior flame of a blou'pipe it twists like 
a worm, becomes opaque, and is converted 
into a glassy substance. 

SKOR'ODITE ( slcorodon , garlic: Gr.), a 
mineral of a greenish colour. It occurs 
massive, but is generally crystallized in 
rectangular prisms. It is an arseniate of 
iron ; and resembles one of the arseuiates 
of copper. When heated, it emits the 
odour of garlic. 

SKULL, the bony covering of the brain. 
[See Cranium.] 

SKUNK, the Mephitis Americana of zoo¬ 
logists, a carnivorous quadruped, about the 
size of a cat, and allied to the W'eazel and 
badger. It inhabits most parts of North 
America, aud is remarkable for the intoler¬ 
able stench which it emits when threatened 
with danger, and which is its defence 
against its enemies. Such, indeed, is the 
offensive nature of the fluid which the 
skunk ejects, that the smallest drop is suf¬ 
ficient to render clothes unwearabie for a 
great length of time. The genus is exclu¬ 
sively American. 

SKY'-SCRAPER, in Ships, a small, trian¬ 
gular sail sometimes set above the royal. 

SLAB, in Carpentry, an outside plank or 
board sawn from the sides of a tree, which 

is frequently of very unequal thickness.-- 

In Masonry, a table of marble, for hearths 
and other purposes. 

SLAM, in Chemistry, a substance fre¬ 
quently produced in the making of alum, by 
calcining it too much or too little. 

SLATE (slith, flat: Sax.), a kind of stone 
of a blueish or grey colour, which when 
first dug from the quarry is of soft texture, 
and is easily cut or split into plates for 
covering the roofs of houses, paving, &c. 
The blue slate is very light and durable ; the 
gray is much more lasting than tiles. The 
slate principally in use is brought from 
Wales. Some other kinds also are em¬ 
ployed, the best of which is the Westmor¬ 
land slate.- Drawing slate, or black chalk, 

has a grayish black colour; is very soft, 
sectile, easily broken, and adheres slightly 
to the tongue. It occurs in beds in primi¬ 
tive and transition clay slate; also in se¬ 
condary formations. It is used in crayon 
drawing, its trace upon paper being black 

and regular.- Whet slate, or Turkey hone, 

is a slaty rock, containing a great pro¬ 
portion of quartz, in which the compo¬ 
nent particles are so very small as to be 
scarcely discernible.- Mica slate is com¬ 

posed of the minerals mica and quartz, the 
mica being generally predominant. 









_ 




































m 


691 Etterarj) (toagttry. [sleep 

SLATY CLEAVAGE, a structure possess¬ 
ed by many slate rocks, by which they are 
fissile into thin plates in a direction dif¬ 
ferent from the planes of stratification and 
the planes of the joints. This structure, so 
long a puzzle to geologists, has at last re¬ 
ceived a satisfactory explanation at the 
hands of Professor Tyndall, who has shown 
that it is the result of great pressure ap¬ 
plied laterally at right angles to the cleav¬ 
age planes in rocks composed of fine par¬ 
ticles. 

SLA'VERY ( sclaverey ; from sklavc, a 
slave: Ger.), the establishment of aright 
in one man over the liberty, property, and 
sometimes even life of another. A state 
of slavery is opposed to the whole nature of 
man, and has always been attended with 
evil both to the slave and his master. The 
English word is simply the name of the 
Sclavonian race. The wars of the Frank 
kings and emperors filled Saracenic Spain 
with Sclavonic captives to such an extent 
that in its language, as well as in those of 
Europe, a natural name meaning, in its own 
tongue, glorious, became the title of servi¬ 
tude. Among the Homans, when a slave 
was set at liberty, he took the nomen or 
•prcnomcn of his master, to which he added 
the cognomen, by which he had been called 
before he became free. The African slave- 
trade was commenced by the Portuguese in 
1442; it was, however, of only trifling ex¬ 
tent till the 16th century. But the import¬ 
ation of negroes into the West Indies and 
America having once begun, it gradually 
increased, until the vastness and import¬ 
ance of the traffic rivalled its cruelty and 
guilt. In 1787 a parliamentary committee 
having been formed, such a mass of evi¬ 
dence was collected in proof of the enor¬ 
mities produced by the slave-trade, that a 
great impression was made on the public 
mind. By the zealous perseverance of 
Messrs. Granvilte Sharp, Clarkson, and 
Wilberforce, supported as they were by 
Burke, Pitt, Fox, and other distinguished 
men in both houses of parliament, this 
feeling was not suffered to die away; and 
though the struggle continued year after 
year, with varied success, the friends of 
humanity ultimately triumphed; a bill for 
the total and immediate abolition of the 
slave trade having, in 1807, been carried in 
both houses by immense majorities. This 
great question was not, however, wholly set 
at rest; for though the abolition of the 
slave-trade was effected, the liberation of 
the unhappy beings already in a state of 
slavery was not. But by the statute 3 & 4 
Will. iv. c. 73, it was enacted, that on the 
1st of August, 1834, slavery was to cease 
throughout the British dominions, and that 
the then existing slaves were to become ap¬ 
prenticed labourers; the term of their 
apprenticeship partly ceasing on the 1st of 
August, 1838, and partly on the 1st of Au¬ 
gust, 1840 ; when the black and coloured 
population became altogether free. To at¬ 
tain this mighty object, the sum of 
20 , 000 , 0001 . was distributed in certain pro¬ 
portions and according to certain conditions 
to the planters, as a compensation for the 
loss of their slaves. The horrors of the 

voyage from the land of his birth to that in 
which the wretched negro was doomed to 
spend the residue of his existence can ■ 
scarcely be conceived. One of the slave 
ships in 1829 is described as having taken 
in, on the coast of Africa, 336 males, and 

226 females, making in all 562. She had 
been out seventeen days, during which she 
had thrown overboard fifty-five. The slaves 
were all enclosed under grated hatchways, 
between decks. The space was so low that 
they sat between each other’s legs; and 
they were stowed so close together that 
there was no possibility of their lying down 
or at all changing their position by night 
or day. As they belonged to, and were 
shipped on account of, different individuals, 
they were all branded like sheep, with the 
owners’ marks of different forms. These 
were impressed on their breasts, or on 
their arms, burnt with a red-hot iron ! Over 
the hatchway stood a ferocious looking fel¬ 
low, with a scourge of many-twisted thongs 
in his hand, who was the slave-driver of the 
ship; and whenever he heard the slightest 
noise below he shook it over them, and 
seemed eager to exercise it. These poor 
creatures were packed up and wedged 
together in cells, only three feet high, so 
that they had not more than 23 square 
inches for each man, and 13 inches for each 
woman ; while the heat of these horrid 
places was so great, and the odour so offen¬ 
sive, that it was quite impossible to enter 
them even had there been room. Another 
case which may be mentioned in illustration 
of the subject is that of a Spanish brig, in 
1840. She had originally 900 slaves on board, 
but during a hurricane the hatches had 
been battened down, and on opening them 

300 were found to have died from suffoca¬ 
tion. Again the hurricane came on ; the 
hatches were battened down a second time, 
and the consequence was, that 300 more of 
the slaves perished from the same cause, ■ 
and 100 of the remaining 300 died on the 
passage, to Mosambique harbour. 

SLED, SLEDGE, or SLEIGH (sleeg: Sax.), 
a carriage or vehicle moved on runners, 
and much used in North America while 
snow is on the ground. It is drawn with 
great facility where the use of a wheeled 
carriage of any kind would be impossible; 
and it forms the only mode of communica¬ 
tion in the backwoods and unreclaimed 
districts, where roads have not been made. 

It affords an easy and pleasant mode of 
conveyance ; and the season of sleighing 
is one of mirth and enjoyment. As the pas¬ 
sage of this vehicle through the track which 
is soon made in the snow is noiseless, the 
animals which draw it are decorated with 
bells, to give notice of their approach. In 
England the word sledge is most commonly 
used ; in America, where it is the only ve¬ 
hicle seen while the snow continues, it is 
called a sleigh. In Lapland the sledges are 
drawn by reindeer. 

SLEEP ( sleepan, to sleep : Sax.), one of 
the most mysterious phenomena in the ani¬ 
mal world, a state in which the body ap¬ 
pears perfectly at rest, and external objects 
act on the organs of sense without exciting 
the usual sensations. The voluntary exer- 











.-. ■' . . 

sleeper] &t)C J?CtUUttftC HUlT 692 

tions of our mental and corporeal powers 
being suspended, we are unconscious of 
what passes around us; and are not affected 
by the ordinary impressions of external ob¬ 
jects. Sleep is generally attended with a 
relaxation of the muscles, but the involun¬ 
tary motions, as respiration and the circu¬ 
lation of the blood, are continued. When 
sleep is only partial, that is, when the brain 
does not fully participate in it—which is 
known by distinctly remembered and pain¬ 
ful and troublesome dreams—the refresh¬ 
ment it produces is greatly lessened. In 
childhood and in perfect health we dream 
but little ; or at least so imperfectly and so 
slightly that the impressions experienced 

are scarcely recollected.- Sleep of Plants, 

the folding of their leaves, and drooping 
appearance in the night. This is more 
strikingly seen amongst those with pinnate 
leaves, such as the acacias. 

SLEEP'ER, in Architecture, a piece of 
timber on which the ground joists of a floor 
are laid. The term was formerly used to 
indicate also the valley rafters of a roof. 

-In Railway Engineering, the transverse 

pieces of timber or iron, to which the 
chairs, in which the rails are laid, are fixed, 

are called sleepers.-In Ship-building, a 

thick piece of timber, placed longitudinally 
in a ship’s hold, opposite the several scarfs 
of the timbers, for strengthening the bows 
and sternframe, particularly in the Green¬ 
land ships; or a piece of long compass 
timber layed and bolted diagonally upon 
the transoms. 

SLEET.in Gunnery, the part of a mortar 
passing from the chamber to the trunnions; 
so contrived as to give additional strength. 

-A fall of rain and snow together in fine 

particles. 

SLEIGH. [See Sled.] 

SLEIGHT OF HAND, tricks performed 
by persons who, through great practice, 
obtain a manual dexterity which enables 
them to effect what is apparently out of the 
course of nature. 

SLI'DING-RULE, a mathematical instru¬ 
ment, used to determine measure or quan¬ 
tity without compasses, by sliding the 
parts one by another. It is used chiefly in 
gauging, and for the mensuration of 
timber. 

SLIP, a place lying with a gradual descent 
on the banks of a river or harbour, con¬ 
venient for ship-building.-In Horticul¬ 

ture, such portions of plants as are slipped 
off from the stems or branches for the pur¬ 
pose of being planted out as sets. 

SLIT'TING-MILL, a mill where iron bars 
are slit iDto nail rods, &c. 

SLOE ( sla: Sax.), a small wild plum, 
the fruit of the blackthorn, the Prunus 
spinosa of botanists, nat. ord. Drupacew. 

SLOOP, a vessel of one mast, the main¬ 
sail of which is attached to a gaff above, to 
a boom below, and to the mast on its fore¬ 
most edge; differing from a cutter by hav¬ 
ing a fixed bowsprit and a jib-stay.- Sloop 

of war, a vessel rigged either as a ship, brig, 
or schooner, and usually carrying from 10 
to 18 guns. 

SLOPS (slop, a covering : Sax.), in sea¬ 
men’s language, a name given to all species 

of wearing apparel, bedding, &c., which are 
supplied to royal ships in commission. 

SLOTH (slcewth: Sax.), or AI, the Brady 
pus torquatus of zoologists, an herbivorous 
edentate quadruped of South America, pro¬ 
verbial for the slowness of its motions; but 
it climbs more easily than it walks, and 
seems quite at home when resting suspend 
ed on the branches of trees. The fore-feet 
or arms are much longer than the hinder 
and when the sloth is on the ground it is 
obliged to draw itself along upon its el 
bows. 

SLOUGH (slog: Sax.), in Surgery, the 
dead part which separates from the living 
in mortification; or the part that comes 
away from a foul sore; hence the term tc 
slough off. Also (with the same pronuncia 

tion), the skin or cast skin of a serpent.- 

Slough (pron. slou), a place or hole full of 
deep mud or mire. 

SLOW'-WORM. [See Blind-worm.] 

SLUG, the popular name of snails with 
small or rudimentary shells, well known as 
pests in gardens. They form the genus 
Limax, and some allied genera amongst 
gasteropod molluscs. Also, a cylindrical cu 
bical, or irregularly shaped piece of metal 
shot from a gun. 

SLUICE (escluse: Fr.), the stream of 
water issuing through a flood-gate. The 
word is, however, used indiscriminately 
either for the stream that passes through 
the flood-gate, or the gate itself. 

SLUR, in Music, a mark connecting notes 
that are to be sung to the same syllable, or 
made in one continued breath of a wind in¬ 
strument, or with one stroke of a stringed 
instrument. 

SMALL-POX, in Medicine, a very conta- 
gious pustular disease. It is found in two 
forms: the distinct and theconfluent. Dis¬ 
tinct small-pox, in which the pustules are 
separate, begins with pains in the back and 
loins, drowsiness, headache, and the other 
symptoms of inflammatory fever. The spots 
are first red and small, then become little 
vesicles, and about the eleventh day attain 
their full size, that of a pea; the throat 
after some days becomes sore, and the 
face swollen; the swelling of the face is 
then transferred to the feet and hands ; 
the pustules ultimately break, and if they 
were large, leave an indentation; the re¬ 
maining symptoms gradually subside, and 
the secondary fever disappears about the 
seventeenth or eighteenth day. Confluent 
small-pox, in which the pustules coalesce, 
is ushered in by a fever of a typhoid charac¬ 
ter; the symptoms are aggravated; the 
eruption proceeds very irregularly; the 
fever does not, as in the distinct kind, 
cease on the appearance of the eruption, 
but, on the contrary, are aggravated; the 
eruption becomes livid, and purple spots 
are perceived; about the eleventh day it 
often terminates fatally. Small-pox is the 
effect of a specific contagion, produced 
either by innoculation or exposure to the 
effluvia from persons suffering under it 
[See Vaccination.] 

SMALTS, or SMALT (schmalz: Ger.), a 
beautiful blue colour obtained by fusing 
together glass and oxide of cobalt; it is 













o93 ICttcraru 


used in paper-making and various other 
arts, particularly in the painting of earth¬ 
enware. The inferior kinds are made by 
fusing mixtures of zaffre, sand, and pearlash. 

SMAR'AGD ( smaragdos: Gr.), another 
name for the emerald. Hence, smaragdine, 
an epithet for anything pertaining to or re¬ 
sembling an emerald; of an emerald green. 
The ancients used the word in a far more 
extended sense. Thus Nero is said to have 
viewed the combats of the Gladiators in a 
smaragd, which is supposed to mean a po¬ 
lished mirror. 

SMARAG'DITE ( smaragdos , the emerald : 
Gr.), in Mineralogy, a variety of hornblende. 

SMELT, a marine flsh of delicate flavour, 
the Osmerus eperlanus of ichthyologists. It 
is allied to the salmon, and is usually taken 
of the length of six or seven inches. 

SMEL'LING, that sense which resides in 
the nerves distributed over the membrane 
that lines the interior of the nostrils. It is 
far more strongly developed in some ani¬ 
mals than in others. Volatile particles 
chiefly are distinguished by smell, and fixed 
ones by the taste. 

SMELT'ING (smelter, to melt ore : Belg.), 
in Metallurgy, the exposure of metallic 
ores to heat in order to melt out the metal¬ 
lic from the earthy, stony, and other parts. 
The art of fusing the ores, after roasting, is 
the principal and most important of metal¬ 
lurgy operations. 

SMI'LAX (Gr.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Smilacece. Most of the 
species are climbing shrubs. The sarsapa¬ 
rilla of the Materia Medica is the root of 
some South American species. 

SMOKE, the visible vapour or exhalation 
that is expelled from a substance while 
burning; or the rarefied, but undecom¬ 
posed part of a combustible. The smoke 
emitted by fuel may be considered as so 
much waste of its most valuable portions. 
A scientific application of the principles on 
which combustion depends is quite suflL 
cient to prevent the production of smoke. 
The word smoke is particularly applied to 
the volatile vapour expelled from coal, 
wood, vegetable 'matter, &c.; that which 
exhales from metallic substances being 
more generally called fume. 

SMOKE-JACK, a machine consisting of 
an arrangement of wheels put in motion by 
the draught of the chimney with force 
sufficient to turn a vane. 

SMUT ( smitta: Sax.), in Husbandry, a 
'disease in corn, when the grains, instead 
of being filled with flour, contain foul black 
powder. This is produced by a minute 
fungus called Uredo segetum by botanists. 

SNAIL, the name given to Gasteropod 
molluscs, belonging to the genus Helix. 
The number of species is astonishinglygreat, 
almost every country having some peculiar 
to it, whilst several species have a large 
geographical range. The animal carries 
four tentacles on its head, all retractile at 
pleasure. The upper two have eyes at their 
summits. They are able to draw them¬ 
selves entirely into their shells, which vary 
considerably in form and sculpture. Snails 
are very tenacious of life ; Dr. Baird men¬ 
tions an instance of a specimen from Egypt, 


Erca£ur|i. [snow 


having been glued down by its shell to a 
tablet in the British Museum for four years 
before it was discovered to be alive. The 
common garden snail, Helix aspersa, may be 
taken as an example. 

SNAKE, the common and general name 
of serpents; but, in England, generally ap¬ 
plied to those which are oviparous. [See 
Serpents.] 

SNA'KEROOT, the Aristolocliia serpent- 
aria, a species of birtli-wort, growing in 
North America. Its medicinal virtues are 
considerable, and its general action is 
heating and stimulant. 

SNA'KEWEED, a plant of the genus 
Polygonum : bistort. 

SNA'KEWOOD, the smaller branches of 
the Strychnos colubrina, a tree growing in 
the isle of Timor and other parts of the 
East; having a bitter taste, and supposed 
to be a certain remedy for the bite of the 
hooded serpent. 

SNATCH'BLOCK ( snacken, to seize 
hastily: But.), in ships, a great block or 
pulley, having a shiver cut through one of 
its cheeks, for the ready receiving of any 
rope. It is chiefly used for heavy purchases, 
where a warp or hawser is brought to the 
capstan. 

SNEE'ZING, a convulsive action of the 
organs of respiration, produced by irritation 
of the nostrils. Violent fits of sneezing have 
been known to prove fatal; in severe cases, 
the nasal membrane should be soothed by 
applying warm milk and water, or a decoc¬ 
tion of poppies. 

SNIPE, the name of some British gralla- 
torial birds, belonging to the genus Scolopax, 
of which the common snipe ( S.gallinago) and 
the Jack snipe ( S. gallinula) are the best 
known. They haunt marshy tracts and aro 
much sought after by sportsmen. 

SNOW (snaio: Sax.), in Meteorology, a 
congelation of vapour produced in the 
middle region of the air, when the tempera-* 
ture of the atmosphere sinks below tho 
freezing point of water. The manner in 
which snow is produced is not well under¬ 
stood. It has not been ascertained whe¬ 
ther the clouds which give rise to it are 
composed of vesicular vapours, or frozen 
particles; nor whether the flakes are com¬ 
pletely or only partially formed before it 
begins to descend; nor is it known what 
temperatures or circumstances give rise to 
its different appearance. Upon examining 
snow flakes they are found, with rare ex¬ 
ceptions, to be masses of beautifully formed 
crystals. Their variety is endless, but the 
principal forms are stars of six points, from 
one-third to one-thirty-flfth of an inch in 

diameter.- Red snow. It was observed, 

even by the ancients, that snow is some¬ 
times of a red colour. This is now known 
to be due to the presence of a minute fun¬ 
gus named Protococcus nivalis by botanists. 
It has been found in many parts of the 
world. 

SNOW, LIMIT OF PERPETUAL, a term 
of physical geography, referring to an 
imaginary line on the earth where the tem¬ 
perature is never below 32° F. This limit 
cannot he defined in a given region with 
strict accuracy, and all statements regard 















694 


snuff] df)C <g?(tcnttfic Hlltf 


ing it.can be approximate only. It is best 
determined where the accumulations are 
continuous upwards on gentle slopes. Ac¬ 
cumulations in hollows and descending 
glaciers are very frequently below the 
limit, and hence the line is often laid down 
too low in mountainous regions. On the 
other hand, steep surfaces exposed to the 
sun or to moist winds are frequently des¬ 
titute of snow, although above the limit 
in question. In the northern hemisphere 
the snow line sinks to the level of the sea 
about the parallel of SO 3 , and at the equator 
it is upwards of 16,000 feet above the sea. 
It is much higher on the northern slopes of 
the Himalayas than on the southern. This 
is occasioned by the fact that the rain- 
winds all come from the south, and that 
the greater part of their moisture is de¬ 
posited before they arrive at the north side 
of the range where the air is very dry. 

SNUFF, pulverized tobacco, variously 
prepared, scented, and distinguished by a 
multitude of names. It is so frequently 
adulterated with deleterious substances 
that mischievous consequences must ne¬ 
cessarily arise from its use, in addition to 
those which naturally flow from employ¬ 
ment of a nai - cotic powder in this way. 

SOAP (sapOn: Or.), a substance obtained 
by the action of alkalies on oils or fats. 
White soaps are generally manufactured 
from oil of olives and carbonate of soda, 
the latter being rendered caustic by quick¬ 
lime, and its solution being termed soap ley. 
The oil and alkaline liquid are boiled to¬ 
gether, until the soap begins to separate 
from the water, salt being sometimes 
added to promote granulation ; the whole 
is allowed to rest for some time; the soap 
is then transferred into wooden frames, 
and when stiff enough is cut into oblong 
slices and dried. Perfumes are sometimes 
added; and marbling, when desirable, is 
effected by stirring into the soap during 
manufacture a solution of sulphate of iron, 
which is decomposed, black oxide separat¬ 
ing in streaks and patches. Common soap 
is made of soda and tallow ; or if potash is 
used, common salt is added to harden it 
by transference of soda. Soft soaps arc 
generally made with potash and flsh oil. 
Yellow soap contains resin. Soap is soluble 
in pure water and in alcohol: the solution 
in the latter gelatinizes when concentrated, 
forming what is called in medicine opodeldoc. 
If the soap solution is carefully evaporated, 
transparent soap is obtained. Earth and 
common metallic oxides form insoluble 
soaps : and hence soap is wasted, and pre¬ 
cipitates are formed with it, by hard water 
—that is, such as contains lime. Soap, if 
kept in a damp place, is capable of remain¬ 
ing combined with a large quantity of 
water; this adds to its weight, and di¬ 
minishes its utility, by rendering it liable 
to waste during use. 

SOAP'STONE, in Mineralogy, Steatite, a 
soft mineral of a soapy feel. It is a hy¬ 
drated silicate of magnesia and alumina. 

SOAP'WORT a plant of the genus Sapo- 
naria : mat. ord. Caryophyllacece. 

SOC'AGE (soke, a plough : Any. Sax.), in 
Law, a tenure of laluls by any certain and 


determinate services. In free socage the 
services were, in a feudal sense, not dis¬ 
honourable, as the payment of an annual 
rent. In villein socage, lands were held by 
villein services; and these being certain 
and determined, the tenure was, in some 
respects, copyhold, and it still subsists. 

SO'CIALISM ( socialis , pertaining to com¬ 
panionship : Lat), the science of recon¬ 
structing society on entirely new.bases, or 
the substitution of the principle of co-opera¬ 
tion for that of competition, in every branch 
of human industry. This view of society is 
not of recent date. It has been the fa¬ 
vourite theme of poets from the eaidiest 
ages. But the first attempt to carry it into 
practical effect was made by the Saint Si- 
moniaus in France about 1820, who gained 
numerous adherents, especially in Paris. 
After the revolution of July 1830, it rose 
rapidly into notoriety, from the sympathy 
between the notions which it promulgated, 
and those entertained by many of the re¬ 
publican party. The views of the St. Simo- 
nians were all directed to the abolition of 
rank and property in society, and the estab¬ 
lishment of associations such as the fol¬ 
lowers of Mr. Owen in this country have 
denominated co-operative, of which all the 
members should work in common, and 
divide the fruits of their labour; and with 
these notions, common to many other social 
reformers, they united the doctrine that the 
division of the goods of the community 
should be in due proportion to the merit 
or capacity of the recipient. But their 
doctrines and proceedings soon became 
licentious and immoral; and in 1832, their 
association was dispersed by Government. 
Some former members of this body attained 
to places of rank and consideration; and 
others founded new schools of socialism 
and communism. 

SOCI'ETY ( societas ; from socio, I asso¬ 
ciate : Lat.), in its usually restricted sense, 
an association organized for the promotion 
of some object. If formed for commercial 
purposes, it is usually called a Company. 
Literary societies are often termed Aca¬ 
demies ; societies for social purposes Clubs, 
sometimes political, and sometimes devoted 
to certain classes. There are about forty 
clubs in London, the number of members 
varying from 1000 to 1500, admitted by bal¬ 
lot ; paying from ten to twenty-five guineas 
on admission, and from five to ten guineas 
annual subscription. Benevolent associa¬ 
tions in this country are very numerous. 

SOCK (soccus: Lat.), the low-heeled light 
shoe of the ancient actors in comedy. Hence 
the word is used for comedy, and opposed 
to buskin or tragedy. 

SOC'LE (zoccoli , a shoe : Ital,), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a square member, having a greater 
breadth than height. It is used to support 
a column, base, &c., instead of a pedestal, 
from which it differs, by having neither 
base nor cornice. 

SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY, in its proper 
signification, the peculiar method which 
was applied by Socrates to philosophical 
inquiry, nis object was to stimulate his 
hearers to the pursuit of the good and the 
true by new and more comprehensive 














































595 


Ettcrarj) (£m#urg. [SOLDAN 


methods. He began his discourses by pro¬ 
positions generally received as true ; and 
placed a particular idea in a number of 
combinations. He then proceeded by means 
of questions to ascertain the ideas of those 
with whom he was contending. So full of 
error Avere the speculations of his age that 
It Avas not difficult to entangle his opponent 
in contradictions, or to extract from him 
admissions which were inconsistent Avith 
his opinions, or agreeable to the sentiments 
of Socrates, avIio Avitli his comprehensive 
Views and dialectic ability, soon turned 
them to account. Socrates Avrote nothing 
himself; we have only the reports of Xeno¬ 
phon and Plato, and the latter is thought 
to have added much of his oavii. 

SO'DA, an alkali, the oxide of the metal 
sodium, obtained, usually as a carbonate, 
from several sources. It is sometimes 
found in a native state, as in the lakes in 
Hgypt, Avhich, being dried by the heat of 
the sun, leave beds of soda, or natron, as it 
is there called. Soda w r as formerly pro¬ 
cured as Barilla, from the incinerated 
ashes of the salsola plant, and as kelp by 
burning seaweed; but it is iaoav almost 
entirely obtained by decomposing common 
salt Avitli sulphuric acid or iron pyrites. 
The resulting sulphate is fused in a furnace 
AA'ith chalk and small coal, and the car¬ 
bonate of soda is then dissolA r ed out of 

the product.- Caustic Soda is the oxide, 

and is obtained from the carbonate by boil¬ 
ing it Avith lime. Soda, in one form or 
other, has an immense number of applica¬ 
tions in the arts. 

SO'DALITE, a mineral of a bluish green 
colour, found crystallized, or in masses. It 
obtains its name from the large portion of 
soda which enters into its composition. It 
consists chiefly of silex, alumina, and 
soda. 

SO'DA-WATER, a supersaturated solu¬ 
tion of carbonic acid in water. It derives 
its name from having been ahvays for¬ 
merly, and sometimes at present, prepared 
by the addition of some carbonate of soda, 
to render it useful in certain forms of dys¬ 
pepsia. Some ingenious machines are em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of soda-Avater. 

SO'DIUM, the metallic base of soda, is ob¬ 
tained by raising a mixture of the carbonate 
and charcoal to a high temperature. It is 
Avhite, opaque, and has the lustre and gene¬ 
ral appearance of silver. Its spec. grav. is 
0'97; it fuses at 194=>. It is exceedingly 
malleable, and is much softer than any of 
the common metallic substances. It con¬ 
ducts electricity and heat in a similar man¬ 
ner to the basis of potassa, which it very 
much resembles ; and small particles of it 
inflame by the galvanic spark, and burn 
with bright explosions. When sodium is 
exposed to the atmosphere it immediately 
tarnishes, and by degrees becomes cot'ered 
Avith a AA'hite crust, which is the oxide. So¬ 
dium combines Avitli th# metals; in the 
quantity of one-fortietliit renders mercury 
a fixed solid of the colour of silver, and the 
combination is attended Avith a consider¬ 
able degree of heat. It forms an alloy Avitli 
tin, Avithout changing its colour; and it 
acts upon gold aud lead Avhen heated. Placed 


upon cold Avater it decomposes the liquid 
Avitli violence; Avith hot water it inflames. 

SOF'PIT ( sojffltta, overlaid: Jtal.), the 
ceiling of subordinate parts of buildings, 
such as staircases, entablatures, archways, 
cornices, &c. 

SO FI (probably a corruption of sophos, 
Avise: Or.), a Persian Avord, signifying re¬ 
ligious persons, called also Dervishes. It 
Avas the surname of the kings of Persia, of 
the race preceding the present family, 
and came to be erroneously used as a title 
of the Persian monarch. 

SOIL, the earthy materials in Avhich 
plants groAV; consisting of compounds of 
silica, lime, alumina, magnesia, oxide of 
iron, and various acid and alkaline combi¬ 
nations ; with the remains of animal and 
vegetable matter; the variety being neces¬ 
sary to healthy vegetation. The part be¬ 
neath that where plants usually grow is 
termed the subsoil. All soils were origin 
ally the product of disintegrated rocks—on 
Avhose nature and constitution they depend 
for their peculiar qualities. 

SOKE (a plough : Ang. Sax.), in Law, a 
term which anciently had various significa¬ 
tions, viz. 1. The liberty or privilege of 
tenants excused from customary burdens 
and impositions. 2. The power of adminis¬ 
tering justice. 3. The precinct in which 
the chief lord exercised his soc, or liberty 
of keeping court Avithin his own jurisdic¬ 
tion. 4. A stipulated payment or rent to 
the lord for using his land, Avith such 
liberty and privilege as made the tenant the 
soke man or freeholder. As a territorial 

division it still exists in Lincolnshire.- 

Soke-men, tenants of sokage lands: thoso 
Avho held by no servile tenure, but paid 

their rent as a soke, or sign of freedom.- 

Soke-reeve, the rent collector in the lord’s 
soke. 

SOLANA'CE/E, a natural order of plants, 
including more than a thousand species. 
The flowers are monopetalous and regular; 
the fruit either a capsule or a berry. They 
are found in most parts of the Avorld, some 
affording food, others medicines. Many of 
them possess narcotic properties to such 
an extent as to be poisonous. The genus 
Solanum has upwards of 900 species, and 
one of these is the valuable Potato, and 
another the poisonous Bitter sweet. To other 
genera belong the Tobacco plant ( Nicoti - 
ana), the Tomato (Ly copersicum), the Capo 
gooseberry ( Physails), the Red Peppers 
(.Capsicum), the Henbane (Hyoscyamus), 
the Thorn Apple (Datura), the Night Shade 
(Atropa), the Mandrake, and.the handsome 
Petunia. 

SO'LAN-GOOSE. [See GanNET.] 
SOLA'RIUM (Lat., from solans, pertain¬ 
ing to the sun), in Antiquity, a place on 
the tops of houses exposed tothesun.Avhere 
the Romans used to take air and exercise. 

SO'LAR SYSTEM, that system of astro¬ 
nomy which is founded on the hypothesis 
that the sun is the centre of the universe, 
round which all the planets revolve at dif¬ 
ferent distances, and in different spaces of 
time. [See Astronomy, Earth, Sun, Pla¬ 
nets, Moon, &c.] 

SO'LDAN (corrupted from Sultan), a title 





































Wfyz ^cteuttTtc autt 


696 


«oldering] 


formerly given to a general who command¬ 
ed the caliph’s army; the epithet was 
afterwards applied to a governor of Egypt. 

SOL'DERING ( solido , I make firm : Lat.), 
among Mechanics, the uniting together two 
pieces of metal, by the fusion and applica¬ 
tion of some metallic composition on the 
extremities of the metals to be joined. 
Common solder is an alloy composed of 
about two parts of lead and one of tin. In 
the operation of soldering, the surfaces of 
the metal intended to be joined are scraped 
and rendered very clean; they are then 
brought close to each other. Some resin, 
chloride of zinc, borax, or other suitable 
substance having been previously placed 
on the places to be joined; and heat is 
applied by a soldering iron, or in some 

other way.- Solders are made of gold, 

silver, copper, tin, bismuth, and lead ; usu¬ 
ally, but not always, in the composition 
some of the metal that is to be soldered 
being included. 

SOLE, the name given to flat fishes of the 
genus Solea. The common sole abounds on 
the British coast; afford considerable em¬ 
ployment to the fishermen, and are much 
esteemed as an article of food. 

SOL'ECISM (soloikismos: Gr.), in Gram¬ 
mar, incongruity of language, or a gross 
deviation from the rules of grammar, or 
construction. According to Pliny it differs 
from a Barbarism, in not being confined to 
the use of single words, which are erro¬ 
neous.-In a general sense, any unfitness 

or impropriety. 

SOLENA'CEANS ( sulen , a tube: Gr.), a 
family of dimiary bivalve molluscs, of 
which the genus Solen, comprising the razor 
shell, is the type. 

SOLEATA'RA, a volcanic vent which 
emits only sulphur, and its compounds; and 
so named from the Solfatara, a hill near 
Naples, in the district called by the ancients 
the Phlcegrcei Campi. 

SOLI'CITOR ( solicito , I persuade : Lat.), 
in Law, a person authorized and employed 
to prosecute the suits of others in the 
Oourt of Chancery; similar practitioners 
are called attorneys, in courts of common 
law. In Scotland solicitors are the same 
as attorneys with us; but they practise in 
the inferior courts and are inferior to wri- 

tersto the signet. -Solicitor-General, an 

officer of the crown, holding by patent, 
ranking next to the attorney-general. Like 
the attorney-general, he resigns office when 
the ministry which appointed him retires. 

SOL'ID ( solidus , firm : Lat.), in Philoso¬ 
phy, a body whose parts are so connected 
together as not to give way or slip from 
each other upon the smallest impression, 
in which sense Solid stands opposite to 

Fluid. -Geometricians define a solid to be 

the third species of magnitude, or that 
which has three dimensions, viz. length, 
breadth, thickness or depth.— Solids are 
commonly divided into regular and irregu¬ 
lar. The regular solids are those termi¬ 
nated by regular and equal planes, and are 
only five in number, viz. the Tetrahedron, 
which consists of four equal triangles ; the 
Cube, or Hexahedron, of six equal squares ; 
the Octahedron, of eight equal triangles; 


the Dodecahedron, of twelve; and the 
Icosahedron, of twenty equal triangles. 
The irregular solids are almost infinite, 
comprehending all such as do not come 
under the definition of regular solids; as 
the sphere, cylinder, cone, parallelogram, 

prism, parallelopiped, &c.-In anatomy 

and medical science, the bones, flesh, and 
vessels of animal bodies are called solids, in 
distinction from the blood, chyle, and other 

fluids.- Solid Angle, one made by the 

meeting, in one point, of more than two 
plane angles which are not in the same plane. 
Solid square, in military language, a body of 
troops formed into a square, consisting of a 
number of parallel squares one within the 
other. The faces of the men in each set of 
parallel sides look the same way, and to¬ 
wards the outside of the square, holding 
their bayonets so as to be prepared for the 
attack of an enemy attempting to force the 
square. The solid square has been found ca¬ 
pable of resisting even a furious charge of 
cavalry. 

SOLIDA'GO Isolido, I make firm : Lat., 
from its supposed efficacy in healing 
wounds), in Botany, a genus of plants,nat. 
ord. Composita:. Plants of this genus are 
distinguished by the name of the golden 
rod, on account of their yellow flowers and 
long spikes. 

SOLIEID'IAN {solus, alone; and fides, 
faith : Lat.), in Theology, one who maintains 
that faith alone, without works, is neces¬ 
sary to justification. 

SO'LO {Ital.), in Music, a passage, or per¬ 
fect piece in which a single voice or in¬ 
strument performs without accompani¬ 
ment. Peculiar freedom, ease, distinctness, 
and power of execution, are required to 
perform the solo with correctness, taste, 
and feeling. 

SOLOMON’S SEAL, the common name 
of a species of Polygonatum, belonging to 
the nat. ord. Liliacece. It is perennial. 

SOL'STICE {solstitium ; from Sol, the 
sun : and sisto, I cause to stand: Lat.), in 
Astronomy, the time when the sun is in 
one of the solstitial points ; that is, when j 
it is at the greatest distance from the 
equator, which is 23} degrees, and when, 
to the people of the higher latitudes, it 
appears to stand still, not changing its 
place in the degrees of the zodiac. The 
solstitial points in an artificial globe are 
those in which the ecliptic, or path of the 
sun, touches the tropics.- Summer sol¬ 

stice, the 21st of June, when the sun enters 
the tropic of Cancer, in its progress 
southward, and gives the longest day. 
Winter solstice, the 2lst of December, when 
the sun enters the tropic of Capricorn, in 
its progress northward, and gives the 
shortest day. 

SOLUTION ( solutio, a dissolving: Lat.), 
the intimate mixture or perfect union of 
solid bodies with fluids, so as to form one 
homogeneous liquor. The word is applied 
both to the act of combination and to the 
result of the process: thus common salt • 
disappears in water, that is, its solution 
takes place, and the liquid obtained is 
called a solution of salt in water.-—In Al¬ 
gebra and Geometry, solution signifies the 






















697 


mterarg Crea&trg* 


answering of a question, or the resolving 

of a problem.-In Surgery, the term 

solution of continuity denotes the separation 
of connected substances or parts applied 
to a fraction, laceration, &c. 

SOLV'ENT (solvens, dissolving : Lat.), in 
Chemistry, any liquid which will dissolve 
substances. 

SO'MATIST ( soma , a body : Gr.), one who 
denies the existence,and consequently the 
agency, of spiritual substances. 

SOMATOL'OGY ( soma, a body; and logos, 
a discourse : Gr.), the doctrine of bodies or 
material substances. 

SOM'MITE, in Mineralogy, neplieline; a 
mineral which occurs in small crystals. 
It is found on Somma and Vesuvius. 

SOMNAM'BULISM ( somnium, a dream ; 
and avibulo, I walk : Lat.), the phenomenon 
of sleep-walking, during which the sensi¬ 
tive and willing powers govern the muscles, 
while the reasoning or reflecting organs are 
asleep; but in dreaming it is the contrary. 
The phenomena attendant on sleep-walking 
are very singular, the person affected per¬ 
forming many voluntary actions, implying 
a certain degree of perception of external 
objects. There are a number of very re¬ 
markable cases of somnambulism on record, 
some of which would be incredible were 
they not attested by unquestionable autho¬ 
rity. Somnambulists have been known to 
undress and take a cold bath; to saddle 
and bridle their horses, and afterwards ride 
to a considerable distance ; and, when their 
habits perhaps were more sedentary, to 
write letters, make verses, &c.; while in 
most cases they quietly returned to their 
beds, and awoke at their usual hour utterly 
unconscious of their previous proceedings. 
Generally speaking, but not always, som¬ 
nambulists are incapable of holding a 
conversation. Somnambulism may be 
described as a state in which the mind 
retains its power over the limbs, but 
possesses no influence over its own 
thoughts, and scarcely any over the body, 
excepting those particular members of it 
which are employed in walking. 

SONA'TA t Ital.), in Music, a piece or 
composition wholly executed by instru¬ 
ments ; and generally supposed to exhibit 
the composer’s powers without confining 
him within the rigid rules of counterpoint 
or measure. 

SON'HET (Fr.), a short poem, which, ac¬ 
cording to its Italian model, consists of 
fourteen lines ; divided into two parts, the 
first of eight, and the latter of six lines. 
According to the strictest rules, only two 
rhymes are allowed in the first part, and 
the second ought not to end, in a couplet; 
but in our language, which possesses a 
comparative paucity of rhymes, the sonnet 
has been written with great latitude as to 
rhymes. 

SONOM'ETER ( sonus, a sound : Lat.; and 
metron, a measure ; Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring sounds or the intervals of 
sounds. 

SOOTHSAYING (soth, truth: Sax.), the 
foretelling of future events without divine 
aid or authority; and thus distinguished 
from prophecy by inspiration. 


[sorites 


SO'PHI. [SeeSoFl.] 

SOPH'ISM {sophisma, from sophizo, I deal 
subtilely: Gr.), a subtilty in reasoning, in 
which the arguments are not logically sup¬ 
ported, or the inferences are not justly 
deduced from the premises. 

SOPHISTICA'TION ( sophizo, I deceive : 
Gr.), the adulterating or debasing the 
purity of something by a foreign ad¬ 
mixture. 

SOPH'ISTS ( sophistes, from sophizo, I deal 
subtilely : Gr.), a name at first given to phi¬ 
losophers and those who were remarkable 
for their wisdom; it was afterwards applied 
to rhetoricians, and lastly to such as spent 
their time in verbal niceties, logical conun¬ 
drums, sententious quibbles, and philoso¬ 
phical enigmas. The following, called the 
Pseudomenos, for example, was a famous 
problem amongst the ancient sophists: 
‘ When a man says, L lie, does he lie, or does 
he not lie ? If he lies, he speaks truth; and 
if he speaks the truth, he lies.’ 

SOPORIFTC {sopor, a heavy sleep; and 
facio, I make : Lat.), in Medicine, any drug, 
plant, &c. that has the quality of inducing 
sleep. 

SOPRA'NO {Ital., from sopra, above), in 
Music, one of the intermediate portions of 
the scale, which is a species of treble, suited 
to the female voice. 

SOR'BIC ACID, in Chemistry, acid pro¬ 
cured from the fruit of the Pyrus, or Sorbus 
aucuparia, or Mountain Ash. It is identical 
with malic acid. 

SORBONNE, the name qf a college ori¬ 
ginally instituted for the education of secu¬ 
lar clergymen at the university of Paris, 
so called after Robert of Sorbon, in Cham¬ 
pagne, a theologian of Paris, who founded 
it during the reign of St.Louis, about 1250, 
and endowed it with an income which was 
subsequently much increased. This insti¬ 
tution, the teachers in which were always 
doctors and professors of theology, ac¬ 
quired so much fame that its name was 
extended to the whole theological faculty 
of the university of Paris. 

SOR'CERY {sorcerie, from sors, a lot: 
Lat.), Magic, or divination by the supposed 
assistance of evil spirits, or the power of 
commanding evil spirits. 

SORD'AWALITE, a black or grayish 
green mineral, so named from Sordawald, 
in Wibourg. It is a species of hornblende 
and consists of alumina, iron magnesia, 
and a small quantity of phosphoric acid. 

SOR'DES {Lat.), in Medicine,foul matter. 
Also, dregs of any kind. 

SOR'EL, a term used by sportsmen for a 
male fallow deer of three years old. 

• SOR'EX (a mouse: Lat.), in Zoology, 
a genus of nocturnal insectivorous mam¬ 
mals, typified by the shrew mouse, which 
resembles the mole in the head, and the 
mouse in other parts. 

SORGHO {Holcus saccharatus), a plant 
allied to millet, which is extensively culti¬ 
vated in China, and of late years in Europe. 
The stem yields a juice from which sugar 
and spirit are obtainable, the leaves afford 
excellent fodder for cattle, and the seeds 
are suitable for feeding poultry. 

SORI'TES {soreites, from sdros, a heap: 
















■» 



(7r.),in Logic, an abridged form of stating a 
series of syllogisms consisting of a number 
of propositions so linked together that the 
predicate of one becomes continually the 
subject of the next in succession, till a con¬ 
clusion is formed by bringing together the 
subject of the first proposition and the pre¬ 
dicate of the last. 

SOR'REL, aname given to several plants. 
The common sorrel is the Bumex acetosa, a 
British herb with an acid taste. The word 
sorrel is the Oxalis acetosella. The wood- 
sorrel is of the genu^s Oxalis. The Indian 
red aud Indianwhite*sorrels are of the genus 
Hibiscus. Salt of Sorrel, biuoxalate of 
potash. 

SOMITES HOME'RKLE, VIRGIL I ANTE, 
SANCTORUM (Homeric, &c. lots: Lat.), a 
species of divination very common in anti¬ 
quity. It consisted in opening a favourite 
author at random, and deducing an oracular 
meaning from the first passage which met 
the eye. The Greeks used Homer for this 
purpose, the Romans Virgil, the Christians 
the Bible. Some remarkable examples are 
on record of the applicability of the pas¬ 
sages found to the destinies of the finders. 

SORTIE' ( Fr .), in Military language, the 
issuing of a body of troops from a besieged 
place to attack the besiegers ; a sally. 

SOSTENU'TO (sustained : If ah), in Music, 
a term used to denote the unbroken con¬ 
tinuance of sounds. 

SOUND, in Physics, the effect produced 
on the ear, usually by a tremulous motion 
of the air, caused by the vibration of some 
other body which has been struck, rubbed, 
&c. The distance to which sounds may be 
heard will be proportional to the magnitude 
or intensity of the stroke made on the tre¬ 
mulous body emitting the sound; for the 
greater that stroke is the greater will be 
the agitation of its parts, and the greater 
will be the force with which they will strike 
the particles of air. Hence the greater 
will be the effect at any given distance on 
the drum of the ear; and, consequently, 
the greater will be the distance at which 
the agitation of the air will be sensible. It 
is ascertained that sound of all kinds travels 
at the rate of ll24i feet per second, when 
the air is at the temperature of 32°; the 
softest whisper moves as fast as the loudest 
thunder. The knowledge of this fact has 
been applied to the measurement of dis¬ 
tances. Thus, if we see a vivid flash of 
lightning, and in two seconds hear a clap of 
thunder, we may be assured that the liglit- 
uing occurred at not more than the distance 
of 750 yards. If the vibrations of a sonorous 
body fall short of or exceed a certain velo¬ 
city, no sound will be perceived; the 
smallest number which produce any effect 
on the ear is 32 per second; and the largest, 
according to some, 8200, but according to 
others, 24,000 per second. Taking the velo¬ 
city of sound in the air as unity, its velocity 
in tin will be represented by l\, in silver by 
9, in copper by 12, in iron by 17, in glass by 
17, in baked clay by 1012, and in wood by 
11*17. Its velocity in cast iron was found 
to be only 10*5. Solids are much better con¬ 
ductors of sound than atmospheric air; a 
Verson at one end of a long fir beam will 


distinctly hear a very slight tap, which is 
inaudible to him who makes it at the 
other end. Water is a very excellent con¬ 
ductor of sound, particularly when frozen. I 
Sounds have been conveyed even by land I 
to enormous distances; the cannonade of a : 
sea fight between the English and Dutch, 
in 1G72, was heard across England to the j 

extent of 200 miles.- Sound, in Geography, 

any great inlet of the sea; as Plymouth 
sound, &c. 

SOUND'ING ( sonder , to search with a 
plummet: Fr .), in Navigation, the opera¬ 
tion of trying the depth of the water, and 
the quality of the bottom, by a line with a 

plummet at the end.- Soundings, a name 

given to the specimen of the ground, ob¬ 
tained by sounding. A piece of tallow 
stuck upon the base of the deep-sea lead 
brings up distinguishing marks from the 
bottom, as sand, shells, &c., which adhere 
to it. Their nature is carefully marked in 
the log-book. A ship is said to be in 
soundings when she gets into water shal¬ 
low enough to be sounded. 

SOUTH (suth: Sax.), one of the cardinal 
points. Strictly, south i3 the horizontal 
point in the meridian of a place, on the 
right hand of a person standing with his 
face towards the east. But the word is ap¬ 
plied to any point in the meridian, between 
the horizon and the zenith. 

SOUTRCOT'TIANS, the followers of 
Joanna Southcott. She was born in Devon¬ 
shire in 1750; claimed the power of'pro- 
phecying, and had many followers. In hei 
05th year she pretended to be supernaturally 
pregnant. She died soon afterwards, and 
although it was proved that her assertion 
was false, the faith of many of her followers 
was not shaken, aud they expected her to 
reappear. 

SOUTH'ERNWOOD, the Artemisia abro- 
tanum of botanists, nat. ord. Composites, a 
plant with sweet-scented leaves, a native 
of the South of Europe, common in English 

gardens. 

SOUTH SEA BUBBLE, a term given to 
a commercial * scheme,’ in 1720, which, for 
a time, produced a kind of national deli¬ 
rium in England. A company for trading 
to the South Seas, which was entitled the 
‘ South Sea Company,’ had been sanctioned 
by government, with the specious pretence 
of discharging the national debt, by re¬ 
ducing all the funds into one. Blunt, the 
projector, had taken the hint of his plan 
from Law’s celebrated Mississippi scheme, 
which, in the preceding year, had, in France, 
entailed ruin upon many thousand families 
of that kingdom. In the project of Law 
there was something substantial. It pro¬ 
mised an exclusive trade to Louisiana; 
though the design was defeated by the 
frantic eagerness of the people. But the 
South Sea scheme was buoyed up by nothing 
but the folly and rapaciousness of indivi¬ 
duals, which became so blind and extrava¬ 
gant, that Blunt w*as able to impose upon 
the whole nation, and make tools of the 
other directors, to serve his own purpose 
and that of a few associates. When this 
projector found that the South Sea stock 
did not rise according to lii3 expectation. 

























G99 


Utterarj) STmtftirg. 


lie circulated a report that Gibraltar and 
Port Mahon would be exchanged for some 
places in Peru ; by which means the English 
trade to the South Sea would be protected 
and enlarged. This rumour, diffused by 
emissaries, acted like a contagion. In five 
days the directors opened their books for a 
subscription of 1,000,0001. at the rate of 
3001. for every 1001. capital. Persons of all 
ranks crowded to the house in such a man¬ 
ner that the first subscription exceeded 
2,000,0001. of original stock. In a few days 
this stock advanced to 3401.; and the sub¬ 
scriptions were sold for double the price of 
the first payment. In a little time the 
stock reached 10001., and the whole nation 
A r as infected with the spirit of stock-job¬ 
bing to an incredible extent. The infatu¬ 
ation prevailed till the 8tli of September, 
when the stock began to fall, and some of 
the adventurers awoke from their delirium. 
On the 29th of the same month the stock 
had sunk to 1501.; several eminent gold¬ 
smiths and bankers, who had lent great 
sums upon it, were obliged to stop payment 
nnd abscond; and the ebb of this porten¬ 
tous tide was so violent that it carried every¬ 
thing in its way, and an infinite number of 
families were overwhelmed with ruin. Pub¬ 
lic credit sustained a terrible shock; the 
nation was thrown into a ferment; and 
nothing was heard but the ravings of grief,' 
disappointment, and despair. Some prin¬ 
cipal members of the ministry were deeply 
concerned in these fraudulent transactions; 
and though they used all their influence 
with the Bank to assist them in supporting 
the credit of the South Sea Company, and 
actually obtained from that corporation a 
large sum, the bubble burst; and a com¬ 
mittee of the House of Commons, to whom 
the subject had been referred, declared 
they had discovered a train of the deepest 
‘ villany and fraud that hell ever contrived 
to ruin a nation.’ Suffice it to add, that 
some of the ‘directors’were expelled the 
house; others taken into custody ; and the 
estates of several confiscated by act of par¬ 
liament. after a certain allowance was de¬ 
ducted for each, according to their conduct 
and circumstances. 

SOVEREIGN ( souverain: Fr.), a supreme 
ruler, or one who possesses the highest au¬ 
thority without control. A king or queen 

regnant.-An English gold coin, value 

twenty shillings; the standard weight of 
which is 5 dwt. 3'27 grs., or 123374 troy grs. 
One twelfth of the sovereign consists of 
copper, which is added to give it hardness. 

SOY, a dark-coloured sauce, prepared in 
China and Japan fronl the seeds of a sort 
of bean. It is eaten with flsli, &c. A sauce 
of the same name isprepared in England. 

SPA, a celebrated watering-place, about 
seven leagues from A ix-la-Chapelle. It has 
been long famous for its medicinal springs, 
which are mentioned by Pliny, and are six 
or seven in number. The term is now gene¬ 
rally applied to all mineral springs. 

SPACE (, spatium: Lat.), in the abstract, 
mereextension.- Space, iii Geometry, de¬ 

notes the area of any figure, or that which 
fills the interval or distance between the 
lines that terminate it.- Space, in Me- 


[SPEAKER 


chanics, the line which a movable body, I 
considered as a point, is [conceived to des¬ 
cribe by its motion.- Space, among Print¬ 

ers, a slip of wood or metal for making a 
space between words or lines. 

SPADPCEOUS, in Botany, an epithet for 
a kind of aggregate flower, having a recep¬ 
tacle common to many florets, within a | 
spathe, as in palms, &c. 

SI’A’DIX ((Fr.; from spas, I pluck off), in 
Botany, a receptacle bearing flowers sur¬ 
rounded by a sheathing bract or spade. 
Palms have a branching spadix, arums a 
simple one. 

SPA'HI, or SIPAHI (a soldier: Ind.), one of 
the Turkish cavalry. 

SPAN ( Sax .), a measure taken from the 
space between the end of the thumb and the 
tip of the little finger, when extended. 
The span is estimated at three hands’ 

breadths, or nine inches.-In seamen’s 

language, a small line or cord, the middle 
of which is attached to a stay. 

SPAN'DRIL, the space between the curve 
of an arch and the right lines inclosing it. 

SPAN'IEL ( espagneul : Nr.—from its 
supposed Spanish origin), the Canis fami- 
iiaris avicularius, a name given to several 
varieties of dog, remarkable for sagacity 
and obedience; the largest and most ‘ 
beautiful of wiiich is the Alpine or St. 
Bernard’s breed; and the smallest the Canis 
brevipitis, usually called king Charles’sbreed, 
used as a lap-dog. 

SPAR (Speer: Sax.), amass of crystallized 
stone; any sort of earth which breaks 
easily into cubical or laminated fragments 

with polished surfaces.-A name given to 

the round pieces of timber used for the 
yards and topmasts of ships. 

SPAR'ROW, the popular name of two 
British birds belonging to the genus Pyrgita 
or Passer, in the family of Fringillidce : 
the Passer montanus or tree sparrow, and 
the P. domesticus or common house spar¬ 
row. 

SPASM (spasmos; from spao, I draw: Gr.), 
in Medicine, an involuntary contraction of 
the muscular fibres, or that state of the 
contraction of muscles which is not spon¬ 
taneously disposed to alternate with re¬ 
laxation ; it is generally accompanied by 
pain. When the contractions alternate 
with relaxation, they are called convulsions. 

SPATHE i (Gr.), in Botany, a sheathing 
bract surrounding floral organs usually 
splitting longitudinally, as in the arum. 

SPATH'IC IRON (spathe, a broad blade 
of metal, &c.: Gr.), a mineral of a foliated 
structure, and a yellowish or brownish co¬ 
lour. 

SPAT'ULA (the dim. of spatha, a blade : 
Lat.), an apothecary’s instrument for 
spreading plasters, &c. 

SPAT'ULATE (last), in Botany, an epithet 
for a leaf shaped like a spatula or a battle¬ 
dore, being roundish, with a long, narrow, 
linear base. 

SPAV'IN (espavent: Fr.), in the Menage, 
a disease in horses, being a swelling or ex¬ 
crescence in the iuside of a horse’s hough, 
at first like gristle, but afterwards hard and 
bony. 

Sl’EAK'ER, in the parliamentary sense. 




































SPECIALTY]} 


&Jje ^rfenttfic antf 


700 


an officer who acts as chairman during a 
sitting.—The Speaker of the House of Com¬ 
mons is a member of the house, elected, at 
the commencement of a parliament, by a 
majority of vptes to act as chairman or pre¬ 
sident, in putting questions, reading bills, 
keeping order, and carrying into execution 
the resolutions of the house. The Speaker 
is not to deliver his sentiments upon any 
question ; but it is his duty to interrupt a 
member whose language is indecorous, or 
who wanders from the subject of debate ; he 
may also stop a debate, to remind the house 
of any standing order, or established mode 
of proceeding,which he sees about to be vio¬ 
lated. He, however, submits everything to 
the decision of the house. If the number 
of votes on the two sides of the question be 
equal, he may decide it by his own; but 
otherwise he cannot vote. When the house 
resolves itself into a committee, the chair 
is filled by a temporary chairman, and the 
Speaker is then capable of addressing the 
house on any subject, like a private mem¬ 
ber. He issues warrants to the Clerk of 
the Crown even during the recess, to make 
out new writs for the election of members 
when seats are vacant. He receives a sa¬ 
lary of 60001. a year, and he is supplied with 
a furnished residence. It is customary to 
make him a peer when he retires. In the 
House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor, keeper 
of the Great Seal, or other person holding 
the King’s commission, is ex-officio Speaker; 
he can speak and vote on any question. 

SPE'CIALTY ( specialitas , peculiarity : 
Lat.), in Law, a term applied to a contract 
evidenced by an instrument under seal, 
thereby differing from what is called simple 
contract. Specialties are, after debts of re¬ 
cord, entitled to priority in the distribution 
of assets, and are not presumed to be satis¬ 
fied until after twenty years; while simple 
contracts are extinguished by the statute of 
limitations in six. 

SPE'CIE, in Commerce, gold or silver 
coin, in distinction from paper money. 

SPE'CIES {Lat.). In Natural History, such 
animals or vegetables as maybe presumed 
to have descended from the same ancestors 
are said to belong to the same species. 
Such beings are liable to vary from the in¬ 
fluence of circumstances. Whether the va¬ 
riation is indefinite or restricted within 
certain limits is a question upon which 
naturalists are divided, and the solution 
of which is attended with much difficulty. 
Different races from the same parents are 
called varieties. [See Genus.] In Logic, a 
predicable, which is considered as express¬ 
ing the whole essence of the individuals of 
which it is affirmed. This essence consists 
of two parts, the material part or genus, 
and the destructive part or difference: 
thus, a ‘quadruped ’ has for ‘ genus ’ animal, 
and for ‘difference’ the having four legs. 
Species and genus are merely relative 
terms: thus, a horse belongs to the spe¬ 
cies quadruped, but a quadruped belongs 
to the species animal. A species, whenpredi 
cated of individuals, stands in the same rela¬ 
tion to them as the genus to the species. 
With regard to a lower species it is a genus, 
while with regard to a higher it is a species. 


SPECIF'IC (species, a peculiar sort: Lat.), 
in Medicine, a remedy which cither cer¬ 
tainly cures some particular disease or is:] 
less fallible with regard to it than other j 

remedies. 

SPECIFICATION ( species, a peculiar 
sort ; and facio, I make: Lat.), the formal i 
description of an invention for which let¬ 
ters patent have been obtained, required 
by the law to be filed in the patent office 
within six months of their date, otherwise 
they become void.-Also, amongst build¬ 

ers, the statement of the work required to 
be done, upon which the builder’s contract 
is founded. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. [See Gravity.] 

SPE'CIMEN (Lat.), a sample or small por¬ 
tion of anything ; intended to exhibit the 
kind and quality of the whole, or of some¬ 
thing not exhibited. 

SPECTACLES (specto, I look at: Lat.), i 
an optical instrument for assisting the 
sight. With short-sighted persons, the crys- 1 
talline humour, being too convex, brings 1 
the rays to a focus before they reach the | 
retina; concave lenses remedy this, because 1 
they make the rays to enter the eye with 
more divergence, and therefore to be longer j 
without coming to a focus. With elderly 
persons, the crystalline humour, being too 
fiat, does not bring the rays to a focus as 
soon as they have reached the retina. Con¬ 
vex lenses remedy this, because they make 
the rays to enter the eye with less diverg¬ 
ence, and therefore cause them to come 
sooner to a focus. Spectacles seem to have j) 
been first used about the latter end of the •[ 
13th century. [See Optics.] 

SPECTRE {spectrum: Lat.), an appear- a 
anc.e destitute of.external reality affecting a J 
person’s organs of sight when the body is J 
in an abnormal state. 

SPECTROSCOPE {spectrum, Lat.),scopeo, 8 
I examine : Gr.), an instrument employed i 
for the examination of the spectra of the s 
light from the sun, planets, and fixed stars, 4 
and for the measurement of the lines and I 
bands of shade and colour, as to breadth, 1 
distance, and position. [See Spectrum, 
and Spectrum Analysis.] 

SPE'CTRUM. If a beam of sunlight is 
admitted into a dark room through a hole 
in a shutter, and allowed to fall upon a 
prism of glass, the emergent beam will be I 
decomposed, and the solar or prismatic i 
spectrum will be seen upon the wall or any 
white surface placed to receive it. At the 
bottom is red, and to this succeed orange, 
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, each 
gradually changing into the next. This ex- j 
periment proves that common light is not 
homogeneous, but compounded of rays of j 
various colours, which become separated 
by reason of their different ref rangibilities. 
The series of colours thus produced is 
called the solar spectrum. By means of a 
suitable contrivance, the coloured rays ob¬ 
tained from a sunbeam may be again col- 
lected into a beam of white light. If any 
of the colours of the spectrum be experi¬ 
mented on, it will be found that it cannot 
be decomposed; in other words, the original 
beam has been divided into homogeneous 
rays. 



















701 Httcrarg €m£ttrg 


SPE'CTRUM ANAL'YSIS. It has long 
been known that the solar spectrum [see 
the last article - ] is marked by transverse 
dark lines, of which some hundreds have 
been counted. When the light of a flame 
is transmitted through a glass prism, the 
spectrum produced exhibits certain bright 
transverse lines whenever certain metallic 
substances are burnt in the flame. Experi¬ 
ment showedthat the same substance always 
produced the same kind of line and in the 
san^e part of the spectrum. The presence 
of the lines in the spectrum might, there¬ 
fore, be regarded as a proof of the presence 
of the respective metals. For example, if a 
small quantity of common salt (chloride of 
sodium) be burnt, a bright yellow line ap¬ 
pears in the spectrum in a particular posi¬ 
tion. It has been ascertained that a quan¬ 
tity of sodium, less than the three millionth 
part of a milligramme,can be easily detected 
in this way, and thus this is infinitely the 
most delicate test that can be applied to the 
detection of sodium. Again, if a lithium 
compound be projected into the flame, two 
sharply-deflned lines at once make their ap¬ 
pearance, one being of a weak yellow, the 
other of a bright red. Thus a quantity of 
lithium, less than.the millionth part of a 
milligramme, may be detected by the eye. 
Another curious result of this new method 
of analysis has been the detection of new 
elementary substances, the existence of 
which had not been previously imagined. 
It is by means of spectrum analysis that 
chemists have discovered the three metals, 
thallium, caesium, and rubidium. 

SPECULATION ( speculor, I watch for: 
Lat.), in Commerce, the act or practice of 
buying articles of merchandize, or any pur- 
chaseable commodity whatever, in expec¬ 
tation of a rise of price and of selling the 
same at a considerable advance. In this it 
is distinguished from regular trade, in 
which the profit expected is the difference 
between the retail and wholesale prices; or 
the difference of price in the place where 
the goods are purchased, and the place to 
which they are to be carried for mar¬ 
ket. Speculation on a large scale, upon the 
principle of monopolising; or that kind of 
speculation which consists in the purchase 
and sale of shares in public companies, as 
well as ‘dabbling’ in the stocks ; and a varie¬ 
ty of other hazardous transactions which 
might be named; are different species of 
gambling, and are often no less ruinous. 

SPEC'ULUM (Lat.), in Optics, any polish¬ 
ed body employed for the purpose of re¬ 
flecting light; but it is generally under¬ 
stood to mean a metallic surface, one of 

glass being termed a mirror. -Speculum 

Metal, or that of which the mirrors of re¬ 
flecting telescopesare made,usually consists 
of two parts of copper and one of tin; audits 
whiteness is improved by a little arsenic. 

._Speculum, in Surgery, an instrument 

for dilating and keeping open a wound, in 
order to examine it attentively. 

SPEECH (spcecan, to speak: Sax.), the 
faculty of expressing thoughts by words 
or articulate sounds. [See Language.] 

SPELL ( spel, a story or tale : Ang. Sax.), 
any form of words supposed to possess a 


[spherics 


magical virtue. Spells have been used in 
all ages; and were very common among 
the ancients. 

SPELT ( speltre: Tent.), a species of grain 
of the genus Triticum; called also German 
wheat. 

SPEL'TER, the commercial name of zinc; 
about 67,000 tons of it are used per annum, 
throughout the world; of which 44,000 tons 
are rolled in sheets. 

SPERM, or SPERMACE'TI, the unctuous 
matter contained in the head of the Cato- 
don macrocephalus, the sperm whale or 
blunt-headed cacholot, which lives in the 
warmer seas and attains the length of 
eighty feet. Spermaceti oil is obtained from 
the blubber of this whale. 

SPHA'CELUS ( sphakelos: Gr.), in Medi¬ 
cine and Surgery, gangrene, or mortifica¬ 
tion of the flesh of a living animal. Also, 
caries or a decay of the bone. Hence, to 
sphacelate, to mortify; and sphacelation, tho 
process of becoming gangrenous. 

SPHENE, a mineral substance, found 
amorphous and in crystals. It is composed 
of nearly equal parts of oxide of titanium, 
silica, and lime. Its colours are various, 
inclining either to grey, yellow, brown, or 
different shades of green. 

SPHERE (sphaira: Gr.), in Geometry, a 
solid body, such as would be formed by the 
revolution of a circle about its diameter, as 
an axis. Its surface is in every part equally 
distant from a point called its centre. Its 
area is equal to the perimeter of its great 
circle, multiplied by its diameter; and its 
solid contents are equal to its surface multi¬ 
plied by one-third of its radius.- Sphere, 

in Astronomy, the concave orb or expanse 
which invests our globe, and in which the 
heavenly bodies appear to be fixed, at an 
equal distance from the eye. The ancients 
called the orbits of the different planets, 
and the space occupied by the fixed stars, 
spheres', thus, the sphere of Jupiter, the 
sphere of the fixed stars, &c. In the Ptole¬ 
maic astronomy, the spheres were supposed 
to be solid, and transparent; to revolve 
about a common centre, independently 
of one another, each carrying its planet, 
&c. along with it.- Sphere, in Geo¬ 

graphy, a representation of the earth on 
the surface of a globe; showing the posi¬ 
tion of the equator, ecliptic, meridian, &c. 
When the poles are in the horizon, the 
ancients called it a right sphere ; when in 
the zenith, a. parallel sphere; and when in 
any other position, an oblique sphere. 

SPHER'ICAL, relating to the sphere. 
Thus Spherical geometry, that branch of geo¬ 
metry which treats of spherical magnitudes. 

- Spherical trigonometry, that branch of 

trigonometry by which we compute the 

sides and angles of spherical triangles_ 

Spherical triangle, a triangle formed by the 
mutual intersection of three great circles 
of the sphere. Spherical excess, the sum by 
which any three angles of any triangle on 
the surface of a sphere or spheroid, ex¬ 
ceeds two right angles. 

SPHER'ICS, the doctrine, of the sphere, 
particularly of the several circles described 
on its surface, with the method of project¬ 
ing the same on a plane; the doctrine of 


















CIjc Jbcfeutifu antf 702 


spheroid] 


its properties considered as a geometrical 
body. 

SPHEROID' ( sphaira, a sphere; and eidos, 
form: Gh\), a body or figure approaching to 
a sphere, but not perfectly spherical. A 
spheroid is either oblate or prolate. The 
earth is found to be an oblate spheroid, that 
is, flatted at the poles ; whereas an opinion 
had been formed by some astronomers, 
that it was a prolate or oblong sphere. 

SPHEROSIDE'RITE ( sphaira , a sphere; 
and sideros, iron: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a 
substance found in the basaltic compact 
lava of Steinheim. It is a granular variety 
of spathose carbonate of iron. 

SPHER'ULE ( sphcerula: Lat.), a little 
globe or spherical body. Thus when mer¬ 
cury is poured upon a plane, it divides itself 
into a great number of minute spherules. 

SPHER'ULITE (same deriv.), in Mine¬ 
ralogy, a variety of obsidian or pearl-stone, 
found in rounded grains. 

SPHINC'TER (sphinkter ; from sphingo, I 
bind: Gr.), in Anatomy, the name of several 
muscles, whose office is to shut or close the 
aperture round which they are placed. 

SPHIN'GID.E, or SPHINGI'NA, in En¬ 
tomology, a tribe of moths of which the 
genus Sphinx is the type. To this tribe 
belong the humming-bird hawk-moth 
(Macroglossa stellatarnm), and the death’s 
head moth ( Aclierontia atropos). They ex¬ 
tract the honey of flowers by means of a 
long proboscis whilst hovering on the 
wing. The larva has 16 legs, as amongst the 
butterflies. 

SPHINX (Gr.), in Antiquity, an emblema¬ 
tical figure, composed of the head of a man 
or woman, and the body of a lion, to which, 
when it was adopted by the Greeks, wings 
were added. There were also sphinxes 
with the heads of rams ( crio-spliinxes ) and 
nawks ( liieraco-sphinxes ). The most cele¬ 
brated sphinx is the great one near the 
pyramids of Geezeh, which has forelegs 50 

feet long.-According to the Grecian 

poets, a sphinx infested the city of Thebes ; 
and devoured its inhabitants, until a riddle 
proposed by it was solved. This was done 
by CEdipus, who slew it, whereupon the 
Thebans in gratitude made him their king. 
This riddle was as follows : ‘ What creature 
is that which goes in the morning upon 
four ; at noon, upon two ; and in the even¬ 
ing, upon three legs?’ CEdipus answered, 
‘ It is man; who, in his infancy, crawls 
upon all four, walks afterwards on two, till 
old age brings him to his staff, which con¬ 
stitutes three legs.’ 

SPI'CA, a star of the first magnitude in 
the Virgin ; the a Virginis of astronomers. 

SPECULA (the plural of spiculum, a jave¬ 
lin : Lat.), accretions of silicious or calcar¬ 
eous particles embedded in and supporting 
the soft fleshy portions of many animals of 
low organization. The mantles or outer 
coats of several shell-less molluscs contain 
calcareous spicula, and the bark of many 
flexible corals ( Gorgoniadce ), and some 
stony corals (the true coral, for example) are 
composed entirely of these bodies. The 
skin of some echinoderms, especially the 
worm-like genera, is strengthened by cal¬ 
careous spicula. The skeletons of a great 


number of sponges are composed of these 
bodies, which in one division are silicious, ' 
in another calcareous. Strictly speaking : 
the term should be applied to the needle *i 
and pin-shaped forms, but it has been ex¬ 
tended to every form of these bodies, hooked l| 
tri-radiate, stellate, egg-shaped, -wheel- a 
shaped, &c. They are frequently very 
minute, and their regular forms are then 
pretty objects for the microscope. 

SPIDERS form the order Araneidea in 
the class arachnida. They are distinguish -1 
ed from other articulata by the head he- | 
ing continuous with the chest and form¬ 
ing a part called cephalo-thorax, by the 
possession of falces, organs on the head 
which take the place of antennae, and 
armed with claws perforated with a poison 
duct, and by the possession of four pairs of 
legs. The abdomen consists of one piece, 
and at the posterior end are situate the 
perforated prominences called spinnerets, 
through which the lines issue that form 
the web. At the anterior endof the under¬ 
side of the abdomen are placed the respira¬ 
tory apertures. The eyes are simple, not 
compound, and are two, six, or eight in 
number. The sexes are distinct, the females 
being usually larger. Their eggs are laid 
in clusters, and are usually protected by 
some sort of nest or cocoon made of web. 
The young do not undergo any proper 
metamorphoses, but they change their 
integument several times before they ar¬ 
rive at maturity. Spiders are found in all 
parts of the world, the number of species 
being great. Some of them possess the 
poisonous matter in such quantity that 
their attack is dread,ed by man. 

SPIDER MONKIES are so called on ac¬ 
count of the slenderness of their bodies 
and limbs. They live in trees in South 
America. The tail is a prehensile organ of 
wonderful flexibility, which is always in 
motion coiling and uncoiling. By this 
they hang from a branch, or swing them¬ 
selves from tree to tree. The absence of a 
thumb from the bauds is another remark¬ 
able part of their structure. They are mild 
in disposition and easily tamed. They 
form the genus Ateles of zoologists. 

SPI'DEltWORT, a name given to herba- ! 
ceous plants of the genus Tradescantia, on 
account of the glutinous nature of their 
juice, which may be drawn out In long 
threads. 

SPIKE ( spica: Lat.), in Botany, a species 
of inflorescence, in which sessile flow r ers i 
are placed on a simple peduncle, as in 

wheat, lavender, &c.-In Gunnery, to spike ] 

a gun, is to fill up the touchhole of a piece ] 
of ordnance, by driving a nail forcibly into 
it, to render it unserviceable. 

SPI'KENARD ( spica nardi, a spike of 1 
nard : Lat.), a plant brought from the East 
Indies, and therefore sometimes called nar- 
dus Indica. The spikenard of the ancients 
is supposed to have been the Nardostaclujs 
Jatamansi, nat. ord. Valerianacece, the root 
of w'hich is, at present, much esteemed in 
the East as a perfume. 

SPI'NAL CORD, sometimes called Spinal 
Marrow, in Anatomy, is that part of the 
nervous system which is inclosed in the 






















703 ftttenmi 


spinal column of vertebrate animals. At 
its upper end it is in connection with that 
part of the human brain called the medulla 
oblongata, and is continued to the first or 

I j second lumbar vertebra, giving off in its 
; course thirty-one pairs of nerves, eachhav- 
i ing two roots. It has been proved that sen¬ 
sation depends upon the posterior root, and 
the power of voluntary motion upon the 
| anterior root. The spinal cord is composed 
[ of white and gray nervous matter, the white 
, being on the outside. 

SPINE (spina, the back bone: Lat.), the 
I column of bones in the back of the verte- 

! brate animals. [See Vertebrae.] - Spine, 

j in Botany, a thorn, or sharp process from 
the woody part of a plant. It differs from a 
prickle, which proceeds from the bark. A 
| spine sometimes terminates a branch or 
leaf; and sometimes is axillary, growing at 
the angle formed by the branch or leaf with 
tho stem. The wild apple, the sloe, &c., are 
! armed with spines or thorns ; the gooseberry- 
j bush, the bramble, and the rose have 
prickles. Spines are branches the develop- 
s j ment of which has been arrested. Aculei 
1 or prickles are a kind of hardened hair. 

SPINE'L ( spinelle: Fr.), a subspecies of 
ij mby,oi different colours, red, brown, yel- 
I low, and sometimes blue ; it consists chiefly 
of alumina and magnesia, with a colouring 
matter consisting sometimes of oxide of 
chromium, but generally of oxide of iron. 

SPINELLA'NE, a dodeeaedral variety of 
Zeolite, of ablueisli or brownish colour; and 
consisting of silica, alumina, and soda. 

SPINE'T ( espinette: Fr.), a musical 

stringed instrument, now no longer in use. 
It differed from the harpsichord in little 
else th'an size. Like that instrument, it 
was somewhat in the form of a harp, and 
was, indeed, called a couched harp. 

SPIN'NING, in Manufactures, the act or 
art of uniting fibres of silk, flax, hemp, wool, 
hair, or other materials, into thread. It 
is either performed on the wheel with adis- 
taff and spindle ; or by machinery. Among 
the Greeks and Romans spinning was the 
l chief employment of the women ; the rites 
of marriage directed their attention to it; 
and the distaff and fleece were not only the 
emblems, but the objects of the most im¬ 
portant domestic duties of a wife. 

SPIN'NING JENNY, a machine invented 
by Hargreaves, in 1767, which enabled one 
person to spin from 80 to 120 threads as 
easily as a single thread previously. It 
was adapted for spinning only the softer 
descriptions of yarn, which were used in 
weft; being incapable of giving the firm¬ 
ness and hardness required in that which 
! was used as warp ; and it was soon super- 
I. seded by the spinning frame of Arkwright, 
which could spin any number of threads, of 
any degree of hardness and fineness, and 
required only to be fed with cotton, and to 
have the threads joined when broken. 

SPI'NOZISM, the doctrines or principles 
of Spinoza, a Jew of Amsterdam, born in 
1634. He attempted to deduce from a few 
axioms, that ‘ there can be no substance 
but God; whatever is, is in God ; and no¬ 
thing can be conceived without God.’ 
SPIN'STER, in Law, the common title by 


Cmtfttrih [spleen 


which an unmarried woman without rank 
or distinction is designated. Curiously 
enough we find on the tombs of married 
women amongst the ancient Romans, the 
epithet ‘ lanifica,’ spinster. King Alfred in 
his will called the women of his family ‘ the 
spindle side’; and Egbert, when he en¬ 
tailed his estates on his male descendants 
to the exclusion of the females, said : ‘ to 
the spear side, and not to the spindle side.’ 

SPI'RACLES ( spiraculum, from spiro, I 
breathe: Lat.), in Entomology, the pores 
by which air enters the trachem of insects. 

SPI'RAL ( speira, anything wound round 
another : Gr.), in Geometry, a curve which 
winds round a centre, and in its progress 
continually increases its distance from that 
centre. The fusee or spring of a watch give 
a good idea of this curve. There are various 
kinds of spirals, which have received 
their names from their inventors or their 
properties; thus the Spiral of Archimedes, 
the hyperbolic spiral, &c. [See Helix.] 

SPIRE, in Architecture, a steeple that 
continually diminishes as it ascends, whe¬ 
ther conically or pyramidally. The highest 
spire in England is that of Salisbury, 404 
feet above the level of the ground, or 64 
feet higher than the cross Of St Paul’s, and 
double the height of the Monument, near 

London bridge.-The term spire was used 

by the ancients for the base of a column, 
and sometimes for the astragal or torus. 

SPIR'IT ( spiritus: Lat.), in Metaphysics, 
an incorporeal being or intelligence. 

SPIR'ITS, any inflammable liquor obtain¬ 
ed by distillation; as brandy, rum, &c.. 
Ordinary spirits contain from 50 to 52 per 
cent, of alcohol; spirits of wine, from 62 to 
67 per cent.; rectified spirits, from 82 to 85 
per cent. What is called proof spirit con¬ 
tains 49J per cent, by weight of real alco¬ 
hol, and has a specific gravity at 60° Fahr. 
of 0'9198. When spirit is said to be any 
number over proof, the expression means 
that 100 gallons of it would take that num¬ 
ber of gallons of water to reduce it to proof 
strength; thus 100 gals, of spirit 10 over 
proof, would require 10 gals, of water to re¬ 
duce it to proof ; the result of the mixture 
being 110 gals, at proof. [See Alcohol.] 

SPIRITUAL COURT, one held by a Bi¬ 
shop or other ecclesiastic, or their repre- 

CPTltflHYP 

SPIRIT LEVEL. [See Level.] 

SPIR'ITUALISM ( spiritus, a spirit: Lot.), 
as distinguished from Materialism, that 
system which supposes everything real, to 
be spirit: what is called the external world 
being a succession of notions impressed on 
the mind by the Deity—which was the opin¬ 
ion of Berkeley; or a mere educt of the mind 
—which was that of Fichte. 

SPLANCHNOL'OGY ( splanchnon, the in¬ 
ternal parts of the body; and logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), in Medical science, a treatise 
or description of the viscera; also the doc¬ 
trine of diseases of the internal parts of the 
body. 

SPLEEN ( splen: Gr.), in Anatomy, a soft, 
spongy substance, situated on the left side, 
between the eleventh and twelfth false 
ribs, and covered with a firm membrane, ari¬ 
sing from the peritoneum. It is of an oval 






























splenitis] ^ctcnltfic JWtf 704 


form, about one-flfth smaller than theliver: 
hollow towards the stomach, and convex 
towards the diaphragm and ribs; it is, how¬ 
ever, not unfrequently irregular, and has 
many fissures. The use of the spleen has 
been much controverted ; but the most pro¬ 
bable opinion seems to be, that it serves to 
render more fluid the blood, out of which 
the bile is to be afterwards secreted ; and 
that by this means obstructions, which 
must otherwise be frequent, are prevented, 
and the secretion of the bile promoted. In 
figurative language we use the word spleen 
for ill-humour; as, to vent one’s spleen. 

SPLENI'TIS ( Gr.; from splen, the spleen), 
in Medicine, inflammation of the spleen. 

SPLENT ( splint , a splinter : Ban.), in the 
Veterinary art, a callous substance or in¬ 
sensible swelling on the shank-bone of a 
horse. 

SPLICE, a term in common use with sea¬ 
men, &c., signifying to separate the strands 
of the two ends of a rope, and unite them 
by a particular manner of interweaving 
them ; or to unite the end of a rope to any 
part of another by a like interweaving of 
the strands. 

SPLINT ( splint , a splinter: Ban.), in 
Surgery, a piece of wood or paste-board 
shaped so as conveniently to support a bro¬ 
ken or debilitated limb. 

SPLINTERY, in Mineralogy, that frac¬ 
ture of minerals which is almost even, but 
exhibits small splinters or scales thicker at 
one end than the other, and adhering by 
their thicker end to the broken surface. 

SPOD'UMENE ( spodos, wood ashes : Gr.), 
a mineral occurring in laminated masses 
easily divisible into prisms with rhomboi- 
dal bases; the lateral faces shining and 
pearly, the cross fracture uneven and splin¬ 
tery. Before the blowpipe it exfoliates into 
little scales of an ash colour, whence its 
name. It consists of silica, alumina, and 
lithia. It is called also triphane. 

SPON'DEE ( spondeios, from sponde, a 
libation—at which slow, solemn melodies, 
chiefly in this measure, were used : Gr.), in 
the Latin and Greek prosody, a poetic foot 

of two long syllables.- Spondaic Verse, an 

hexameter line in which the two last feet 
are spondees, instead of being a dactyl and 
a spondee. 

SPONGES, aquatic animals of such low 
organization that their vegetable nature 
has been frequently asserted. They may be 
roughly described as a mass of uniform ani¬ 
mal matter (sarcode) without any visible 
organs, disposed upon and around a skele¬ 
ton or frame-work which may be calcareous, 
silicious or horny and elastic, the last being 
the condition of the skeleton in the sponges 
which we employ for domestic purposes. In 
the great majority of the calcareous and 
silicious sponges the skeleton is composed 
of ‘ spicula,’ that is, detached pieces shaped 
like needles, pins, crosses, stars, anchors, 
hooks, and many other forms. These are 
pretty objects for the microscopic observer. 
The external forms of sponges are very 
varied, cup-shaped, finger-shaped, bread¬ 
like, encrusting, &c.; and the size varies 
from a minute speck to the dimensions of 
three or four feet. Only one genus ( Spon - 


gilla) has been found in fresh water; the 
rest are marine, and invariably attached to 
rocks, stones, or plants. They derive sus¬ 
tenance from the medium in which they 
live,which conveys their food (perhaps both 
minute animal and vegetable particles) -i 
into and along the canals by which they are 
permeated. Ciliary action has been de¬ 
tected in some of them, and perhaps it ex- , 
ists in all the species. They are propagated \ 
by ova, by gemmation, and by spontaneous ■ 
division. Sponges are found fossil in the 
chalk, and are frequently embedded in the , 
flints of that formation. The sponges of 1 
commerce are chiefly procured from the 
Mediterranean and the American coast, 
being brought up by divers from consi¬ 
derable depths. When the gelatinous matter 
has been removed from the fibrous skeleton i 
it is -washed and dried. The coarse kind 
comes from the Bahamas and Florida; the 
finer kinds, known as Turkey sponge, from I 
the Mediterranean, the best being procured 
at the Cyclades. The divers will sometimes 
descend to the depth of 30 fathoms for them. 
About 500,0001bs. of sponge are annually 
imported into England. 

SPON'GIOLE (spongiolus, literally, a little 
sponge: Lat.), in Vegetable Physiology, 
organs which derive their name from being 
composed of cellular spongy tissue. They 
are situated at the end of the root, and by 
imbibing the fluids which are in contact 
with them, enable plants to absorb the j 
nourishment and moisture necessary to j 
their growth. 

SPON'SOR (a surety; from spondeo, I 
pledge myself: Lat.), one who binds himself 
to answer for another, and is responsible 
for his default. Hence, sponsor, in baptism, 
is a surety for the moral education of the 
child baptised. 

SPONTA'NEOUS (spontaneus; from 
sponte, of one’s own accord: Lat.), an 
epithet for things that act by their own 
impulse, or without any apparent external , 
agency; as, the spontaneous ignition of 
certain substances which, of themselves, | 
will burst into a flame. 

SPOON'BILL, a name given to some 
grallatorial birds belonging to the genus j 
Platalea, of which the white species 
is very common in the old continent, and 
the roseate in the new. It is named from 
the shape of its bill,which is somewhat like 
a spoon or spatula. 

SPOON'-DRIFT.a sea term for a showery 
sprinkling of salt water, swept from the 
surface in a tempest. 

SPORAD'IC ( sporadikos, scattered : Gr.), 
in Medicine, an epithet for such diseases as 
attack but few persons at a time; in contra¬ 
distinction to epidemic. 

SPORANGIUM ( spora, seed; and angeion, 
a vessel: Gr.), the case in which the spores 
or ovules of the ferns, mosses, and many 
other cryptogamic plants is contained. 

SPORES, or SPORULES (spora, a seed: 
Gk), cellular bodies in the cryptogamic 
plants from which new plants are produced 
They are equivalent to the ovules of the 
higher orders of plants. They have no defi¬ 
nite points of growth, but send forth young 
plants from any part of their surface, 






















705 


Ettcrary Cmtfttrjn 


[staccato 


SPORI'DIA ( spora , seed: Gr.), spores 
united in definite numbers. 

SPOTS, in Astronomy, dark places ob¬ 
served on the suu, moon, and planets. The 
spots on the sun vary ; whilst those on the 
moon and planets remain the same, and by 
their motion make the rotation of those 
bodies manifest. [See Sun.] 

SPOUT'ING FLUIDS. If an aperture is 
made in the upper surface of any pipe, and 
communicating with a reservoir of fluid, 
the latter, but for the resistance of the air, 
and the friction at the aperture, would 
spout to a height equal to that of the highest 
particle of fluid in the reservoir. If there 
is an aperture in the side of a vessel, which 
is full of water, the latter will spout to the 
greatest distance when the aperture is in 
the middle, and, to the same distance, from 
apertures which are equidistant from the 
middle. If there is a short pipe in the 
aperture, the fluid will spout from it to 
the greatest distance, when it is inclined 
to the horizon at an angle of 45°, and to 
the same distance, with inclinations equi¬ 
distant, from 45°, for example, from in¬ 
clinations of 40° and 50°. 

SPRING, the season of the year when 
increasing solar heat restores the energy of 
vegetation. In the northern hemisphere, 
it begins when the sun enters Aries, that 
is, about the 21st of March ; and ends at the 

summer solstice.- Spring, in Mechanics, 

denotes a thin piece of tempered steel, or 
other elastic substance; which, being 
wound up, serves to put several machines 
in motion by its elasticity: such is the 
spring of a clock, watch, &c .—Spring, in 
Physical Geography, a fountain of water, 
or issue of water from the earth, or the 
basin of water at the place of its issue. 
From springs proceed rivulets, and rivulets 
united form rivers. Rain penetrates the 
ground, and oozes into and through certain 
strata, but, being obstructed by other 
strata, it forms cavities and subterraneous 
reservoirs at various depths, many of which, 
when full, force their way out of the ground, 
and constitute springs. That reservoirs of 
water exist beneath the surface of the 
earth is manifest from what is observed 
in sinking Artesian wells, which see. 

SPRIT'-SAIL, in Vessels, a sail attached 
to a yard which hangs under the bowsprit. 
A small boom or pole which crosses the 
sail of a boat diagonally, from the mast to the 
upper sternmost corner, is termed a sprit. 

SPRUCE FIRS, coniferous trees belong¬ 
ing to the genus Abies. They are distin¬ 
guished from pines by the cones being 
pendent, the carpels not being thickened 
at the tip, and the solitary leaves more or 
less two ranked. The Norway spruce (A. 
excelsa ) is a lofty and valuable timber tree. 
The black and white spruce (A. nigra and 
A. alba) are Canadian trees. From the 
young twigs of the former spruce beer is 
made. The red spruce (A. rubra ) is a native 
of Nova Scotia; the Hemlock spruce (A. 
canadensis) of North America. 

SPRUCE-BEER, a liquor prepared by fer¬ 
menting a mixture consisting of water, 
molasses, bruised pimento and ginger, and 
essence of spruce; the last being prepared 


by boilirfg the young shoots of the Abies 
nigra, and concentrating the decoction by 
evaporation. 

SPUNK, or Touchwood, a name given 
to some fungi belonging to the genus 
Polyporus, especially P. fomentarius, soaked 
in a solution of nitre; it is used for kindling 
matches and tobacco, under the name of 
Amadou or German tinder. 

SPURGE (epurge: Fr.; from purgo, I 
purge : Lat.), a name given to plants belong¬ 
ing to the genus Euphorbia. - Spurge- 

laurel, the Daphne laureola, a shrub.- 

Spurge-olive, the mezereon, a shrub of the 
genus Daphne. 

SQUAD'RON ( escadron: Fr.), in Military 
affairs, a body of cavalry usually from 100 
to 200.—- Squadron of ships, a division of a 
fleet, employed on a particular expedition, 
and commanded by a vice or rear-admiral, 
or a commodore. 

SQUA'LUS (Lat.), in Ichthyology, a genus 
of sharks. [See Shark.] 

SQUARE, in Geometry, a quadrilateral 
figure, whose angles are right angles, and 
sides equal: that is, making its angles right 
angles. Also the area formed by means of a 
given lineal measure : as a square foot, a 
square yard,&c.—Suture, hiArithmetic,the 
product of any number multiplied by itself. 

•-Among Mechanics, an instrument for 

squaring their work.-In Military affairs, 

a body of soldiers formed into a square.- 

Square-root, in Arithmetic, a number which, 
multiplied in itself, produces the square 

number: thus, 2 is the square-root of 4.- 

Square-rigged, is said of a vessel when her 
principal sails are extended by yards sus¬ 
pended by the middle, and not by stays, 
gaffs, booms, and lateen yards. Thus a 

ship and brig are square-rigged vessels.- 

Square-sail, a sail extended to a yard sus¬ 
pended by the middle. 

SQUAR'ROUS ( squarrosus, rough : Lat.), 
in Botany, a term applied to parts of plants 
which are covered with processes that 
spread at right angles. A squarrous calyx 
consists of scales very widely divaricating. 

SQUILL ( squilla; from sjcilla: Gr.), the 
name of plants belonging to the genus 
Scilla, nat. ord. Liliacete. From the bul¬ 
bous root of some of the species a medi¬ 
cinal preparation is made. In large doses, 
squill is a purgative and emetic ; in smaller, 
a powerful expectorant; and in combina¬ 
tion with other remedies, a diuretic. 

SQUIR'REL, the name given to small 
rodent mammals of the genus Sciurus, cha¬ 
racterized by their lower incisors being very 
compressed, and the tail being long and 
bushy. The species are fouud in many parts 
of the world, inhabiting woods and feeding 
on nuts and fruits. The British species (S. 
vulgaris) lays up a store of nuts for winter, 
in hollow trees or in the earth. It displays 
great agility in leaping from branch to 
branch. 

STA'BAT MA'TER, the commencing 
words of a Latin hymn, of the Roman Ca¬ 
tholic Church, which has been repeatedly 
set to music by the great masters. 

STACCA'TO (separated : Ital.), in Music, 
a term indicating that the notes to which 
it is affixed are to be detached, in a marked 
z z 



















5nijc Jrrtcnttfic anfo 


706 


stacte] 

way, from each other. It is nearly the 
same as Spiccato. 

STAC'TE ( stakte; from stazo, I fall in 
drops: Or.), a fatty, resinous, and very 
odoriferous kind of gum, of the nature of 
liquid myrrh. It is very valuable when 
pure; butit is supposed that.we have none 
but what is adulterated, and that what is 
so called is liquid storax. 

STA'DIUM ( stadion , literally that which 
stands fast; a standard : Or.), in Antiquity, 
an open oblong area, for gymnastic exer¬ 
cises. Vitruvius describes it as a space 125 
geometrical paces long, terminated at .the 
two extremes with two posts, called by the 
Romans career and meta. Around the sta¬ 
dium was raised a mound of earth, where 
the spectators were placed to see the feats 
of the athlete. There were also other sta¬ 
dia covered over with colonnades and por¬ 
ticos, serving for the same exercises in bad 

weather.-- Stadium, an ancient Grecian 

measure, the extent of which is not cer¬ 
tainly known; and which, probably, was 
different in different places. Eratosthenes 
calculated the length of a meridian to be 
250,000 stadia; which, if his measurement 
was correct, would make a stadium to be 
the tenth of an English mile. Possedonius 
calculated the length of the meridian to be 
240,000 stadia; which would give stadia 
to the mile. 

STADT'HOLDER ( stadliouder , city holder: 
But.), the title formerly given to the com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the forces belonging to 
the Republic of the United Netherlands. 
William IV., Prince of Orange, was consti¬ 
tuted the first general hereditary stadt- 
liolder, in 1747; the office ceased at the 
French conquest; and in 1814 the head of 
the House of Orange was elevated to the 
regal dignity, which has been retained by 
his successors. 

STAFF, in Military affairs, an establish¬ 
ment of officers in various departments, 
attached to the commander of an many. 
The staff is the medium of communication 
between the commander-in-chief and every 

department of an army.-An ensign of 

authority; a badge of office; as, a consta¬ 
ble’s staff. 

STAG, the male of the deer kind. 

STAG BEETLE, a common beetle in the 
south of England, so called from the large 
snagged and forked mandibles somewhat 
resembling the antlers of a stag. The 
male is sometimes nearly three inches long, 
and of a brownish black colour: It is the 
Lacunus cervus of entomologists. 

STAGE (stage, a floor : Fr.; from statio, 
a station: Lat.), in the Drama, the place of 
action and representation; included be¬ 
tween the pit and the scenes; and answer¬ 
ing to the proscenium, or pulpitum of the 
ancients. The word stage also often implies 
the whole dramatic art in composition and 
performance. 

STA'GYRITE, an appellation given to 
Aristotle from Stagira, a town in Macedonia, 
the place of his birth. 

STALAC'TITES ( stalalctos, dropping : 
Or.), elongated concretions of carbonate of 
lime, hanging from the roofs of caves. It 
Is formed by the percolation of water hold¬ 


ing bicarbonate of lime in solution. The 
carbonate is left in the solid form, when 
the second atom of carbonic acid and the 
water evaporate. 

STALACTIT'IC, in the form of stalactites, 
or pendent substances like icicles. 

ST AL AG'MITE ( stalagmos, a dropping: 
Or.), concretions produced on the floors of 
caves, in the same way, and from the same < 
cause, as stalactites [which see]. Some- i 
times the stalactites and stalagmites unite 
and form pillars. 

STALK'ING, a term used in sporting, and 
applied to a kind of screen, and sometimes 
to a horse, to hide the sportsman while he 
gets within shot. Hence the word stalking- : 
horse is used for a pretence. 

STALL, the seat of a dignified clergyman, 

in a cathedral.-Also, an open shop in a 

market or fair.- Stallage, the right of 

erecting stalls in fairs; or rent paid for 
them. When they are fixed in the ground 
the money paid is called pickage. 

STA'MEN (Lat.), in Botany, one of the 
bodies in a flower which secrete pollen, the 
fructifying principle. Whatever their 
number, for they vary considerably in this ■ 
respect, the stamens form a whorl between 
the petals and the pistil. Each consists of the ' 
filament and the anther, the latter contain¬ 
ing the fine dust called pollen : the filament 
or stalk is sometimes absent. 

STAMTNIFEROUS, in Botany, an epithet 
for those flowers which have stamens, and 
usually applied to those in which the pistils 
are wanting. 

STAMP, a mark set upon things charge¬ 
able with duty to government, as evidence 
that the duty is paid; as, the stamp on a 
newspaper, the stamp on a bond or inden¬ 
ture, &c.-Any instrument for making 

impressions on other bodies. 

STAN'DARD, that which is established as 
a rule or model, by the authority of respect¬ 
able opinions, or by general consent. Thus, 
Addison’s writings furnish a good standard 
of pure, chaste, and elegant English com¬ 
position.-In Botany, the upper petal or 

banner of a papilionaceous corolla.-In 

Commerce, the original weight, measure, i 
or coin, committed to the keeping of 
a magistrate, or deposited in some public , 
place, to regulate, adjust, and try weights < 
used by particular persons in traffic. The 
standard of gold coin is 22 parts of fine 
gold and 2 of alloy, in the pound troy. The 
standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 dwts. of pure 
silver aud 18 dwts. of alloy of copper. 
Whether gold or silver be above or below 
the standard is found by assaying, and the 
hydrostatical balance. The standard of 
measure, made by Bird in 1760, to which 
great authority was attached, was destroyed 
by the fire which consumed the two Houses 

of Parliament, in 1834. - Standard, in 

Military affairs, a flag or banner borne as a 
signal for the forming of troops Into a body. 

-In Ship-building, an inverted knee 

placed upon the deck instead of beneath it, 
with its vertical branch turned upward 
from that which lies horizontally.- Stan¬ 

dards, in Horticulture, a term used to 
distinguish such fruit-trees as are not 
trained against walls or grow in espaliers 
























I 


‘ 707 liter,nil 


; STAN'NARIES ( stannum , tin : Lat.), tlie 
u mines and works from which tin is dug 
i and purified. Those of this country are 
, found chiefly in Devonshire and Cornwall. 

■']-The Court of Stannaries is a court of 

, record of limited jurisdiction for the ad- 
; ministration of justice amongst the tin 
‘ miners of Devon and Cornwall. It is of 
11 great antiquity, and has been regulated by 
' several acts of Parliament. The court is 
s held at Truro, and the presiding judge is 
, termed the Vice Warden. From his deci- 
} siou there is an appeal to the Lord Warden, 
* assisted by two or more assessors, members 
2 of the judicial committee of the Privy Coun- 
', cil, or judges of the Court of Chancery, or 
| Courts of Common Law at Westminster. 

" STAN'ZA (a station: Ital.), in Poetry, a 
| number of lines or verses connected with 
; i each other; being a portion of a poem con¬ 
taining every variation of measure in that 
1 ll poem. Stanzas are said to have been first 
!| used in Italian poetry. 

STA'PLE {stapel: Belg.), a settled mart 
or emporium for the sale of certain articles. 
The king's staple, as it was called, was for¬ 
merly established in certain ports of towns 
in England, and certain goods could not 
'' be exported, without being first brought 
f to these places to be rated and charged 
|i with the duty imposed upon them. The 
■ principal commodities on which customs 
were levied were wool, skins, and leather, 
which being called ‘staple commodities,’ 

I the term in time was applied to the prin- 
I cipal commodities produced by a country 
! either for exportation or home consump- 

i tion.-The word staple is also used to 

signify the thread or pile of wool, cotton, 
or flax; as, cotton is of a short, long, or 
: fine staple. 

STAR/-APPLE, a globular or olive-shaped 
! fleshy fruit, inclosing a stone of the same 
shape. It is produced by a tree of the genus 
1} Chrysophyllum, nat. ord. Sapotacece ; and is 
j grown in the warm climates of America. 
It is eaten by way of dessert. 

STAR'BOARD, the right hand of a ship or 
boat,when looking towards the head or stem; 

: port being employed for the opposite side. 

STAR'-OHAMBER, formerly a court of 
criminal jurisdiction at Westminster, so 
called from its roof being ornamented with 
gilt stars. This court took upon itself to 
decide upon those cases of offence with 
regard to which the law was silent. It 
passed judgment without the intervention 
of a jury; and differed from all other judi¬ 
ciary courts in this, that the latter were 
I governed only by the common law, or im¬ 
memorial custom, and acts of parliament; 
whereas it often admitted for law tlie pro : 
clamation 3 of the king in council. This 
court was abolished by stat. 16 Chas. I. 

STAR'-FISHES, a section of Echino- 
dermata.one of the classesof radiate animals. 
They abound on all coasts, and the majority 
may be at once recognised by their five 
I arms or angles, diverging from a common 
centre. Sir Thomas Browne long ago 
noticed how ‘Nature among sea-stars 
chiefly delightetli in five points.’ They 
may be divided into three tribes—1. Gri- 
noidea, to which the fossil Encrinites, and 


[stars 


the living Pentackinus and Comatul/e 
belong. 2. The Opliiuridea, and 3. the As- 
teridea. The animals included in these two 
tribes have a leathery, flexible integument, 
with or without calcareous plates, and a 
mouth which is placed at the middle of the 
underside. To the Opliiuridea belong those 
species with a discoidal body and five long 
arms, into which the visceral cavity does 
not enter; the sand-stars and brittle-stars 
of our coasts are examples. The Asteridea 
include the species with pentagonal or 
polygonal bodies, having the angles more 
or less extended in the shape of arms, which 
contain prolongations of the stomach ; the 
cross fishes of our shores afford examples. 
The animals of both these tribes effect loco¬ 
motion by means of cirri or threadlike suck¬ 
ers, with which tlie arms are furnished, and 
by which they pull themselves slowly along. 

STARS. The members of our solar sys¬ 
tem have been treated of under the head 
Planets, and under the name of each; in 
the present article the fixed stars, those 
external to our system, will be considered. 
The division of the stars into constellations 
is only to be considered as a means of more 
readily referring to the more remarkable 
objects. This is effected by adding to the 
name of the constellation a letter from the 
Greek alphabet, as Alpha Lyra, Beta Orionis, 
the name of the constellation being usually 
in Latin. The easiest method of acquiring 
a knowledge of them is to use a celestial 
globe, which can be compared with the 
heavens at the different seasons of the year. 
[See Constellations.] The stars have 
been usually classed according to their 
apparent lustre or magnitude. No more 
than six, or, under particularly favourable 
circumstances seven, magnitudes can be 
seen with the naked eye; but with the aid 
of the telescope much smaller stars can 
be perceived. There are about 20 stars of 
the first magnitude, 70 of the second, 220 
of the third, 500 of the fourth, 690 of the 
fifth, and 1500 of the sixth. Whatever the 
apparent magnitudes of the stars may be, 
it is only by the intensity of their light, 
and not by any measurable diameter, that 
they are distinguished from one another. 
The higher the power of the telescope the 
more do they contract into minute shining 
points. Sir John Herschel has proposed a 
new method of expressing the magnitudes 
of the stars; namely, by determining photo¬ 
metrically the comparative intensities of 
their light. When this was done it was i 
found that among stars of the first magni¬ 
tude, some emitted only one-eighth of the 
light of others. It is a matter of importance 
to ascertain the intensity of the light of 
each considerable star, on account of the 
changes which the light of some of them 
undergoes. The seven stars of the Great 
Bear, for example,are continually changing 
their brightness, and they take it in turn 
to be one brighter than the others. Again, 
some stars vary periodically in light and 
lustre; Algol [which see] is one of these 
stars. A star in the centre of a nebula in 
Argus (rjArgi) was of the fourth magnitude 
in 1677 , but in 1844 it had become nearly 
as bright as Sirius. It is now gradually 






























star-stone] m\)C Jj'CtCUttfiiC autf 708 


losing its brilliancy. It is also on record 
that several stars have suddenly appeared 
and afterwards vanished from the heavens. 
As to the distribution of the stars in space, 
it may be remarked that those of the three 
or four first classes seem to be pretty uni¬ 
formly scattered over the heavenly vault; 
but looking at all magnitudes visible to 
the naked eye, they increase rapidly as we 
approach the milky way. From various 
observations that have been made, it seems 
probable that the solar system is placed 
near the centre of a comparatively shallow 
layer of stars, and that we look in the direc¬ 
tion of its top and bottom when we cast 
our eyes on the heaven on each side of the 
Milky Way, and in the direction of its sides 
or edges when we look upon that luminous 
band. [See Galaxy.] The total number 
of stars must be considered infinite. Sir 
W. Herschel counted 238,000 stars in the 
field of his 20 feet reflector in 41 minutes 
of time, and it is probable that the more 
powerful telescopes constructed since his 
day render 100 millions visible. In many 
clusters whose area does not exceed the 
tenth part of that covered by the moon, 
from ten to twenty thousand stars have 
been counted. With regard to the distance of 
the stars, the only mode by which the in¬ 
terval which separates them from us can be 
calculated is by ascertaining their parallax 
[see Parallax], for which the best instru¬ 
ments and the most careful observations 
are needed. The largest amount of paral¬ 
lax yet discovered is that of a Centauri, but 
this does not amount to one second ; that 
of Sirius, which emits four times the light 
of a Centauri, is less than the sixth of a se¬ 
cond ; whilst that of Capella is only about 
the 22nd of a second. It must be concluded 
that the stars are suns shining by their 
own light, for since they are destitute of 
measurable discs, the light they emit can¬ 
not be reflected. Assuming the parallax of 
Sirius to have been correctly ascertained, 
it has been calculated that his intrinsic 
splendour is more than 224 times that 
of our sun. It was long believed that the 
appearance of double stars, and even of 
three or more, which seem to form systems, 
was due to their being situated in the same 
line of view; and in some instances, this 
may be the case. But it is now ascertained 
beyond a doubt that there exist sidereal 
systems, composed of two, three, four, and 
even five stars, revolving round each other, 
or round a common centre. In addition to 
such motions it has been discovered that 
some stars have a proper motion, that is, 
they are carried bodily away from their 
places along unknown paths. This motion 
is small, but it has been distinctly made 
out. Thus 61 Cygni has moved 4tn. 23s. 
during the last 50 years. [See Galaxy, Ne¬ 
bula, Magellanic Clouds.] 
STAR'-STONE, a rare variety of sapphire, 
which, when cut and viewed in a direction 
perpendicular to the axis, reflects light in 
the form of a star. 

STAR'-WORT, a plant of the genus Aster. 
The yellow star-wort is of the genus Inula. 

.STARCH ( stdrke: Ger.), one of the most 
common vegetable principles ; but, in 


Commerce, the name is restricted to that 
obtained from wheat. In manufacturing * 
wheaten starch the grain is ground, and the 
meal is diffused through water, where it 
undergoes a slight fermentation and ac¬ 
quires a peculiar sour smell: the gluten i 
and albumen partially separate in the form 
of a viscid scum, and the starch which sub¬ 
sides as a fine white powder is washed, 
allowed to settle, drained, cut into squares, 
and dried. Starch may be obtained from 
potatoes, by rasping them, carefully diffus¬ 
ing through water, agitating and decant¬ 
ing, allowing the starch to settle, washing, 
draining, and drying. The blueness of 1 1 
commercial starch arises from the addi- j 
tion of a little smalt. Starch forms a gela- j 
tinous compound with water heated to 175°, j 
and the solution, though greatly diluted, is 
rendered blue by iodine,which is the test of ; 

starch.- Arrow root is the starch of the 

Maranta arundinacea; sago, that of the 1 
Sagus fariniferus, an East Indian palm tree i 
and other trees ; tapioca and cassava, that of t 
the Jatropha manihot. The different varie- j 
ties of starch appear, under the microscope, j 
as rounded or oval grains, which consist of h 
little sacs containing the starchy matter. ; 
They exhibit a beautiful play of colours i 
in the polariscope. Cold water has no j 
effect upon these sacs, but hot water swells i 
them and causes them to burst, whereupon i 
they are converted into a gelatinous mass. 2 
In the process of germination and by means 
of chemical agents, starch may be changed 
into dextrine, a gum-like body; and also into : 
a species of sugar. 

STAT'ICS (statikos, belonging to a state ■ 
of rest; from istemi, I stand: Gr.), the doc- j 
trine of the Equilibrium of forces, that 
branch of Physics which treats of bodies j 
at rest. Dynamics treats of bodies in mo¬ 
tion. Equilibrium may be produced in three w 
ways. 1. By two equal and opposite mo¬ 
menta [see Momentum], as withthe lever. 2. si 
By composition of forces [which see], as when 
a body is acted on by any number of forces, 
represented in quantity and direction by 
all the sides of any rectilineal figure taken , 
in succession. 3. By the principle of vir¬ 
tual velocities [which see]; that is, when v 
the forces which act on a body are in the : 
inverse ratio of the respective spaces i 
which the points at which they act would 
describe, were the equilibrium from any 
cause slightly disturbed. 

STATIONARY ( stationarius, pertaining i 
to a fixed station : Lat.), in Astronomy, an 
epithet applied to the appearance of a pla¬ 
net, when it seems to remain on the same |> 
point of the zodiac for several days. As ; 
the earth, from whence we behold the mo- ; 
tions of the planets, is out of the centres ii 
of their orbits, the planets appear to pro- rig 
ceed irregularly; being sometimes seen to 
go forwards, that is, from west to east; and font 
sometimes backwards, or from east to west, 
which is called their retrograde motion. 

Now between these two states there must 
be an intermediate one, in which the planet 
neither appears to go backwards nor for¬ 
wards, but to standstill. [See Planet.] 

STATIONARY ENGINE. A fixed steam 
engine such as is used on a railway, for 



















709 Htterarg CrcaSttrin [steam 


drawing a train up an inclined plane, by 
means of a rope. The word is used in op¬ 
position to Locomotive. 

STATISTICS (status, condition : Lat.), a 
science which exhibits the conditions of a 
country, with regard to its extent, popu¬ 
lation, industry, wealth, and power. It in¬ 
cludes the natural and acquired capabilities 
of productions ; the quantity and value of 
the various articles of utility and conve¬ 
nience which it possesses, and annually 
produces; the number and classes of its 
inhabitants, with their respective incomes ; 
with the institutions for the government, 
improvement, defence, and maintenance of 
the population. It has much in common 
with geography and politics, and includes 
what is termed political arithmetic. The 
accounts and details given, to be of any 
value, must be accurately drawn up ; and 
the circumstances to which they are due 
must be clearly explained. In a work on 
statistics ought to be included the condition 
of the poor; the state of schools and other 
public institutions of utility; with every 
other subject, the knowledge of which may 
be useful in ascertaining the moral condi¬ 
tion and political strength of a country, its 
commerce, arts, &c. 

STATUS QUO (the state in which : Lat.), 
that condition between two or more belli¬ 
gerents, who have entered into a treaty by 
which they are restored to the same state 
as before the war, with regard to their ter¬ 
ritories, fortresses, &c. 

STATUTES ( statut: Fr.: from statuo, I 
decide : Lat.), acts of parliament made by 
the three estates of the realm, and which 
are either public or private. Statutes are 
distinguished from Commonlaw. Thelatter 
owes the obligation it imposes to the prin¬ 
ciples of justice, to long use, and the con¬ 
sent of a nation. The former owe their 
binding force to a positive command or 
declaration of the supreme power. The 
courts of Westminster must take cogni¬ 
zance of the public statutes without their 
being specially pleaded, but not so of pri¬ 
vate statutes. 

STAU'ROLITE ( stauros, a cross; and 
lithos, a stone: Gr.), in Mineralogy, the 
cross stone or Jlarmotome. It is a silicate 
of baryta and alumina, with traces of lime 
and potash ; and consistsof small quadran¬ 
gular prisms, crossing each other. 

STAU'ROTIDE ( stauros, a cross; and 
cidos, form : Gr.), in Mineralogy, the Pris¬ 
matic garnet, or grenatite. It is a silicate of 
alumina and lime, with the oxides of iron 
and manganese, and consists of four and 
six-sided prisms, crossing each other, at 
right angles. It occurs in primary rocks ; 
and is distinguished from garnet by its 
form and the difficulty of fusing it. 

STAVE, or STAFF (stale: Germ.), in Mu¬ 
sic, the five horizontal and parallel lines, 
on which the notes of tunes are written or 

printed.-A thin narrow piece of timber, 

of which casks are made. 

STAY, in the rigging of a ship, a large 
strong rope employed to prevent the mast 
from falling aft. It reaches from the mast¬ 
head forward towards the bow ; and takes 
its name from that of the mast, as the 


forestay, maintopmast-stay, &c. -To stay 

means to tack; to be in stays is to be in 
the act of tacking ; to miss stays is to fail in 

tacking. - Stay-sail, any sail extended 

on a stay.- Stay-tackle, a large tackle 

attached to the main-stay by means of a 
pendant, and used to hoist heavy bodies. 

STEAM, water converted into a gaseous 
state by means of heat. When produced 
under the common atmospheric pressure, 
the elasticity of steam is equal to the pres¬ 
sure of the atmosphere. If the pressure 
under which it is generated does not ex¬ 
ceed that of the atmosphere by more than 
about five pounds, it is called low pressurb 
steam ; otherwise it is high pressure steam. 
It has been ascertained that the quantity 
of heat required to convert a given quan¬ 
tity of water into steam is 5i times greater 
than that required to raise it from the 
freezing to the boiling point; and hence, if 
the water were not evaporated, its tem¬ 
perature would be raised 990° above 212°; 
but a fluid exposed in an open vessel to the 
action of fire, however great the heat ap¬ 
plied, cannot be made to indicate a higher 
temperature than that at the boiling point. 
Steam will be evolved in greater or less 
quantities, according to the quantity of 
heat applied; but the temperature will con¬ 
tinue at exactly the boiliifg point. When 
water, exposed to the pressure of the at¬ 
mosphere, is heated to the temperature of 
212 °, globules of steam are formed at the 
bottom of the vessel, and rising through 
the fluid may be collected at its surface. 
Steam is transparent, and consequently in¬ 
visible ; but when it has been deprived of 
a part of its heat, by coming in contact 
with cold air, it condenses and becomes 
water, in the form of very minute particles, 
Avhich float in the air, and form a cloud. 
If the pressure on the fluid be increased 
by closing the vessel, its temperature must 
become higher before the elasticity of the 
vapour which is generated will be able to 
overcome the increased pressure, so as to 
rise from the fluid. If the pressure is in¬ 
creased to the amount of an additional 
atmosphere, that is, by about 141bs., it 
will be found that the temperature of the 
fluid will have risen to 250° before any 
vapour will be given off; and these various¬ 
ly increased pressures will require corres¬ 
ponding augmentations of temperature. 
But increasing the temperature and elas¬ 
ticity of the steam does not in the least 
increase its mechanical effect. A cubic 
Inch of water, changed into steam, at 212°, 
will occupy 1700 cubic inches. If, how¬ 
ever, the steam is produced under a pres¬ 
sure of two atmospheres, the cubic inch of 
water will form only half as much steam, 
or 850 cubic inches ; if under a pressure of 
three atmospheres, only one-third as much 
steam, or 561 cubic inches ; and so on. The 
mechanical effect producible by a given 
quantity of water is in all cases the same ; 
for, let us suppose the steam generated 
from a cubic inch of that fluid, under the 
ordinary atmospheric pressure, to move a 
counterpoised piston, that is, one practi¬ 
cally without weight, twelve inches, the 
atmospheric pressure has been overcome 


















STEAM BOILER] &\)t ^CtfUtlfU rtlttf 710 i 

through that distance; that is, a force of 
about 20801bs. has been exerted through a 
space of twelve inches. But, let the cubic 
inch of water be changed into steam, un¬ 
der the pressure of two atmospheres, the 
piston will now be raised through only six 
inches ; but besides overcoming the force 
of the atmosphere to the amount of 20801bs. 
through that distance, it will also be able 
to raise 20801bs.; that is, the steam in this 
case will move twice 20801bs, or 41601bs. 
through six inches ; and, according to the 
ordinary mechanical laws, 20301bs. moved 
through twelve inches is identical in 
mechanical effect with 41601bs. moved 
through six inches. [See Momentum.] 
Again, let the steam from one cubic inch 
of water be generated under the pressure 
of three atmospheres, the piston will now 
be raised through only four inches ; but it 
will be moved with a force of three times 
20801bs. or 6240lbs. but 20801bs. moved 
through twelve inches, 41601bs. moved 
through six inches, and 62401bs. moved 
through four inches, are all equal in effect, 
because they produce equal momenta. 
Thus, just so much as we increase the 
pressure under which the steam is gene¬ 
rated we increase its elasticity; but, to 
the same extent, we diminish the space 
through which it acts. And we mate no 
alteration in the quantity of fuel con¬ 
sumed ; for the quantity of heat communi¬ 
cated to the given quantity of water is the 
same in all cases. Hence, so far as con¬ 
sumption of fuel is concerned, it is a mat¬ 
ter of indifference whether we use a high 
or a low pressure engine; the former oc¬ 
cupies less space, but there is a greater 
waste, from the greater tendency of high 
pressure steam to leak, and from the in¬ 
creased radiation of heat, at the higher 
temperature. The very important facts 
just enumerated may be easily proved. Let 
a given quantity of water be changed iuto 
steam, at any pressure; five and a half 
times as much water, at 32°, will exactly 
condense it, and with the condensed steam 
will form six and a half times as much 
water at 212°. If the steam is at 212°, the 
temperature undergoes no change; and 
the ice-cold water, which will have been 
raised, during condensation, to 212°, will 
owe its elevated temperature entirely to 
the heat which was latent in the steam. It 
is worth remarking that, while the steam 
from a tea kettle will scald the hand, if 
held within it, that which escapes from a 
high pressure boiler will feel cool. This, 
however, is easily explained, by the fact 
that the steam expands when it is relieved 
from pressure, and the greater its elasticity 
the greater will be its expansion; in reality 
it expands to a bulk greater than it would 
have occupied had it been generated at a 
temperature of 212°, just as a spring, when 
drawn out of its natural position, will, on 
being released, not only regain its former 
shape, but will vibrate in the opposite di¬ 
rection. 

STEAM BOILER, a vessel used to gene¬ 
rate steam for the supply of a steam engine, 
&c. The common teakettle exemplifies the 
gimplest form of boiler; when it is used, no 

economy of fuel is attempted, and the 
heat is applied without any reference to the 
production of its maximum effect; cold air 
circulates round the kettle, and retards tho 
heating of the water, and much heat from 
the fire escapes into the apartment. A 
better application of heat is shown in tho 
boiler of a laundry ; both boiler and fire are 
enclosed in a non conducting material; the 
heated air circulates more or less round the 1 
fluid, and the intensity of the fire is in- | 
creased by the air which supports com- 1 
bustion being made to pass through the fuel, 
and with considerable velocity, as no other 
air is allowed to pass into the chimney. The 
old waggon steam boiler may be considered 
as the next stage of improvement; with it 
the smoke and heated air, in passing from j 
the fuel to the chimney, circulated round 
the water to be heated, since it passed 
round the outer sides of the boiler. This 
form of boiler was, however, from its shape, 
extremely weak; it was applicable, with 
any degree of safety, to the production of 
only very low pressure steam: and it has 
been superseded by the cylindrical boiler 
with hemispherical heads, set in such awaj | 
as that the smoke and heated air pass round 
it before reaching the flue. The next step 
in improvement consisted in the adoption 
of a cylindrical boiler, having within it a 
smaller cylinder of equal length, through 
which the smoke and heated air, after cir¬ 
culating round the outside, passed to the 
chimney. The inner cylinder is placed near 
the bottom of the outer, that the heated air, i 
&c. within it may not only pass through j 
the water and be always covered by it, but 1 
may be immersed in the coldest part of that 1 
fluid which, on account of its greater den¬ 
sity, is always found in the lowest place. ! 
The furnace is very generally situated with¬ 
in one end of the inner cylinder ; and thus 
the burning fuel is surrounded on all sides | 
by the water to be heated. The heating sur- | 
face is increased, and the heated gases pass¬ 
ing to the chimney are still more effectually 
deprived of their heat, before escaping, by 
the use of two inner cylinders, instead of 
one; by using a number of comparatively 
large tubes instead of the inner cylinder— 
as in the marine boiler; byusing a number 
of small tubes—as in locomotives for rail¬ 
ways, &c. Since it is impossible to gener¬ 
ate exactly the required amount of steam, 
the means of liberating any extra quantity 
must be provided, or the boiler will almost 
certainly explode ; this is effected by the 
use of a safety valve. It is of a conical form, 
ground steam tight into a conical seat, and 
is loaded with a weight, depending on the 
number of square inches in its surface, and 
on the steam pressure which is required. 
When the steam within the boiler exceeds 
this pressure it lifts the safety valve and 
escapes. Without a safety valve safety is 
out of the question ; with a safety valve 
there is still danger,unless it is occasionally 
examined ; for the valve may adhere to its 
seat, in which case the force necessary to 
lift it may require a steam pressure far ex¬ 
ceeding what the boiler is able to bear. The 
boiler must be regularly supplied with 
water if it is inadvertently nearly or quite 

























711 ttttcrntj) 


filled, the machinery may be injured by the' 
introduction of water into the cylinder, or 
there may even be an explosion. If the 
supply of water is insufficient, and this 
is by far the most usual case, the fire or 
highly heated air will reach beyond the 
water, the boiler will then be burned, and 
therefore greatly weakened, so as not to 
retain strength enough to resist the ordi¬ 
nary pressure ; or, water being thrown by 
the pump over the highly heated metal, a 
vast quantity of steam may be suddenly 
generated, and an explosion may occur. 
Two methods are used for supplying a 
boiler with water; one that is self-acting, 
and therefore the best, which consists in a 
cistern being placed so high above the 
boiler that the pressure of a column of 
water reaching from it to the boiler may 
overcome the pressure of the steam so that 
water may enter, when the fall of a float 
within opens a valve. But this contrivance 
can be used only with fixed engines, and 
when the low pressure steam is used ; for a 
pressure of 151bs.per square inch above the 
ordinary pressure of the atmosphere would 
require a column of water of about 35 feet to 
overcome it; a pressure of 301bs. above 
that of the atmosphere would require a 
column of about 70 feet; but steam of 
from 501bs. to lOOlbs. pressure above that 
of the atmosphere is being often used.— 
Effective pressure is that part of the pressure 
which exceeds the atmospheric; it is that 
which is not counteracted by the pressure 
of the air. Steam of only about 14f lbs. pres¬ 
sure to the square inch would not escape, 
even from an aperture in the boiler; it 
would be kept in by the pressure of the 
atmosphere; so that when steam is said 
to have a pressure of 15lbs. to the square 
inch it really has a pressure of near 30lbs., 
but its effective pressure is only about 
15lbs.,the remaining laibs.being neutralized 
by the pressure of the atmosphere. The 
more usual, indeed the almost universal, 
mode of supplying the boiler with water is 
by means of a force-pump ; when water is 
not required, the pump is either not allowed 
to work, or its feed-pipe is closed by a 
cock—in which case the plunger works in 
vacuo. We must at all times be able, as it 
were, to look within the boiler, that we may 
be certain the quantity of water is neither 
too, great nor too little. Various contri¬ 
vances enable us practically to attain this 
object.— Gauge-cocks are so placed that when 
the boiler is properly supplied one of them, 
on being opened, emits water, and another 
steam ; there is too much water if it issues 
from both cocks, and too little if it issues 
from neither. A float, also, is often fixed 
within the boiler; it is connected with a 
steam whistle, which sounds when the sur¬ 
face of the w’ater and the float sink too 
low; or with a brass rod, which, passing 
steam-tight through a small stuffing box 
fixed in the top of the boiler, shows by the 
amount of the rod exposed to view what is 
the depth of water inside ; the higher the 
surface of the water the more the rod will, 
of course, project. When the stuffing is 
not unnecessarily tightened on the rod, ana 
the latter is kept smooth and clean, its m- 


[steam-engine 


dications will be very satisfactory. Another 
contrivance consists in a glass tube, so fixed 
vertically, at one end of the boiler, that 
the proper water level is at about half its 
height; and as its upper and lower ends 
open into tlie boiler, if neither is al¬ 
lowed to be obstructed the water will stand 
in it and within the boiler at the samo 
height, and thus the water level within may 
be known, at any moment, by merely in¬ 
specting the tube. The matter is so im¬ 
portant, that no one of these contrivances 
should, if possible, be relied on, and cer¬ 
tainly no number of them, without con¬ 
stantly examining if they are in proper 
working order. All boilers, but especially 
marine boilers, are liable to incrustations 
from the substances which are generally 
contained in water, and are left behind when 
it is evaporated. These incrustations con¬ 
sist of substances which are bad conductors 
of heat, and which, therefore, not only keep 
the water from being heated, but allow the' 
metal under them to have its temperaturo 
unduly raised, and therefore to be burned. 
If they happen, which is very likely, to 
crack from the high temperature, water 
rushes through the fissure; and this coming 
in contact with the highly-heated metal, 
so much steam may be suddenly generated 
as will cause explosion. These incrustations 
must, therefore, be avoided as far as pos¬ 
sible, and, when at all considerable, must 
be removed; they are best prevented by 
frequently blowing off that part of the 
fluid which is most highly charged with 
saline substances, and which, being the 
heaviest, is found at the lower part of the 
boiler. Hall's condenser was proposed as a 
means of condensing the steam without 
mixture with the condensing water, that 
the same fluid might be used continually 
in the boiler, and thus incrustations be pre¬ 
vented ; it consisted of a very extended 
series of pipes immersed in cold water; 
the principle was tried by Watt and aban¬ 
doned by him, as it did not condense with 
sufficient rapidity, and a kind of fur col¬ 
lected in thepipes.wliich, unless frequently 
removed, prevented the heat of the steam 
from passing to thewater outside. Marino 
boilers are rapidly corroded by the salt 
water which is, of necessity, used, and 
therefore do not last long. To secure the 
best effect from a boiler, the fuel should 
be supplied in moderate quantities at a 
time. 

STEAM CAIt'RIAGE. This name is 
usually applied to a locomotive which is 
intended for ordinary roads. Many and 
costly experiments have been made on this 
subject; but they have, as yet, produced 
but little result. The force required to 
draw a carriage on a common road is very 
different from that which would be suffi¬ 
cient on a railway; the roughness, small 
stones, ruts, &c., present most serious im¬ 
pediments, and, by the shaking they pro¬ 
duce, greatly increase the wear and tear of 
a machinery, which is of necessity ex¬ 
tremely ponderous, and extremely liable to 
be deranged. . , ,, 

STEAM-ENGINE, a machine intended for 
the production of motive power by means 






















(£Tj t ^ctcnttfi'c mttf 



steam-engine] 


of the evaporation of water. Attempts to 
derive force from steam are noticed very 

early in the History of Science.-Hero, of 

Alexandria, about a century before Christ, 
described a contrivance, in which tubular 
arms, placed at right angles to an axis, 
were made to revolve, by the escape of 
steam from apertures situated at their op¬ 
posite sides and ends. This, which is a 
most wasteful application of steam, has 
been re-invented at various times, and in 
diiferent forms, by persons not aware of 
its having been previously tried, nor of the 
objections to which it is liable. The steam 
imparts motion to it on the same principle 
as the water to that form of turbine, known 
as Barker’s Mill. [See Turbine.] In the 
17th century Branca, an Italian engineer, 
proposed to move a wheel by steam, blown 
tangentially against it. Solomon de Caus, 
a French engineer, raised water into a 
chamber, placed over a well, and commu¬ 
nicating with it by a pipe, by filling the 
chamber with steam, and then condensing 
it; the pressure of the atmosphere on the 
surface of the water in the well forced it 
up to supply the vacuum in the chamber. 
With this arrangement, great quantities of 
steam were wasted by condensation, as long 
as the surface of the chamber remained 
cold, each time that it was filled with water, 
and emptied. The water was elevated from 
the well, not by the power of steam but by 
the pressure of the atmosphere ; the steam 
being employed only to form a vacuum. 
The Marquis of Worcester, in his ‘ Century 
of Inventions,’ describes a machine in which 
steam was made to raise water by pressure 
on its surface ; but, in this case also, steam 
was wasted, being condensed by the cold 
surface of the fluid and that of the reser¬ 
voir containing it. Papus proposed to 
generate steam in a cylinder, and, by con¬ 
densing it, to move a piston, but the steam 
was to be generated in the cylinder itself 
by the application of a fire : and, therefore, 
the contrivance was attended with serious 
inconvenience. Savary, an Englishman, in 
1698, patented an apparatus for lifting 
water by means of a vacuum produced by 
steam, and elevating it still higher by the 
pressure of steam on its surface: thus com¬ 
bining the methods used by De Caus and 
the Marquis of Worcester ; and this mode 
of applying steam was used to a consider¬ 
able extent. The next essential improve¬ 
ment was made by Newcomen, for which 
he obtained a patent in 1705. It consisted 
in separating the parts of the engine in 
which the steam was to act from those in 
which the water was to be raised; the 
weight of the atmosphere being employed 
for the purpose of pressure, and the steam 
for that of first displacing the air, and then 
forming a vacuum by condensation. New¬ 
comen was thus enabled to dispense with 
the use of steam of great and dangerous 
elasticity ; he worked with moderate heats, 
and removed at least some part of the 
causes of wasteful and ineffectual condensa¬ 
tion. To him we are indebted for the in¬ 
troduction of the steam cylinder and piston, 
and for their connection with the pump by 
means of the main lever or beam, with its 


rods and chains: to which we might add 
several subordinate contrivances, which do 
great credit to his ingenuity. Still, how¬ 
ever, the machine required the constant 
attendance of some one to open and shut 
the cocks at the proper intervals, for the 
alternate admission of steam and cold water. 
But a boy who was in charge of one of these 
engines perceived that he might cause the 
engwne to move its own valves by connect¬ 
ing the cocks to the working beam. Hav¬ 
ing done this by means of strings, he left 
the engine to itself, and went to play. 
From this time to the year 1764 there seems 
to have been no material change in the 
structure of the engine, which still con¬ 
tinued to be known by the appellation of 
Newcomen’s, or the atmospheric engine. 
The boilers, however, had been removed 
from under the cylinder in some of the 
larger engines, and the cylinder had been 
fixed down to a solid basis. Still the steam 
was condensed in the cylinder; the hot 
water was expelled by the steam, the pis¬ 
ton was pressed down by the weight of the 
atmosphere, and kept tight by being 
covered with water. It was moreover con¬ 
sidered necessary that the injection cistern 
should be placed on high, in order that the 
water might enter with great force. It 
had been found by experience that the en¬ 
gine could not be loaded, with advantage, 
Avith more than seven pounds on each square 
inch of the piston, and the inferiority of 
that power to the known pressure of the at¬ 
mosphere was, without due consideration, 
imputed Avholly to friction. The bulk of 
Avater, Avlien converted into steam, was 
very erroneously computed; the quantity 
of fuel necessary to evaporate a giA T en 
quantity of water was not even guessed at; 
whether the heat of steam is accurately 
measured by its temperature was unknown ; 
and no good experiment had been made to 
determine the quantity of ejection Avater 
necessary for a cylinder of gn r en dimen¬ 
sions. Such Avas the state of matters, 
when, fortunately for science and the arts, 
Watt, then a mathematical instrument 
maker at GlasgOAV, undertook to repair the 
model of a steam-engine belonging to the 
university. In the course of his experi¬ 
ments Avith it he found the quantity of 
fuel and injection water it required much 
greater in proportion than they tvere said 
to be in large engines ; and it soon occurred 
to him that this must be owing to the 
cylinder of this small model exposing a 
greater surface, in proportion- to its con¬ 
tents, than larger cylinders did. This he 
endeavoured to remedy, by making his 
cylinders and pistons of substances Avhich 
conducted heat slowly. He employed wood 
prepared on purpose, and resorted to other 
expedients without producing the desired 
effect in any remarkable degree. He found 
also, that all attempts to produce a greater 
degree of exhaustion, or a more perfect 
vacuum, occasioned a disproportionate ex¬ 
penditure of steam. In reflecting upon the 
causes of these phenomena, the recent dis¬ 
covery, that water boiled in an exhausted 
receiver at low degrees of heat (certainly 
not exceeding 100° of Fahrenheit, but pro- 















713 Htterari) 


bably, when the vacuum was perfect, much 
lower), occurred to him, and he immedi¬ 
ately concluded that, to obtain any consi¬ 
derable degree of exhaustion, the cylinder 
and its contents must be cooled down to 
100 ° at least; in which case, the reproduc¬ 
tion of steam in the same cylinder must be 
accompanied with a great expense of heat, 
and consequently of fuel. He next endea¬ 
voured to ascertain the temperature at 
which water boils, when placed under va¬ 
rious pressures ; and not having any ap¬ 
paratus at hand by which he could make 
his experiments under a pressure less than 
that of the atmosphere, he began by trying 
the temperature of water boiling under 
great pressures; and by laying down a 
curve, of which the abscissce represented 
the temperatures, and the ordinates the 
pressures, he found the law by which the 
two are connected, whether the pressure be 
increased or diminished. By a very simple 
experiment with a Florence flask, he ascer¬ 
tained that water, when converted into 
steam under the ordinary pressure of the 
atmosphere, occupies about eighteen hun¬ 
dred times its original space. These points 
being determined, he constructed a boiler 
in such a manner as to show by inspection. 
With tolerable accuracy, the quantity of 
water evaporated in any given time; and 
he also ascertained, by experiment, the 
quantity of coals necessary to evaporate a 
given quantity of water. He now applied 
his boiler to the working model before 
mentioned; when it appeared, that the 
quantity of steam expended at every stroke 
exceeded many times what was sufficient 
to fill the cylinder; and deducing from 
thence the quantity of water required to 
form as much steam as would supply each 
stroke of the engine, he proceeded to ex¬ 
amine how much cold water was used for 
injection, and what heat it gained ; which, 
to his very great surprise, he found to be 
many times the number of degrees which 
could have been communicated to it by a 
quantity of boiling water equal to that of 
which the steam was composed. Suspect¬ 
ing, however, that there might be somefal- 
lacy in these deductions, he made a direct 
experiment to ascertain the degree of heat 
communicated by steam to water; when it 
clearly appeared, that one part of water, in 
the form of steam, at 212°, had communi¬ 
cated about 14CP of heat to six parts of 
water. The causes of the defects of New¬ 
comen’s engines were now evident. It ap¬ 
peared that the steam could not be con¬ 
densed so as to form an approximation to 
a vacuum, unless the cylinder, and the 
water it contained, were cooled down to 
less than 100°; and that, at greater degrees 
of heat, the water in the cylinder must pro¬ 
duce steam, which would in part resist the 
pressure of the atmosphere. On the other 
hand, when greater degrees of exhaustion 
were attempted, the quantities of injection 
water required to be increased in a very 
great ratio; and this was followed by a 
proportionate destruction of steam on re¬ 
filling the cylinder. Watt now perceived, 
that to make an engine in which the de¬ 
struction of steam should be the least pos¬ 


(Emtfurg* [STEAM-ENGINE 


sible, and the vacuum the most perfect, it- 
was necessary that the cylinder should con¬ 
dense no steam on filling it; and that, 
when condensed, the water, forming the 
steam, should be cooled down to 100°, or 
lower. In reflecting on this desideratum, 
he was not long in finding that the cylinder 
must be preserved always as hot as the 
steam which enters it; and that, by open¬ 
ing a communication between this hot 
cylinder when filled with steam, and an¬ 
other vessel exhausted of air, the steam, 
being an elastic fluid, would rush into it, 
until an equilibrium was established be¬ 
tween the two vessels; and that if cold 
water, in sufficient quantity, were ejected 
into the second vessel, all the steam it con¬ 
tained would be reduced to water, and no 
more steam would enter until the whole 
was condensed. But a difficulty arose— 
how was this condensed steam and water 
to be got out of the second vessel without 
letting in the air? Two methods present¬ 
ed themselves. One was, to join to this 
second vessel, which Ire called the conden¬ 
ser, a pipe, which should extend down¬ 
wards more than 34 feet perpendicular, so 
that the column of water contained in it, 
exceeding the weight of the atmosphere, 
would run out by its own gravity, and leave 
the condenser in a state of exhaustion, ex¬ 
cept in so far as the air, which might euter 
with the steam and injection water, should 
tend to render the exhaustion less perfect: 
and to extract the air by means of a pump. 
The second method was to extract both air 
and water by means of a pump or pumps; 
which would possess the advantage over 
the other of being applicable in all situa¬ 
tions. This latter contrivance was there¬ 
fore preferred; and is known by the com¬ 
mon name of the air-pump. There still re¬ 
mained some defects in Newcomen’s cylin¬ 
der. The piston was kept tight by water; 
much of which passing by the sides, 
injured the vacuum below by its evapora¬ 
tion ; and this water, as well as the atmo¬ 
sphere which came into contact with the 
upper part of the piston and sides of the 
cylinder at every stroke, tended materially 
to cool that vessel. Watt removed these 
defects, by applying oils, wax, and fat of 
animals to lubricate his piston and keep it 
tight; he put a cover on his cylinder, with 
a hole in it, made air and steam-tight, for 
the piston-rod to pass through, and em¬ 
ployed the elastic force of steam to press 
upon the piston; he also surrounded the 
cylinder with a case of wood, or of 
other non-conducting substance, which, 
containing steam, should keep it always of 
an equable temperature. In 1765, Watt 
executed a working model, the effect of 
which he found fully to answer his expecta¬ 
tions ; and the improvement of Newcomen s 
engine, so far as the saving of steam and 
fuel was concerned, was now complete, 
In short, the principle of keeping the ves¬ 
sel in which the elasticity of the steam is 
exerted always hot, and that in which the 
condensation is performed always cold, i3 
in itself perfect. For, the steam never 
coming in contact with any substance 
colder than itself until it has done its office. 














Ci [)t Jrctcntttfc mtU 7H 


steam-engine] 


no part is condensed until the whole effect 
has been obtained in the cylinder; and 
when it has acted there, it is so condensed 
in the separate vessel that no resistance 
remains; accordingly, the barometer in¬ 
dicates a vacuum, nearly as perfect as 
by the exhaustion of the air-pump. In 
1784, Watt obtained a patent for the pa¬ 
rallel motion, which was devised for the 
purpose of causing the piston rod to move 
always parallel to itself. With Watt’s sin¬ 
gle acting engines, in which the piston was 
raised by a counterpoise, and depressed by 
condensation of the steam beneath it, an 
arched head attached to the end of the 
working beam, and connected by a chain 
with the upper end of the piston rod, was 
sufficient to maintain the latter in an up¬ 
right position. But with his double acting 
engine, in which the piston was raised by 
steam under it and a vacuum over it, and 
depressed by steam over it and a vacuum 
under it, a flexible connection between the 
piston rod and working beam was in¬ 
admissible; while, on the other hand, they 
could not be directly connected, as the pis¬ 
ton rod must work steam-tight through a 
packing box in the corner of the cylinder, 
and could not accommodate itself to the 
curved direction followed by the end of 
the beam. He, at the same time, invented 
several other useful contrivances; and in 
the year following, produced his smoke con¬ 
suming furnace, steam gauge, condenser 
gauge, indicator , governor, &c. Many impor¬ 
tant modifications of the steam engine 
have been contrived since that period, and 
it has been gradually brought to the extra¬ 
ordinary perfection which it has now 
reached. The principle of this wonderful 
machine is very simple. It is, in fact, only 
a pump, in ivhich- the fluid is made to impel 
the piston, instead of being impelled by it; 
that is to say, in which the fluid acts as the 
power, instead of being the resistance. It 
may be described simply as a strong barrel 
or cylinder, in which is a closely-fitting 
piston, which is driven up and down by 
steam admitted alternately above and 
below from a suitable boiler; while the 
end of the piston-rod, at which the whole 
force maybe considered as concentrated, is 
connected in any convenient way with the 
work that is to be performed. The power 
of the engine is of course proportioned to 
the size or area of the piston, and the force 
with which the steam acts. In some of the 
Cornish mines there are cylinders and pis¬ 
tons of more than ninety inches in diame¬ 
ter, on which the pressure of the steam 
equals the efforts of GOO horses; and en¬ 
gines constructed for many of the enor¬ 
mous vessels which are used at present are 
of even greater power. Engines are usu¬ 
ally divided into high and low pressure, or 
more accurately, into condensing and non¬ 
condensing. With a condensing engine, as 
we have seen, the steam is condensed, by 
which means not only the effective but the 
total steam pressure [see Boiler] is ren¬ 
dered available; that is, theoretically there 
is a gain of about I51bs. to the square 
inch, which with a non condensing engine 
is consumed in forcing the steam from 


the cylinder, in opposition to the pressure 
of the atmosphere; so that, in point of 
fact, a condensing engine would work with 
steam having a pressure less than that of 
the atmosphere; in which case the boiler 
would have a tendency rather to collapse 
from external than to explodcirom internal 
pressure. This a great economy of power; 
but serious deductions must be made on ac¬ 
count of the more or less imperfect con¬ 
densation, the force expended in working 
the air pump, and the pump connected with 
the condenser, &c. Besides, the non-con¬ 
densing engine is so simple, so convenient, 
and so easily applied in almost any circum¬ 
stances, that its use has become very gene¬ 
ral, and it is employed exclusively on rail¬ 
ways. It occupies less room,requires less fuel, 
than a condensing engine. What appears to 
be, and is often considered but one engine, 
may really consist of two— thus a locomotive 
engine. Whenever it is impossible to use a 
flywheel, to carry the cranks over the dead 
points, or to render the power uniform, as 
on railways and in steam-vessels, two en¬ 
gines are so combined that when one 
produces its maximum the other produces 
its minimum effect, and the combined 
effect of both is practically a constant 
quantity; which is accomplished by fix¬ 
ing the cranks at right angles, on the 
same axle or shaft. Another very effective 
means of saving power consists in using 
the steam expansively, that is, cutting it off 
before the piston has reached the end of the 
cylinder, and allowing the expansion of the 
steam, which is retained within the cylin¬ 
der, to finish the stroke; all the effect 
produced, after the steam is cut off, is 
evidently so much power gained. To illus¬ 
trate this, let us suppose the pressure to be 
OOlbs. the square inch, the cylinder to be 
two feet long, and the steam to be cut off 
at half stroke. When the steam begins to 
expand in the cylinder it has a pressure of 
OOlbs.; when the piston has finished the 
stroke, the same steam, having now filled 
the cylinder, occupies double the space ; 
its pressure is therefore only one-liaif, :r 
30lbs., and its average pressure, while the 
piston was traversing the last half of the 

cylinder, was 60 or 45lbs.; hence the 

work done before the steam was cut off 
was to the work done after it was cut off, 
and therefore by the mere expansion of tbo 
steam, as 60 to 45, that is, as 4 to 3. It 
would be found that the sooner the steam is 
cut off the more power is gained by expan¬ 
sion ; but if it is cut off too soon there will 
be an inconvenient difference in the pres¬ 
sures, at different parts of the stroke, and 
therefore the power of the engine will be 
subjected to too great variations. To des¬ 
cribe the various applications of steam 
power would far exceed our limits; but, if 
we except its adaptation to the motion of 
carriages, perhaps few of its effects are 
more astounding than those perceived in 
the manufacture of iron. Here its resist¬ 
less power is seen, when with mechanic 
claws it seizes masses of iron, and in a few 
minutes delivers them out again pressed 
into thin sheets, or cut into bars and rib- 































715 Httcvarj) O'cas'urn. [steam navigation 


bons, as if the metal had become soft, like 
clay in the hands of the potter. Well, in¬ 
deed, may it be said, that, * the steam- 
engine has infinitely increased the mass of 
human comforts, and rendered cheap and 
accessible all oyer the world the materials 
of wealth and prosperity. It has armed 
the feeble hand of man with a force to 
which no limits can be assigned; com¬ 
pleted the dominion of mind over the most 
refractory qualities of matter; and laid a 
sure foundation for all those future mira¬ 
cles of mechanical power which are to add 
to and reward the labours of after genera¬ 
tions. Already it has become alike stupen¬ 
dous for its force and its flexibility. The 
trunk of an elephant that can pick up a pin, 
or rend an oak, is nothing to it. It can 
engrave a seal, and crush masses of obdu¬ 
rate materials, draw out, without breaking, 
a thread as fine as gossamer, and lift a ship 
of war like a bauble in the air. It can 
embroider muslin and forge anchors, cut 
steel into ribbons, and impel loaded vessels 
against the fury of the winds and the 
waves.’ A few years ago Mr. Fairbairn 
calculated that there was in the British 
Islands, or afloat, a total steam power 
equivalent to eleven millions of horses 
working; viz. in mining and the manufac¬ 
ture of metal, 450,000; in manufactures, 
1,350,000; in steam navigation, 850,000; and 
in locomotives on land, 1,000,000. 

STEAM-GUN, a contrivance for project¬ 
ing the balls or other missiles used in 
warlike operations, by the expansive force 
of steam. The invention is chiefly due to 
Perkins, who is known for many useful 
contrivances; but it has never been sub¬ 
mitted to the test of experience in actual 
warfare. As early as 1805, the French 
general Chasseloup is said to have shown 
the possibility of preparing steam artillery. 
In 1814, a French engineer constructed ord¬ 
nance of this sort: the generator furnish¬ 
ing steam for six pieces of artillery, while 
the turning of a cock supplied all the pieces 
at once with the balls and steam ; this 
machine could make 150 discharges in a 
minute. 

STEAM NAVIGATION, is the application 
of the steam engine to the propulsion of 
vessels. The mechanism, to which the 
power of the steam is applied, may be 
either paddle-ivhecls or screw propeller; the 
former being merely an undershot water 
wheel, which, instead of driving the ma¬ 
chinery is driven by it [see Paddle- 
wheel] ; and the latter a screw which 
draws the vessel through the water [see 
Screw Propeller], as the water against 
which the paddles, or the blades, act affords 
only an imperfect fesistance. Not only is 
the vessel moved forwards, but some of 
the power is expended in moving the 
water backwards. In 1543, Blasco Garay 
exhibited to Charles V. a vessel moved 
by paddle-wheels driven by steam; but 
the way in which the motion was pro¬ 
duced by the steam is not known. Since 
the year 1618 various contrivances have 
been proposed in England for the propul¬ 
sion of vessels by steam. After several 
preliminary experiments, a vessel driven 


by steam was tried on the Forth and Clyde 
Canal, in 1789, by Miller, and it attained a 
velocity of nearly seven miles an hour. In 
1801, a steam-engine, constructed on Watt’s 
principles, was applied to a vessel con¬ 
structed for the Forth and Clyde Canal 
Company; but the project was abandoned, 
in consequence of the fear entertained that 
the banks of the canal would be injured. 
The vessel which had been constructed 
was visited by Fulton, an American, and 
put into operation at his request; after 
which ho caused an engine to be made by 
Bolton and Watt, for a vessel in America, 
which was to be propelled with paddle- 
wheels like that which he had seen in Scot¬ 
land. This experiment was so successful 
that it was followed, in America, by the 
construction of many similar vessels. In 
1812, the first steamboat used in Europe for 
commercial purposes was built on the Clyde, 
and this also was followed by many others. 
Steam vessels were soon afterwards used at 
sea; and regular lines were established 
between Greenock.and Belfast, Dublin and 
Holyhead, Dover and Calais, &c. At 
length steam was applied to ships travers¬ 
ing the ocean, and it is now used in voyages 
to all parts of the world. Wheels having 
feathering paddles have sometimes been 
employed, but they are more complicated 
and liable to accidents; and, with a given 
amount of fuel, they do not seem to pro¬ 
duce a greater effect than the ordinary 
kind. Some of the steamers now in com¬ 
mon use have engines of nominally 1200 
horse power; and, as they work not 8, but 
24 hours a day, they are really equivalent 
to 3600 horses. But they are far exceeded 
by those of the Great Eastern, the largest 
vessel ever yet constructed. Her length is 
695 feet, her depth nearly 60 feet; her 
paddle-wheels are 56 feet in diameter, her 
screw propeller 24 feet in diameter, and its 
shaft 164 feet in length. Her paddle-wheels 
are driven by four oscillating cylinders, 
each 74 inches in diameter and 14 feet 
stroke. Her screw is driven by four cylin¬ 
ders, each 84 inches in diameter and 4 feet 
stroke, and a single casting weighing 34 
tons ; her screw and paddle engines, taken 
together, are estimated at 12,000 horse ; 
power. There arc 7000 tons of iron in her 
hull, 10,000 iron plates, and 2,000,000 of 
rivets. She has 6 masts and 5 funnels,with 
a fleet of boats. Her crew is about 400, and 
she can accommodate 4000 passengers. She 
uses 9 tons of coal per hour. When loaded 
she will weigh about 30,000 tons. The iron- 
cased frigates, some of which have been 
already completed, are of vast size. The 
IFamor is upwards of 400 feet in length, 
and 6000 tons tonnage. She is of iron; 
from 5 feet below the water line to the 
level of her upper deck she is fortified by 
armour plates 4i inches thick, bolted on 
blocks of teak 18 inches thick, inside of 
which are the ordinary casing plates of the 
ship, 3 of an inch thick. Her main and 
upper decks are wood lined with iron. To 
improve her sea-going qualities her armour 
extends only for 300 feet amidships, her 
extremities being constructed in the ordi- 
dinary way, her bows being made of great 


























bteabic] El )t <s?ctcnttfic aittr 716 


strength, to enable her to run into another 
ship. And to protect her from a raking 
fire, she has bulkheads fore and aft, forti¬ 
fied with armour like her sides. Her iron 
sternpost weighs 42 tons, and is the 
largest forging ever made. She cost 
350,0001. 

STEAR'IC ACID (slear, fat: Or.), in Chem¬ 
istry, a solid substance with acid proper¬ 
ties, obtained by the saponification of 
stearine, one of the proximate principles 
of fats. Stearine may be obtained from 
mutton fat by melting it and mixing it 
with ether. When the whole has cooled, 
stearine crystallizes out. If the stearine 
be boiled with a strong solution of caustic 
potash a soap is formed, and when this 
is decomposed by an acid, stearic acid and 
glycerine are obtained. For commercial 
purposes, stearic acid is obtained by a dif¬ 
ferent process, which need not here be de¬ 
tailed. Stearic acid is insipid and inodor¬ 
ous ; after having been melted by heat it 
solidifies at 158° Fahr. into white brilliant 
needles grouped together. It is insoluble 
in water, but dissolves in all proportions 
in boiliug anhydrous alcohol; kindled in 
the open air it burns like wax. In the 
manufacture of candles it is melted in a 
silver pan, because other metals would 
colour it; when at a proper temperature it 
is poured into the moulds, and forms a 
candle closely resembling one made with 
wax. If the temperature, during fusion, is 
raised too high, the acid crystallizes, and 
becomes brittle ; two qualities by which it 
is rendered nearly unsaleable, but which 
may be prevented by the addition of a 
little wax, magnesia, or French chalk. 

STE'ATITE (stear, tallow: Gr.), SOAP- 
stone [which see]. It is used in the manu¬ 
facture of porcelain; also for taking greasy 
spots out of silk and woollen stuffs ; and it 
is employed in polishing gypsum, serpen¬ 
tine, and marble. 

STEEL, a compound of iron and carbon 
in various proportions, that used for ordi¬ 
nary purposes seldom containing more 
than two per cent, of carbon. Steel should 
be manufactured from the purest iron. One 
process for making it is that termed Cemen¬ 
tation, which consists in filling a suitable 
furnace with boxes containing alternate 
strata of malleable iron bars, and powdered 
charcoal, and keeping the whole for several 
days at a red heat, the atmospheric air 
being excluded. During this process the 
texture of the iron, which was fibrous, be¬ 
comes granular, and its surface assumes a 
blistered appearance: the product being 
hence termed blistered steel. Several bars 
of the latter being welded together, and 
the process being repeated, shear steel is the 
result; this being broken in pieces, and 
melted In a crucible, forms cast steel, which 
possesses equality of texture and a capabi¬ 
lity of being rendered extremely hard, as 
well as of taking a fine polish. Natural, or 
German steel, is produced directly from the 
pig iron, and afterwards refined ; it is con¬ 
sumed largely in Germany and Austria, 
and is exported in great quantities to dif¬ 
ferent parts of America. In this country 
steel has been very successfully manufac¬ 


tured from crude iron, which contains a 
much greater proportion of carbon than 
steel. The Bessemer process consists in 
blowing atmospheric air into the melted 
pig iron in the converting vessel, and this 
operation is continued until the oxygen 
has effected a combination with all the 
carbon, except the quantity required to 
form steel. It has also been manufactured 
in such a way that the bars contain cores 
of iron; this gives all the hardness of 
steel, and the tenacity of iron; and prevents 
articles made of it from breaking off short, 
as they frequently do, when formed only of 
hardened steel. The property on account 
of which steel is so valuable consists in its 
being rendered extremely hard by being 
heated to redness, and quenched in water ; 
and in this hardness being capable of modi¬ 
fications by tempering, so as to be accom¬ 
panied, when necessary, with great tena¬ 
city and elasticity. Tempering consists in 
reheating the steel to a temperature which 
depends on the degree of hardness and 
other qualities that are to be possessed 
by the article; and indicated by the colour 
given to a polished portion of it. When 
this colour is reached the steel is imme¬ 
diately plunged into water, to prevent any 
further rise in temperature. Pale straw 
colour indicates great hardness; a deep 
blue, great softness ; and the intermediate 
shades, various degrees of hardness. A 
number of other metals have been com¬ 
bined with steel, giving rise to silver 
steel, &c.; but good common steel seems 
equal to any of these combinations. Steel 
may be made three hundred times dearer 
than standard gold, weight for weight. 

STEEL'YARD, or ROMAN BALANCE, in 
Mechanics, a balance by which the gravi¬ 
ties of different bodies are found, with the 
assistance of a single weight. It consists 
of a rod or bar marked with notches, de¬ 
signating thenumber of pounds and ounces, 
and a weight which is movable along this 
bar, and is made to balance the body to be 
weighed, by removal to a proper distance 
from the fulcrum. This forms a lever of 
the first order. 

STEER'AGE, in a ship of war, an apart¬ 
ment before the bulk-head of the great 
cabin, where the steersman stands. Also 
an apartment in the forepart of a ship, for 

passengers.- Steerage-way, that degree of 

progressive movement of a ship which ren¬ 
ders her governable by the helm.- Steers¬ 

man, the man at the helm, employed to 
regulate the ship’s course. 

STEGNOT'ICS ( stegnotilcos, astringent; 
from stegnoo, I check bleeding: Gr.), medi¬ 
cines proper to stop the orifices of the 
vessels of the body, when relaxed or lace¬ 
rated. 

STELE, or STELA (.Gr.), a pillar or up¬ 
right stone tablet erected by the Greeks 
and Romans to mark a boundary, or as a 
memorial of some event. Stelae came to 
signify monuments over the dead, whether 
they consisted of a single stone or were of 
a more elaborate nature. [See Cippus.] 

STEL'ECHITE, a fine kind of storax. 

STEL'L ATE ( stellatus, relating to a star: 
Lat.), in Natural History, an epithet given 












7 17 


Ettcrarp treasury. 


to anything that has parts radiating from a 
centre. 

STEM, in Botany, that part of a plan 
which sustains the leaves and flower. The 
main stock, which supports the branches. 

- Stem, in Ship-building, the circular piece 

of timber into which the two sides of the 
ship are united at the fore-end; the fore 
part of the ship, as opposed to the stern. 

- From stem to stern, from one end of the 

ship to the other. 

STEM'PLES, in Mining, cross bars of 
wood in the shafts of a mine. 

STEN'CILLING, a method of painting on 
walls with a stencil, so as to imitate the 
figures on paper hangings. 

STENOG'RAPHY ( stenos , scanty; and 
graplio, I write: Gr.), the art of writing 
in short-hand, by using abbreviations or 
characters for whole words. 

STENTO'RIAN (from Stentor, a herald, in 
Homer, whose voice was as loud as those 
of fifty men), able to utter a very loud 
sound.: 

STEPPE, a word probably of Tartar ori¬ 
gin, used in Physical Geography to signify 
a level waste, destitute of trees. There are 
extensive steppes in the Russian empire. 

STE'REOCHROME (stereos, solid; chroma, 
pigment: Gr.), a process of painting on 
walls, using Water-Glass as a means of 
fixing the colours in the plaster. This 
process has several advantages over fresco, 
since damp and atmospheric influences do 
not injure pictures in stereochrome, whilst 
the painting admits of being retouched, 
and joinings may be dispensed with. Stereo¬ 
chrome has been adopted on a large scale 
by Kaulbach in decorating the internal 
walls of the New Museum at Berlin, and it 
has been lately used in some of the wall 
painting in our houses of parliament. 

STEREO'GRAPHY ( stereos, solid ; and 
graplio, I write: Gr .), the art of drawing 
the figures of solids upon a plane. 

STEREOM'ETRY ( stereos, solid; and me- 
treo, I measure : Gr.), that part of Geome¬ 
try which teaches the art of measuring 
solids or ascertaining the solid contents of 
bodies. 

STER'EOSCOPE ( stereos, solid; and 
scopeo, I examine; Gr.). No picture can 
give an exact representation of a solid; 
for the eyes, to a certain extent, look round 
the solid body, each of them seeing more of 
one side than of the other: and the two pic¬ 
tures in the eyes not being absolutely the 
same. This may be easily proved, by placing 
a small cylinder of any kind on a table, and 
marking by dots, &c., the width of the part 
seen by each eye, when the other is closed, 
the head being kept in the same position. 
The stereoscope has been invented to meet 
this peculiarity of vision. The most com¬ 
mon form of instrument consists of a small 
box, in the back of which is placed an ob¬ 
long slide, containing two photographic 
pictures of the same object, taken in two 
slightly different positions of the camera 
obscura [see Photography]. These pic¬ 
tures are both seen at once, each by the eye 
which corresponds to it, by means of two 
small tubes, containing lenses adjusted to 
the circumstances of, and the distance be¬ 


[STERN 


tween the eyes of the observer. The re¬ 
sult is, that the eyes combine the two 
pictures, and the object appears to stand 
out in relief, in other words to possess 
solidity; they are viewed by transmitted 
light if they are transparent, and by re¬ 
flected light if opaque. [See Pseudoscope.] 

STEREOT'OMY (stereos, solid; and tome, 
a cutting : Gr.), the science or art of cutting 
solids into certain figures or sections ; as 
walls or other members in the profiles of 
architecture. 

STE'REOTYPE (stereos, solid ; and tupos, 
a copy : Gr.), an entire solid plate or piece 
of type, cast from an impression in plaster 
of a page composed with moveable types. 
The advantage of stereotyping a book con¬ 
sists in being able, at a trifling expense, to 
print copies as they are required by the 
public. If this plan be not adopted, either 
a large number of copies must be thrown 
off at first, and these may not be called for, 
or the book must be retained in type, or all 
the expense of setting up the type, cor¬ 
recting the press, &c., must be again in¬ 
curred whenever the number originally 
printed has been disposed of. Stereotypes 
are easily made, and impressions are taken 
from them with great facility. Alterations 
may, if required, be made in them ; but it 
is not desirable to stereotype a work likely 
to be much altered. When a work Is once 
thoroughly corrected, the stereotyping it 
secures accuracy. 

STER'LING, in English Commerce, a 
term which is applied to money; signify¬ 
ing that it is of the fixed, or standard, na¬ 
tional value; thus, ‘a pound sterling’ is 
not indefinitely ‘ a pound,’ but ‘ an English 
pound.’ Camden appears to offer the true ety¬ 
mology of this word, when he derives it from 
easterling, and corroborates, if not demon¬ 
strates, the propriety of this suggestion, 
by quoting old deeds, where English coin 
is always called nummi easterlingi. In ex¬ 
planation, he observes, that in the reign of 
Richard I. money coined in the eastern part 
of Germany grew to be much esteemed in 
England, on account of its purity ; it was 
called easterling money, as all the people of 
those parts were called easterlings; and in 
consequence of the good character of their 
own money, some of the easterling coiners 
were invited into this kingdom, to perfect 
its coinage, which was thenceforward deno¬ 
minated easterling, esterling, sterling. [See 
Easterling.] During a considerable pe¬ 
riod, the only coin in England was one 
of about the value of a penny: whence it 
happens, that many ancient writers use the 
word easterling as a substantive, and syno¬ 
nymously with penny. -The word sterling 

has also a more general application. We 
speak of sterling value, sterling worth, or 
sterling wit; thereby meaning genuine and 
of good quality. 

STERN, the hind part of a ship or other 
vessel.— Stern-chase, a cannon placed in 
a ship’s stern, pointed backward, and in¬ 
tended to annoy a ship that is in pursuit of 

her.- Stern-frame, the several pieces of 

timber which form the stern of a ship.- 

Stern-post, a straight piece of timber, 
erected on the extremity of the keel to 












m)t £ctc»ttftc m'tS 718 


sternum] 


support the rudder, and terminate the ship 
behind. 

STER'NOM, in Anatomy, the os pectoris, 
or breast-bone, a bone which composes the 
fore-part of .the breast, and into which the 
ribs are fitted. It forms the front of the 
human chest from the neck to the stomach. 
The sternum is wanting in fishes, amphi- 
j bians, and ophidians. In birds it is largely 
developed, and has a projecting-keel. 

STER'TOR, a noisy kind of respiration, 
such as is observed in cases of apoplexy; 
loud.snoring or snorting. 

STETH'OSCOPE, in Medicine, a tubular 
instrument, usually of wood, for enabling 
; the physician to hear the sounds made by 
i the action of the heart and lungs, and thus 
j discover the nature aud seat of disease. 
When in use, the physician applies the ste¬ 
thoscope to the chest or abdomen of a pa¬ 
tient, and places the ear to the narrow end. 
This useful instrument was invented by 
Laennec in the 18th century. 

STEW'ARD. The greatest officer under 
the crown is the lord high steward of Eng¬ 
land, an officer that was anciently the in¬ 
heritance of the earls of Leicester, till for¬ 
feited by Simon deMontfort to king Henry 
III. But the power of this officer was 
so great that it has not been judged safe 
to trust it any longer in the hands of a sub¬ 
ject, excepting only occasionally; as to offi¬ 
ciate at a coronation, at the arraignment of 
a nobleman for high treason, or on other 
solemn occasions. During his office, the 
steward bears a white staff in his hand, 
and on the trial, &c. being ended, he breaks 
the staff, and with it his commission ex¬ 
pires. There is likewise a lord steward of 
the royal household, who is the chief officer 

of the court, &c.-In colleges, an officer 

who provides food for the students, and su- 
j perintends the concerns of the kitchen. 

| •-In a ship of w r ar, an officer who is ap- 

j pointed by the purser to distribute provi¬ 
sions to the officers and crew. In other 
ships, a man who superintends the provi- 
| sions and liquors, and supplies the table. 

STHE'NIC ( sthenos , strength: Gr.), in 
Medicine, an epithet applied to diseases in 
| general which arise from inflammation or 
j increased action ; the opposite of asthenic 
diseases, or such as arise from debility. 

STICK'LEBACK, the name given to some 
small freshwater fishes allied to the genus 
Gasterosteus. The commonest British spe- 
I cies is the G. trachurus, whose tail is square 
in section. The sides are covered with 
large bony plates, and on the back are three 
sharp spines capable of elevation or depres¬ 
sion at pleasure. 

STIG'MA (a mark: Gr.), in Botany, that 
part of the pistil which receives the pollen 
when it issues from the anther. It is glan¬ 
dular, and thus detains the powder. 

STIGMA'TA (marks: Gr.), the external 
pores by which air enters the tracheae of in¬ 
sects.- Stigmata, in Antiquity, certain 

marks impressed on the left shoulders of the 

soldiers when enlisted.- Stigmata were 

also a kind of notes or abbreviations, con¬ 
sisting only of points disposed various ways, 
as in triangles, squares, crosses, &c.——In 
Roman Catholic Hagiography, marks of the 


five wounds of Christ, pretended to have 
been miraculously impressed on the bodies 
of certain saints. 

STIG'MATIZING (stigmatize, I brand : 
Gr.), in Antiquity, the act of affixing a mark 
upon slaves : sometimes as a punishment, 
but more usually in order that they might 
be recognised. It was done by applying a 
red-hot iron, marked with certain letters, 
to their foreheads, till a fair impression 
was made, and then pouring ink into the 
furrows, that the inscription might be the 
more conspicuous. Stigmatizing, among 
some nations, was, however, looked upon 
as a distinguishing mark of honour and 
nobiiity. 

STII/BITE ( stilbos , glittering: Gr.), a 
mineral of a shining, pearly lustre, and a 
whitish or gray colour. It has sometimes 
been called Foliated zeolite or Badiated 
zeolite. 

STILL (stillo, I drop : Lat.), a chemical 
apparatus for vapourising compound fluids, 
and re-condensing the vapours of each of 
the component parts as they are successive¬ 
ly raised by heat. It consists of a body, 
or boiler, a worm, a refrigerator, and a re- 
ceiver. 

STILPNOSIDE'RITE ( stilpnos , glitter¬ 
ing; and sideros, iron: Gr.), a mineral of a 
brownish black colour, massive, in curving 
concretions, splendent and resinous. It is 
a native oxide of iron. 

STIM'ULANT (stimulo, I incite : Lat.), in 
Medicine, an epithet for whatever excites 
and increases the action of the bodily or¬ 
gans.——To stimulate, in a general sense, is 
to rouse or animate to action by some 
powerful motive. In a medical sense, to 
excite or increase bodily action; as to 
stimulate a torpid limb, or to stimulate the 
stomach aud bowels. 

STIM'ULUS (Lat.), any medicine or ali¬ 
ment which increases or excites the energy 
of an animal. 

STING, an organ projected by many in- ! 
sects in defence against real or supposed 
dangers. In most instances, this instru¬ 
ment is a tube, through which a poisonous 
matter is discharged, which inflames the 
flesh, and in some instances proves fatal. 

STIPEN'DIARY (stipendiarius; from 
stipendium, pay: Lat.), one who performs 
services lor a settled compensation, or sti¬ 
pend, either by the day, month, or year. 

STI'PES, or STIPE (stipes, the trunk of 
a tree : Lat.), in Botany, that part of a palm 
or a fern which bears the leaves aud flowers. 

STIP'ITATE (Lat.), in Botany, supported 
by or elevated on a stipe. 

STIP'PLING, in the Arts, a method of 
engraving in dots, as distinguished from 
etching in lines. [See Engraving.] 

STIP'ULA, or STIP'ULE (Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, a small appendage or scale at the base 
of nascent petioles ; stipules are in pairs 
or solitary. Leaves that are destitute of 
them are said to be ex-stipulate. 

STIR'RUP in Ship-building, a piece of 
timber put under the keel when some part 

of it is lost.- Stirrups, in a ship, short 

ropes, having their upper ends plaited, 
nailed round the yards, and with eyes in 
their lower ends,through which the hawsers 

























710 5Uterarj> 


are reeved, to keep them parallel to the 
yards. 

STI'VER, a Dutch coin, equal to about a 
halfpenny in value. 

STO'ZE tstoai : Gr.), In Antiquity, porticos 
in Athens, which were the resort of philo¬ 
sophers, particularly of the Stoics. 

STOAT, Ermine weasel. [See Ermine.] 

STOCK (stoc: Sax.), in Commerce, any 
fund consisting of money or goods employed 
by a person in trade. It is a general name 
for the capitals of our trading companies. 
And also denotes any sum of money which 
has been lent to government, on condition 
of receiving a certain interest till the money 
is repaid. Hence the price of stocks, or 
rates per cent., are the several sums for 
which 1001. of those respective stocks sell 

at any given time.- Stock, the wooden 

part of many instruments, as the stock of 

an anchor, the stock of a gun, &c.- Stock, 

in Agriculture, the domestic animals or 
beasts belonging to the owner of a farm ; 
as a stock of cattle or of styeep. Cattle are 

also called live stock. - Stocks (plur.), a 

machine consisting of two pieces of tim¬ 
ber, in which the legs of criminals are con- 

lined by way of punishment.- Stocks, the 

frame or timbers on which a ship rests 
while building. Hence we say, ‘a ship is 
on the stocks' 

STOCK'-BROKER, one who deals in the 
purchase and sale of stocks, or shares in the 
public funds, for others. 

STOCK'-DOVE, the Columba cenas, or wild 
pigeon of Europe, long considered as the 
stock of the domestic pigeon, but now re¬ 
garded as a distinct species. 

STOCK'-EXCHANGE, the place or build¬ 
ing where the public stock is bought and 
sold. The Stock-exchange, situated in Capcl- 
court, was opened in 1802. Formerly the 
place of rendezvous for persons transacting 
business in the stocks, was Jonathan’s 
coffee-house, in ’Change Alley, Cornhill, 
and it is from this circumstance that the 
expression Alley is familiarly used, as a cant 
phrase for the Stock-exchange, and that a 
petty speculator in the funds is styled a 
‘ dabbler in the alley.’ [See Exchange.] 

STOCK'-JOBBER, one who makes it his 
business to buy and sell stocks and shares 
on his own account. Stockbrokers deal with 
him, and lienee it happens that there are 
two prices for the same commodity in the 
market, one for buyers and another for sel¬ 
lers.- Stock-holder, one who is a proprie¬ 

tor in the public funds; or in the funds of 
a bank; or other company. 

STOCK'INGS are made either of silk, 
wool, cotton, or thread, &c.; by the hand, 
or woven in a frame. Silk stockings were 
first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. 
Howell says, ‘that, in 1560,queen Elizabeth 
was presented with a pair of black silk knit 
stockings by her silk-woman, Mrs. Monta¬ 
gue, and she never wore cloth ones any 
more.’ He adds, ‘that Henry VIII., that 
magnificent and expensive prince, wore 
ordinarily cloth hose, except there came 
from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk 
stockings for gala-days.’ The English and 
French have often contested the honour of 
inventing the stocking-frame; but what¬ 


Evca^urin [stomach 


ever pretensions the French may suppose 
they have to it, this honour was certainly 
due to Mr. W. Lee, of Woodborough, Not¬ 
tinghamshire. He attempted to set up an 
establishment at Calverton, near Notting¬ 
ham, but instead of meeting with that suc¬ 
cess to which his genius and inventions so 
well entitled him, he was discouraged and 
discountenanced. Being, however, invited 
by Henry IV. of France, who promised him 
a magnificent reward if he would carry 
his machinery to that country, he settled 
at Rouen, where he introduced the stock¬ 
ing-frame with distinguished success; but 
after the assassination of the king, the con¬ 
cern got into difficulties, and Lee died in po¬ 
verty at Paris. Some of the workmen who 
had emigrated with him returned to Eng¬ 
land, and established themselves in Not¬ 
tinghamshire, which still continues the 
principal seat of the manufacture. During 
the course of the last century the machino 
has been very greatly improved. 

STO'ICS ( stoikio: Gr.), in Antiquity, a sect 
of philosophers amoqg the Greeks, whose 
founder was Zeno. They denied the exist¬ 
ence of innate ideas ; and consequently held 
that sensation and reflection were the only 
foundations of human knowledge. They 
taught that the true end of man consists 
in living conformably to nature, and in obe¬ 
dience to his internal monitor, that particle 
of the divinity which constitutes the soul. 
They taught that good is what conducts 
men to felicity, and that all good things are 
equal; that passions arise from false judg¬ 
ments ; that duty consists in the investiga¬ 
tion of moral truth, and in living agreeably 
to the obvious destination of our nature. 
They had also paradoxes peculiar to them¬ 
selves, asserting that pain is no evil; that 
a wise man is free from all perturbation of 
mind ; and that it is the duty of man to 
submit without complaint to the unavoid¬ 
able necessity imposed on him by his des¬ 
tiny. [See PHiLosoriiY.] 

STO'LA (Lat.; from stole: stello, I equip: 
Gr.), in Antiquity, a long robe in use among 
the Roman ladies, over which they wore 
a large mantle, or cloak, called the pallium. 

.-Also a sacerdotal ornament worn by 

the Roman Catholic parish priests over 
their surplice, as a mark of superiority in 
their respective churches; and by other 
priests over the alb while celebrating mass. 

STOLE, GROOM OF THE. An officer in 
the household of the British Sovereign. The 
place is a sinecure, and when a female sove¬ 
reign occupies the throne, it is usually held 
by the mistress of the robes. The stole is a 
narrow vest lined with crimson silk, and 
formerly embroidered with roses, fleur de 
lis, and crowns. 

STOM'ACH (stomachos; from stoma, a 
mouth, literally an opening: Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a hollow membranous receptacle, 
situated in the epigastric region, imme¬ 
diately under the diaphragm, and obliquely 
between the liver and the spleen ; the su¬ 
perior orifice of which is termed the cardia, 
and the inferior the pylorus. The use of 
the stomach is for the digestion of food; 
that is, to receive, contain, dissolve, and 
change what is swallowed; and after a 




















stomachics] &l)t J£>ctcnttftc antf 720 


sufficient concoction, to expel it through 
the pylorus into the intestines. It is also 
the organ in which the sensation of hunger 
resides. The stomach is largely supplied 
with nerves, which come from the eighth 
pair, and the sympathetic; like the intes¬ 
tines, it has three coats, connected together 
by cellular membrane. 

STOMACH'ICS ( stomachikos , for the sto¬ 
mach: Gr.), medicines which excite the 
action and strengthen the tone of the 
stomach. 

STOM'ACH-PUMP, a small pump for re¬ 
moving poisons from the stomach. It re¬ 
sembles the common syringe, except that 
there are two apertures near the end, 
instead of one, which, owing to valves in 
them, that open different ways, become 
what are called a sucking and a forcing pas¬ 
sage. When the object is to extract from 
the stomach, the pump is worked while 
its sucking orifice is in connection with an 
elastic tube passed into the stomach; and 
the discharged matter escapes by the forc¬ 
ing orifice. When it is desired, on the 
contrary, to inject water or other liquid 
into the stomach, the connection of the 
apertures is reversed. 

STO'NE-CROP, a name given to plants of 
the genus Sedum. The stone-crop tree or 
shrubby glass-wort is of the genus Cheno- 
podium. 

STO'NE-FRUIT, a drupe, or kind of fruit 
in which the seed or kernel is enclosed in a 
hard case, covered with pulp; as cherries, 
plums, &c. 

STO'NEHENGE, the remains of a struc¬ 
ture supposed to have been erected by the 
ancient Britons ; still extant upon Salisbury 
Plain, in Wiltshire. It consists of many 
unhewn stones, which, with some that are 
wanting, appear to have originally com¬ 
posed four ranks, one within another. Some 
of them, especially in the outermost and 
the third ranks, are twenty feet high and 
seven broad. The vertical stones sustain 
horizontal ones, laid across their heads, and 
fastened by mortises. The whole is sup¬ 
posed to have been once joined together. 
The purpose of a place of this description 
among the generations which, two thou¬ 
sand years ago,peopled the island of Britain, 
seems to have been that of religious wor¬ 
ship. The matter has excited much dis¬ 
cussion amongst antiquarians. 

STONE. The ancients were far more 
careful than the moderns in selecting good 
materials for their public edifices; and 
hence, notwithstanding all the casualties 
to which they were exposed, such magnifi¬ 
cent remains of them exist even at the 
present day. The most important building 
stones in Britain are, Granites, obtained 
chiefly in Cornwall, Devonshire, Leicester¬ 
shire, Aberdeenshire, Wicklow, and Car- 
low; Porphyries, Syenites, and Elvans, in 
Cornwall, Devonshire, Leicestershire, and 
many parts of Scotland and Ireland ; Sand¬ 
stones, chiefly in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, 
Shropshire, Surrey, &c., in several parts of 
Scotland—the Portland andCragleith kinds 
being included ; Millstone grit, found abun¬ 
dantly in Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and most 
of the coal districts; Dolomites or Magnesian 


limestones, in Yorkshire, Durham, Nor¬ 
thumberland, Derbyshire, and Nottingham¬ 
shire ; Olitcs, ©f which bathstone is an ex¬ 
ample, and which are obtained of excellent 
quality in the quarries of Ancaster and 
Kelton ; Limestones, which are extremely 
varied, and of which Purbeck marble, Der¬ 
byshire marble. Lias Devonian limestone, 
and mountain limestone, are examples; 
Slates, obtained abundantly in North Wales, 
Devonshire, Cornwall, and some parts of 
Scotland and Ireland, t 

STONE ARTIFICIAL, the invention of 
Mr. Ransome, is composed of sand chalk or 
other mineral substance intimately mixed 
with Water-Glass. When still plastic it 
can be pressed into blocks or moulds, or it 
can be rolled into slabs. It is then satu¬ 
rated with a solution of chloride of calcium, 
when a double decomposition of the two 
solutions employed takes place. The silica 
of water-glass combines with the calcium, 
and at once forms an insoluble silicate of 
lime in the pores of the new stone which 
firmly cements together all its particles, 
whilst the chlorine combines with the soda 
and forms common salt, which is removed 
by simple washing. The resulting stone is 
exceedingly strong and is likely to be very 
durable. Another method, the invention 
of Messrs. Bartlett, consists in employing 
a mixture of water-glass with a solution of 
aluminate of soda. The resulting silicate 
of alumina when dried in the pores of the 
stone is perfectly insoluble in water. 

STO'RAX ( Lot.), a resinous and odori¬ 
ferous drug, or solid balsam; of a reddish 
brown colour. It is obtained from the 
Styrax officinalis, a tree which grows in 
Syria. It is a stimulating expectorant. 
Liquid storax, or styrax, is a liquid or semi¬ 
fluid balsam,obtained from the Liquidambcr 
stiraciflua, a tree which grows in Virginia. 
Trees in other parts of the world belonging 
to the same genus also yield liquid storax. 

STORK, the name of large grallatorial 
birds belonging to the genus Ciconia. They 
are nearly allied to the craneand the heron. 
Besides the common or white stork ( Ciconia 
alba) there is another European species, 
viz. the black stork, with the breast and 
belly white, an erect and beautiful bird 
somewhat larger than the common heron. 

-In Heraldry, the stork, as an emblem of 

piety and gratitude, is a frequent bearing 
in coat armour. 

STORMS. The causes which produce 
storms, tempests, hurricanes, &c., are very 
obscure. It is difficult to arrive at genera! 
laws regarding them ; since it is not easy 
to obtain an exact knowledge of the various 
circumstances which accompany them. 
Storms are violent and destructive in the 
torrid zone; they are comparatively insig¬ 
nificant in temperate, and are scarcely 
known in polar regions. It was formerly 
supposed that a storm was merely a wind 
blowing in a certain direction at the rate 
of 100 or 120 miles an hour ; but it has been 
recently found to be far more complicated 
in its nature. There is reason to believe 
that, in the northern hemisphere, the 
great body of the storm whirls in a hori¬ 
zontal circuit, round a vertical or some- 














721 Ettcranj Creatfttrg. [strength 

what Inclined axis of rotation which is car¬ 
ried forward with it; and that to a spectator 
placed in the centre the rotation is always 
from right to left. Storms travel in a direc¬ 
tion differing from the actual movement of 
the wind at the* time. When the storm 
progresses westward, the wind, at the com¬ 
mencement, is from a northern quarter, 
and towards the end from a southern. 
When the progressive motion is eastward, 
the phenomena are reversed; southern 
storms are subject to the same modifica¬ 
tions as northern, but In a reversed order. 
In all latitudes, the barometer sinks during 
the first half of the storm, in every part of 
track ; and rises during the second. It is 
asserted by some that in storms the ten¬ 
dency of the wind is from all round to some 
centre or central line, and there may be 
storms having this character also. Were 
the phenomena of storms well understood, 
the navigator might avoid those tracks in 
which they prevail at particular times ; or, 
being caught by one, might steer the 
course by which he should soonest escape 
from it. 

STO'RY-POSTS, in Carpentry, upright 
timbers disposed in the story of a building, 
for supporting the superincumbent part of 
the exterior wall by means of a beam over 
them. 

STRABIS'MUS ( strabos , oblique: Or.), in 
Surgery, an affection of the eyes in con¬ 
sequence of which the optic axes cannot 
be both directed to the same object. 

STRAIT, or as it is generally written. 
Straits, in Geography, a narrow pass of 
the ocean, through which the water flows 
from one sea to another. The straits of 
Gibraltar, about 130 miles long and 12 broad, 
join the Mediterranean sea with the Atlantic 
ocean. The strait which joins the Baltic 
with the Atlantic is called the Sound ; and 
that between Britain and France,the Straits 
of Dover. 

STRAMO'NTTTM, the Datura Stramonium 
of botanists, nat. ord. Solanacece, a plant 
growing wild in Europe and America. All 
parts of the plant exhale a strong and 
nauseous odour; and, taken internally, it is 
one of the most dangerous of narcotic 
poisons. It has, notwithstanding, been 
employed with advantage in convulsive 
and epileptic affections; and smoking the 
dried leaves has often proved beneficial in 
cases of asthma. 

STRAPPA'DO, a Military punishment, 
not now used. It consisted in drawing an 
offender to the top of a beam, and letting 
him fall; by which means a limb was some¬ 
times dislocated. 

STRAT'EGY ( strategia ; from stratos, an 
army, and ago, I lead : Or.), that branch of 
the military science which is concerned in 
the conducting operations in the field. 

STRATIFICA'TION ( stratum, a bed; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), in Mineralogy and 
Geology, a term signifying the process by 
which substances in the earth have been 
formed into strata dr layers. Also, in Che 
mistry, the placing layers of different sub¬ 
stances one upon another in a crucible. 

STRATOC'RACY ( stratos, the army; and 
kratos, power: Or.), a Military government, 

or that form of government in which the 
soldiery bear the sway. 

STR A'TUM (a bed : Lat., plural strata), in 
Geology, a layer of rock or earth. The crust 
of the globe is built up of strata, into which 
igneous or non-stratified rocks have in¬ 
truded. Stratified rocks (with the exception 
of those that have spread in sheets from 
some volcanic orifice) have been deposited 
by water and are turned sedimentary. The 
nature of their fossil contents will determi¬ 
nate whether the water was salt or fresh, 
whether the strata were spread over the 
bottom of an ocean, or a lake. Strata which 
were formed at the bottom of an estuary 
contain the remains of animals some of 
which lived in the river or on its banks, 
and others in the sea, into which that river 
debouched. The manner in which stratified 
deposits are thrown down may be seen 
whenever a lake is drained. All the streams 
that fed the lake brought their contribu¬ 
tions of mud and sand, and spread them 
over the bottom of the lake. The mud of 
the Nile valley is stratified, and if a pit be 
dug in it, the layer of any year may be dis¬ 
tinguished from that preceding and that 
following. Geologists suppose that the 
stratified rocks of the whole globe, which 
are many thousands of feet in thickness, 
have been similarly formed, and that they 
represent the accumulations of a countless 
series of ages, during which the different 
parts of the earth’s crust have been again 
and again elevated above, and depressed 
below, the level of the ocean. The relative 
age of a stratum is determined not only by 
its position amongst other strata, but by 
the relationship of its organic remains to 
existing forms of life. [See Geology.] 

STRA'TUS (same deriv.), the name given 
by meteorologists to a widely extended 
continuous and horizontal sheet of cloud, 
increasing upwards from below. Mists 
ascending from valleys and sheets of water 
would be comprehended under this term. 

STRAW'BERRY, the fruit of plants be¬ 
longing to the genus Fragaria, nat. order 
Iiosacece. The gardener’s art has produced 
many varieties of this delicious fruit. 

STREAM'-TIN, Tinstone, a native oxide 
of tin, found in rounded particles and 
masses, mixed with other alluvial matter; 
it furnishes the finest grain tin. 

STRENGTH, in Mechanics,force or power. 

.—Strength of Animals, the muscular 
force or energy which they are capable of 
exerting. The experiments made on this 
subject, by different persons, have given 
very different results ; which is to be ex¬ 
pected, since animal strength is liable to 
variations, from a great number of circum¬ 
stances. The force which an animal is able 
to exert against an obstacle is greatest when 
the animal is still; when it is in motion, 
some of its force is employed to produce 
this motion. There is a velocity at which 
it can carry no load, and another at which 
it can do the maximum quantity of work. 
The same animal will exert very different 
amounts of force, with different kinds of 

work.- Strength of Materials, is the 

force with which a body resists an effort to 
separate its particles. The strength of a 

3 A 

















STRERTOSOj 


ETje ^ctcitltftc mitt 


722 


body may be exerted in four ways; in re¬ 
sisting a force tending to tear it asunder ; 
in resisting a force tending to break it 
across; in resisting compression or crush¬ 
ing ; and in resisting a force tending to 
wrench it asunder by tortion. 

STREPITO'SO, in Music, an Italian word 
denoting that the part to which it is pre¬ 
fixed must be performed in an impetuous 
and boisterous style. 

STRI'iE (Lai.), in Architecture, the fillets 
which separate the furrows or grooves of 
fluted columns. 

STRI'ATE D(s£ri<z, a groove: Lat), in Natu¬ 
ral History, an epithet given to anything 
which is marked with furrows. 

STRI'DOIt DEN'TIUM (Lat.), a grinding 
of the teeth. 

STRIDULA'TfON ( stridulus , creaking: 
Lat.), the noise made by some insects, such 
as crickets and grasshoppers. 

STRI'GiE (Lat.), in Architecture, the 
Sittings of a column. 

STRIKE, in Geology. [See Dip.] 

STRIX (Lat., from strinx ; from strizo, I 
cry shrilly: Gr.), in Ornithology, a genus of 
birds of which the owl is the type. [SeeOwn]. 

STRO'BILUS ( strobilos, a fircone: Or.), 
in Botany, a spike of fruit bearing scales, 
each of which covers one or two seeds, as 
amongst the coniferous order. Sometimes 
the scales are thin and membranous, as in 
the hop. 

STRON'TIA, in Chemistry, an alkaline 
earth ; it is an oxide of the metal Strontium, 
and occurs as a carbonate, in the lead mines 
of Strontian in Argyleshire; whence its 
name. It is a greyish-white infusible sub¬ 
stance, having an alkaline reaction on vege¬ 
table colours, and an acrid burning taste. 
It heats when moistened, and slakes into a 
white pulverulent hydrate; its solution in 
hot water on cooling deposits crystals in 
foursided tables. Its salts give a red tinge 
to flame. The compounds of strontia, un¬ 
like those of baryta, are not poisonous. 

STRON'TIANITE, in Mineralogy, pris¬ 
matic barytes, or carbonate of strontian, a 
mineral that occurs massive, fibrous, stel¬ 
lated, and crystallized in the form of a hexar 
hedral prism, modified on the edges, or ter¬ 
minated by a pyramid. 

STRON'TITJM, aheavy white metal,which 
oxidizes in the air, aud decomposes water 
at ordinary temperatures. Its equivalent 
is 43 - 8. It is obtained from its oxide called 
Strontia, which see. 

STRO'PHE (Or., literally, a turning), in 
Greek poetry, a Stanza: the first member 
of a poem. This is succeeded by a similar 
stanza called the antistrophe, which see. 

STRUCTURE (structurd ; from strao, I 
erect: Lat), in Mineralogy, the particular 
arrangement of the integrant particles or 
molecules of a mineral. 

STRU'MA (Lat.), in Medicine, glandular 
tumours on the neck aud throat indicating 
a, scrophulous habit. 

STRUT, in Architecture, a piece of timber 
placed obliquely frpm a king orqueen post, 
to support a rafter [see Roof]. It is also 
called a brace. 

STRU'THIO (Lat.), in Ornithology, a 
genus of birds. [See Ostrich.] 


STRYCH'NIA, or STRYCH'NINE (struch- 
nos, nightshade : Gr.), in Chemistry, a poi¬ 
sonous vegetable alkaloid, found in the 
seeds (mix vomica) of the Strychnos Nux 
Vomica, a tree belonging to the nat. ord. 
Loganiacece. It is in the form of white 
crystals, and its operation is accompanied 
by lockjaw and other tetanic affections. 

STUC'CO ( Ital.), in Architecture, a term 
applied to many calcareous cements; but 
usually employed to designate one consist¬ 
ing of fine lime and sand, used as the third 
coat in three-coat plaster. Bastard stucco 
contains a small quantity of hair. 

STUD, in Building, a small piece of tim¬ 
ber or joist inserted in the sills and beams, 
between the posts, to support the beams or 

other main timbers.-A collection of 

breeding liorsesand mares. 

STUD'DING-SAIL, or scudding sail, in 
Navigation, a sail Unit is set beyond the 
skirts of the principal sails. The studding- 
sails are set only when the wind is light, 
and appear like wings in the yard-arms. 

STUR'GEON (sturio: Da£.),alarge cartila¬ 
ginous fish of the genus Accipenser, having 
the body armed with rough bony tubercles, 
of which there arc several series. Theism- 
glass sturgeon grows to the length of 
twenty or twenty-five feet; though they are 
generally caught much smaller. There are 
four cirri at the extremity of the under 
jaw; the eyes are large, and stand at a great 
distance from the extremity of the snout. 
The flesh is much esteemed; froni the roe 
is made caviare, and from the swim bladder 
isinglass. [See Fisheries.] 

STYLE, in Literature, a term used meta¬ 
phorically, from the stylus or ancient pen, 
to signify the writing. Style is the choice 
and arrangement of words, or the manner 
in which a person expresses himself in writ¬ 
ing. Although in a language there can be 
but one syntax, there may be many kinds 
of style, and all equally good. Swift says, 

‘ proper words in proper places make the 
true definition of style.’- Style, in Chro¬ 

nology, the manner of computing time, 
with regard to the Julian or Gregorian ca¬ 
lendar, and termed either old style or new. 
By the old style the year consisted of 305 
days and 6 hours; but the new or Gregorian 
style was made to correspond more nearly 
with the period of the sun’s revolution. 
[See Calendar.] The reformation of the 
style was made in 1577; but it was not 
adopted in Protestant countries until a 
considerable time after, and it has not yet 
been introduced into Russia or Greece. It 
was ordered to be used in England by sta¬ 
tute, in 1752, being termed the new style; 
the 3rd September 1752 was reckoned the 
14th; the year which hitherto began the 
25th of March was thenceforward to com- 1 
mence the 1st January, and from the 1st 
January to the 24th March, which should 
have belonged to the end of the year 1751, 
was considered as the commencement of 
the year 1752. Thus, not only was the year 
1751 made to consist of little more than 
nine months, but, in reality, January, Feb¬ 
ruary, and twenty four days of March were 
transferred from each year to that which 
had succeeded it. These changes account 
























723 Ettcrary 


for the peculiar modes In which dates are 
sometimes given by authors of the last cen¬ 
tury. Sometimes the date is indicated to 
be according to the old style by O.S. Some¬ 
times two numbers mark the date to both 

IQ 

styles, as if June 1753; or two different 

oU 

months, as 30 June 1753 Qr two different 
11 May 

years, as ?3Feb^l753- S l ln A rchi- 

6Marchl754 

tecture, a particular mode of erecting build¬ 
ings ; as the Gothic style, the Saxon style, 

the Norman style, &c.-In Botany, the 

middle portion of the pistil, connecting the 
stigma with the ovary. They are of various 
sbd<p6s 

STYLITES ( stulos , a pillar: Gr.), in Ec¬ 
clesiastical History, a sect of solitaries, or 
fanatics, in the East, w r ho performed a kind 
of penance by dwelling on columns or pil¬ 
lars ; one of them, termed Simeon Stylites, 
Is said to have lived thirty-seven years on 
several of various heights, the last he used 
being of very considerable elevation. 

STYLO, in Composition, is applied to 
those muscles which are attached to the 
styloid process of the temporal bone; thus 
the styloglossus, which moves the tongue, 
&c. 

STY'LOID (stulos, a writing pen; and 
eidos, form: Gr.), having some resemblance 
to a stylus, or pen; as the styloid process of 
the temporal bone. 

STYPTICS, medicines which have the 
property of stopping hemorrhage, or dis¬ 
charges of blood. The word styptic, though 
signifying nearly the same as astringent, is 
used in a different and more limited sense ; 
astringents usually denoting internal ap¬ 
plications for stopping bleeding, or for 
strengthening the solids; styptics, exter¬ 
nal applications for restraining discharges 
of blood. 

STY'RAX (Gr.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Styracacece. The species 
are two, growingin warm climates, several 
of which yield the gum resin called Sto- 
rax. 

SUB, a Latin proposition for under or 
below. It is used as a prefix to many Eng¬ 
lish words, and denotes inferiority of rank 
or defect in quality ; as subaltern, subordi¬ 
nate, &p. It is prefixed to words in a 
scientific description of a plant or animal 
to signify nearly but not quite. 

SU'BAH, in India, a province or viceroy- 
ship. Hence subahdar, the governor of a 
province. Subahdar is also used for a na¬ 
tive of India, who ranks as captain in the 
European companies. 

SUB'ALTERN (subalterne : Fr.), a term 
for a military officer below the rank of cap¬ 
tain. , , , . , 

SUBCLAWIAN (sub, under; clamcula, 
the clavicle : Lat.), in Anatomy, an epithet 
applied to anything under the arm-pit or 
shoulder, whether artery, nerve, vein, or 
muscle. 

SUBCOX'TRARY, In Geometry, a term 
used when two similar triangles are so 
placed as to have a common angle at their 
vertex, and yet their bases not parallel. 


£Trc<t£uvi?. [submarine 

SUBCOR'DATE (sub, slightly; cor, the 
heart: Lat.), in Botany, somewhat similar 
to a heart in shape. 

SUBCOSTAL (s?tb, under; costa, a rib: 
Lat.), in Anatomy, a term for the internal 
intercostal muscles. 

SUBCUTIC'ULAR (sub, under; cutes, the 
skin : Lat.), in Anatomy, being under the 
cuticle or scarf-skin. 

SUB DOM'INANT, in Music, the fourth 
note above the tonic, being under the 
dominant. 

SUB'EROSE (suber, cork: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, having the appearance of being 
gnawed or a little eaten. 

SU'BE ROUS (same deriv.), soft and elastic, 
like cork. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (subjunctivus, re¬ 
lating to binding together: Lat.), in Gram¬ 
mar, a form of the verb which mentions a 
thing conditionally or by way of supposition; 
and is denoted in the English language by 
the addition of if, though, or some other 
conjunction, expressed or understood. 

SUBLAPSA'RIAN, in Theology, one who 
maintains that God permitted the fall of 
Adam without positively predetermining 
it; a doctrine which is in opposition to the 
supralapsarian of high Calvinism. 

SUB'LIMATE, in Chemistry, any sub¬ 
stance procured by the process of sublima¬ 
tion. 

SUB'LIMATION, an operation by which 
solids are changed by heat into vapour, and 
then condensed into a solid form again ; it 
differs from distillation, in which the va¬ 
pour is condensed into a liquid. This pro¬ 
cess is often used to purify or separate sub¬ 
stances. When the crystals obtained by 
sublimation are extremely minute, so as to 
present the appearance of a powder, they 
are sometimes termed flowers: thus flowers 
of sulphur. 

SUB'LIME (sublimis: Lat.), an abstract 
quality which like Beauty is not capable of 
precise definition. Whilst a beautiful ob¬ 
ject pleases and delights us a sublime 
one astonishes, and the sensations excited 
by a grand object seem to stand between 
those caused by the other two. The Mate¬ 
rial sublime is excited by the vastness of 
some object in nature ; such as a range of 
lofty mountains. The Spiritual sublime 
projects our thoughts at one stroke into 
the illimitable. The material works of 
man may be grand, but are seldom if ever 
sublime, except in so far as they act in 
raising in us the sense of spiritual sub¬ 
limity. 

SUBLIME PORTE, the state ministry 
and council of the Turkish Sultan. The 
grand vizir is president, and under him are 
the minister for home affairs, the minister 
for foreign affairs (the Reis Effendi), and 
the minister of the executive power. 

SUBLIN'GUAL (sub, under; and lingua, 
the tongue: Lat.), in Anatomy, situated 
under the tongue ; as the sublingual glands, 
which secrete the saliva. 

SUBLUXA'TION (siib, in some degree; 
and luxatus, a dislocation : Lat.), in Sur¬ 
gery, a violent sprain or incomplete dis¬ 
location. 

SUBMARI'NE (sub, under; and mare, the 
































submaxillary] tJTTjc ^rijWttftC HUtt 724 


sea: Lat), an epithet for what exists or 
happens under the sea or water; as a sub¬ 
marine explosion, or submarine telegraph, 
&c. 

SUBMAX'ILLARY (sub, under; and 
maxilla, the jaw: Lat.), in Anatomy, an 
epithet for two salivary glands, situated 
immediately within the right and left an¬ 
gles of the lower jaw. 

SUBME'DIANT, in Music, the sixth note, 
or.middle note between the tonic and sub- 
dominant descending. 

SUBMUL'TIPLE, in Arithmetic, a num¬ 
ber or quantity contained in another num¬ 
ber or quantity a certain number of times: 
as 4, which is the submultiple of 24, being 
contained in it six times. 

SUBNU'DE (sub, in some degree; and 
nudus, naked: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
for a plant almost naked or bare of leaves. 

SUBOCCIP'ITAL (sub, under; and occi- 
put, the back part of the head: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, under the occiput; as, the sub- 
occipital nerves. 

SUBORNATION (suborno, I suborn: 
Lat.), in Law, the crime of procuring a 
person to take such a false oath as consti¬ 
tutes perjury. 

SUBPCE'NA (under the penalty : Lat.), in 
Law, a writ commanding the attendance in 
court of the person on whom it is served. 

- Subpoena ad testificandum, compels to 

attend and give evidence.- Subpoena du¬ 

ces tecum compels to bring a written docu¬ 
ment for the purpose of producing it at the 
trial. 

SUBREPTION (subripio, I take away 
privily : Lat.), the act of obtaining a favour 
by surprise or unfair representation, that 
is, by the suppression of facts. 

SUBROGATION ( subrogo, I substitute : 
Lat.), in the Civil Law, the substituting of 
one person in the place of another, and 
giving him his rights. 

SUB'SALT, in Chemistry, a salt with less 
acid than is sufficient to neutralise its ra- 
di c?ils 

SUBSCAP'ULAR (sub, underneath ; and 
scapida, the shoulder blade: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, beneath the scapula.-The sub¬ 

scapular artery is the large branch of the 
axillary artery which rises near the lowest 
margin of the scapula. 

SUBSCRIPTION (subscriptio ; from sub¬ 
scribe, I write underneath: Lat.), the act of 
signing or setting one’s hand to a paper. 
The word is frequently employed with re¬ 
ference to the oaths and test articles which 
persons are compelled to take and subscribe 
on admission to membership in a univer¬ 
sity, or into the established church, or to an 
office under government. 

SUB'SIDY (subsidium: Lot.), an aid or 
tax granted to the king, by parliament, 
upon any urgent occasion, and levied ac¬ 
cording to a certain rate on lands and goods; 
but, in some of our statutes, it is con¬ 
founded with customs. It sometimes signi¬ 
fies, in modern usage, a sum of money 
given by the government of one nation to 
that of another, for the immediate purpose 
of serving the latter, and the ultimate one 
of benefiting the former. Thus Great Bri¬ 
tain subsidised Austria and Prussia, fo 


engage those powers in resisting the pro¬ 
gress of the French in the time of the first 
Napoleon. It is also employed with refer¬ 
ence to a payment of public money to a 
company towards the support of a line of 
steamers, or of a theatre, as in France. 

SUB'SOIL, the bed or stratum of earth 
which lies beneath the surface-soil • the 
SlibstTCitV/Ul. 

SUB'STANCE (substantia: Lat.), some¬ 
thing that we conceive to subsist of itself, 
independently of any created being, or any 
particular mode or accident. Our ideas of 
substance, as Locke observes, are only such 
combinations of simple ideas as are taken 
to represent distinct things subsisting by 
themselves, in which the confused idea of 
substance is always the chief. Thus the ! 
combination of the ideas of a certain figure, j 
with the powers of motion, thought, and 
reasoning joined to the substance, make ' 
the ordinary idea of a man; and thus the i 
mind observing several simple ideas to go 
constantly together, which being presumed 
to belong to one thing, or to be united in 
one subject, are called by one name, which 
we are apt afterwards to talk of, and consi¬ 
der, as one simple idea. 

STJB'STANTIVE (substantivus: Lat.), 
in Grammar, a noun or name, denoting a 
thing without any regard to its qualities ; 
as, on the other hand, an adjective is the 
name of a quality. Thus of the words * red 
bouse,’ the first denotes a quality, and is 
therefore an adjective; the second a thing, 
and is therefore a substantive. 

SUBSTITUTE (substitutus, put instead 
of: Lat.), in Law, one delegated to act for 

another.-In the Militia, one engaged to 

serve in the room of another. 

SUBSTITUTION (substitutio; from sub- 
stituo, I put instead of: Lat.), in Chemistry, 
the replacing of one or more atoms of one 
element in a compound body by the same 
number of atoms of another element. Thus, 
when water is decomposed by zinc on add¬ 
ing sulphuric acid, an atom of the zinc is 
substituted for an atom of hydrogen, the 
latter being expelled. 

SUBSTRATUM (sub, underneath; and 
stratum, a bed : Lat.), in Geology, a layer of 
earth laid under another.-In Metaphy¬ 

sics, the matter or substance supposed to 
furnish the basis in which the perceptible 
qualities inhere. 

SUB'STYLE (sub, underneath; and stylus, 
a gnomon: Lat.), in Dialling, the line on 
which the gnomon stands. 

SUBSUL'PHATE, in Chemistry, a sul¬ 
phate with an excess of the base. 

SUBSUL'PHURET, in Chemistry, a com¬ 
pound of sulphur, with a metal, &c., in a 
less proportion than is contained in a sul- 
phuret. 

SUBSUL'TUS (subsulto, I hop : 'Lat.), in 
Medicine, a twitching or convulsive mo¬ 
tion : as subsultus tendinum. 

SUBTAN'GENT, in Geometry, the part 
of the axis contained between the ordinate 
and tangent drawn to the same point in a 
curve. s 

SUBTENSE OF AN ARC (subtendo, I 
stretch underneath : Lat.), a right line op¬ 
posite to an angle, supposed to be drawn 











725 


Etterarj) &rca£urin 


between the two extremities of the arc; a 
chord. 

SUBTRACTION ( subtraho, I draw away 
from : Lat.), in Arithmetic, the taking of 
one number from another of the same kind 
or denomination, an operation by which 
the difference between two sums is found. 

7 —In Law, the withdrawing or withhold¬ 
ing of some right. Thus, the subtraction of 
a legacy is the withholding or detaining of 
it from the legatee by the executor; and 
in like manner, the withholding of any ser¬ 
vice, rent, duty, or custom, is a subtraction, 
for which the law gives a remedy. 

SUBTRAHEND' ( subtrahendus , to be sub¬ 
tracted : Lat.), in Arithmetic, the number 
to be subtracted or taken from another. 

SUB'ULATE ( subula, an awl: Lat.), in 
Natural History, shaped like an awl, that is 
narrow and tapering to a point. 

SUB'URBS (sub, near to; and urbs, a city: 
Lat.), the buildings, streets, or parts that 
lie without the walls, but in the immediate 
vicinity of a city. Hence suburban, inhabit¬ 
ing or being situated near a city. 

SUCCEDA'NEUM ( succedaneus, that sup¬ 
plies the place of: Lat.), that which is used 
for something else ; a substitute. 

SUC'CINATE (next), in Chemistry, a salt 
formed by succinic acid and a base. 

SUCCINTC ACID (succinum, amber: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, an acid obtained by the 
destructive distillation of amber. It has 
also been obtained by the action of nitric 
acid on stearic and margaric acids. It 
forms regular colourless crystals, and is a 
compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

SUC'CINITE (same deriv.), a mineral of 
an amber colour, considered as a variety of 
garnet. It frequently occurs in globular or 
granular masses, about the size of a pea. 

SUC'CINUM (amber; from succus, juice: 
Lat.), a genus of minerals. [See Amber.] 

SUC'CORY, chicory or wild endive. [See 
Chicory.] 

SUC'CULENT (succulentus; from suc¬ 
cus, juice: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for 
such plants as have thick and juicy leaves 
such as the cactus order and mauy plants 
growing near the sea. 

SUC'CUS (Lat.), in Pharmacy, a tern fre¬ 
quently employed to denote the extracted 
juice of different plants, as the Succus gly- 
corrhizat, Spanish liquorice, &c. 

SUCCUS'SION ( succussio, a shaking: 
Lat.), in Medicine, a rough mode of ascer¬ 
taining the state of the chest in disease, by 
shaking the patient’s body and then listen¬ 
ing to the sound produced. 

SUCK'ER ( sugo, I suck : Lat.), the piston 
of a pump; also a piece of leather laid wet 
upon a stone, which, owing to the pressure 
of the atmosphere, adheres very closely, 
and is not to be pulled off without great 

force.- Slicker (surculus: Lat.), a young 

twig shooting from the stock or lower part 
of the stem, and afterwards rooting. 

SUCK'ING-FISH. [See Remora.] 

SUCK'ING PUMP, or SUC'TION PUMP, 
the ordinary pump with two valves opening 
upwards. When the piston is drawn up, 
the valve it contains closes, and any water 
or air above it is raised by it; a vacuum 
being at the same time produced under it, 


[SUGAR 


the lower valve is forced open by the ex¬ 
ternal air, which drives the air or water 
underneath to pass up through it. When 
the apparatus is once charged with fluid 
each upward stroke of the piston lifts the 
water which is above it, and, by atmosphe¬ 
ric pressure, fills the vacant space which 
is under it with water that rushes from the 
well through the lower valve. The down¬ 
ward motion of the piston forces the water 
which is under it, and which cannot return 
to the well, on account of the closing of the 
lowervalve, to rushup through the now open 
valve in the piston. The valve in the pis¬ 
ton is, therefore, open at the downward 
stroke, and closed at the upward; and the 
lower valve is open at the upward stroke, 
and closed at the downward. Suction, in 
the ordinary sense, is nothing more than 
the removal of atmospheric pressure from 
any interior space, so as to allow atmo¬ 
spheric pressure to act externally; thus 
when water is sucked up through a tube, 
the air is exhausted from the latter by the 
mouth, and then the pressure of the ex¬ 
ternal air or the fluid forces it up through 
the tube. 

SU'DOR AN'GLICUS (the English sweat: 
Lat.), in Medicine, an endemic fever, former¬ 
ly known by the name of the sweating sick¬ 
ness of England. This disorder was thus 
namedfrom its first appearing in this island; 
and acquired the title of sudor, from the pa¬ 
tient suddenly breaking out into a profuse 
sweat,which formed its great characteristic 
feature. It was at first extremely fatal; it 
ultimately became less malignant, and 
finally disappeared. It carried off the pa¬ 
tient in a few hours. 

SUDORIF'ICS (sudor, sweat; and facio, I 
produce : Lat.), medicines which promote 
sweat or sensible perspiration. 

SUE (suivre, to follow: Fr.), to institute 
legal process against a person; to prosecute 
in a civil action for the recovery of a real 
or supposed right; as to sue for debt or 
damages. 

SUF'FERANCE ( sufferentia, an enduring: 
Lat.), a term in Law applied to tenants; a 
tenant at sufferance being one that con¬ 
tinues after his title ceases,without positive 
leave of the owner. 

SUF'FRAGAN (suffragor, I support: 
Lat.), in ecclesiastical polity, a term of re¬ 
lation applied to a bishop, with respect to 
the archbishop who is his superior. 

SUF'FRAGE (suffragium: Lat.), a vote 
given in deciding a controverted question, 
or in the choice of a man for au office or 
trust. 

SUFFRU'TICOSE (sub, somewhat; and 
fruticosus, bushy: Lat.), in Botany, an epi¬ 
thet for plants which are woody at the base, 
but whose yearly branches decay ; as sage, 
thyme, &c. 

SUGAR, a compound of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen,is produced by many animal and 
vegetable bodies. That which forms an 
article of commerce is the produce either 
of beet or of the sugar-cane ; the latter, a 
plant which belongs to the order of grasses, 
cultivated in warm climates. It is the 
saccharum officinarum of botanists, which 
grows to the height of from five to seven 









sugar-cakdy] 


ETjc ^ctcuttftc antt 


726 


feet. The stem of the mature plant is from 
one to two inches thick. It is coated with a 
layer of silicious matter, as in the bamhoo, 
whilst the fibrous interior is saturated with 
the saccharine juice. The manufacture of 
Bugar from the sugar-cane may be thus 
shortly sketched. The canes are taken, as 
soon as they are cut, to the mill, where 
they are subjected to great pressure be¬ 
tween iron rollers. The juice thus expressed 
is boiled in open pans with lime, and the 
scum is carefully removed. It is then fil¬ 
tered and passed through animal charcoal 
in powder, previous to being concenti-ated. 
This process takes place either in open 
troughs heated by steam, or in vacuum 
pans where it is boiled in vessels from 
which the air has been exhausted. The 
concentration having proceeded to the pro¬ 
per extent, the sugar may be obtained sepa¬ 
rate from the liquid portion, or molasses, 
by the use of centrifugal machines, vessels 
with sides of v T ire-net through which the 
liquid is forced into an outer vessel when 
the machine is set in rapid revolution. On 
the concentrated hot juice having the con¬ 
sistency and granular appearance of thick 
oatmeal-pomdge is placed in conical pots 
of earthenware. When it has cooled and 
solidified there appears a mass of sugar 
crystals with syrup amongst them. A plug 
is removed from the bottom of the vessel, 
and the syrup, in great part, drains away, 
leaving the sugar in the state known as 
Muscovado or raw moist sugar. There is 
still some syrup left behind, and some of 
this is removed by the process of claying, 
which consists in pouring a mixture of clay 
and water over the top of the pot to the 
depth of an inch or two. The water of the 
clay sinks gradually downwards through the 
porous mass of crystals, combining with the 
syrup, and carrying it off through the 
bottom of the pot. The sugar, after this 
treatment, is termed * clayed.’ It is the 
l'eflner’s business to purify the sugars thus 
produced, and produce by delicate chemical 
and ingenious mechanical processes the 
white loaf sugar of which there is such a 
large consumption in this country. A large 
quantity of sugar is contained in the sap of 
the American maple (Acer saccharinum), 

: and is obtained from it in many parts of 
: North America; maple sugar being, in 
! some places, the only kind which is used, 
particularly by those recently settled in the 
country. It is wholesome, and not dis¬ 
agreeable. The process of manufacturing 
it is very simple. The trees are bored 
obliquely from below upwards, at 18 or 20 
inches above the ground, care being taken 
that the auger penetrates no more than half 
an inch into the alburnum, or white bark; 
as a greater discharge takes place at that 
deptli than any other. The liquor is boiled, 
and the evaporation urged by an active fire, 
with careful skimming during the boiling ; 
and the pot is continually x-eplenished with 
more sap, till a large body lias assumed a 
syrupy consistence. It is afterwards strain¬ 
ed and boiled again over a very brisk fire, 
till it has acquired the requisite consistence 
for being poured into the troughs prepared 
to receive it. In 1859, 450,000 tons of sugar 


were consumed in the United Kingdom. It 
has been calculated that in England there 
is an annual average consumption of 321 bs. 
of sugar by each person, in France lOjlbs., 
in Ireland 6}lbs., and in Italy only 2lbs.— 
Sugar is a proximate element of the vege¬ 
table kingdom, and is found in most ripe 
fruits, and many farinaceous roots. By fer¬ 
mentation sugar is converted into alcohol, 
and hence forms the basis of those sub¬ 
stances which are used for making intoxi¬ 
cating liquors, as molasses, grapes, apples, 
malt, &c. Of all vegetable principles it is 
considei-ed as the most wholesome and nu¬ 
tritious. 

SUGAR-CANDY, sugar in the form of 
lai’ge crystals. If, when the sugar is boiled, 
ready for crushing, preparatory to being 
placed in the conical moulds [see Sugau], 
instead of its being broken up with oars it is 
poured into pans, across which threads are 
strung, crystals will attach themselves to 
the threads ; if these ciystals are gradually 
dried, and then washed with lime-water to 
remove the molasses from their outer sur¬ 
face, the result is sugar-candy. During 
crystallization the sugar must be kept per¬ 
fectly at l'est, as on this depends the size 
and regularity of the crystals. It is used 
instead of loaf-sugar in India, China, &c. 

SUIT (suite, a following: Fr.), in Law, 
an action or process for the recovery of a 
right or claim ; an action at law, a pi-oceed- 
ing by a rule in Chancery, a prosecution. 

SUIT'OR (last), in Legal phraseology, one 
who attends a court to prosecute a demand 
of right in law, as a plaintiff, petitioner, or 
appellant. 

SUL'CATE, or SUL'CATED (sulcatus, fur¬ 
rowed : Lat.), grooved or scored with deep 
broad channels. 

SUL'PHATE OF COP'PER, in Chemistry, 
Blue Vitriol, a salt composed of sulphuric 
acid and oxide of copper. It is also a natu¬ 
ral product, in the liquid form, of many 
copper mines; being the result of the in¬ 
filtration of water over copper pyrites. 
It has a disagreeable metallic taste; 
and, when swallowed, it causes violeuo 
vomiting. 

SUL'PHATE OF IRON. [See Copperas.] 

SUL'PHATES, in Chemistry, salts formed 
by the union of sulphuric acid with different 
bases; as the sulphurate of soda, called Glau¬ 
ber’s salts; the sulphate of magnesia, called 
Epsom salts; also the sulphate of copper, 
the sulphate of lime, the sulphate of zinc, 
&c. 

SUL'PHIDE. [See Sulphuret.] 

SUL'PHITES, in Chemistry, salts formed 
by the union of sulphurous acid with the 

different bases. 

SUL'PHUR (Lat.), in Chemistry, Brim¬ 
stone, a substance which is bard, brittle, 
and usually of a yellow colour, without any j 
smell, unless rubbed or heated, and of a 
weak, though perceptible taste. It is a 
non-conductor of electricity; its specific 
gravity is P99. It melts at about 210 :> , be¬ 
comes liquid at 25(P, but viscid and of a 
deeper colour at 450 \ and a little more fluid 
at 480°, its boiling point; it rises rapidly in 
vapour at 000°, and condenses in close ves¬ 
sels into flowers of sulphur, a tine powder 


I 



































T27 Httararg tKn^ury. [summons - 

consisting of minute crystals, the earthy 
substances and other impurities remaining 
behind. If precipitated from its alkaline 
solutions by hydrochloric acid it is in the 
form of a hydrate, sometimes termed milk 
of sulphur. It is obtained in commerce in 
! the solid form, as stick sulphur or cane 
brimstone. Sulphur is dug out of the earth 
in various places where volcanic action is 
going on, particularly Italy and South 
America. It is one of the ingredients in 
the composition of gunpowder, and that 
which occasions it to take lire so readily. 
A prodigious quantity of sulphur is ob¬ 
tained from Solfatara, in Italy. This vol¬ 
canic country everywhere exhibits marks 
of the agency of subterraneous fires; al¬ 
most all the ground is bare, and white; and 
is everywhere sensibly warmer than the at¬ 
mosphere in the greatest heat of sum- 
i mer. It is obtained in large quantities, 
thought not quite so pure, from pyrites, 
which is a combination of sulphur and 
iron. 

SULPHU'RET, in Chemistry, a combina¬ 
tion of sulphur with a metal: thus, sulphu- 
ret of iron, sulphuret of potassium. The 
: sulpliurets are now more usually termed 

sulphides. - Sulphuret of iron, a mineral 

composed of sulphur and iron, which is 
found in many parts of the world, and 
which is also called pyrites or fire-stone. 

SULPHU'MC ACID, in Chemistry, called 
i also oil of vitriol, a very important acid, dis¬ 
covered about the end of the 15lli century. 
It is obtained by burning a mixture of 
seven or eight parts of sulphur with one of 
nitrate of potasli or soda. A current of air 
carries the products of combustion from 
the furnace into a large leaden chamber, the 
: bottom of which is covered to a few inches 
in depth with water. The sulphurous and 
liypor.itrous acid that pass into the cham¬ 
ber form with the vapour of water a crys¬ 
talline solid, which, as soon as it falls into 
the water, is decomposed into sulphuric 
acid, that remains in solution, and nitric 
oxide, which ascends and unites with oxy¬ 
gen so as to again form hyponitrous acid; 
this, uniting with a new portion of sul¬ 
phurous acid and the vapour of waters, 
again produces the crystalline solid, which 
falling into the water gives rise to a repe¬ 
tition of the same results. The oxygen of 
the atmosphere, therefore, indirectly 
changes the sulphurous into sulphuric 
acid, through the medium of nitric oxide. 
The weak acid, which, after some time, is 
found on the floor of the chamber, is con¬ 
centrated first in leaden, and afterwards in 
platinum vessels. Sulphuricacid is a limpid, 
colourless fluid, having a spec. grav. of P8. 
It boils at 620°, and freezes at 15°. When di¬ 
luted the temperature at which it freezes is 
different. It is highly caustic, and intense¬ 
ly acid. Its affinities are so strong that it 
expels all other acids, more or less perfectly, 
from their combinations. It absorbs water 
from the atmosphere, and when diluted 
with that fluid evolves great heat. It 
chars animal and vegetable substances with 
great rapidity. The strongest oil of vitriol 
j of commerce contains one atom of the 
! acid and one of water; the anhydrous acid 

consists of one atom of sulphur and three 
of oxygen. The presence of sulphuric acid, 
either free or in combination, is ascertain¬ 
ed with great facility by a soluble salt of 
barytes, which, when it is present, even in 
minute quantities, throws down a -white 
precipitate, the sulphate of barytes. 

SUL'PHUItOUS ACID, in Chemistry, the 
gas obtained by burning sulphur in atmo¬ 
spheric air or oxygen. Water absorbs 30 i 
volumes of it. Its odour is suffocating; it 
bleaches straw, silk, wool, &c.,and destroys 
the colour of violets, dahlias, &c. It ex¬ 
tinguishes flame, and destroys animal life. 
The gas assumes the liquid form when sub¬ 
jected to a pressure of two atmospheres, or 
a temperature of 6°; and, when liquid, it 
evaporates with such rapidity as to freeze 
mercury. 

SUL'TAN (Arab.), a title of royalty 
amongst Mohammedan nations. It signifies 
a despotic ruler. The Grand Sultan, or 
chief of the Turkish empire, is styled in 
his dominions the Sultandin, or protector 
of the faith, the Padishah Islam, or Em¬ 
peror of Islamism, and the Zil-Ullali, or 
Shadow of God. The title of sultan was 
first assumed by BayHzid I., the chief of the 
Osmanlis, who reigned 1389-1403. The sul¬ 
tan as successor of the caliphs adds that 
title to his others, and since the Koran was 
supposed to be the treasure of divine and 
human laws, of which treasure the caliphs 
were depositaries, he is at once pontiff, le¬ 
gislator, and judge, the sacerdotal, regal, 
and judicial offices being united in his 
person. Although claiming to be absolute 
monarch he must govern in conformity 
with the principles of the Koran, and with 
the traditionary words called Sunna of the 
prophet; and he must also conform to the 
decision of the Ulema [which see], and to 
the Urfi or Kanun-name, the legislature 
established since the commencement of the 
empire. 

SU'MACH (Fr.), the PJius coriaria of bo¬ 
tanists, nat. ord. Anacardiacece, a shrub of 
the south of Europe of considerable value, 
the powder of the leaves, peduncles, and 
young branches producing the sumach of 
commerce, much employed in tanning 
light-coloured leathers. In calico-printing, 
sumach affords, with a mordant of tin, a 
yellow colour; with acetate of iron, a gray 
or black; and with sulphate of zinc, a 
brownish-yellow. Both the leaves and seeds 
of the sumach are used in medicine as as¬ 
tringent and styptic. 

SUM'MER ( sumer: Sax.), one of the four 
seasons of tiie year; beginning, in the 
northern hemisphere, when the sun enters 
Cancer, about the 21st of June, and con¬ 
tinuing for three mouths; during which 
time, the sun being nortli of the equator, 
renders this the hottest period of the year. 

In latitudes south of the equator just the 
opposite takes place, or, in other words, it 
is summer there when it is winter here. 
The summer quarter of meteorologists con¬ 
sists of June, July, and August. 

SUM'MONS (sub, up ; and moneo, I warn : 
Lat.), in Law, a warning or citation to ap¬ 
pear in court; or a written notification 
signed by the proper officer, to be served on 
























bump] )t ^ctenttftc mitt 728 

a person.warningliim to appear in court at a 
day specified, to answer to the demand of 
the plaintiff. 

SUMP, in Metallurgy, a round pit of 
stone, lined with clay, for receiving the 

metal on its first fusion.-In Mining, a 

pit sunk helow the bottom of the mine. 

SUMP'TUARY LAWS ( sumptuarius, per¬ 
taining to expense: Lot.), those laws which 
in extreme cases, have occasionally been 
made to restrain or limit the expenses of 
citizens in apparel, food, furniture, &c. 
Sumptuary laws are abridgments of liberty, 
and of very difficult execution. Those of 
England were repealed by stat. 1 Jac. I. c. 25. 

SUN (sonne: Ger.), in Astronomy, the 
magnificent orb which, occupying the cen¬ 
tre of our system, gives light and heat to 
all the planets. Its light constitutes the 
day, and the darkness which proceeds from 
its absence, or the shade of the earth, is 
the cause of night. This splendid luminary 
is 96,000,000 of miles distant from the earth ; 
a canon ball travelling at a uniform velo¬ 
city of 1600 feet in a second, would require 
ten years to reach it, from the earth. Its 
diameter is 892,000 miles; its mass is 354,936 
times that of the earth,and 800 times greater 
than the aggregate of the masses of all 
the planets and satellites; its density is 
about one-fourth that of the earth ; a body 
which, at the earth’s surface, would weigh 
one pound, would on that of the sun weigh 
27 - 91bs.; and an ordinary man would be 
crushed to atoms by his own weight. The 
sun revolves on its axis in about 25 days ; 
which is ascertained by means of the spots 
on his surface, and his equator is inclined to 
the ecliptic at an angle of about 7° 20'. The 
spots are subject to change, they banish, and 
reappear; one has been observed, covering 
an area of 1520 millions of square miles, that 
is, a space thirty times greater than the 
whole surface of the earth. There are 
several hypotheses regarding them, but 
none which is satisfactory. Some imagine 
that the luminous atmosphere of the sun is 
at a great distance from its mass; and that 
the calorific rays are so intercepted by 
clouds as to render it habitable, but there 
can be little doubt that a most intense heat 
prevails at its surface. It is also supposed 
that the heat and light constantly passing 
off may gradually diminish its bulk. It is 
highly probable that the sun has a proper 
motion in space, though some centuries 
of observation may be required to detect 
its laws. Astronomers have lately seen 
reason to think that the mean distance of 
the earth from the sun is not so great by 
four millions of miles as was formerly sup¬ 
posed. This distance is now put down at 
91,328,000 miles. Various other numerical 
changes become necessary. Thus the cir¬ 
cumference of the earth’s orbit becomes 
599,194,000 miles ; and her mean hourly ve¬ 
locity 65,460 miles. The diameter of the 
sun is 850,100 miles. The numerical expres¬ 
sions for the distances, velocities, and di¬ 
mensions of all the other planetary bodies 
will require corresponding correction. [See 
Astronomy, Planet, Solar system, &c.] 

SUN'DAY, the first day of the week, call¬ 
ed also the Lord's day, in memory of the 

resurrection of Christ; and the sabbath- 
day, because substituted, in the Christian 
worship for the sabbath, or day of rest, in 
the old dispensation. This substitution was 
first decreed by Constantine the Great, a.d. 
321, before whose time both the old and 
new sabbath were observed by Christians. 
[See Sabbath.] 

SUN'-PLOWER, a plant of the genus 
Helianthus, so called from its turning to the 
sun. [See Helianthus.] 

SUN'-HEMP, a coarse fibre employed in 
India in the manufacture of rough bags. 

It is furnished by the Crotolaria juncea, a 
leguminous plant which grows from four to 
six feet high, and bears masses of labur¬ 
num-like flowers. 

SU'PER (Lat.), a prefix used in chemical 
technology, with many words, denoting an 
excess ; as sapersulphate of potash, in which 
there is an excess of sulphuric acid. 

SUPERCAR'GO, a person in a merchant’s 
ship appointed to manage the sales and 
superintend all the commercial concerns of 
the voyage. 

SUPEREROGATION ( super , besides ; 
and errogatio , a giving out: Lat.), in Roman 
Catholic theology, a term applied to such 
works as a man does which exceed the 
measure of his duty. This doctrine is con¬ 
demned by the Church of England, in her 
14th article. 

SUPERFI'CIES (Lat.), the surface, or ex¬ 
terior face of a thing; as the superficies of 
a plane, or of a sphere. 

SUPER'LATIVE (superlativus : Lat.), in 
Grammar, the name usually given to the 
third or highest degree of comparison : 
formed in the Teutonic languages, by the 
addition of ‘ est.’ 

SUPERNU'MERARY, in Military affairs, 
is an epithet for the officers and non-com¬ 
missioned officers attached to a regiment 
for the purpose of supplying the places of 
such as fall in action, &c. 

SUPERPOSITION (superpono, I place 
over: Lat.), in Geology, a lying or being 
situated upon or above something. 

SUPERSCAPULA'RIS (super, above; 
and scapula, the shoulder blade: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, a muscle seated upon the scapula 
or shoulder-blade. 

SUPERSE'DEAS (Lat.), in Law, a writ or 
command to suspend the powers of an offi¬ 
cer in certain cases, to stay proceedings, 
and in certain cases to discharge prisoners. 

SUPERSTRUCTURE (superstruo, I build 
upon: Lat.), any kind of building raised on 
a foundation or basis ; the word being used 
to distinguish what is erected on a wall or 
foundation, from the foundation itself. 

SUPERTON'IC, in Music, the note next 
above the key-note. 

SUPINATORS (supino, I put anything 
on its back: Lat.)', in Anatomy, two muscles 
of the arm ; the one called the supinator 
longus, the other the supinator brevis, both 
serving to turn the palm of the hand up¬ 
wards. 

SUP'PLEMENT (supplementum, a filling 
up : Lat.), in Literature, an addition made 
to a book or paper, by which it i3 rendered 

more full and complete.- Supplement of an 

arc, in Geometry, the number of degrees 















729 


Httfnurj) (Utoatfurg. 


which it wants of being an entire semi-cir¬ 
cle ; as a complement signifies what an arc 
wants of being a quadrant. 

SUPPORTERS ( supporto , I carry: Lot.), 
In Heraldry, figures placed by the side of 
the shield, and appearing to support it. 
Thus the lion and unicorn are the sup¬ 
porters of the British sovereign’s arms. 
In modern English Heraldry, the use of 
supporters is limited to Sovereigns and 
Princes of the blood royal. Peers of the 
Realm, Knights of the Bath, Knights Ban¬ 
nerets, Baronets of Nova Scotia, and such 
as receive a special license from the king. 
In case of marriage of two parties, both of 
whom are entitled to supporters, one of 
each may be borne.- Supporters, in Archi¬ 

tecture, images which serve to bear up any 
part of a building in the place of a column. 

SUPPURATION (suppuratio: Lat.), in 
Medicine, the process of generating puru¬ 
lent matter, or of forming pus, as iu a 
wound or abscess. Also, the matter gene¬ 
rated by suppuration. 

SUPRALAPSA'RIAN, in Theology, one 
who maintains that God, antecedent to the 
fall of man, decreed the apostacy and all 
its consequences, determining to save some 
and condemn others, and that in all he does 
he considers his own glory only. 

SUPREM'ACY ( supremitas , the highest 
honour: Lat.), in English polity, the su¬ 
preme and undivided authority of the so¬ 
vereign over all persons and things in this 

realm, whether spiritual or temporal.- 

Oath of supremacy, in Great Britain, an 
oath which acknowledges the supremacy 
of the sovereign in spiritual affairs, and 
abjures the pretended supremacy of the 
pope. 

SURBASE ( Fr .), in Architecture, the up¬ 
per base of a room, consisting of the cor¬ 
nice of the dado. 

SURCIN'GLE {supra, above; and cingu¬ 
lum, a girdle : Lat.), the girdle with which 
clergymen bind their cassocks. Also a girth 
for horses. 

SUR'CULUS. [See Sucker.] 

SURD ( surdus , indistinct: Lat.), in Arith¬ 
metic and Algebra, a magnitude not expres¬ 
sible by rational numbers, thus the square 
root of 2. Surds cannot be expressed ex¬ 
actly by ordinary notations, and are repre¬ 
sented by prefixing the radical sign as V8, 
the square root of 8: ^ 7, the cube root of 
7, &c.; they are termed also, irrational or in¬ 
commensurable quantities. 

SU'RETY ( surete : Fr.), in Law, one who 
enters into a bond or recognizance to an¬ 
swer for another’s appearance in court, for 
his payment of a debt, or for the perfor¬ 
mance of some act, and who, in case of the 
principal’s failure, is compellable to pay the 
penalty, debt, or damages. 

SURF, the swell of the sea which bursts 
upon the shore, or against any rock that lies 
near the surface of the sea. A surge is a 
great wave rolling above the general surface 
of the water. 

SUR'GERY (corrupted from chirurgery : 
cheir, the hand ; and ergon, a work : Or.), 
that branch of medical science which is 
concerned with the cure of disease, or the 
prevention of the ill effects arising from 


[suspension 


injury to the human body by means of 
operations performed by hand assisted by 
suitable instruments. 

SURMUL'I.ET, or Red Mullet, a marine 
fish. [See Mullet.] 

SUR'NAME ( surnom: Fr.), the,family 
name; the name or appellation added to the 
baptismal or Christian name. Camden de¬ 
rives it from sur, as being added over or 
above the other, in a metaphorical sense 
only. The most ancient surnames were 
formed by adding the name of the father 
to that of the son, in which manner w^ere 
produced several English surnames, ending 
with the word son ; thus, Thomas William's 
son, makes Thomas Williamson. The feudal 
system introduced a second description of 
surnames, derived from the names of 
places: as Sutton, Acton, &c.; and these 
were originally written with the particle de 
or of; as Henry de Sutton. Many surnames 
have been adopted from occupations, Miller, 
Cooper, Taylor, &c.; and many from per¬ 
sonal peculiarities. Long, Tall, Short, &c. 

SURREBUTTER, in Law, the answer 
of the plaintiff to the defendant’s re¬ 
butter. 

SURREJOIN'DER, iu Law, a second de¬ 
fence, as the replication is the first, of the 
plaintiff’s declaration in a cause; it is 
an answer to the rejoinder of the de¬ 
fendant. 

SURREN'DER ( surrendre, to yield: old 
Fr.), in Law, a deed testifying that the te¬ 
nant for life or years of lands, &c.yields up 
his estate to him that has the immediate es¬ 
tate in remainder or reversion. 

SUR'ROGATE ( surrogatus, substituted : 
Lat. 1, in the Civil Law, a deputy, or person 
substituted for another. The word is most 
commonly used as the title of a bishop’s 
oli an cellor 

SUR'TURBRAND, fossil wood, found in 
great abundance in Iceland. It extends 
through the whole of the north-western 
part of the island, and is evidently a sub¬ 
terranean forest, impregnated with bitu¬ 
minous matter, and compressed by the 
weight of superincumbent matter. 

SURVEYING (survoir, to overlook: old 
FV.),the art of measuring land, laying down 
its dimensions upon paper, and finding its 
content or area. It is of two kinds, land 
surveying and marine surveying; the former 
having generally in view the measure or 
contents of certain tracts of land, and the 
latter the position of beacons, towers, 
shoals, coasts, &c. Those extensive opera¬ 
tions which have for their object the deter¬ 
mination of the latitude and longitude of 
places, and the length of terrestrial arcs in 
different latitudes, also fall under the gene¬ 
ral term surveying, though they are fre¬ 
quently called trigonometrical surveys. The 
operations of the surveyor are carried on by 
means of various instruments, such as the 
theodolite, the chain, &c., and he requires 
an acquaintance with practical geometry, 
trigonometry, the methods of calculation, 
&c. 

SUS (Lat.), in Zoology, a generic term for 
the animal which is well known by the 
name of the hog, which see. 

SUSPEN'SION (suspendo, I inter,vupt 









C£Tjc -gxtenttfic antf 


730 


suttee] 


Lat.), temporary privation of power, autho¬ 
rity, or rights, usually intended as a punish¬ 
ment. A military or naval officer’s sus¬ 
pension takes place when he is put under 
arrest.-In Law, prevention or interrup¬ 

tion of operation ; as the suspension of the 
habeas corpus act.- Suspension, in Rhe¬ 

toric, a keeping of the hearer in doubt and 
in attentive expectation of what is to 
follow, or what is to be the inference or 
conclusion from the arguments or obser¬ 
vations.— Suspension Bridges. [See 

Bridge.]-Suspension op Arms, a short 

I truce agreed on by hostile armies, in order 
to bury the dead, make proposals for sur¬ 
render, &c.- Points of Suspension, in 

Mechanics, those points in the axis or beam 
of a balance to which the weights are ap¬ 
plied, or from which they are suspended. 

SUTTEE' ( satee , pure : Sans.), the act of 
sacrifice by which a Hindoo widow immo¬ 
lates herself on the funeral pile of her 
husband. Though none of the sacred books 
of the Hindoos absolutely command the 
suttee, they speak of it as highly meritorious, 
and the means of obtaining eternal beati¬ 
tude. It is believed also to render the 
husband and his ancestors happy, and to 
purify him from all offences, even if he 
had killed a Brahmin. Since the year 1756, 
when the British power in India became 
firmly established, upwards of 70,000 Hin¬ 
doo widows have thus been sacrificed. On 
one occasion twenty-eight widows of a 
rajah were burned with his body. The 
institution has been suppressed by the 
English. 

SU'TURE (sutura, a seam : Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, the union of bones by means of 
dentiform margins; as is the case with the 
bones of the skull. 

SWAIN'MOTE.cr SWEIN'MOTE, in Law, 
one of the old forest courts formerly held 
before the verderers, as judges, by the 
steward of the swainmote; the swains 
(swein, a countryman: Sax.) composing 
the jury. 

SWAL'LOW. [See Hirundo, and Swift.] 

SWAMP (Sax.), wet and spongy laud in 
low situations, but not usually covered with 
water. It differs from a bog and a marsh, 
in producing trees and shrubs, while the 
latter produce only herbage, plants, and 
mosses. 

SWAMP-ORE, in Miueralogy, an ore of 
iron found in swamps and morasses, the 
colour of which is a dark yellowish brown 
or gray. It is called also bog-ore, or indu¬ 
rated bog iron ore. 

SWAN, the name given to some large 
aquatic birds belonging to the genus Gyg- 
nus. Four species of this genus are placed 
amongst British birds. The plumage is of 
a pure white colour, and its long arching 
neck gives it a noble appearance. In north¬ 
ern climates, the swans are the ornament 
of the rivers and lakes, over which they 
seem to preside, from the majesty, ease, 
and grace of their movements. They swim 
rapidly, and their flight is powerful and 
long continued ; they live in society, attain 
a great age, and make tlieir nests near the 
margin of the water, upon the ground. 
The wild or whistling swan (U. ferus) has 


a black bill. The tame or mute swan (C. olor) 
has an orange-coloured bill and has a pro¬ 
jecting black callous tubercle or knob on 
the base of the upper mandible. The black 
swan (Cygnus atratus) has a plumage which 
is almost all of a deep black; and at the 
base of its upper mandible,near the nostrils, 
is a bifid protuberance, which is wanting 
in the female. 

SWEDENBOR'GIANS, the followers of 
Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman who died 
in 1772. His doctrines were founded on a 
presumed analogy between spiritual and 
natural things, and are full of mysticism. 
He considered Christ as the one God in 
whom is centred the Divine Trinity; he in¬ 
sisted on the necessity for keeping the 
divine commandments, in which is included 
the performance of every duty. The Swe- j 
denborgians have places of worship in ; 
London, &c., and are greatly increasing in 
America. 

SWIETENIA, in Botany, a genus of j 
plants. The principal species is the Swie- 
tenia mahogoni, the mahogany - tree, or 
native of Central America. [See Mahog¬ 
any.] 

SWIFT, the name given to birds of the 
genus Cypselus. They are closely allied 
to the swallows and martins, but these 
have one of the toes directed backwards, j 
whereas the toes of the swift .are all 
directed forwards. The common swift j 
( C. murarius ) builds under the eaves of 
houses, or in holes in steeples. It is in 
the habit of continuing on the wing in 
the rapid pursuit of insects for hours 
together. 

SWIM'MING, the progressive motion of 
an animal body in water. A large propor¬ 
tion of the animal tribes are furnished with 
a greater or less capacity for swimming. 
Fishes are wholly adapted to it; amphibious 
creatures, as much, if not more, than to 
walking ; web-footed birds pass a consider¬ 
able part of their existence upon the surface 
of the water, and many of them occasionally 
make their way beneath it. The same may 
be said of innumerable species of insects; 
and all quadrupeds are at least capable of 
preserving their lives, if accident immerses 
them in this element, while some resort to 
it with peculiar readiness. Man alone is in¬ 
capable of swimming, without learning to 
do so as an art. The reason of this peculiar 
inability of the human race is attributed to 
the construction of the body, and especially 
of the head, from which results a situation 
of the centre of gravity wholly different 
from that in quadrupeds. Of man, the 
head with respect to the body, and com¬ 
pared with the heads of other animals, as 
proportioned to their bodies, is singularly 
heavy; a quality occasioned by the larger 
quantity of flesh, bones, and brain with 
which it is furnished ; and the absence of 
those sinuses or cavities which, like air- 
bladders, lighten that of other animals. 
The head of a man, therefore, sinks by its 
own gravity; and, thus exposing the body 
to fill with water, causes him to drown. 
Brutes, on the other hand, are able to keep 
their nostrils above water with facility, and, 
thus respiring freely, are, on the principles 


























731 fLttcrarn Crcatfut'in [syllogism 

of statics, out of danger. From these ob¬ 
servations it will follow, that the art of 
swimming, which can be acquired by exer¬ 
cise only, chiefly consists in keeping the 
head above water; and that the hands and 
feet are to be used as oars and helm, in 
guiding the course of the vessel. With 
proper management the human body is 
capable of floating, as its specific gravity 
is, in reality less than that of water. [See 
Drowning.] 

SWING. A ship at anchor is said to 
stving when she changes her position at 
the turn of the tide. 

SWING'WHEEL, in Horology, the wheel 
which drives the pendulum. In a watch, 
or balance-clock, it is called the crown¬ 
wheel. 

SWIY'EL, in Gunnery, a piece of artillery, 
fixed on a socket on the top of a ship’s side, 
stem, or bow, or in her tops, in such a 
manner as to be turned in any direction. 

.-A strong link of iron used in mooring 

ships, and which permits the bridles to be 
turned round. 

SWORD-FISH, the name given to some 
fishes belonging to the genera Xiphias and 
i Hisliophorus. Their snouts are armed with 
a long bony weapou.witli which they attack 
other fishes. The common sword-fish (Xi- 
j phias gladius) inhabits the Atlanticand the 
Mediterranean, and attains the length of 
14 or 15 feet. It has been known to drive 
its sword into a ship, and there leave it 
! firmly embedded. 

SYR'ARITE an inhabitant of Sybaris, 
formerly a town on the Gulph of Tarentiu 
in Italy, whose inhabitants, having become 
enervated by slavery to sensual pleasures, 
were easily subdued by the Crotonians. 
The term is applied metaphorically to de¬ 
signate an effeminate voluptuary. 

SYCEE SILVER (sc sze, flue gloss silk: 
Chin.), a silver currency among the 
Chinese. It is formed into ingots, stamped 
with the mark of the office from which 
they are issued. They are of various 
weights, but generally amount to ten taels 
each. 

SYC'ITE ( sukites, like a fig : Gr.), or FIG- 
STONE, a name sometimes given to nodules 
of flint or pebbles which resemble a fig. 

SYC'OMORE (sukomoros, the fig-mulberry, 
Gr.). The true sycomore is an eastern tree 
belonging to the fig tribe, the Ficus syco- 
onoros of botanists. The name sycamore 
has been given to a species of maple grown 
in Britain, the Acer pseudo-platanus of bo¬ 
tanists. 

SYC'OPIIANT (sulcophantes; from suleon, 
a fig; and phaino, I inform against: Gr.), an 
obsequious flatterer or parasite. This word 
was originally used to denote an informer 
against those who plundered sacred fig- 
trees, or exported figs contrary to law. 
Hence, In time it came to signify a tale¬ 
bearer or informer in general ; thence a 
flatterer, deceiver, or parasite. 

SYENITE in Geology, a plutonic rock 
resembling granite in external appearance, 
but composed of quartz, felspar, and horn¬ 
blende. It derives its name from having 
been obtained at the ancient quarries of 
Byene in Egypt. When it loses its quartz 

it gradually passes into syenitic greenstone, 
a rock of the trap series. 

SYL'LABLE ( sullabS ; from sullambano, 

I,take together: Gr.), in Grammar, a combi¬ 
nation of letters uttered by a single effort 
or impulse of the voice,as can; ora single 
letter, as o in over. At least one vowel or 
open sound is essential to the formation of 
a syllable. 

SY r L'LABUS (a list: Lat.; from sullabos; 
Gr.), an abstract, or compendium containing 
the heads of a discourse, &c. 

SYLLEP'SIS (sullepsis; from sullam- 
bano, 1 take together: Gr.), in Grammar, a 
figure by which we conceive the sense of 
words otherwise than the words import, aud 
construe them according to the intention 
of the author. Also, where two nominative 
cases singularof different persons arc joined 
to a verb : or substantives of different 
gender to the same adjective—as Rex et 
Regina beati, or the agreement of a verb or 
adjective, not with the word next to it, but 
with the most worthy : as ‘ Rex et Regina 
beati.’ 

SYL'LOGISM ( sullogismos ; from sullo- 
gizomai, I bring at once before the mind : 
Gr.), in Logic, an argument consisting of 
three propositions; the two first of which 
are called the premises, and the last the con¬ 
clusion. Syllogisms are nothing more than 
our reasoning reduced to form and method; 
and every act of reasoning implies three . 
several judgments, so every syllogism must 
include three distinct propositions. Thus, 
in the following syllogism:—‘Every crea¬ 
ture possessed of reason and liberty is 
accountable for his actions;’ ‘Man is a 
creature possessed of reason and liberty:’ 

‘ Therefore man is accountable for his ac¬ 
tions.’ These propositions are denominated 
the major, the minor, and the conclusion. 
-An analogical syllogism founds the con¬ 
clusion upon similitude; ‘ As the base is to 
the column, so is justice to the common¬ 
wealth ; but if the base be withdrawn, the 
column is overturned ; therefore if justice 
is taken away, the commonwealth is over¬ 
turned.’-An hypothetical syllogism is one 

in which the conclusion is deduced from 
an hypothetical premiss, called the major, 
aud a categorical premiss called the minor. 

A syllogism is either conditional or disjunc¬ 
tive; if conditional it is either constructive 
or destructive. A disjunctive may easily be 
reduced to a conditional syllogism. ‘ With 
a categorical syllogism, that is, one contain¬ 
ing three categorical propositions—and 
all syllogisms can be reduced to such—if 
two of the terms agree with the same third 
term, they agree with one another; if one 
of the terms agrees with and another 
disagrees with, the same third term, the 
two first disagree with one another.’ Every 
syllogism has three terms, the middle term, 
aud two extremes—designated the major 
and minor terms. The subject of the con¬ 
clusion is the minor term; its predicate, 
the major term ; and that with which they 
are compared is the middle term. In the 
major premiss, the major term is compared 
with the middle; in the minor premiss 
the minor term is compared with the 
middle ; and in the conclusions, the major 





























Cl )t ^ctcnttfi'c antf 


732 


symbol] 


and minor terms are compared together. 
The middle term must he distributed once 
at least in the premises—that is, it must he 
the subject of a universal, or the predicate 
of a negative proposition ; otherwise the 
two extremes may he compared, not with 
the same thing, hut with two different parts 
of the middle term. No term must he dis¬ 
tributed in the conclusions which is not 
distributed in one of the premises ; other¬ 
wise, the whole term would he employed in 
the conclusion, and apart of it only in the 
premiss, in which case the error is termed 
an illicit process of the major or minor 
premiss. Nothing can be inferred from two 
negative propositions. If one premiss is 
negative, the conclusion must be negative, 
because one of the extremes disagreeing 
with the middle term, they must disagree 

with one another.-The mood or mode of 

a syllogism is the designation of its pro¬ 
positions, according to the respective 
quantities, that is, whether universal or 
particular ; and qualities, that is, whether 
affirmative or negative : A is used to repre¬ 
sent a universal affirmative proposition, 
thus—* all men are mortalE, a universal 
negative, thus—* no man is always wise : ’ 
I, a particular affirmative, thus—* some men 
are revengefuland O, a particular nega¬ 
tive, thus— 4 some men do not live to be old.’ 
There may be sixty-four combinations of 
these letters, and therefore of the proposi¬ 
tions which they represent; but many of 
the corresponding syllogisms err against 
some of the rules given above; and only 
eleven will be found to afford correct syllo¬ 
gisms.-The figure of a syllogism consists 

in the situation of the middle term, with 
reference to the major and minor terms. 
In the 1st figure, the middle term is the 
subject of the major premiss, and the pre¬ 
dicate of the minor; in the 2nd figure, the 
middle term is the predicate of both pre¬ 
mises ; in the 3rd figure, it is the subject of 
both ; and in the 4th figure, it is the predi¬ 
cate of the major, and the subject of the 
minor. Multiplying the moods by the 
figures, we obtain forty-four different syl¬ 
logisms ; but of these five in each figure 
would err against some of the rules given 
above; and of the remaining twenty-four, 
flveare unnecessary, particular conclusions 
being inferred in them, from premises 
which would warrant universal. The re¬ 
maining nineteen have been expressed by 
the following mnemonic lines. 

Fig. 1.—4 Moods. bArbArA, cElArEnt, 
dArll, fErlOque, prioris. 

Fig. 2.-4 Moods. cEsArE, cAmEsfrEs, 
fEstlnO, bArOkO, secundte. 

Fig. 3.—6 Moods, tertia, dArAptl, dlsAmls, 
dAflsI, fElAptOn, bOkArdO, fErlsOn, 
habet: quarta insuper addit. 

Fig. 4.-5 Moods. brAmAntlp, cAmEnEs, 
dlmArls, fEsApO, fErlsOn. 

As examples we may select a syllogism in 
the first mow! of the first figure. 4 A. all 
men are animals : A. all animals are mortal: 
ergo (therefore : Lat), A. all men are mor¬ 
tal.’ And the last mood of the fourth 
figure, 4 E. No good man is cruel: I. some 
cruel men are brave: therefore, O. some 
brave men are iiot good men.’ Almost 


every argument, however disguised by the 
language, may be reduced to a mood in one 
of the first three figures. In reducing a 
syllogism, the premises may be illatively 
converted, or transposed [see Illative Con¬ 
version]. The major does not always pre¬ 
cede the minor premises. 4 John is a just 
man: just men pay their debts : therefore 
John pays his debts,’ is a syllogism in Bar¬ 
bara, with the major premises following 
the minor. 

SYM'BOL ( sumbolon; from suniballo, I 
bring together: Gr.), a word of many 
meanings, though used at present with but 
one. The original signification was the 
making several things contribute to form 
one whole; thus creeds were termed sym¬ 
bols, being a collection of articles of faith. 
But the word is now used to express out¬ 
ward appearances, intended to indicate 
something: in which sense the Greeks 
called their standards symbols, and the j 
early Christians, all rites, ceremonies, sa- ! 

craments, &c.- Symbol, in Chemistry, an 

abbreviation of the name of all elementary I 
body; thus Ag is written for silver (Argen¬ 
tum) ; Pb for lead (Plumbum).-In the 

Eucharist, the bread and wine are called by | 
Protestants symbols of the body and blood 

of Christ.- Symbolical books, are such as i 

contain the creeds and confessions of dif- | 

ferent churches.- Symbolical philosophy, 

isa philosophy expressed by hieroglyphics. 

SYMPATHETIC INK, the name given 
to any chemical composition which may be : 
used as ink, but the writing will be invisi¬ 
ble until the paper is warmed, or until it 
is washed over with some other liquid. 
Thus if the ink be a solution of sulphate of 
iron, the writing will not be perceived un¬ 
til it is washed with tincture of galls. 
Again, if we write with a solution of hydro- 
chlorate of copper, nothing will be seen 
upon the paper until it is held to the fire. 
The writing will become invisible once 
more when the paper is cool. 

SYM'PATHY (sumpatheia; from sumpa- 
theo, I feel along: with: Gr.), the feeling of 
being affected similarly to some other per¬ 
son. According to Adam Smith it is in 
sympathy that our moral sense takes its 

rise.-In Medicine, sympathy, or 4 consent 

of parts,’ signifies a correspondence of va¬ 
rious parts of the body in similar sensa¬ 
tions or affections; or an affection of the 
whole body or some part of it, in conse¬ 
quence of an injury or disease of another 

part.-A sympathetic disease is one which 

is produced by a remote cause, as when a 
fever follows a local injury. In this case, 
the word is opposed to idiopathetic ; which 
denotes either an original disease, or that 
which is produced by a proximate cause. 
-In Anatomy, the term sympathetic is ap¬ 
plied to two nerves (the great intercostal 
and the facial nerves) from the opinion 
that their communications are caused by 
sympathies. 

SYM'PHONY ( sumphbnia: Gr.), in Music, 
primarily signifies a consonance or har¬ 
mony of sounds, agreeable to the ear, 
either vocal or instrumental, or both. It 
means, at present, a piece of concerted 
music composed of several parts. Moxart 
















733 


Ettcrarii 


and Beethoven have written some fine 
compositions of this class. 

SYM'PHYSIS ( sumphusis, a growing to¬ 
gether: Gr.), in Anatomy, an immovable 
union of bones.-In Surgery, a coales¬ 

cence of a natural passage; also, the first 
intention of cure in a wound. 

SYMPO'SIARCH {sumposiarchos; from 
sumposion, a drinking party; and archo, 
I govern : Gr.), among the ancients the di¬ 
rector .and manager of an entertainment. 
This office was sometimes performed by 
the person at whose expense the feast was 
provided; and sometimes by the person 
whom he thought fit to nominate. The 
feasts of the ancient Greeks were termed 
symposia; but those of the Romans convi- 
via {con, alongwith ; and vivo, I live: Lat.)\ 
and Cicero remarks that the Romans were 
much more happy than the Greeks in 
choosing a word to signify an entertain¬ 
ment ; since their idea was founded on 
mutual intercourse; while that of the 
Greeks had reference to the mere animal 
gratification derived from drinking. 

SYMP'TOM {sumptoma; from sumpipto, 
I fall in with: Gr.), in Medicine, any ap¬ 
pearance in a disease which serves to indi¬ 
cate or point out its cause, approach, dura¬ 
tion, event, &c. Particular symptoms which 
more uniformly accompany a morbid state 
of the body, and are characteristic of it, are 
called patjiogonomic or diagnostic symptoms. 
In a strict sense, however, symptom means 
no more than the consequences of diseases, 
and of their causes, exclusive of the dis¬ 
eases and causes themselves.-A symp¬ 

tomatic disease is one which proceeds from 
some prior disorder; as a symptomatic 
fever, proceeding from local pain or local 
inflammation. It is opposed to idiopathic. 

SYMPTOMATOL'OGY {sumptoma, a 
symptom; and logos, a discourse: Gr.), that 
part of the science of medicine which 
treats of the symptoms of diseases. 

SYNiE'RESIS {sunairesis; from sunaireo, 
I bring together: Gr.), in Grammar, the 
contraction of two syllables into one : by the 
formation of a diphthong, or by rendering 
one of them mute; as Atreides, for Atrel- 
des. It is also termed crasis. 

SYNAGOGUE {sunagOge, literally, a 
bringing together: Gr.), the building ap¬ 
propriated to the religious worship of the 
Jews; or the congregation who assemble 
in it, for the performance of their religious 
rites. It is supposed that there was no 
synagogue until after the captivity of 
Babylon. The service of the synagogue 
consisted anciently, as at present, of 
prayers, reading, and exposition of the 
Scriptures, and preaching. The lessons from 
Scripture consisted of passages from Deute¬ 
ronomy and Numbers, the law, and the pro¬ 
phets. 

SYNALCE'PHA {sunaloiphe, literally a 
melting together: Gr.), in Classical pro¬ 
sody, the running of the syllable of one 
line into the first syllable of the next. It 
is occasionally used in modern languages, 
even including our own. 

SYNARTHRO'SIS {sunarthrosis; from 
sunarthroo, I link together :• Gr.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a species of articulation, where there 


[synechia 


is only an obscure motion, as in the bones of 
the carpus and metacarpus, &c.; or where 
there is no motion at all, as in the sutures 
of the skull. 

SYN'CHISIS {sun, together; and cliusis, 
a pouring out: Gr.), in Rhetoric, a confused 
and disorderly placing of words in a sen¬ 
tence. 

SYNCHONDRO'SIS {sun, with; and chon- 
dros, a cartilage : Gr.), in Anatomy, a species 
of symphysis; being the union of two 
bones by means of a cartilage: as in the 
vertebra?. 

SYNCHORE'SIS {sun, along with; and 
choresis, a holding: Gr.), in Rhetoric, a 
figure of speech in which an argument is 
scoffingly conceded, for the purpose of re¬ 
torting it more pointedly. 

SYNCHRONISM {sun, along with; and 
chronismos, a duration : Gr.), in Chronology, 
concurrence of two or more events in time. 
- Synchronal, simultaneous, or happen¬ 
ing at the same time. 

SYNCLI'NAL, in Geology. [See Anti¬ 
clinal.] 

SYN'COPATE {next), in a primary sense, 
to contract; as a word, by taking one or 
more letters or syllables from the middle. 

-In Music, to prolong a note begun on 

the unaccented part of a bar, to the ac¬ 
cented part of the next bar; or to connect 
the last note of a bar with the first of the 
following. 

SYN'COPE {sunkopS, a cutting short: 
Gr.), in Grammar, an elision or retrench¬ 
ment of a letter or syllable from the 
middle of a word.-In Medicine, a swoon¬ 

ing, in which the patient continues with¬ 
out any sensible motion or respiration; ac¬ 
companied with a suspension of the action 
of the brain and a temporary loss of sensa¬ 
tion and volition.-In Music, the prolong¬ 

ing of a note, begun on the unaccented 
part of a bar, to the accented part of the 
next bar; or the division of a note intro¬ 
duced when two or more notes of one part 
answer to a single note of another. The 
word syncopation is, however, more fre¬ 
quently used in music. 

SYN'CRISIS {sun, together; and krisis, a 
judgment: Gr.), in Rhetoric, a figure of 
speech in which opposite persons or things 
are compared. 

SYNDES'MUS {sundesmos, literally that 
which binds together : Gr.), in Anatomy, a 
ligament for binding together the bones 
and other parts.-In Grammar, a conjunc¬ 

tion. 

SYN'DIC {sundikos, helping in a court of 
justice: Gr.), an officer invested with dif¬ 
ferent powers in different countries; gene¬ 
rally a kind of magistrate entrusted with 
the affairs of a city or community. The 
university of Cambridge has its syndics i 
and in Paris almost all the companies, the 
university, &c. have theirs. In Prance, the 
creditors of a bankrupt appoint syndics or 
directors from among themselves. 

SYNEC'DOCHE {sunekdoclie: Gr.), in 
Rhetoric, a figure or trope by which the 
whole of a thing is put for a part, or a part 
for the whole; as the genus for the species, 
or the species for the genus, &c. 
SYNE'CHIA (swnecheia, an unbroken 














syngenesia] Cljf ^a'cnttfic aittf 731 


connection: Gr.), in Medicine, a concretion 
of tlie iris of the eye with the cornea, or 
with the capsule of the crystalline lens. 

SYNGENE'SIA {sun, along with; and 
genesis, a production : Gr.), the 19tli class 
of the Linnsean system of plants, contain¬ 
ing several orders, in which the stamens 
are united in a cylindrical form by the an¬ 
thers. Such plants constitute the nat. 
ord. Composites. 

SY'NOCHA (sunoche, a meeting : Gr.), in 
Medicine, a species of continued fever, at¬ 
tended with symptoms denoting general 
inflammation in the system. 

SY'NOCHUS (same deriv.), in Medicine, a 
species of mixed fever, commencing with 
symptoms of synoclia, and terminating in 
typhus. 

SYN'OD ( sunodos; from sun, together; 
and oclos, a way—literally, a journeying to¬ 
gether : Gr.), in Ecclesiastical affairs, a 
council or meeting to consult on matters of 
religion. In Scotland, a synod is composed 
of several adjoining presbyteries. The 
members arc the ministers, and a ruling 
elder from each .parish.- Synod, in Astro¬ 

nomy, a conjunction, or concourse of two 
or more stars dr planets, in the same op¬ 
tical place of - the heavens.- Synodical 

month, a lunar month; the period from one 
conjunction of the moon with the sun to 
another. This is called also a lunation, be¬ 
cause in the course of it the moon exhibits 
all its phases. 

SYN'ONYME, or SYN'ONYM ( sundnimia, 
a likeness of name: Gr.), a word having 
the same signification as some other word. 
We rarely And two words precisely synony¬ 
mous in all situations; though many are 
sometimes synonymous, and at other times 
not so. Thus, when we speak of the large 
rolling swell of the sea, we may call it a 
leave, or a billow; but when we speak of 
the small swell of a pond, we may call it a 
wave, but not a billow. 

SYNOP'SIS (a seeing all together: Gr.), 
a collection of things or parts so arranged 
as to exhibit the whole or the principal 
parts in a general view. 

SYNO'VIA {sun, along with; and oon, an 
egg: Gr.), in Anatomy, the fluid which 
lubricates the articulations of the bones; 
and which is for that purpose secreted in 
the cavities of the joints. It is glairy, and 
somewhat resembles the white of an egg. 

SYNTAX {suntaxis, literally, a putting 
together in order: Gr.), that division of 
grammar which analyzes the dependence 
of parts of speech upon one another, and 
supplies rules for their mutual govern¬ 
ment. Syntax, as an art, may be divided 
into two branches: the one common to 
all languages, and by which words are 
made to agree in gender, number, case, 
person, and mood ; the other peculiar to 
each language, and by which one mood is 
made to govern another, and the conse¬ 
quent variations effected: the first of 
these is called concord; the second govern¬ 
ment. It has been said that the first 
merit of language is intelligibility; its first 


grace, purity; and that every other excel¬ 
lence is subordinate. Syntax, then, especi¬ 
ally deserves attention : as neither intelligi¬ 
bility nor purity of style can be found where 
the rules of syntax are violated. 

SYNTHESIS {sunthesis, a putting to¬ 
gether : Gr. 1, in Antiquity, a loose robe 

worn by the Romans at their meals.- 

In Chemistry, the uniting of elements 
into a compound : the opposite of analysis, 
which is the separation of a compound into 
its constituent parts.-In Logic, that pro¬ 

cess of reasoning in which we advance by 
a regular chain from principles before esta¬ 
blished or assumed, and propositions al¬ 
ready proved, till we arrive at the conclu¬ 
sion. The synthetical is therefore opposed 
to the analytical method. 

SY'EHERING, in Sliip-building, the lap 
ping the edge of one plank over the edge 
of another in constructing the bulkheads. 

SYRIN'GA {surinx, a pipe : Gr. ; from its 
branches constituting tubes, when the pith 
is removed), in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. Oleaccce, containing the lilacs. The 
species cultivated in this country are na¬ 
tives of Persia. The shrub to which the 
namesyriuga is popularly given is a species 
of Philadelphus, a native of the south of 
Europe. 

SYRINGOT'OMY ( surinx, a pipe; and 
tome, a cutting: Gr.), in Surgery, the ope 
ration of cutting for the fistula. 

SYSSARCO'SIS {sussarkosis ; from sun, 
with ; and sane, flesh : Gr.), in Anatomy, a 
species of union of bones in which one is 
united to another, by means of an interven¬ 
ing muscle. 

SYSTEM {sustema, a complex whole: 
Gr.), in Science and Philosophy, a whole 
plan or scheme, consisting of many parts 
connected in such a manner as to create 
a chain of mutual dependencies; or a 
regular union of principles or parts form¬ 
ing one entire thing. Thus, we say, the 
planetary system, or the whole of the bodies 
supposed to belong to each other ; a system 
of Botany, or that which comprehends the 
whole science of plants ; a system of Philo¬ 
sophy, or a theory or doctrine which em¬ 
braces the whole of philosophy. 

SYSTOLE ( sustolS, a contracting: Gr.), 
in Anatomy, the contraction of the ven¬ 
tricles of the heart, for expelling the blood 
and carrying on the circulation; the op¬ 
posite state to which is called the Diastole, 

or dilatation of the heart.-In Grammar, 

the shortening of a long syllable. 

SYS'TYLE {sun, together ; and stulos, a 
column : Gr.), in Architecture, the disposi¬ 
tion of columns in a building near to each 
other, but not quite so much so, as in the 
pycnostyle; the intercolumniation being 
only two diameters of the column. 

SYZY'GIA {suzvgia, a yoking together: 
Gr.), in Grammar, the coupling different 
feet together, in Greek or Latin verse. 

SYZ'YGY (same deriv.), in Astronomv; a 
term equally used for the conjunction and 
opposition of the moon and planets, with 
the sun. 













735 fkttcrary Cria^ttrj), [taboo 

T 


T, the twentieth letter and sixteenth 
consonant in the English alphabet, is a 
dental, or pnlato-dental; and susceptible of 
numerous interchanges, both in ancient 
and modern languages. It is numbered 
among the mutes, and differs from d chiefly 
in its closeness, the strength with which 
thebreath isemitted in pronounclngtbeing 
all that distinguishes them. Its natural 
sound is heard in take, turn, bat, bolt, butter. 
Its use is to modify the mannerof uttering 
the vocal sound which precedes or follows 
it. When t is followed by h, as in think and 
that, the combination forms a distinct 
sound, which is almost peculiar to the 
English language, and for which we have 
no single character; these sounds differ, 
think being aspirated, and that being vocal. 
Another sound is also produced by its com¬ 
bination with i, the letters ti usually pass¬ 
ing into the sound of sh, as in nation, 
position, substantiate, &c. In a few words, 
the combination ti has the sound of the 
English ch, as in Christian. As an abbrevia¬ 
tion, T was used by the Romans for Titus, 
Tullius, &c.: as M. T. Cicero, Marcus Tullius 
' Cicero. The Roman Tribunes indicated 
| their assent to the decrees of the senate, 
by subscribing a T. We use it for Theo- 
logice &c.: as S. T. P. Sacras Theologice Pro¬ 
fessor (Professor of Sacred Theology).-In 

Music, T signifies tenor; and tace, to indicate 
silence; it also stands for trillo, a shake; 
and in concertos and symphonies it is like¬ 
wise the sign of tutti, a direction to the 
whole band to play after a solo. 

TA'BARD, a kind of tunic, covering the 
I body before and behind, reaching below the 
loins, but open at the sides, from the 
shoulders downwards; it was a usual 
article of dress in the middle ages: blazoned 
with coats of arms, it is the dress of the 
heralds at present. 

TABASHEEE/ ( Persian ), a substance 
| found in the joints of the bamboo, which is 
highly valued in the East Indies as a medi¬ 
cine; but, as it is pure silex, its utility is 
merely imaginary. 

TAB'BY ( tabino: Hal), in Commerce, a 
thick kind of taffeta, watered or figured, by 
I means of a calender, the iron or copper rolls 
j of which are engraved. The parts engraved 
pressing upon the stuff occasion that ine¬ 
quality of the service by which the rays of 

light are differently reflected.- Tabbying, 

the passing of silk, mohair, or other stuffs 
under a calender, to give them a wavy ap¬ 
pearance. 

TABERDARS, the name of some of the 
scholars at Queen’s College, Oxford. 

| TAB'ERNACLE (tabernacidum, a tent: 
Lat.), among the Jews, a kind of tent or 
movable building, placed in the middle of 
the camp, for the performance of religious 
worship, sacrifices, &c., during the wander- 
j ings of the Israelites in the wilderness; and 
! made use of for the same purpose till the 
I building of the temple of Jerusalem. It was 


of a rectangular figure, thirty cubits long, 

ten broad, and ten high.- The Feast of 

Tabernacles, a solemn festival of the Jews, 
observed after harvest, on the fifteenth day 
of the month Tisri; instituted to comme¬ 
morate the goodness of God, who protected 

them in the wilderness_ Tabernacle is 

also used to signify the box in which the 
Host is kept on the altar in Roman Catholic 
churches; and for the niche or cabinet in 
which relics, images, &c., are preserved. 

TA'BES ( Lat.), in Medicine, a wasting of 
the body : emaciation : atrophy. 

TABLE ( tabula: Lat.), In Anatomy, a 

division of the cranium or skull.-In 

Arithmetic, any series of numbers, formed 
so as to expedite calculations, as the tables 

of weights and measures.-In Astronomy, 

computations of the motions and other 

phenomena of the heavenly bodies.-In ! 

the glass manufacture, a circular sheet of 
finished glass, usually about four feet in 
diameter, weighing 10 or lllbs., twelve of 

which make a side or crate of glass.-In 

Heraldry, escutcheons containing nothing 
but the mere colour of the field, and not ; 
charged with any bearing, are called tables i 
(tattente, tables of expectation, or tabulae 

rasas. -Among jewellers, a table diamond, 

or other precious stone, is that whose upper 
surface is quite flat, and only the sides cut 
in angles.——In Literature, a collection of 
heads or principal matters contained in a 
book, with references to the pages where 
each may be found; as, a table of contents. 

-In Mathematics, a system of numbers 

calculated for expediting astronomical, 
geometrical, and other operations: thus we 
say, tables of the Stars; tables of Sines, Tan¬ 
gents, and Secants ; tables of Logarithms, 

&c.-In Religion, a division of the ten 

commandments; as, the first and second 
tables. The first table comprehends the 
laws regarding God, the second those re¬ 
garding man.- Table, in perspective, 

the transparent or perspective plane.- 

Knights of the round table, a military order 
said to have been instituted by Arthur, the 

first king of the Britons, a.d. 516.- Laivs 

of the twelve tables, the first set of laws of 
the Romans, so called, probably, because 
they were engraved on tables or plates of 
copper, to be exposed in the most public 
part of the forum. 

TABLEAUX VIVANTS (living pictures : 
Fr.), groups of persons, so dressed and 
placed as to represent paintings, statuary, j 
scenes described by poets, &c. They are 
usually thus managed; a frame is made of 
sufficient width, covered with gauze, behind 
which the persons stand in appropriate 
attitudes and costume: lamps being so 
placed as to reflect light on the group from 
above. 

TABOO', a word used by the South Sea 
islanders to denote something consecrated, 
sacred, and forbidden to be touched, or set 
aside for particular uses and persons. 





























tabular spar] Cljc J^ricnttftc attfJ 736 

TAB'ULAR SPAR ( tabularis , pertaining 
to thin plates : Lat.), a silicate of lime, of a 
i grayish white colour, whose primary form 
is regarded as a doubly-obliciue prism. Be¬ 
fore the blowpipe it melts on the edges into 
a semi-transparent colourless enamel. 

TACAMAHAC'A, or TAC'AMAHAC 
( Ind .), a resin of doubtful origin ; brought 
from America in large oblong masses, 
wrapped in flag leaves ; of a light brown 
colour, and an aromatic smell between that 
of lavender and •musk. 

TACK, the course of a ship with regard 
to the position of her sails ; as the starboard 
tack or larboard tack : the wind, in the for¬ 
mer case, being on the starboard, in the 

latter, on the larboard side. - To tack, to 

change the course of a ship by shifting the 
position of the sails from one side to the 
other. 

TAC'KLE, the rigging, blocks, and other 
apparatus of a ship. Also a machine for 
raising and lowering heavy weights, con¬ 
sisting of a rope and blocks or pulleys. 

TAC'TICS ( taktikos , suited to arranging: 
Or.), a term which, in its most extensive 
sense, relates to those evolutions, man¬ 
oeuvres and positions which constitute the 
main spring of military and naval finesse. 
Tactics are the means by which discipline 
is made to support the operations of a cam¬ 
paign, and are studied for the purpose of 
training all the component parts according 
to one regular plan or system ; by means of 
which, celerity, precision, and strength are 
combined, and the whole rendered effective. 

TADOR'NA.or SHELDRAKE [which see]. 

TADTOLE (fad, a toad ; and pola, ayoung 
one: Sax.), a young frog, before it has as¬ 
sumed its adult form. [See Frog.] 

TiE'NIA (tainia, literally a band: (7r.), in 
Architecture, the lintel which separates 
the architrave from the frieze, in the Doric 

order. - Tjenia, in Natural History, the 

Tape worm, an intestinal worm infesting 
mammalia, reptiles, and fish. This genus of 
entozoa is usually found in the alimentary 
canal; generally at the upper part of it. 
Tape worms are sometimes collected in 
great numbers, so as to occasion the most 
distressing disorders. Each individual is in 
reality a colony of several hundred in a 
single file. The proglottis, or so-called head, 
containing eggs which have been developed 
into embryos, detaches itself, and finding 
its way into the open fields, &c., bursts and 
scatters the embryos, each of which finds 
its way into the flesh of some animal, ren¬ 
dering it measled, and after being further 
developed, enters the body of some other 
animal which eats the measled meat raw, 
or badly cooked. 

TAF'FRAIL, the upper rail of a ship’s 
stern : being a curved piece of wood, gene¬ 
rally ornamented with carved work.. 

TAL'BOT, in Sporting, a sort of hunting 
dog between a hound and a beagle; with a 
arge snout, and long, round, pendulous 
ears. It is remarkable for the eagerness 
with which it finds out the haunts of game, 
and pursues it. 

TAGLIACOTIAN OPERATION. That 
used for restoring the nose. Tagliacotius, 
a Venetian surgeon, who wrote upon it, in 

1598, and proposed the formation of the 
new organ from a piece cut out of the 
shoulder or arm, is generally considered 
its inventor; but the operation seems to 
have been practised in India from the 
earliest times ; and it was frequently em¬ 
ployed by the Italians, but particularly the 
Romans — with whom the loss of the nose 
was often inflicted as a punishment. In 
modern times an artificial nose is formed 
with a triangular piece of skin, cut out of 
the forehead, and turned with its apex 
downwards, so as to adhere to the newly 
cut surface of the mutilated organ. 

TALC, in Mineralogy, a well known 
species of magnesian earth, the colour of 
which is generally one of the shades of 
green. It consists of broad laminae or 
plates ; is soft and unctuous to the touch ; 
lias a shining lustre, and is often transpa¬ 
rent. By the action of heat, the laminae 
open a little, the fragment swells, and the 
extremities are, though with difficulty, 
fused into a white enamel. The Romans pre¬ 
pared a beautiful blue, by combining talc 
with the colouring fluid of particular kinds 
of testaceous animals. They employed it 
both for window-lights and for the pave¬ 
ment of magnificent buildings ; and it is 
still used in many parts of India and China, 
in windows, instead of glass. It is found 
in various parts of the world. In England, 
Northamptonshire is the district most pe¬ 
culiarly known for this production; and it 
is met with in the northern parts of Scot¬ 
land. 

TAIL, or FEE-TAIL ( tailler, to prune : 
Fr.), in Law, an estate or fee limited to a 
person, and the heirs of his body, general 
or special, male or female ; opposed to fee- 
simple. [See Fee and Entail.] The estate, 
provided the entail be not barred, reverts 
to the donor or reversioner, if the donee 
die without proper heirs, 

TAL'ENT ( talanton , literally, a thing 
weighed : Or.), among the Ancients, the 
name of a Grecian weight, of different 
amounts ; but usually about half a hun¬ 
dred-Also, a sum of money, the true 

value of which cannot well be ascertained : 
but it is known that it was different among 
different nations. Among the Hebrews, 
there was both a talent of gold and a talent 
of silver ; the former was worth 5,475 1. ; the 
latter, 342/. 3s. 9 d. The Attic talent, that 
most commonly used by the Greeks, is sup¬ 
posed to have been worth 243/. 15s. The 
greater talent of the Romans was worth 99/. 

6s. 8 d. ; and the less CO/., or as some say 75/. 
Their great talent was equivalent to 1,125/. 

TA'LES, in Law ; if, v r hen proceeding to 
the trial of a cause by a special jury, there 
arc not a sufficient number of special jurors 
present, either party may pray a tales ; that 
is, may ask the judge to allow a sufficient 
number of qualified men, who happen to be 
present (tales de circumstantibus) to be 
joined with the jurors, so as to make up 
the number of twelve. 

TAL'ISMAN, a word of Arabic origin, 
signifying a figure cast or cut in metal or 
stone ; and made, with certain superstitious 
ceremonies, during some particular confi¬ 
guration of the heavens ; as when planets 












737 Ettcrary 


are in conjunction ; and supposed to have 
extraordinary influence in averting disease. 
But, in a more extensive sense, the word 
talisman is used to denote any object in 
nature or art, the presenceof which checks 
the power of spirits or demons, and defends 
the wearer from their malice. The talisman 
seems to differ from the armlet, in the more 
extensive power attributed to it. 

TAL'LOW, the suet of the ox and sheep, 
melted and strained, to separate it from the 
membrane. It is a most important article, 
in commerce. The drier the food on which 
the animals are fed, the more solid is the 
tallow; hence the Russian is the best; as 
the animals whence it is obtained are, in 
that country, fed for eight months of the 
year on dry fodder. It consists of carbon, 
hydrogen, and some oxygen. [See Fat.] 
Besides the large quantity of tallow pro¬ 
duced in this country, we imported, in 
1858,1,235,789 cwt., the value of which was 
3,042,381 Z. 

TAL'LOW-TREE, the Stillingia sebifera, 
nat. ord. Fuphorbiacece, a remarkable tree 
growing in great plenty iu China; so called 
from its producing a substance like tallow, 
applicable to the same purposes. The tal- 
low-tree is about the height of the cherry- 
tree ; the foliage resembles the Lombardy 
poplar; and at the end of the season the 
leaves turn bright red. The fruit, which 
is enclosed by a kind of coat resembling 
that of a chestnut, is composed of three 
grains, of the size and form of a small nut. 
The capsules and seeds are crushed toge¬ 
ther and boiled; the fatty matter is skim¬ 
med as it rises, and condenses on cooling. 
The candles made of this substance are 
very white. 

TAL'LY ( tattler , to cut: Fr.), a mode of 
reckoning between buyers and sellers, 
which before the use of writing was almost 
universal, and which is even still partially 
used. The tally is a piece of wood on which 
notches or scores are cut as marks of num¬ 
ber. It is customary for traders to have 
two of these sticks, or one stick cleft into 
two parts, and to mark or notch them in a 
corresponding manner; one to be kept by 

the seller, the other by the purchaser.- 

In the English exchequer, tallies have been 
abolished, and the old ones have been des¬ 
troyed. 

TAL'LY TRADE, the name given to a sys¬ 
tem of retail trade, by which shopkeepers 
furnish certain articles on credit to their 
customers, the latter agreeing to pay a sti¬ 
pulated sum weekly. 

TAL'MUD ( lamad , he taught: Ueb.), the 
interpretations of the Law of Moses, given 
by the Rabbins, and valued by many of the 
Jews even more than the Law itself. There 
are only two Talmuds, those of Jerusalem 
and Babylon ; the former printed in one 
volume folio, and the latter iu fourteen. 
The works of Jonathan and Onkelos are to 
be considered as paraphrases rather than 
interpretations. The Talmud of Jerusalem 
consists of two parts, the Mishna (a re¬ 
iteration: Heb.), drawn up by Rabbi Juda 
Hakkadosh, 120 years after the destruction 
of the Temple of Jerusalem : and the Ge- 
mara (a finishing: Chald.), the work of 


[TAMBOURINE 


Rabbi Johanan, the rector of a school at 
Tiberias about 100 years later. The Mishna 
is more correct than the Gemara, which is 
filled with dreams and foolish disputations. 
The Talmud of Babylon, which is of higher 
authority among the Jews than that of 
Jerusalem, was composed by Rabbi Aser, 
who kept an academy for 40 years at Sara 
near Babylon; he did not live to finish it, 
but it was completed by his disciples about 
500 years after Christ. Enormous quantities 
of Talmudic works were committed to the 
flames by popes Gregory IX., Paul IV., and 
Clement VIII., under pretenco of their 
being erroneous productions. 

TAT/ON, in Architecture, a kind of 
moulding, which consists of a cymatium, 
crowned with a squax-e fillet. It is concave 
at the bottom, and convex at the top : and 
is usually called by workmen an ogee, or 
O G. 

TAL'PA (a mole : Lat.), in Surgery, a tu¬ 
mour under the skin or cuticle, usually 

called a mole.-In Zoology, the Mole, 

which see. 

TA'LTJS ( Lat .), in Anatomy, the astraga¬ 
lus, one of the bones of the ankle.-In 

Geology, the accumulation of fragments at 
the foot of a steep rock, more or less filling 

up the angle.-In Fortification, the slope 

of a work, as that of a bastion, rampart, or 
parapet. 

TAM'ARIND ( tamar-hincly, Indian date : 
Arab.), lai'ge leguminous trees, growing in 
the East and West Indies, from the pods 
of which is obtained a well-known subacid 
confection. 

TAM'BOUR (a drum : Fr.), a species of 
embroidery wrought on a lciud of cushion 
or spherical body, stretched on a frame, so 
that it somewhat x’esembles the head of a 
drum, or a tambourine. A frame of a dif¬ 
ferent construction is used when several 
workers are employed on the same fabi-ic; 
it consists pi-incipally of two rollers, which, 
when properly fixed, stretch the material 
to the necessai-y degree of tension. But 
machines of extraordinary ingenuity have 
of late years been constructed for tambour¬ 
working, by which the greatest accuracy is 
ensured, while the saving of manual labour 
places them among those efforts of me¬ 
chanical skill which are the distinguishing 

features of the present age.- Tambour, in 

Architecture, the wall of a circular build¬ 
ing, surrounded with columns.-In (Me¬ 

chanics, the cylindrical axle-tree of awheel, 
which serves to draw xxp stones out of a 

quarry.- Tambour, in Fortification, a kind 

of work formed of palisades or pieces of 
wood ten feet long, planted close togethei - , 
and driven firm into the ground. 

TAMBOURI'NE (fambourin: Fr.), one of 
the most ancient musical instruments. It 
is still used in the Basque provinces, where 
a large kind, called tannbour de Basque, is 
played as an accompaniment to all the 
national songs and dances. In Scripture, 
this instrument is designated a timbrel; in 
profane history we find it was popular 
among most of the Eastern nations; and in 
the middle ages it was used by the Trouba¬ 
dours and minstrels. The present tam¬ 
bourine consists of a wooden or brazen 












tampoeJ STJje j&ctmttfic antf 733 

hoop, over which a skin is extended, and 
which is hung with a kind of hells. Some¬ 
times the thumb of the right hand is drawn 
in a circle over the skin ; sometimes the 
Angers are struck against it; while it is 
supported by the thumb of the left hand. 

TAM'POE, an East Indian fruit somewhat 
resembling an apple. 

TAN ( tann , the oak: Armor.), the bark of 
the oak, or other tree ground or chopped ; 
and used in tanning leather. Tan, after 

1 having been employed in tanning, is used 
in gardening, for making hotbeds. 

TAN'GENT ( tangens , touching: Lat.), in 
Geometry, a straight line which touches a 
curve, but which, when produced, does not 

cut it.-In Trigonometry, the tangent of 

an arc is a right line touching the arc at 
one extremity, and terminated by a secant, 
or radius produced, passing through the 
other extremity. 

TAN'ISTRY, an old tenure of lands in 
Ireland, &c., by which the proprietor had 
only a life estate, and the inheritance de¬ 
scended to the oldest or most worthy of 
the blood and name of the deceased ; but 
the practice often gave rise to the fiercest 
and most sanguinary contests between 
tribes and families. 

TANNIC ACID, in Chemistry, a substance 
obtained by acting with ethers upon bruised 
galls. It is a white amorphous powder, 
scarcely soluble in water, which reddens 
litmus paper. When moistened and ex¬ 
posed to the air it becomes gallic acid by 
the absorption of oxygen. It is a compound 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is 
very astringent, and seems to be the active 
principle of tanning substances in general. 

TAN'NIN, in Chemistry, the pure astrin¬ 
gent principle of vegetables; and that 
which gives them the power of changing 
skin into leather. It may be obtained by 
addingacetate of copper to filtered infusion 
of galls, and wasting the precipitate : then 
diffusing it through water, and decompos¬ 
ing it by sulphuretted hydrogen; a pale 
yellow extract, of a strong astringent taste, 
is obtained by evaporating the solution: 
this is tannin. It produces a dense white 
precipitate in a strong solution of an ani¬ 
mal jelly, Isinglass for example. The tannin 
of galls, bark, grape-seeds, &c., precipitates 
the persalts of iron blue or black; that of 
catechu and tea precipitates them green. 
The skin of au animal when freed from the 
hair, epidermis, and cellular fibre, consists 
chiefly of indurated gelatine. By immersion 
in the tan-liquor, which is an infusion of 
bark, the combination of tannin with the 
organized gelatine, which forms the animal 
fibre, is slowly established; and the com¬ 
pound of tannin and gelatine not being 
soluble in water, and not liable to putre¬ 
faction, the skin is rendered dense and 
impermeable, and not subject to the spon¬ 
taneous change which it would otherwise 
soon undergo. 

TAN'NING, the art or process of pre¬ 
paring leather from the raw hides of ani¬ 
mals, by means of tan. After being cleared 
of the hair, wool, and fleshy parts by the 
help of lime, scraping, and other means, the 
hides are macerated in an astringent liquor. 

formed from the bark of the oak. This is 
usually done by putting into the tan-pit 
layers of ground oak-bark and skins alter¬ 
nately,with the addition of a small quantity 
of water. The process is long and labo¬ 
rious : requiring from seven to twelve 
months ; and, in the case of buffalo hides, 
eighteen, or even twenty-four. But it 
has been greatly accelerated by carrying it 
on in vacuo; the air being rarified, the 
pores of the skins are opened, and more 
readily absorb the tanning principle; also 
the tannic acid is not so easily changed 
in gallic, which is an advantage. If the 
skins are kept in motion they are tanned in 
vacuo in from four to forty days; the 
latter being sufficient for the best ox-liides, 
which by the old process would require pro¬ 
bably twelve months, or about nine times 1 
as long; but some believe the best leather ! 
to be produced by the old mode of manu¬ 
facture. 

TAN'SY the Tanacetum vulgare of botan- 
ists ; a British wild plant of the nat. ord. 
Gompositce. It has small yellow flowers, 
like buttons, disposed in a large upright 
corymb. The whole plant has a strong and 
penetrating odour, and an extremely bitter 
taste. It contains an acrid volatile oil, and 
is used in medicine as a stimulant and car¬ 
minative. 

TAN'TALITE, in Mineralogy, the ferru¬ 
ginous oxide of columbium, called also co- ; 
lumbite. It is found in small masses, and 
octohedral crystals, in Finland and the ' 
United States. 

TAP'ESTRY ( tapisserie ; Fr.), a curious 
production of the loom, in which the finest 
pictures may be represented. It consists 
of a kind of woven hangings of wool and 
silk, often enriched with gold and silver, 
representing figures of men, animals, land¬ 
scapes, historical subjects, &c. This spe¬ 
cies of covering for walls was known among 
Eastern nations from a very remote era; 
but it is supposed that the English and 
Flemish, who were the first that, in the 
northern parts of the world, excelled in this 
art, learned it from the Saracens during 
the crusades. During the 15th and 16tli cen¬ 
turies the art was practised with great skill 
at Arras, in Flanders; and tapestries were 
executed there after the masterly designs 
of Raphael, termed his cartoons. These 
were originally thirteen in number; and 
seven of them are in the South Kensington 
Museum, London. Copies of them, in tapes¬ 
try, were executed by order of Leo X., * 
and cost 7,000 crowns in gold. The manu¬ 
facture was carried on in England, and 
much patronized ; but this kind of decora¬ 
tion has long since given place to paper, 
&c. Colbert, the celebrated minister of 
Louis XIV., established Gobelin's celebrated 
manufactory of tapestry, in the neighbour¬ 
hood of Paris. [See Gobelins.] 

TAPIO'CA. [See Manioc and Cassada.] 

TA'PIR, in Zoology, a genus of pachy¬ 
dermatous quadrupeds, of which there are 
three existing, and several extinct species. 
They have a short proboscis, four toes on 
the fore foot, and three on the hind foot 
One species inhabits Sumatra, Malacca, and 
some of the surrounding countries. The 




























739 Ittteravy Crsatfurj). [tatjeobolium 

two other species are natives of South 
America. The Tapir Aviericanus is about 
6ix feet long ami upwards of three feet 
high It shuns the habitations of man, and 
leads a solitary life in the interior of 
forests, living on fruits and the young 
branches of trees. When domesticated, it 
eats every kind of food. Though possessed 
of great strength, it uses it only for de¬ 
fence; and its disposition is mild and 
timid. 

TAR, a dark-brown viscid liquid, obtain¬ 
ed by the destructive distillation of wood of 
the fir-tree; it consists of resin, empyreu- 
maticoil, and acetic acid: and is converted 
into pitch by boiling. Six different sub¬ 
stances have been obtained from it, paraf¬ 
fine, eapion, crcasote, picaviar, capnomar, 
and pittacal. The more liquid species of 
bitumen are also called mineral tar. 

TARAN'TULA(from Tarentum, in Italy), 
tho Lycosa tarantula, the largest of Euro¬ 
pean spiders, the bite of which produces 
symptoms formerly supposed to be cura¬ 
ble only by music. The name of the taran¬ 
tella, the national dance of Sicily, is derived 
from it. 

TARE, in Commerce, an allowance for 
the outside package, that contains such 
goods as caunot be unpacked without de¬ 
triment ; or for paper, bands, cord, &c. 
When the tare is deducted, the remainder 
is called the net or neat weight. 

TAR'GUM ( Heb .), a name given by the 
Jews to certain glosses and paraphrases of 
the Scriptures, composed in the Chaldaic 
language. The two principal Targums on 
the greater and lesser prophets, except 
Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, were written 
by Jonathan, or rather Pseudo-Jonathan, 
about thirty years before Christ; that of 
Onkelos, on the Pentateuch, is supposed to 
have been written in the first century of 
our era. There are eight others: two of 
which are considered of great antiquity. 

TAR'IFF, or TAR'IF ( tarif: Fr .), in Com¬ 
merce, a list or table of custom-house and 
excise duties imposed on goods, with their 
respective rates. 

TARPE'IAN, in Roman Antiquity, an 
appellation given to a steep rock in Rome; 
whence, by tho law of the twelve tables, 
those guilty of certain crimes were precipi¬ 
tated. It was named after Tarpeia, the 
daughter of Tarpeius, the governor of the 
citadel of Rome, who, as the tradition runs, 
promised to open the gates of the city to 
the Sabines, provided they gave her their 
gold bracelets, or, as she expressed it, what 
they carried on their left hands. The Sa¬ 
bines consented, and, as they entered the 
gates, threw not only their bracelets, but 
their shields, upon Tarpeia, -who was crushed 
uuder the weight. It has been much re¬ 
duced in height by the ruins which have ac¬ 
cumulated for ages at its base. 

TAR'RASS, or TER'RAS, in Mineralogy, 
a volcanic earth, resembling puzzolana, 
used as a cement. The Dutch tarras is 
made of a soft rock stone found near Collen, 
on the lower part of the Rhine. It is burnt 
like lime, and reduced to powder by being 
ground. „ 

TAR'SUS ( tarsos , the flat of the foot: Gr.), 

in Anatomy, a part of the human foot, the 
front of which is called the instep. There 

are seven bones in two rows.-In Birds, 

the term is sometimes applied to the 
third segment of the leg, which is sel¬ 
dom covered with llesli or feathers; it 
corresponds with the tarsus and meta¬ 
tarsus conjoined.-In Insects, it is the 

collection of minute joints, which make 
up the fifth principal segment of the 
leg or foot. Tarsus is also used by some 
for the cartilages which terminate tho pal¬ 
pebral, or eyelids,*aud from which the cilia 
or hairs arise. 

TAR'TAR.an impure tartrate of potaslide- 
posited by grape juice in the act of fermenta¬ 
tion. In its crude state, it is much used as 
a flux in the assaying of ores. When puri¬ 
fied it is called Cream of Tartar. [See Algol.] 

TAlt'TAR EMETIC, in Chemistry, a 
double salt, consisting of tartaric acid 
combined with potash and protoxide of 
antimony. 

TARTAR'IC ACID, in Chemistry, an acid 
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
which exists in grapes, pine apples, and 
other fruits. The acid of commerce is pre¬ 
pared from tartar or algol. 

TAR'TARUS (Lat.), a region of hell, where 
the Greeks and Romans supposed the most 
wicked of men were punished after death. 

A dark cloud concealed the entrance, a 
brazen wall surrounded it, or, according to 
Virgil, three walls and the burning river 
Phlegethon. It was here that the great 
criminals of mythology Ixion, Tityus, the 
daughters of Danaus, Tantalus, Sisyphus, 
and others, underwent their punishment. 

TAR'TRATES, salts formed by the Com¬ 
bination of tartaric acid with different 
bases; as tartrate of potash, tartrate of 
soda, &c. 

TASTE, in Physiology, one of the five 
senses; a peculiar sensation excited by 
means of the nervous papilloe of the tongue. 

- Taste is also used, in a figurative sense, 

for the judgment and discernment of the 
mind, regarding what is grand and beauti¬ 
ful both in art and nature. Taste is, in 
some degree, the fruit of observation and 
reflection—not wholly the gift of nature, 
nor wholly the effect of art. 

TATTOO' ( tapotez tous, tap, all of you : 
Fr.), the beat of the evening drum, giving 
notico to soldiers to repair to their quarters 
in garrison, or to their tents in camp. 

TATTOO'ING, a mode of marking the 
skin of the face, back, breast, arms, and 
legs, with ineradicable stains arranged in 
curved or straight lines, adopted by the 
South Sea Islanders, the New Zealanders, 
and the Red Men of tropical America. A 
pointed instrument is employed to perfo¬ 
rate the skin, and then the colouring matter 
is applied. 

TAUItOBO'LIUM ( tauros, a bull; hollo, I 
slaughter: Gr.), an altar whereon a bull was 
solemnly sacrificed to Cybele.the mother of 
the gods, out of gratitude for the preserva¬ 
tion of the Emperor of Rome. It usually 
consisted of a cubical block of stone sur¬ 
mounted by a cornice and ornamented with 
sculptures, amongst which a bull’s head of¬ 
ten appeared, These altars are frequently 











TAURUS] 


)t ^cteritfic antr 


740 


exhumed in countries occupied by the 
Romans. 

TAU'RUS ( Lat .), in Astronomy, the Bull, 
the second of the twelve zodiacal constel¬ 
lations and signs. It contains several very 
remarkable stars, Aldebaran, of the first 
magnitude in the eye, the cluster, called the 
Pleiades, in the neck, and the Eyades, in the 

TAUTOCHRONE ( tauto, just the same ; 
and chronos, time : Gr.), in Mechanics, the 
curve upon which a heavy body, acted upon 
by gravity, will descend so as to arrive at 
the lowest point in the same time from 
whatever point it begins to move. Huy¬ 
gens showed that, in a vacuum, the curve is 
a cycloid. Gravity being supposed to act 
in parallel straight lines, Newton showed it 
to be a cycloid in a resisting medium also, 
when the resistance is proportional to the 
velocity; and Euler determined its nature 
when the resistance is proportional to the 
square of the velocity. 

TAWING, the preparation of white lea¬ 
ther, by impregnating skins with saline, 
oily, and other matters; it differs from tan¬ 
ning, in which they are combined with as¬ 
tringent principles. [See Tanning.] 

TAXES (taxo, I estimate: Lat.), the 
assessments imposed by Law for the public 
service: either direct, as on persons and 
necessaries; or indirect, as on luxuries and 
raw materials. Taxes imposed on goods at 
the time of their importation, are denomi¬ 
nated customs, duties, or imposts. In im¬ 
posing taxes, a government should keep 

certain great principles in view.-The 

subjects of a state should contribute to its 
support, and in proportion to their respec¬ 
tive abilities. The amount Of a tax and the 
time of payment should not be arbitrary, 
but fixed and well known. Every tax should 
be levied at the time, and in the manner, 
likely to be most convenient to him who 
pays it; and it should be collected at as 
small an expense as possible. Taxes on 
commodities are either external, that is, 
paid on the frontier; or internal, that is, 
excise duties. Land tax is another source 
of revenue : stamp duties and assessed taxes 
are others. In Great Britain, the taxes are 
almost entirely collected by government 
officers, paid by regular salaries. In 1858, 
the revenue was 60,859,0601., or about 41s. 2d. 
per head: namely, customs, 24,155,8521.; 
excise, 18,480,5721.; stamps, 8,247,3421.; and 
assessed taxes, including income tax, 
9,975,2941.: being, on account of the Rus¬ 
sian war, about nine millions in excess of 
the average revenue for the preceding 
ten years. To this must be added about 
15,000,0001. for poor rates and other local 
taxations; the real property in Great Bri¬ 
tain and Ireland being estimated at 
3,200,000,0001.; and the personal, at 
2,775,000,0001. 

TAX'IDERMY (taxis, an arranging; and 
derma, the skin: Gr.), the art of preparing 
and preserving specimens of animals. 

TAX'IS (an arranging : Gr.), in Surgery, 
an operation by which those parts which 
have left their natural situation are re¬ 
placed by the hand, without the assistance 
of instruments; as in reducing hernia, &c. 


TEA, the dried leaves of Chinese shrubs 
belonging to the genus Tliea, nat. ord. 
Tcrnstrcemiacece. They are natives of 
China, Japan, and Tonquin, flourishing 
most in valleys, the sloping sides of moun¬ 
tains, and the banks of rivers exposed to 
the southern rays of the sun. There are 
two species of the tea plant, Tliea viridis, 
with broad leaves, and Tliea bohea: the 
former being considered by some as the 
source of green, and the latter of black tea. 
There is also a variety, termed Tliea Assa- 
mensis, which seems to resemble both the 
others. The names given in commerce to 
the different sorts of tea are unknown to 
the Chinese, the imperial excepted, and are 
supposed to have been applied by the mer¬ 
chants of Canton. The black teas are, Bo¬ 
hea, Congou, Campoi, Souchong, Caper, and 
Pekoe; the green teas are Twankay, Hyson 
skin, young Hyson, Hyson, Imperial, and 
Gunpowder. The quality of tea depends very 
much on the season in which the leaves are 
pieked,the mode in which it is prepared, and 
the district in which it grows. Green tea 
is said to owe its colour to an extract of 
indigo, to Prussian blue, and gypsum ; and 
the flowering kinds their rich tint to the 
leaves of the Olea fragrans and other 
plants. The most remarkable substances in 
teas are tannin, an essential oil to -which 
it owes its aroma, and an alkaloid named 
tlieine. 100 parts of dried tea contain, on 
an average, about 6 parts nitrogen; the 
largest amount, by far, that has been de¬ 
tected in any vegetable. Tea, taken in 
moderation, is beneficial to the body; but 
in most constitutions, if taken in excess, 
it produces considerable excitement and 
•wakefulness. Tea and coffee owe their 
energy to two substances, Tlieine and Caffe¬ 
ine, which differ in name, but are identical 
in nature. The tea plant is the growth of 
a particular region, situated between the 
30th and 33rd degrees of north latitude. 
The trees are planted four or five feet 
asunder; they have a very stunted appear¬ 
ance; and are not allowed to grow higher 
than is convenient for men, women, and 
children to pick the leaves. When this is 
done, the leaves are put into wide shallow 
baskets, and placed on shelves in the air, 
wind, or mild sunshine, from morning till 
noon. They are then placed on a flat cast- 
iron pan over a charcoal stove, ten or 
twelve ounces being thrown on at a time, 
and kept stirred quickly with a hand-broom. 
After this, they are brushed off again into 
the baskets, in which they are equally and 
carefully rubbed between men’s hands to 
roll them ; and then are again dried over a 
slower fire. The tea is next laid upon a 
table to be drawn or picked over. The 
smallest leaves are called by the Chinese 
Pha-ho ; the second, Pow-chong ; the third, 
Bu-chong: and the fourth, or largest, Tay- 
cliong. In 1863, tea to the amount of 
136,806,319 lbs. was imported, of the value 
of 10,666,0171., and of this 85,206,769 lbs. were 
entered for home consumption. 

TEAIv'-TREE, the Tectona grandis, one 
of the largest trees known, although it 
belongs to the same order as the lowly ver¬ 
benas oi our gardens; it may be regarded 









741 Etterarri dTrca^unn 


as the oak of the Eastern world, and the 
only Indian wood impenetrable by white 
ants. It is, in many respects, superior to 
oak ; without fear of dry or wet rot, it may 
be used almost green from the forest; it is 
capable of enduring all climates, and all 
alternations of climate. It is strong, light, 
and easily wrought at all ages ; and is much 
used in building ships as well as houses. 
This tree abounds in the extensive forests 
of Java, Ceylon, Malabar, Coromandel, &c., 
but especially in the empires of Birmah and 
Pegu, from which countries Calcutta and 
Madras draw all their supplies of ship tim¬ 
ber. The teak of Malabar, produced on the 
high table-land, to the south of India, is 
deemed the best. There is a species of 
timber.called African teak, largely imported 
into England ; but it belongs to the order 
of Euphorbiacece, and it is destitute of 
several of the most valuable properties of 
the true teak. 

TEARS, the limpid fluid secreted by 
glands adjoining the eye, and increased by 
emotions of the mind, but more especially 
by grief. This fluid is also called forth by 
any injury done to the eye. It consists of 
about one per cent, solid matter; composed 
of common salt with traces of phosphate of 
soda, and albumen. This fluid serves to 
moisten the cornea and preserve its trans¬ 
parency, as well as to remove any dust or 
other substance that enters the eye. The 
lachrymal glands are the organs which 
secrete this liquid ; one of them is situated 
in the external canthus of each orbit, and 
emits six or seven excretory ducts, that open 
on the internal surface of the upper eyelid, 
and pour forth the tears. 

TECHNOL'OGY ( techne , an art, and logos, 
a discourse: Or.), a treatise on the arts; 
or an explanation of the terms of the arts. 
A technical word is a "word that belongs 
properly or exclusively to the arts. 

TE DE'UM, the title of a celebrated hymn 
used in the Christian church, and so called 
because it begins with the words, Te deum 
laudamus ; We praise thee, 0 God. It is 
sung in the Roman Catholic churches with 
great pomp and solemnity, on occasions of 
joyful thanksgiving. 

TEETH, the bony organs with which 
vertebrate animals seize or prepare their 
food. In the higher mammals, a tooth is 
composed of three tissues, viz. Dentine, 
which forms the body of the tooth ; cement, 
which forms the outer crust; and enamel, 
which is placed between the dentine and 
the cement. The cement resembles in tex¬ 
ture the bones of the same animal, and in 
adult man it is confined to the outer part of 
the fangs. The enamel is the hardest of 
the dental tissues, and, like the others, con¬ 
sists of earthy matters deposited in minute 
cells. The typical number of teeth in the 
mammalia is 44 (the hog for example having 
this number), but the average one of that 
class is 32, as we find in man, the old world 
apes, and the true ruminants. In each of 
the jaws of the adult man are four cutting 
teeth, or incisors, in front, Allowed on each 
side by one canine tooth and five grinding 
teeth, or molars, of which the two next the 
canine tooth are termed premolars. All the 


[telegraph 


teeth except the true molars are shed early 
in life, and are replaced by others whicli 
grow up from beneath them. The first set 
of teeth are denominated temporary deci¬ 
duous or milk teeth. The method adopted 
by anatomists for expressing the number 
and kind of the teeth, may be thus illus¬ 
trated by the dental formula of man : 

.2-2 l-I 2-2 3-3 

^ 2 — 2 ■■ 1 P o 2 ^ g g — 32 

where the letters indicate the names of 
the teeth as given above, and the numbers 
above and below the lines respectively indi¬ 
cate the teeth in the upper and lower jaws, 
whilst the short lines separating the figures 
serve to point out the different sides of 
the jaws. The teeth of different animals 
vary greatly in shape according to the uses 
to which they are applied. Take the molar 
teeth, for example. Amongst the true car¬ 
nivora they are compressed laterally, and 
have sharp cutting edges, which shut like 
the blades of scissors, one set over the 
other. By this structure these animals are 
able to divide their food with great facility. 
The insectivora, such as the mole and bat, 
have molars terminated by several sharp 
points. Herbivorous animals have the 
summits of their molars flat with pro¬ 
minent ridges, a structure that enables 
them to crush and triturate their food. 
An omnivorous animal like man has several 
rounded tubercles on the grinding sur¬ 
faces. From this variety in the shapes of 
teeth, and the constancy of their correspon¬ 
dence with the structure of the body, it 
happens that a single molar will always 
indicate the group to which any animal 
belongs. 

TEETH OF WHEELS, those prominent 
portions in the peripheries of wheels which, 
locking in each other, convey the power of 
a prime mover to the working parts of 
machinery. They should be of such a 
shape as to roll and not slide on each other, 
should have such a curvature as that the 
angular velocities of the two pieces working 
together shall preserve the same constant 
ratio, in all positions of contact. To secure 
this condition it is necessary that the acting 
faces of the teeth shall have such a shape 
that the normal common to the two sur¬ 
faces in contact, shall always divide the 
line of centres in a fixed point. Many forms 
would effect this, but a few only are actually. 
employed. 

TEE-TOTALLERS. [See Temperance 
Societies.] 

TEL'EGRAPH (tele, far off; and grapho, 

I write: Or.), a machine for communicating 
intelligence to a great distance, by various 
signals or movements previously arranged. 
The conveyance of information by signals 
was practised from the earliest ages; but 
a telegraph universally applicable was first 
described by Hooke in 1681; it was not, 
however, put into practice, nor was tele¬ 
graphic communication applied to any use¬ 
ful purpose until 1794, when it was used to 
convey intelligence to the French armies. 
The method consisted in a beam, which 
turned on a pivot in the top of an upright 
post, having a movable arm at each of its 
extremities; and each different position, in 













telescope] HLfyz J^tCrnttfic an# 742 

which the beam and its two arms could he 
placed at angles of 45°, afforded a separate 
signal, which might represent a letter of 
the alphabet, or anything else agreed upon. 
Many modifications of the telegraph were 
invented successively in this country, &c., 
hut they have all heen superseded hy that 
admirable contrivance, the' electric tele¬ 
graph, which see. 

TEL'ESCOPE {tele, far off ; and scopeo, I 
view : Gr.), an optical instrument employed 
in viewing distant objects. It assists the 
eye chiefly in two ways; first, hy enlarging 
the visual angle under which a distant ob¬ 
ject is seen, and thus magnifying that ob¬ 
ject; and,secondly, by collecting and con¬ 
veying to the eye a larger beam of light 
than would enter the naked organ, and 
thus rendering objects distinct and visible, 
which would otherwise be indistinct or in¬ 
visible. Telescopes are either refracting or 
reflecting; the former consist of different 
lenses through which the objects are seen 
by rays refracted by them to the eye, and 
the latter consist of specula from which the 
rays are reflected and passed to the eye. 
The lens turned towards the object is called 
the Abject-glass; that to which the eye is 
applied, the eye-glass ; and if the telescope 
consist of more than two lenses, all but the 
object-glass are called eye-glasses. It was 
not till the middle of the 16th century 
(1549), that the application of glasses to 
this instrument was made. In fact, no 
advances were made in the construction of 
telescopes before the time of Galileo, who, 
wliile’at Venice, accidentally heard that a 
sort of optic was made in Holland, which 
brought distant objects nearer ; and consi¬ 
dering how this thing might be, he set to 
work and ground two pieces of glass into a 
form, as well as he could, and fitted them 
to the two ends of an organ pipe, with 
which he produced an effect that delighted 
and astonished all beholders. After ex¬ 
hibiting the wonders of this invention to 
the Venetians on the top of the tower of 
St. Mark, he devoted himself wholly to the 
improving and perfecting the telescope, 
in which he was so successful that it has 
been usual to give him the honour of being 

the inventor.- Refracting Telescopes. 

The Galilean telescope consists of a convex 
converging object-glass, and a concave 
diverging eye-glass. Its magnifying power 
is equal to the focal length of the object- 
glass divided by the focal length of the eye¬ 
glass ; the length of the tube is the differ¬ 
ence between the focal length s of the lenses. 
It causes an object to be seen erect, and its 
principle is applied in the opera glass, for 
which purpose its magnifying power is 
rarely greater than 4, and often as low as 

2.-The astronomical telescope consists of 

a converging object-glass and a converging 
eye-glass. Its magnifying power u: equal 
to the focal distance of the object-glass, 
divided by the focal distance of the eye¬ 
glass ; the length of the tube is the sum of 
the focal distances of the lenses. It causes 
the object to appear inverted.-The terres¬ 

trial telescope differs from the astronomi¬ 
cal, in having two additional lenses in the 
tube of the eye-glass, for the purpose of 

rendering the inverted image erect.- 

Reflecting Telescopes. In these, the 
speculum or mirror performs the same office 
as the object-glass in refracting telescopes, 
and is called the object mirror. They were 
invented by Gregory, and described by him 
in 1663, but were first used by Newton. The 
Newtonian telescope consists of a tube, at 
the end of the interior of which is a specu¬ 
lum, which exactly fits it; the rays from 
the object, entering the open end of the 
tube, are reflected back in a convergent 
state to a small diagonal speculum which 
throws them out through an aperture at 
tha side of the tube, not far from its open 
end. The small diagonal speculum is in* 
tended to prevent the necessity of the ob¬ 
server looking down into the tube, and thus 
intercepting a large quantity of light from 
the object. The magnifying power is 
equal to the focal length of the object 
mirror, divided by that of the eye-glass 

which is used.-The Gregorian telescope 

resembles the last, except that the small 
mirror is not placed diagonally but trans¬ 
versely, so as to throw the rays back 
through an opening in the centre of the ob¬ 
ject mirror; after forming an image which 
is viewed by an eye-piece, when the rays 
have passed through the aperture. The 
magnifying power is obtained in the same 
way as with the Newtonian telescope, and 
the image is erect.-The Cassegranian te¬ 

lescope resembles the Gregorian, except 
that the small mirror is convex instead of 
concave; it requires a shorter tube, but 

the image is inverted.-The Herschelian 

telescope requires no second speculum ; and 
thus a loss of light by second reflection is 
avoided. The object mirror, which has no 
perforation, is placed at the end of the tube 
in an inclined position, so as to bring the 
focal image near the edge of the tube, 
where, without interfering with the light 
entering the telescope.it is viewed by an 
eye-piece; the image is, however, slightly 
injured by the oblique reflection. The 
magnifying power is formed in the same 
way as with the Newtonian telescope. 
Herschel’s gigantic telescope, erected at 
Slough, near Windsor, was completed Au¬ 
gust 28,1789; and on the same day the sixth 
satellite of Saturn was discovered. The 
diameter of the polished surface of the 
speculum was 49} inches, its thickness 3} 
inches, and its weight when cast 2,1181bs.; 
its focal length was 40 feet, and it admitted 
a power of 6450 to be applied to it. Such 
large telescopes collect immense quantities 
of light, which enable the observer to per¬ 
ceive objects quite invisible with smaller 
instruments. The tube of this telescope 
was of iron, 40 feet in length, and upwards 
of 4 feet in diameter. Lord Rosse's telescope 
at Birr Castle, in Ireland, is yet more stu¬ 
pendous. It has two object mirrors of six 
feet diameter, and 53 feet focal length. Its 
tube is of wood upwards of 50 feet in 
length, and more than 6 feet in diameter ; 
refracting telescopes also, of great magni¬ 
tude, have been recently constructed. In 
that at Pulkova, near St. Petersburgh, the 
object-glass has a clear aperture of nearly 

15 inches, and its focal length is 22} feet. 







743 mtVHxy 


Among the eye-pieces belonging to this 
telescope, there are powers as high as 2000. 
There are telescopes of very great power at 
Cambridge, near Boston, U.S., and at Cam¬ 
bridge in England. 

TELLU'RIUM ( tellus , the earth : Lai.), 
a metal found in very small quantities, in 
the metallic state, combined with gold and 
silver, in the gold mines of Transylvania. 
It is white, brilliant, brittle, and easily fusi¬ 
ble. Its spec. grav. is about. C25 : it is com¬ 
bustible ; with oxygen, it forms tellurous, 
and telluric acids; and with hydrogen, 

hydrotelluric acid. - Tellurium, a machine 

for the illustration of the motions and 
phenomena of the earth. 

TEM'PERAMENT ( temperamentum; from 
tempero, I proportion duly : Lat), that pe¬ 
culiarity of organization which in some 
measure influences our actions, thoughts, 
and feelings. The ancients distinguished 
four temperaments—the Choleric or Bilious, 
the rhlegmatic, the Melancholic, and the 
Sanguineous; which derived their names 
from the supposed excess of imaginary 
fluids in the human body. To these, some 
have added the Nervous.—, — Temperament, 
in Music, the accommodation or adjustment 
of the imperfect sounds, by transferring a 
portion of their defects to the more perfect 
ones, to remedy in part the false intervals 
of instruments of fixed sounds, as the 
piano, organ, &c. The necessity for tem¬ 
perament arises from the interval of a tone 
not being always the same; for example, 
that lying between the fourth and fifth 
of the scale, contains nine small parts 
termed commas, while that between the 
fifth and sixth of the major scale con¬ 
tains only eight commas. The diatonic 
semitone contains five commas ; the 
chromatic, three or four according to the 
magnitude of the tone; and the different 
situations of these elements, with regard 
to each other, causes intervals of the same 
name to consist of different degrees. They 
are tempered, by reducing the whole, more 
nearly to mean distances from each other. 

TEM'PERANCE SOCI'ETIES {temperan- 
tia, moderation : Lat.). The evils of intem¬ 
perance had long been the subject of much 
anxious observation, not merely in Great 
Britain, but elsewhere, more especially in 
the United States, and the idea of concen¬ 
trating public sentiment upon it, in some 
form, to produce important results, seems 
to have been first conceived there: a meet¬ 
ing, called the General Association of 
Massachusetts Proper, having been held in 
1813, for the express object of ‘checking 
the progress of intemperance.’ The first 
attempt of the society was to collect facts 
towards a precise exhibition of the nature 
and magnitude of the existing evil.with the 
view of drawing public attention to it, and 
of directing endeavours for its removal. 
The reports presented, from year to year, 
embraced statements and calculations 
which were found to make out a case of the 
most appalling nature, such as to amaze 
even those whose solicitude on the subject 
had been greatest. In 1830, from data care¬ 
fully collected, the Massachusetts society 
stated in their report, that the number who 


[templars 


died annually victims of intemperance was 
estimated at above 37,000; and that 72,000,000 
gallons of distilled spirits were consumed 
in the country, being about six gallons, on 
an average, for every man, woman, and 
child of the whole population. It also 
stated that about 400,000 of the community 
were confirmed drunkards; and that there 
appeared reason to believe that intemper¬ 
ance was responsible for four-fifths of the 
crimes committed in the country, for at least 
three quarters of the pauperism existing, 
and for at least one third of the mental de¬ 
rangement. By these exposures, and an 
unrelaxing perseverance in the course they 
had commenced; by the circulation of 
tracts and the addresses of travelling 
agents ; by the formation of auxiliary asso¬ 
ciations, and by obtaining individual res¬ 
ponsibility, for the performance of a variety 
of duties tending to promote the great ob¬ 
ject in view, public notice was attracted, 
and it led to an imitation of the practice in 
Great Britain and Ireland. The basis on 
which these associations have been formed, 
at least in the outset, has been that of an 
engagement, on the part of each member, 
to abstain from the'use of distilled spirits, 
except for medicinal purposes ; and to for¬ 
bear to provide them for the entertainment 
of friends or the supply of dependents. But 
of late years new societies have sprung into 
existence, whose practice of temperance is 
yet more strict; and they accordingly 
pledge themselves to a total abstinence, not 
from ardent spirits only, but from all wines 
and fermented liquors. This class is known 
by the name of Tee-totallers. Some years 
since, a great movement was made in Ire¬ 
land by Father Mathew in favour of tem¬ 
perance. 

TEM'PERATE ZONE ( temperatus, mode¬ 
rate : Lat.), in Geography, the space on the 
earth between the tropics and the polar 
circles: where the heat is less than in the 
tropics, and the cold less than in the polar 
circles. The north temperate zone reaches 
from the tropic of Cancer to the Arctic 
circle, and the south temperate zone from 
the tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic 
circle. Each has a breadth of 045 miles. 

TEM'PERATURE {temperaturet, propor¬ 
tion : Lat), in Physics, a definite degree 
of sensible heat, as indicated by the ther¬ 
mometer ; or the constitution of the air 
according to the diversity of the seasons 
or difference of climate, &c. The an¬ 
nual variation of heat is inconsiderable 
between the tropics, and becomes greater 
and greater as we approach the poles. This 
arises from the combination of two causes ; 
namely, the greater or less directress of 
the sun’s rays; and the duration of their 
action, or the length of time from sunrise 
to sunset. 

TEM'PEST ( tempestas: Lat), a storm of 
excessive violence. [See Storms.] 

TEM'PLARS, or KNIGHTS OF THE 
TEMPLE, a military order of religious, es¬ 
tablished at Jerusalem, a.d. 1118, for the 
protection of pilgrims travelling to the 
Holy Land. During nearly six hundred 
years this order maintained an important 
character in Europe. In every nation it 

















temple] QEi)C Jbctcnttftc Rttlf 


had a particular governor, called master of 
the Temple, or of the militia of the Temple. 
Its riches became immense; a fact which, 
among many others, justifies the observa¬ 
tion of Raynal, that persons who have laid 
down rules for religious societies have 
done so with the sole view of making holy 
men ; but that they have laboured more 
directly and more effectually to make 
rich ones. Towards the beginning of the 
fourteenth century, the Templars were 
charged with leaning to Mohammedanism, 
and, in consequence, the order was abo¬ 
lished under pope Clement V., Edward II. 
of England, and Philip the Fair of France. 
In 1307, all the members in England were 
arrested, and of these, seven suffered at 
the stake. In 1312, their final suppression 
was effected by the council of Vienna, by 
the direction of which fifty others of these 
persecuted men suffered death in the flames. 
The vast estates of the order fell partly 
into the hands of the sovereigns of the 
countries in which they were situated, and 
partly into those of the Hospitallers and 
other military orders. In the thirteenth 
century, it possessed 9,000 lordships, &c. 
The charges of heresy, idolatry, &c., pre¬ 
ferred against them were not supported ; 
the real causes of their destruction were, 
most probably, their arrogance and enor¬ 
mous wealth. 

TEM'PLE ( templum: Lat.), an edifice 
dedicated to some deity. The word is gene¬ 
rally confined to buildings erected for 
heathen worship; with the exception of 
that at Jerusalem, called the temple. The 
earliest temples were merely an open spot, 
with a rude altar of earth and stones ; or an 
enclosure like that of Stonehenge. The 
Egyptian temples were remarkable for 
massive dimensions, the cell, however, 
being always small. Those of Greece were 
of the most magnificent description, and 
were the examples after which the Homans 
erected theirs. The temples of Greece and 
Home have been classed by Vitruvius into 
those in antis, the Prostyle, Amphiprostyle, 
Peripteral, Dipteral, Psendodipteral, and the 

Hypcethral [see these terms].-The Temples 

in London are two inns of court, so called 
because anciently the dwellings of the 
Knights Templar. They are called the Inner 
and the MiddleTemple, and are situated near 
the Thames. In ancient times there was a 
third called the Outer Temple, which no 
longer exists. On the suppression of the 
order of Knights Templar, the pope granted 
their forfeited property to the Knights 
Hospitaller of St. John of Jerusalem, who 
demised it to some law students who wished 
to live quietly in the suburbs. James I. 
granted the Temples to certain persons 
from whom originated the incorporated 
society of the ‘Students and Practicers of 
the Laws of England,’ in whom the pro¬ 
perty is now vested. That property is ex- 
traparochial, and is separated by a wall 
from the rest of the city, having its own 
entrance gates, which are locked at night. 
[See Inns op Court.] - Temples, in Ana¬ 

tomy, the name of the sides of the face 
above the ears, in which are the temporal 
arteries, veins, &c. 


744 


TEM'PO ( Ital .), in Music, a word used to 
signify time. The different degrees of 
time are designated by the following terms: 
largo, adagio, andante, allegro, and presto; 
and the intermediate degrees are des¬ 
cribed by additions. [See these terms res¬ 
pectively.] 

TEM'PORAL ( temporalis , pertaining to 
time: Lat.), belonging to secular concerns; 
not spiritual; as, the temporal revenues of 
the church, called temporalities. Temporal 
courts are those which take cognizance of 
civil suits. 

TEM'PORAL BONES ( temporalis , per¬ 
taining to the temples : Lat.), two irregular 
bones, one on each side of the head. Com¬ 
parative anatomy shows them to be, in 
reality, an assemblage of five bones, the 
squamous, zygomatic, tympanic, petrous, and 
mastoid: continuing permanently separate 
in the cold-blooded classes of animals; but 
coalescing in the warm-blooded, with the 
exception of the tympanic, which remains 
detached in birds. 

TENA'CITY ( tenacitas: from tenax, hold¬ 
ing fast: Lat.), the degree of force with 
which the particles of bodies cohere, or are 
held together; a term applied particularly 
to metals, which may be drawn into wire, 
as gold and silver. 

TENAC'ULITM (Lat.), a surgical instru¬ 
ment, formed with a hook at one end, for 
taking up and'drawing out the mouths of 
bleeding arteries, to secure them by liga¬ 
ments. 

TENAIL' (Fr.), in Fortification, an out¬ 
work consisting of two parallel sides with a 
front, in which is a re-entering angle. It is 
single or double. 

TEN'AILLONS, in Fortification, works 
constructed on each side of the ravelins, 
like the lunettes; but differing in this, that 
one of the faces of the tenaillon is in the di¬ 
rection of the ravelin, whereas that of the 
lunette is perpendicular to it. 

TEN'ANT (Fr.; from tenens, holding: 
Lat.), in Law, one who occupies lands or 
tenements at a yearly rent, for life, years, 

or at will.- Tenant in capite, is one who 

held immediately of the king. According 
to the feudal system, all lands in England 
are considered as held immediately or me¬ 
diately of the king, who is styled lord pa¬ 
ramount. Such tenants, however, were 
considered as having the fee of the lands 
and permanent possession. This tenure 
has been abolished: those tenures now 
created by the crown being in common 
socage. 

TENCH, the Tinea vulgaris of ichthyolo¬ 
gists, a fish of the carp family, common in 
ponds and rivers. It is very tenacious of life. 
The colour of its body is a greenish olive 
gold. 

TEN'DER (attendre, to wait for: Fr.), a 
small vessel employed to attend a larger 
one for supplying her with provisions or 
naval stores, or to convey intelligence, &c. 

-In Law, an offer either of money to 

pay a debt, or of service to be performed, 
in order to save a liability or forfeiture 
which would be incurred by non-payment 
or non-performance. A money tender must 
be absolute and unconditional, in money 


















745 


Ettcrani Cms'uij). 


[teratology 


actually produced, not in copper if it can be 
paid in silver, nor in silver if it can be paid 
in Bank of England notes or gold. 

TEN'DO ACHIL'LIS (the tendon of 
Achilles: Lat.), in Anatomy, the tendon 
which connects the calf of the leg with the 
heel. It was so called, because, according 
to mythological fable, Thetis, the mother of 
Achilles, held him by that part when she 
dipped him in the river Styx, to make him 
invulnerable. 

TEN'DONS, in Anatomy, white elastic 
fibres, which connect the muscles with the 
bones. 

TEN'DRIL ( tendron: Fr.), a slender 
twining branch, by which one plant at¬ 
taches itself to another object. Sometimes 
it is a metamorphosed leaf which has no 
lamina, or which has the midrib projecting 
beyond it, retaining its tapering figure, and 
becoming long and twisted. In the vine, 
it is an abortive bunch of flowers proceed¬ 
ing from the stem opposite a leaf; in the 
passion flower, a metamorphosed branch, 
growing from the axil of a leaf; in the genus 
Strophanthus, the thin extended point of a 
petal. In some plants the stalk of a normal 
leaf has the power of twisting round an 
object. 

TEN'ET (tenet, he holds: Lat.), an opinion, 
principle, or doctrine which a person be¬ 
lieves and maintains; as the tenets of 
Christianity, &c. 

TEN'NANTITE, in Mineralogy, arsenical 
sulphuret of copper and iron; a mineral of 
a lead colour, or iron-black, massive or 
crystallized, found in Cornwall. 

TEN'NE (tanne : Fr.) in Heraldry, a colour 
consisting of red and yellow in the coats of 
gentry; which is represented in [engraving 
by diagonal lines from the dexter to the 
sinister side of the shield, traversed by 
perpendicular lines. 

TEN'NIS, a kind of play or game in which 
a ball is kept in motion between opposite 
parties who strike it with rackets. 

TEN'ON {Fr.), in Carpentry, the end of a 
piece of timber, which is fitted to a mortise 
for insertion, &c. The form of a tenon is 
various, as square, dove-tailed, &c. 

TEN'OR, in Music, the middle part of a 
composition ; being the ordinary compass 
of the human voice, when neither raised to 
a treble or lowered to a bass. It is the 
second of the four parts, reckoning from 
the bass; and was originally the air, to 
which the other parts were auxiliary. What 
is called counter-tenor (between the treble 
and the tenor) is in reality only a higher 

tenor. , . „ 

TENSE (tempus, time : Lat.), in Grammar, 
an inflection of verbs by which they are 
made to signify or distinguish the time of 
actions or events; as the present tense, de¬ 
noting the time that now is; the preterite 
or past, the time that was ; and th e future, 
the time that will be. Some tenses likewise 
denote the state of the action, as to its 
completeness or otherwise, in a certain 
degree or time, as the imperfbcttense, which 
denotes an unfinished action at a certain 
time; the perfect, a finished action at any 
time; and the pluperfect , a finished action 
before a certain time. 


TEN'SION (tensio : Lat.), the state of 
being stretched or strained. Thus, animals 
sustain and move themselves by the tension 
of their muscles and nerves; and a chord 
or musical string gives an acuter or deeper 
sound, as it is in a greater or less degree of 

tension, that is, more or less stretched.- 

Tension with reference to vapours signifies 
elasticity. It increases with the tempera¬ 
ture, and is usually expressed in terms of 
the pressure of the atmosphere or with 
reference to the height of a column of mer¬ 
cury which the given vapour is capable of 

supporting.-In Electrical science tension 

has reference to the quantity of electricity 
that any given surface may be charged 
with ; the greater the quantity the greater 
the tension. 

TENSONS ( contentio, a contest: Lat.), 
Provenqal poems in dialogue between two 
speakers, in which each recited in turn a 
stanza with the same rhymes. If the inter¬ 
locutors were more than two it was called a 
Torneyamen. These skirmishes took place 
at the festivals of the barons, before a court 
of love composed of ladies, who discussed 
not only the claims of the two poets but 
the merit of the question, and then gravely 
delivered judgment. Specimens of these 
poems have been preserved. 

TEN'SOR ( tendo, I stretch out: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, an epithet for a muscle which 
extends the part to which it is fixed; as, 
the tensor palati, tensor tympani, &c. 

TENT ( tente : Fr.), in Surgery, a roll of 

lint for dilating openings, sinuses, &c.- 

A portable dwelling or pavilion made of 
canvas, used for sheltering persons from 
the weather, particularly soldiers in camp. 
The wandering Arabs and Tartars dwell in 
tents. 

TEN'TACLE (tento, I try: Lat), in Natural 
history, a filiform elongated, inarticulate 
appendage, placed on the head or near the 
mouth of many of the lower animals. They 
are used as instruments of exploration or 
prehension. Thus, the dorsal tentacles of 
some molluscs, the oral tentacles of Poly¬ 
pes, &c. 

TEN'TER-GROUND (tentus, stretched 
out: Lat.), a place where cloth is stretched 
and bleached. 

TENTHRE'DO, in Entomology, a genus 
of Hymenopterous insects, termed in En¬ 
glish the Sawfly, because the female uses 
her sting like a saw, to cut out spaces in 
the bark of trees, for the purpose of depo¬ 
siting her eggs. 

TENTORIUM, (a tent: Lat.), in Anatomy 
a covering of dura mater stretched over the 
cerebellum. It forms a bony roof in leap¬ 
ing animals. 

TEN'URE (Fr. from teneo, I hold: Lat.), 
in Law, the manner of holding lands, &c. 
of a superior. [See Feudal System, Fee, 

&c.]- Tenures in capite, or chief, were 

those held immediately of the crown; 
mesne tenure, those held of inferior lords. 
Under the feudal service, tenures were re¬ 
duced to four kinds, knight service or chi¬ 
valry, free socage, pure villeinage, and villein 
socage. 

TERATOL'OGT (terns, a monster; and 
logos, a discourse: Gr.), that branch of phy 













CTje Jr'dcnttfu antf 746 


terebinthine] 


slologtcal science which treats of mal¬ 
formations and monstrosities. 

TEREBIN'THINE (terebinthinos, made of 
turpentine : Gr.), in Chemistry, consisting 
of turpentine, or partaking of its qualities. 

TEREBRANTIA ( terebro , I bore : Lat.), 
that section of Hymenopterous insects 
which possesses an anal instrument for the 
perforation of the bodies of animals, or the 
substance of plants. The borer is peculiar to 
the female, and consists of one portion 
sheathed by two others. It is intended to 
prepare a suitable place for depositing the 
eggs, and hence is termed the ovipositor. 

T ERE BRAT'OX A (same deriv.), a genus 
of shell-bearing molluscs belonging to the 
class of Brachiopoda. One of the valves is 
perforated. Their forms (says Mr. S. P. 
Woodward) are symmetrical, and so com¬ 
monly resemble antique lamps that they 
were called * lamp-shells ’ by the old natu¬ 
ralists ; the hole which in a lamp admits 
the wick serves in the lamp-shell for the 
passage of the pedicle by which it is at¬ 
tached to submarine objects. 

TERE'DO ( Lat.; from tero, I pierce), the 
sMpworni, a genus of testaceous molluscs 
which bore their dwellings in submerged 
timbers, and are most destructive to sunken 
piles, ships’ bottoms ; and some small crus¬ 
taceans belonging to the genera Limnoria 
and Chelura also,bore into submerged tim¬ 
ber and reduce it to a state resembling 
honeycomb. 

TERM (terminus, a boundary: Lat.), in 
Law, the space of time formerly allotted in 
the courts for the trial of causes, the rest 
of the year being considered vacation. 
Business, however, has increased so much 
that although the terms are still kept on 
foot as affording dates, the judges hold 
sittings after the terms. In England, there 
are four terms in the year : Hilary, Easter, 
Trinity, and Michaelmas terms. Hilary 
term begins the 11th, and ends the 31st of 
January; Easter term begins the 15th of 
April, and ends the 8tli of May; Trinity 
term begins the 22nd of May, and ends 
the 12th of June; and Michaelmas term 
begins the 2nd of November, and ends the 
25th of November. These are subject to 
slight change, on account of the occurrence 
of certain holidays. They are observed by 
the courts of queen’s bench, the common 
pleas, and exchequer, but not by the parlia¬ 
ment or by inferior courts.-In the Arts, 

a word or expression that denotes some¬ 
thing peculiar to an art: as, a technical 
term. -In Contracts, terms mean condi¬ 

tions upon which work is agreed to be 

performed.-In Logic, the expression, in 

language, of an idea obtained by the act of 
apprehension. It may consist of one word, 
or of more than one; but every word is not 
Gategoremtttic, that is, capable of being 
used as a term; some, such as adverbs, 
prepositions, &c., ar e syncategorematic, that 
is, can form only part of a term. The in¬ 
finitive mood is itself a term; any other 
part of a verb is a mixed word, resolvable 
into a term, and a copula (or auxiliary verb), 
which gives tense, mood, and position. Ca- 
tegorematics are divided into singular, as 
‘Ccesar’; and common, as ‘man,’ ‘animal,’ 


&c. The subject of a proposition may be 
either singular or common; the predicate 
must be common. When words are used 
in a vague or general sense, they are said 
to be of the first intention; when in the 
limited or specific sense, which they bear 
in some art or science, ofthesecond intention. 

- Term, in Universities, &c., the llxed 

period or time during which students are 
compelled to reside there previously to 
their taking a degree. These fall within 
the four quarters of the year, and are dis¬ 
tinguished by the same names as the law 
terms. 

TERM'INAL (terminalis, terminal : Lat.), 
in Botany, growing at the end of a branch 
or stem ; as, a terminal scape, flower, or 
spike. 

TER'MINI ( terminus, a boundary: Lot.), 
in ancient Architecture, figures used by the 
Romans for the support of entablatures, in 
the place of columns. The upper part con¬ 
sisted of the head and breast of a human 
body, and the lower of the inverted frustum 
of a cone. They were so called because they 
were principally used as boundary marks; 
and represented their god Terminus, whose 
altar was on the Tarpeian rock; where lie 
was represented with a human head, with¬ 
out feet or arms, to intimate that he never 
moved, wherever he might be placed. An 
annual feast, called Terminalia, was held by 
the Romans on the 23rd of February in 
honour of the god Terminus. The two 
owners of adjacent property crowned the 
statue with garlands ; and raised a rude al¬ 
tar, on which they offered some corn, honey¬ 
combs, and wine; and sacrificed a lamb, or 
a sucking pig. They concluded with sing¬ 
ing thepraises of the god.-Also pedestals 

increasing in magnitude as they rise; or 
parallelopipeds used for the reception of 
busts. 

TERMIN'THUS (terminthos, a swelling 
like the fruit of the terebinth tree : Gr.), in 
Surgery, a black pustule, generally appear¬ 
ing on the legs. It is not certain that we 
mean by this term the same disease as that 
described by Greek writers. 

TERMI'TES (the plural form of Termes : 
Lot.), social insects often called white ants, 
although of a widely different structure 
from true ants. There are many species, 
some of which inhabit our island, but the 
family receives its greatest development 
in hot countries, where some of the species 
build large conical houses, or termitaria, 
composed of particles of earth cemented to¬ 
gether by their secretions into a material 
as hard as stone. These houses are pene¬ 
trated within by galleries running in all 
directions from chamber to chamber. In 
each community besides wdnged males and 
females there are wingless neuters of two 
classes, fighters and workers, and both are 
blind. On emerging from the egg, termites 
have the form which they retain through 
life, never being grubs, and not becoming 
pupal like the true ants in the course of 
their development. In each termitarium 
there is a king and queen who are closely 
guarded by some of the workers in a cham¬ 
ber which lies on the middle of the house. 
Both are without wings, and are much 


















747_ Eftcrart? 

larger than their subjects. As fast as the 
queen deposits her eggs they are carried off 
by the 'workers and placed in cells else¬ 
where. The ordinary males and females 
never work, and when they have acquired 
their wings they fly forth and disseminate 
their kind. Some of them, after shedding 
their wings, become kings and queens of 
other colonies. Some species construct 
nests of earth on the trunks and branches 
of trees; others live inside trees. Termites 
perform the duty of hastening the decom¬ 
position of decaying wood and vegetation. 

TEItMINOL'OGY (terminus, a term :Lat.; 
and logos, a discourse: Gr), that branch of 
a science or art which explains the mean¬ 
ing of its technical terms. In some sciences 
it is of particular importance. 

TER'NATE (terni, three each : Lat.), in 
Botany, an epithet for a leaf that has three 
leaflets on a petiole, as in trefoil, straw¬ 
berry, bramble, &c. There are leaves also 
bitemate and triternate, having three ternate 
or three biternate leaflets. 

TER'RAGE (Fr.; from terra, earth : Lat.), 
a platform or bank of earth raised and 
breasted, particularly in fortifications. 
Also, a raised walk in a garden, having slop¬ 
ing sides laid with turf. 

TER'RA COT'TA ( terra cocta, baked 
clay : Lat.), the name given to works of art 
formed of baked clay. Ancient specimens 
of terra cotta work of admirable design 
have been discovered in Tuscany and Rome. 
They consist of lamps and vessels of 
various kinds, besides entire figures and 
reliefs. 

TER'RA DI SIEN'A (Siena earth : Ital.), 
a brown ferruginous ochre, employed in 
painting. 

TER'RAD FIL'IUS (a son of the earth: 
Lat,), a classical term for a person of low 
origin. Also, by an ancient custom, which 
was abolished about a century since, a title 
assumed by the undergraduate who deli¬ 
vered an annual oration, in which great 
licence was permitted. 

TER'RA FIR'MA (Lat.), the main land ; 
the name particularly given to a country of 
South America, extending from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific ocean, to the extent of 1,300 
miles. 

TER'RA INCOG'NITA (unknown land : 
Lat.), a frequent inscription on old maps. 

TER'RA JAPON'ICA (Japan earth : Lat.), 
the old pharmaceutical name for catechu, 
the inspissated juice of a species of Acacia. 
It was formerly supposed to be an earthy 
mineral. 

TERRE PLEIN (an open space : Fr.), in 
Fortification, the horizontal surface of the 
rampart where the guns are placed and 
worked. It is bounded outside by the para¬ 
pet, and inside by the inner slope of the 
rampart. 

TERRE-YERTE (green earth: Fr.), a 
species of chlorite of a green or olive co¬ 
lour. It is a hydrated silicate of the oxide 
of iron and potash with a little magnesia 
and alumina. The green earth of Verona, 
formerly used as a pigment, is a subspecies 
of this mineral. 

TERTIAN (tertiana; from teriianus, be¬ 
longing to the third: Lat.), in Medicine, an 


Crcatfurin [test 


ague or intermitting fever, the paroxysms 
of which return every alternate day. 

TERTIARY FORMATIONS ( tertiarius , 
belonging to the third part: Lat.), in Geo¬ 
logy, a series of strata posterior in date to 
the secondary (the latest portion of which 
is the cretaceous series), and extending to 
certain deposits that are termed post-plio¬ 
cene. This series has been divided into 
groups according to the relative numbers 
of recent and extinct species of shells 
which they contain. The oldest group of 
beds, containing only about 3b per cent, of 
r«cent species, has been denominated Eo¬ 
cene ; that with from 17 to 30 per cent, of 
recent shells constitutes the Miocene 
group; whilst that containing from 35 to 
95 per cent, of recent shells has been formed 
into the Pliocene group. 

TERZ'A RIM A (Ital), the verse in which 
Dante composed his Divina Commedia. In 
a set of six lines three rhyming lines alter¬ 
nate with two rhyming lines, and a third 
which has two corresponding rhymes in 
the next set of six. By this contrivance 
each line has always two other lines rhym¬ 
ing with it, except at the beginning and 
the end of the cantqs. Tlius, 

A B A B 0 B, C D C D E D, 
and so forth. The rhyming words in Italian 
poetry are all trochees. 

TES'SELATED (tesselatus ; from tessella, 
a little cube : Lat.), formed in little squares 
or mosaic work, as a tesselated pavement. 

TES'SULAR (tessella, a small cube: Lat.), 
a term applied to a system of crystals, in¬ 
cluding the cube, tetrahedron, &c. 

TEST (Fr.; from testis, one who attests: 
Lat.), in Chemistry, a term applied to any 
substance which serves to detect the-pre¬ 
sence of any constituent in a compound; 
thus barytes will indicate the presence of 
sulphuric acid; starch that of iodine, &c. 
Also, in Metallurgy, a cupel or pot for se¬ 
parating base metals from gold or silver. 

TESTA'CEA (Lat.; from testa, a shell), in 
Natural History, a name given to such of 
the class mollusca as have shells. [See 
Mollusca, Shells.] 

TESTAMENT ( testamentum; from testor, 
I make a will: Lat.), in Law, a solemn au¬ 
thentic instrument in writing, by which a 
person declares his last will, as to the dis¬ 
posal of his estate and effects after his 
death. [See Will.] - Testament, in Theo¬ 

logy, the name of each of the volumes of 
the Holy Scriptures, that is, of the Old and 
the New Testament. The first Testament 
printed in the English language appeared 
in 1526. This translation was made by Wil¬ 
liam Tyndale, and was published abroad, 
after which it was circulated at Oxford and 
London. Tonstall, bishop of London, and 
Sir Thomas More, bought up almost the 
whole impression, and burnt it at St. Paul’s 
Cross. 

TEST AND CORPORATION ACTS, the 
usual designation for statutes, by which all 
magistrates in corporations, and all who 
bear any office civil or military, are to take 
the oaths of allegiance and- supremacy, to 
renounce the doctrine that it is lawful to 
bear arms against the sovereign ; and 
1 within a year before their election, receive 











TESTIMONY )t Jprtcnttfu antf 748 


the sacrament, according to the rites of the 
Church of England. There were intended 
to be the bulwarks of the Protestant 
church, but have been long evaded by 
means of acts of indemnity passed annu¬ 
ally for the relief of those neglecting to 
comply with them,"and in many cases the 
necessity for taking these tests has been 
abolished. 

TESTIMONY ( testimonium; from testis, 
a witness: Lat.), the evidence of facts, oral, 
as in a court of law; or written, as in the 
records of history. Testimony is probable 
and credible when in accordance with gene¬ 
ral experience, corroborated, and disinte¬ 
rested ; but improbable, and unworthy of 
credit, when contrary to general expe¬ 
rience, and uncorroborated. 

TEST'ING (teste, the cupel used by re¬ 
finers : Fr.; from testa, baked earthen¬ 
ware : Lat.), in Metallurgy, the operation of 
refining large quantities of gold or silver 
by means of lead, in the vessel called a test. 
In this process the extraneous matter is 
vitrified, scorified, or driven off, and the 
metal left pure. 

TESTU'DO (a tortoise: Lat), in Zoology, 

a genus of tortoises. [See Tortoise.]- 

Testudo, in the Military art of the ancients, 
a contrivance used by the Greeks and Ro¬ 
mans in attacking fortified places. It was 
formed by the troops holding their shields 
over their heads, so as that one overlapped 
another, and formed a penthouse, which 
threw off the missiles of the enemy from 
the soldiers, as they approached the walls. 
It received its name from its resemblance 
to the shell of a tortoise. A similar defence 
was sometimes formed of boards, and 
moved on wheels. 

TET'ANUS (Lat.; from teianos, literally 
a stretching: Or.), in Medicine, a spasmo¬ 
dic contraction of the muscles of voluntary 
motion, particularly of those which shut 
the lower jaw; this is termed a locked jaw. 
It is frequently caused by lacerated 
wounds, which are not necessarily of a 
severe character; also, in hot climates, by 
exposure to cold, and suppressed perspira¬ 
tion ; in the former case it is generally fatal, 
in the latter is sometimes cured. 

TET'RACHORD (tetra, four ; and chorde, 
a string; Or.), in Ancient Music, a concord 
consisting of four degrees or intervals, 
and four terms or sounds; called by us a 
fourth. 

TET'RAD (tetras, the number four : Gr.), 
the number four; a collection of four 
things. 

TETRADAC'TYLOUS (tetra, four; and 
daktulos, a finger: Gr.), having four toes. 

TETRADIAPA'SON (tetra, four; and dia¬ 
pason, the octave: Gr.), a musical chord, 
otherwise called a quadruple eighth or 
twenty-ninth. 

TETRADRACH'MA (tetradrachmos: Gr.), 
in ancient coinage, a silver coin|wortli four 
drachmas, or 2s. 7 d„ the drachma being es¬ 
timated at 7f d. sterling. 

TETRADYNA'MIA, the 15th class of the 
Linnaean system of plants; containing 
two orders, siliculosa and siliquosa, with 
four long and two short stamens. 

TRT'RAGON (tetra, four; and gdma, an 


angle: Gr.), in Geometry, a figure having 
four angles, as a square, a rhombus, &c. 

TETRAGYN'IA, in Botany, one of the 
orders in several of the Linnaean classes, 
comprehending those plants which have 
four pistils. 

TETRAHE'DRAL (tetra, four ; and hedra, 

a base: Gr.), having four equal sides.- 

In Botany, having four sides; as a tetrahe¬ 
dral pod or silique. 

TETRAHE'DRON (same derive, in Geo¬ 
metry, a figure comprehended under four 
equilateral and equal triangles. It is one of 
the five Platonic bodies, or regular solids. 

TETRAHEXAHE'DRAL (tetra, four; 
hex, six ; and hedra, a base : Gr.), in Crys¬ 
tallography, exhibiting four ranges of faces, 
one above another, each range containing 
six faces. 

TETRAN'DRIA (tetra, four ; and aner, a 
male : Gr.), the fourth class of the Linnaean 
system of plants, comprising plants bearing 
flowers, with four stamens. 

TETRA'O (a black-cock, or black grouse - : 
Lat.), in Ornithology, a genus of rasorial 
birds, including the grouse, capercailzie, 
and ptarmigan. 

TETRAPET'ALOTTS (tetra, four; and 
petalon, a leaf : Gr.), in Botany, containing 
four distinct petals or flower leaves. 

TETRAPH'YLLOTJS (tetra, four; and 
phullon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, consisting 
of four distinct leaves or leaflets; as a tetra- 
plvyllous calyx. 

TETRAP'LA ( tetraplous , fourfold : Gr.), 
in Ecclesiastical History, a bible arranged 
by Origen in four columns, each containing 
a different Greek version: one being the 
Septuagint; and the others those of Aqui- 
la, Symraachus, and Theodosius. 

TE'TRARCH (tetrarches ; from tetra, four; 
and archo, I govern: Gr.), a Roman gover¬ 
nor of the fourth part of a province. Such 
originally was the import of the title te- 
trarch ; but it was afterwards applied to any 
petty king or sovereign. The office, or the 
territory of a tetrarch was called a tetrar- 
chate. 

TETRASPER'MOUS (tetra, four; and 
sperma, seed: Gr.), in Botany, an epithet 
for a plant which produces four seeds in 
each flower; as the rough-leaved or verti- 
cillate plants. 

TETRASTICH (tetrastichos; from tetra, 
four; and stichos, a line : Gr.), a stanza, epi¬ 
gram, or poem consisting of four verses. 

TETRAS'TYLE (tetrastulos ; from tetra, 
four; and stulos, a column : Gr.), in An¬ 
cient Architecture, a building with four 
columns in front. 

TET'TER (teter: Sax.), in Medicine, a 
common name of several cutaneous diseases. 
Also, a disease of animals, of the ring-worm 
kind. 

TEUTON'IC, belonging to the Teutones, 
an ancient people of Germany. The Teu¬ 
tonic language is the par-ent of the German, 

Dutch, and Anglo-Saxon.- Teutonic order, 

a religious order of knights, established to¬ 
wards the close of the twelfth century, and 
thus caLled as consisting chiefly of Germans 
or Teutones. The original object of the 
association was to defend the Christian re¬ 
ligion against the infidels, and to take care 













749 Hftcvary CrtfuSttri)* [theology 

of the sick in the Holy Land. It was at 
one period immensely rich and powerful, 
and it still retains a titular existence in 
Austria. 

TEXT (texte: Fr. ; from lextus: Lat.), a 
term signifying an original discourse, ex¬ 
clusive of any note or commentary. Also, 
a certain passage of scripture, chosen hy a 
preacher to he the subject of his sermon. 
- Text-book, a hook containing the lead¬ 
ing principles or most important points of 
a science or branch of learning, arranged 
in order for the use of students. 

TEXTILE ( textilis: Lat.), an epithet 
given to whatever is woven or capable of 
being woven. Textile fabrics accordingly 
signify stuffs of every description, no mat¬ 
ter what the materials may be of which they 
are composed. 

THALAM/IFLOR2E ( thalamus , a recep¬ 
tacle ; flos, a flower: Lat.), in Botany, a 
subclass of flowering plants,comprehending 
those which have distinct petals and sta¬ 
mens which proceed from beneath the 
/vary. Such plants have both a calyx and 
corolla, and the petals are inserted into the 
receptacle. The ranunculus and poppy 
orders may be taken as examples. 

TIIAL'LOGENS ( thallos, a frond; gennao, 
I produce: Gr.), in Botany, a vast class of 
cryptogamic plants of low organization. 
They are destitute of true stems, and of a 
vascular system, consisting simply of ex¬ 
pansions of cellular tissue. Sea weeds, 
funguses, and lichens belong to this class. 

THAL'LIUM, one of the metals recently 
discovered by means of spectrum analysis. 
It hasbeeu found in certain mineral waters, 
but the largest quantity has been yielded 
by flue-dust. It has a metallic lustre, with 
a colour near that of tin. Its specific gra¬ 
vity is 11 - 9. It is very soft, being easily 
scratched by lead, is very malleable, but is 
with difficulty drawn into wire. Bubbed 
on paper it gives a dark mark, which rapidly 
fades. Its melting point is 550° F., and it 
vaporises at a little higher temperature. 
It yields, during combustion in the flame 
of a spirit-lamp, an intense green colour 
(whence its name, from thallos, Gr., a green 
bud); and it communicates a single green 
line to the spectrum, by which line it was 
originally detected. 

THAM'MUZ, the tenth month of the 
Jewish civil year, containing 29 days, and 
answering to a part of June and of July. 

-In Mythology, the name under which 

the Phoenicians worshipped Osiris, or 
Adonis. 

THANE (thegn: Sax.), a title of honour 
among the Anglo-Saxons. Its original 
meaning was servant, and it was applied 
to the followers of kings and chieftains; but 
it was afterwards given to all landed pro¬ 
prietors above the degree of alderman, and 
under that of earl. There were superior 
and subordinate thanes. 

THAU'MATROPE ( thauma, a wonder; 
and trepo, I turn : Gr.), an optical device to 
exhibit the persistence of vision. The prin¬ 
ciple is well exemplified by rapidly whirling 
round a burning stick, which apparently 
produces a circle of fire. [See Phenakis- 
roscoPE.] 

THE'A (tclia: Chin.), in Botany, the sys¬ 
tematic name of the tea tree. [See Tea.] 

THE'ATRE (theatron; from theaomai, I 
behold : Gr.), a building for the exhibition 
of dramatic performances. The most an¬ 
cient theatres in Greece and Rome were 
temporary, being composed of boards 
placed gradually above each other for the 
convenience of spectators. The improve¬ 
ments of the theatre kept pace with dra¬ 
matic taste; and they were eventually 
built in a handsome and durable manner, 
rivalling in size and splendour the most 
costly edifices. The first royal licence for 
a theatre in England was granted in 1557, 
to James Burbage and four others, servants 
to the Earl of Leicester, to act plays at the 
Globe, Bankside, or in any part of England; 
but long before their time miracles were 
represented in the open fields. Dramatic 
exhibitions of all kinds were opposed by 
the Puritans in 1633, and suspended till 
1660, when Charles II. licensed two com¬ 
panies, Killegrew’s and Davenant’s; the 
first at the Bull, Vere Street, Clare Market, 
which in a year or two was removed to 
Drury Lane ; the other in Dorset Gardens. 
Till that time boys performed women’s 
parts. Sir William Davenant introduced 
operas; both companies united, 1684, and 
continued together till 1694; when the 
principal of them, under Betterton, ob¬ 
tained a licence, and withdrew to Portugal 
Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, in 1695. [See 
Drama.] 

THE'ISM {.Theos, God: Gr.), the belief or 
acknowledgment of the existence of a God, 
as opposed to Atheism. It has sometimes 
been defined to be Deism ; but Theism dif¬ 
fers fromDmm,tor although Deism implies 
a belief in the existence of a God, yet it 
signifies in modern usage a denial of reve¬ 
lation, which Theism aoes not. 

THEOC'RACY ( theokratia: from Theos, 
God; and kratos, power: Gr.), a state go¬ 
verned by the immediate direction of God. 

THEOD'OLITE, a mathematical instru¬ 
ment much used in surveying, for the 
taking of angles. It consists of a small 
telescope, which may be moved both verti¬ 
cally and horizontally; the vertical and 
horizontal angles described with it, being 
indicated by graduated circles. 

THEOG'ONY ( theogonia: Gr.), that branch 
of the heathen theology which taught the 
genealogy of their gods. 

THEOLO'GIUM ( Theos, a god ; and log- 
cion, a speaking place: Gr.), in the ancient 
theatre, a kind of little stage, above that 
on which the ordinary actors appeared; 
being the place where the machinery of the 
gods was arranged. 

THEOL'OGY (theologia; from T7;eos,God ; 
and logos, a discourse : Gr.), the study of 
religion. It may be divided into several 
branches, as, 1. Exegetical theology, which 
consists in the explanation and interpreta¬ 
tion of the scriptures. 2. Didactic or spec¬ 
ulative theology, by which the several doc¬ 
trines of religion are stated, explained, and 
supported. 3. Systematic theology, which 
arranges religious dogmas methodically, so 
as to enable us to contemplate them in 
their natural connection, and to perceive 















theomancy] CTTje Jktenttftc antr 


both the mutual dependence of the parts 
aud the symmetry of the whole. 4. Practi¬ 
cal theology, which consists of an exhibi¬ 
tion, first, of precepts and directions ; and, 
secondly, of the motives for complying with 
them. 

THEOMAN'CY ( Tlieos , God; and manteia, 
prophecy: Gr.), a species of prophecy in 
which a god himself was believed to re¬ 
veal future events; as, when a deity 
spoke through an oracle, or by means of a 
sibyl. 

THEOR'BO (tiorba: Hal), a musical in¬ 
strument made in form of a large lute, ex¬ 
cept that it has two necks. It was for¬ 
merly used by the Italians for playing a tho¬ 
rough bass. 

THE'OREM ( theorema ; from tlieoreo, I 
look at: Gr.), in Geometry, a something 
proposed to be proved; in contradistinction 
to a problem, which requires something to 
be done. A theorem requires a demonstra¬ 
tion; a problem, a solution. -In Algebra 

or Analysis, it is sometimes used to de¬ 
note a rule, particularly when that rule is 
expressed by symbols. A universal theo¬ 
rem extends to any quantity without re¬ 
striction. A particular theorem extends 
only to a particular quantity, as a negative 
theorem expresses the impossibility of any 
assertion. 

THE'ORY ( theoria , a looking at: Gr.). All 
men in every rational action of their lives 
are followers of theory, and they may be 
divided into those who follow good, and 
those who follow bad, theory. It is there¬ 
fore a matter of importance to discover the 
difference between good and bad theory, to 
ascertain the tests by which one may be 
distinguished from the other. The real ob¬ 
ject is to discover cases of constant se¬ 
quences, and when such a case of constancy 
has been found and correctly set forth in 
words, we have arrived at a correct theory. 
But when the proposition which professes 
to express a case of constant sequence 
gives us, in point of fact, a case which is 
not constant, we have before us a WTong 
theory. Of correct theories, however, 
some relate to things which have but little 
relation to the concerns of man, whilst 
others are founded on facts that have a 
close connection with the happiness of our 
race. It is the latter class of theories that 
are of importance to us; and the degree of 
that importance must always be in propor¬ 
tion as the sequences which they formu- 
lise have an influential bearing on mau’s 
life. Moreover, whilst one theory, though 
correct as far as it goes, expresses but a 
short sequence of events, another will em¬ 
brace a much larger sequence, and summa¬ 
rise a much greater number of facts. The 
latter kind of theory is, of course, the most 
valuable, since more knowledge is of 
greater worth than less. It may be laid 
down as incontrovertible that the man 
whose mind is furnished with a greater 
number of correct theories is better off 
with regard to correct practice, other 
things being equal, than the man who pos¬ 
sesses fewer correct theories. If theory 
were proscribed, if men were unable or un¬ 
willing to collect the result of their obser- 


750 


rations into general formulas, civilization 
would cease to exist, and there could be 
no advance beyond the stage of mere ani¬ 
mality.-An exposition of the principles 

of any science, as the theory of music.—— 
The philosophical explanation of pheno¬ 
mena, either physical or moral, as Newton’s 
theory of optics; Smith’s theory of moral 
sentiments. 

THEOS'OPIIIST (Tlieos, God; and sophis- 
tes, a wise man : Gr.), one who pretends to 
derive his knowledge from divine illumina¬ 
tion . 

THERAPEE'TvE (therapeutes ; from thera- 
peuo, I attend upon : Gr.), a term applied to 
those who are wholly employed in the ser¬ 
vices of religion ; but specially to a parti¬ 
cular sect of men, concerning whom there 
have been great disputes among the 
learned. It is generally supposed that St. 
Mark established a particular society of 
Christians about Alexandria, of whom Philo 
gives an account, and calls them Therapeu- 
tce. He speaks of them as a sect, retired 
from the world, who spent their time in 
reading the writings of ancient authors, 
in singing hymns and songs composed by 
some of their own sect, and in dancing to¬ 
gether the whole night. Some suppose they 
were Essenes; others imagine they were 
Jews, residing in Egypt; Eusebius and 
others consider them as Christians. 

THERAPEU'TICS ( therapeutikos , sana¬ 
tive : Gr.), that part of medicine which re¬ 
lates to the modes of action and effects of 
remedies, aud their application for the pre¬ 
vention and cure of diseases. 

THERI'ACA (Gr.; literally, belonging to 
wild beasts), a name given by the ancients 
to various compositions esteemed effica¬ 
cious against the effects of poison. Some 
few have been transferred to comparatively 
modern pharmacopoeias under the names of 
the theriaca of Andromachus, the theriaca 
Yeneta, the confectio Mithridati, &c. They 
were in the form of confections, and ex¬ 
tremely complicated. The theriaca Veneta 
was a compound of sixty-four drugs, pre¬ 
pared, pulverized, and reduced by means of 
honey to an electuary. 

THERMAL WATERS (therme, heat: Gr.), 
warm or tepid mineral waters, whose heat 
varies from 92° to 112°. 

THERMQ-ELECTRICITY, the electricity 
developed by change of temperature. It is 
most probably that electricity which, being 
developed by the successive heating and 
cooling of the earth’s surface during rota¬ 
tion on its axis, causes the earth to be a 
magnet. If two pieces of copper wire are 
attached to a delicate galvanometer, on 
bringing the free ends together, between 
the Anger and thumb, sufficient electricity 
will be set free to deflect the needle. The 
most convenient apparatus for exhibiting 
thermo-electrical currents consists of 
alternate bars of antimony and bismuth 
soldered together at their ends, so as to 
form a compound bar. If this is placed 
with one set of its soldered joints resting 
on ice, and a bar of hot iron resting on 
the other set, a current of electricity will 
be perceived when the outer bars are con¬ 
nected with the galvanometer Thermo- 










751 


ILitcrai’i) Cvca^urj). [thorough-bass 


electricity has been termed stero-electricity 
( stereos, solid : Gr.), on account of being 
produced by solids without the use of a 

fluid. 

THERMOM'ETER (therm?, heat; andrne- 
tron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument for 
measuring the degree of sensible heat. The 
ordinary thermometer consists of a slender 
glass tube, having a bulb at one end, and 
being hermetically sealed at the other. The 
bulb and a portion of the tube contain 
mercury, or alcohol coloured—almost al¬ 
ways the former; the rest of the tube is a 
vacuum. When the temperature is raised 
or lowered, the fluid expands or contracts, 
so as to occupy a portion of the tube less 
or greater than before ; and the amount of 
expansion or contraction is indicated by a 
scale attached to the instrument. There 
are two fixed points in a thermometer, 
from which the graduation is made: one, 
the freezing point of water, which is un¬ 
changeable ; the other, the boiling point of 
the same fluid, which also, with a given at¬ 
mospheric pressure, is un variable. The zero, 
or 0, of Fahrenheit is 32° below the freez¬ 
ing point; it is the temperature obtained 
by a mixture of snow and salt, which he 
erroneously supposed was the lowest pos¬ 
sible ; the boiling'point of water is 212°. 
The thermometer of Fahrenheit is chiefly 
used in this country. In the Centigrade 
thermometer, the zero is the freezing 
point; and 100° the boiling point of water. 
This thermometer lias been adopted in 
France, and very generally in science. In 
the thermometer of Reaumur, the zero is 
also the freezing point; but 80° is the boil¬ 
ing point of water. This thermometer is 
used in Germany. Therm<uneters have been 
so constructed as to register of themselves 
the highest and lowest degrees of tempera¬ 
ture to which they have been brought, 
within a certain period; and are termed 
self-registering maximum and minimum 
thermometers. It is not certainly known 
by whom the thermometer was invented ; 
it dates from about the beginning of the 
17th century ; the Dutch ascribe it to Cor¬ 
nelius Drebbel, the Italians to Sanctorio. 

THER'MOSTAT (therm?, heat; statos, a 
standing : Gr.), the name of an Apparatus 
for regulating temperature in distillation, 
ventilating apartments, heating baths or, 
hothouses, &c. That invented by Ure 
acts on the physical principle, that when 
two thin metallic bars of different expansi¬ 
bilities are rivetted or soldered facewise 
together, any change of temperature in 
them will cause a sensible movement of 
flexure in the compound bar, to one side or 
other; which movement may be made to 
operate, by the intervention of levers, &c., 
in any desired degree upon valves, stop¬ 
cocks, stove-registers, air-ventilators, &c.: 
so as to regulate the temperature of the 
media in which the compound bars are 

placed. , , , , 

THE’SIS (Gr., literally, a placing!, a posi¬ 
tion or proposition which a person ad¬ 
vances, and offers to maintain ; or which is 
actually maintained by argument. The 
term is more particularly applied to the 
questions propounded, in most of the 


Scotch and continental universities, to the 
students, previously to their obtaining a 
degree. 

THIRST, the desire for drink, arising 
from a dryness and heat of the mouth, 
sometimes extending along the oesophagus 
to the stomach. During thirst, the pos¬ 
terior fauces become red, the mucous secre¬ 
tion and saliva thick, and viscid ; a vague 
inquietude, restlessness of mind, and quick 
pulse follow; and unless drink is obtained, 
respiration becomes laborious, and the 
mouth opens to admit the cooi air. Ha¬ 
bitual thirst is produced by excess in 
drinking. After exercise in warm wea¬ 
ther, milk and water, or warm tea, is far 
better than beer, wine, spirits, &c., which, 
in such cases, generally produce febrile 
action. 

THIRTY YEARS’ WAR, the war carried 
on between the Roman Catholics and Pro¬ 
testants, in the first half of the 17th century. 
It is considered to have begun with the 
insurrection of the Bohemians, in 1618; 
and to have ended with the peace of West¬ 
phalia, in 1648. 

THISTLE, the common name of rough 
prickly plants belonging to the sub-order 
CynarocephalcB of the pat. ord. Compositce, 
especially the species of the genus Carduus. 
The stem is thick and herbaceous; the 
leaves more or less pinnated, and beset 
with spines; the flowers are disposed in 
large dense heads, surrounded with a close, 
scaly, and usually spiny involucre. 

THO MISTS, the followers of Thomas 
Aquinas, with respect to predestination and 
grace ; in opposition to Scotus. 

THOM'SONITE, a mineral of the Zeolite 
family, occurring generally in masses of 
a radiated structure. 

THOR, a Scandinavian deity, the son of 
Odin and Freya, who presided over mis¬ 
chievous spirits inhabiting the air. He 
appears to have been in some respects con¬ 
founded with Jupiter; and hence the day 
sacred to that god was dedicated to Thor, 
under a name retained in English, in the 
word Thurs-day. 

THORAC'IO (thorax, the breast: Gr.), in 
Ichthyology, a term applied to the ventral 
lius of llshes when they are placed in front 

of the pectoral iins.- Thoracic duct, in 

Anatomy, the trunk of the absorbent ves¬ 
sels, which is of a serpentine form. 

THO'RAX (Gr.), in Anatomy, that part of 
the human skeleton which consists of the 
bones of the chest; also, the cavity of the 
chest. 

THORI'NA, in Mineralogy, a primitive 
earth found in thorite, a Norwegian mine¬ 
ral, the hydrated oxide of thoriua, which is 
the oxide of thorium. Thoriua is white, 
infusible, and very heavy, its spec. grav. 
being 9‘4; no acid dissolves it except sul¬ 
phuric acid, and that with difficulty. It is 
known from alumina and glucina by being 
insoluble in potash; and from zirconia by 
being precipitated with ferrocyanide of 
potassium. 

THOROUGH-BASS, in Music, the art of 
composition according to the rules of har¬ 
mony. This branch of the musical science 
is twofold, theoretical and practical. Thco- 

















rilKUSH] 


Jrctcnttfi'c autf 


752 


retical thorough-bass comprehends the 
knowledge of the connection and disposi¬ 
tion of all the several chords, harmonious 
and dissonant; and includes all the esta¬ 
blished laws by which they are formed and 
regulated. Practical thorough-bass sup¬ 
poses a familiar acquaintance with the 
figures, a facility in taking the chords they 
indicate, and judgment in the various 
applications and effects of those chords in 
accompaniment. 

THRUSH, the common name of some 
birds belonging to the genus Turdus, in 
the family Herulidce. In Britain there are 
three species, the Missel Thrush {T. visci- 
vorus). White’s Thrush (T. Whitii), and the 
Song Thrush or Throstle (T. musicus ). The 
last is one of the finest singing birds in this 
country. Its song, which is rich and varied, 
commences early in the season, and con¬ 
tinues for nine months. It is not migra¬ 
tory, but is supposed in winter to remove 
from the more northern to the southern 
provinces of England.- Thrush, in Medi¬ 

cine, ulcers in the mouth and fauces. 

THUGS ( thuggee , a deceiver: Hind.), an 
association of murderers formed of men of 
all castes, and from all parts of India. 

‘ Their [origin is uncertain, but it is sup¬ 
posed to date from soon after the Moham¬ 
medan conquest. They now claim a divine 
original, and are supposed to have super¬ 
natural powers, and to be the emissaries of 
the divinity, like the wolf, the tiger, and 
the bear. Many belong to the most amiable, 
intelligent, and respectable classes of the 
lower and even middle ranks; they love 
theirprofession, regard murder as sport,and 
are never haunted with dreams or troubled 
with pangs of conscience during hours of 
solitude or in the last moments of life. 
The victim is an acceptable sacrifice to the 
goddess Davee, who by some classes is sup¬ 
posed to eat the lifeless body, and thus 
save her votaries the necessity of conceal¬ 
ing it. They are extremely superstitious, 
always consulting omens. All worship the 
pick-axe, which is symbolical of their pro¬ 
fession, and an oath sworn on it binds 
closer than on the Koran. They rise 
through various grades: the lowest are 
scouts; the second sextons ; the third are 
holders of the victims’ hands ; the highest, 
stranglers. All agree in never practising, 
cruelty, or robbing previous to murder, in 
never allowing any but infants to escape 
(and these are trained to Thuggee), and in 
never leaving a trace of such goods as may 
be identified. Murder of woman is against 
all rules. A mild-looking man who had 
been born and bred to the profession, had 
committed many murders, saw no harm in 
them, and felt neither shame nor remorse, 
explained to me how the gang waylay the 
unwary traveller, enter into conversation 
•with him, and have him suddenly seized, 
when the superior throws his own linen 
girdle round the victim’s neck and strangles 
him, pressing the knuckles against the 
spine. One assassin frankly confessed to 
having been engaged in 931 murders. 
Sometimes 150 persons collect into one 
gang, and their profits have often been im¬ 
mense ; the murder of six persons on one 


occasion yielding upwards of 80001. The 
profession have particular stations which 
they generally select for murder, throwing 
the body of their victim into a well.’—Bit. 
J. D. Hooker. The government has ex¬ 
erted itself so energetically to put down 
this horrible association that several thou¬ 
sands of Thugs have been seized, and some 
hundreds hanged, so that these wretches 
are now seldom heard of where they once 
swarmed. 

THULE, a name given by the ancients 
to the most northern country with which 
they were acquainted. Some authors ima¬ 
gine it to have been Iceland ; others con¬ 
sider it to have been the coast of Norway; 
while there are many who have not attached 
to it the idea of any precise country. 

THUM'MIM, a Hebrew word, denoting 
perfection. The Urim and Thummim were 
precious stones on the high priests’ vest¬ 
ments, which were consulted by the Jews to 
learn the will of God as long as their govern¬ 
ment was a Theocracy. 

THUN'DER, the report which accom¬ 
panies the discharge of electric fluid in the 
clouds, or between them and the earth. 
When this explosion is near, the thunder 
has a rattling or clattering sound; and 
when distant, a heavy and rumbling. This 
sharpness of the sound when near, and its 
rumbling when distant, are the principal 
means by which we can ascertain its proxi¬ 
mity or distance. There are two ways of 
explaining the production of thunder by 
the electrical discharge: one that the elec¬ 
tricity opens for itself a passage through 
the air, like a projectile; and that the 
sound is caused by the rush of air into the 
vacuum which follows, the reverberation 
being produced by the clouds. The other, 
that when the electric fluid passes between 
two points, there is a decomposition and 
recomposition of the electricity in all the 
intervening media; and therefore a moro 
or less violent vibration, which gives rise 
to sound. The continued roll would arise 
from the comparatively slow propagation 
of sound through the air. During a thunder¬ 
storm, proximity to lofty objects, and good 
conductors, should be carefully avoided. 
[See Lightning.] Hence it is unsafe, in 
such circumstances, to be near trees, sheets 
of water, gilt furniture, bellwires, &c. It 
is dangerous to be near a fireplace, on 
account of the quantity of metal it contains, 
and the likelihood of the chimney being 
struck. It is not safe to be in a large open 
plain. The middle of the house is the 
best place, and the security is increased by 
sitting on a good non-conductor: such as a 
feather bed, mattress, &c. 

THURS'DAT. [See Tiior.] 

THYME ( thumos: Or.), in Botany, a la¬ 
biate plant of the genus Thymus. The 
garden thyme is a warm, pungent aromatic, 
much in use for culinary purposes. Its es¬ 
sential oil is extremely acrid and pungent. 

THY'MUS (Lat. ; from thumos: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, a glandular body divided into 
lobes, situated behind the sternum. It is 
largest in the foetus, diminishes afterbirth, 
and in adults often entirely disappears. In 
calves it is called the sweetbread. 















THY'ROID ( tliureos , a shield ; and eidos, 
form : Or.), in Anatomy, a term applied to 
one of ’the cartilages of the larynx. The 
thyroid or scutiform cartilage is largest in 
men, in whom it is sometimes very pro¬ 
minent, and obtains the name of Adam's 

apple. -The thyroid gland is situated near 

the thyroid cartilage, and the thyroid veins 
and arteries belong to it. 

THYRSE, or THYRSUS(f7mrsos, the stalk 
of umbelliferous plants : Gr.), in Botany, a 
species of inflorescence; a dense or close 
panicle, with the peduncles longest at the 
middle, and therefore more or less of an 
ovate figure, as in the lilac. 

THYR'SUS (thursos: Gr.), in Antiquity, 
an attribute of Bacchus and his votaries. 
It consisted of a wand wreathed with ivy 
and vine leaves, with apine cone at the top. 
It was used at all the festivals held in hon¬ 
our of the god of wine. 

THYSANOP'TERA ( thusanoi, fringes ; 
pteion, a wing: Gr.), in Entomology, an 
order of small insects formerly compre¬ 
hended amongst the Flemiptera. They have 
two pairs of wings, which are narrow and 
fringed with long hairs. Their metamorpho¬ 
sis is incomplete, the larvae resembling the 
perfect insects, except that they have no 
wings. The typical genus is Thrips; of 
which one species, the T. cerealium, some¬ 
times does great damage to the grain crops. 
Other species attack various other plants, 
and inflict much injury. 

TIA'RA (Gr.), the covering for the head 
used by the ancient Persians. It was in 
the form of a tower, adorned with peacock’s 
feathers; was sometimes encompassed 
with a diadem ; and often had a half-moon 

embroidered on it.-Also, the crown worn 

by the Popes. At first they used only a high 
round cap like the other bishops. Nicholas 
I. added the first gold circle, as a sign of 
the civil power; Boniface added the second, 
about the year 1300; and Urban Y. the 
third, about 1365. 

TIB'IA ( Lot.), in Anatomy, the largest of 

the two bones which form the leg.-In 

Entomology, the fourth joint of the leg; it 
is very long. 

TIC DOULOUREU'X (Fr.), in Medicine, 
a most painful affection of a facial nerve, 
deriving its name from its sudden and ex¬ 
cruciating stroke. It is characterized by 
acute pain, attended with convulsive twitch- 
ings of the muscles ; and is regarded as one 
of those diseases which generally baffle me- 
diCcil skill* 

TICK, the popular name of certain para¬ 
sitic insects, which belong to the genus 
Ixodes, in the class Arachnida. They have 
four pairs of legs, and a rostrum, which 
they bury in the skin of animals, whose 
blood they suck until their originally flat and 
oval bodies are distended into a globular 
form. They are found in woods upon brush¬ 
wood, grass, &c„ from which they transfer 
themselves to the bodies of passing ani¬ 
mals. 

TIDES, the flux and reflux, or rise and 
fall of the sea. The phenomena connected 
with the tides are not very numerous, nor, 
with our present knowledge, hard to be ex¬ 
plained. The tides are a consequence of 


the attraction of gravitation. The earth 
revolves on its axis once a day, and the 
moon is retained in its orbit by the mutual 
attraction which exists between it and the 
earth. These two facts suffice to explain 
the tides. The water on the side of the 
earth next the moon, the water on the side 
of the earth farthest from the moon, and 
the mass of the earth between both, are all 
attracted by the moon with different forces, 
on account of their different distances. 
The waters next the moon are attracted 
most, and therefore fall most towards the 
moon, leaving the earth behind, and bulg¬ 
ing out from it. The waters farthest from 
the moon are less attracted by the moon 
than the mass of earth in front of' them : 
and therefore,being left behind by the earth, 
which is drawn more towards the moon, 
they bulge out behind. Hence there will 
be high water under the moon, because 
the water moves towards the moon faster 
than the earth; and also high water at the 
same time at the opposite side of the earth, 
because the mass of earth moves towards 
the moon faster than the water behind it. 
The two masses of water, or tides, are equal: 
since the water in one of them flows as 
much more rapidly towards the moon than 
the earth as the earth moves more rapidly 
towards the moon than the water in the 
other. The water flows from all directions 
to form these heaps, as they may be termed; 
the resulting currents are modified by pro¬ 
montories, islands, winds, &c., and by the 
fluid having a less velocity of rotation 
than that part of the earth to which it flows, 
on account of coming from the neighbour¬ 
hood of the poles. As time is required for 
the communication of motion, the highest 
part of the tidal wave is not immediately 
under the moon, but about 30° to the east¬ 
ward of it. There are two tides in twenty- 
four hours; one on the side of the earth 
next the moon, another on the side farthest 
from the moon. The tide is about fifty 
minutes later,in any given place, on each 
succeeding day; because that place cannot 
return to its former position in less than a 
day ; and it has besides to followthe moon, 
which has moved on in her orbit. The 
sun also causes tides; but though it is 
larger than the moon, its effect is less, on 
account of its greater distance. "When the 
sun and moon act together, that is when 
they are in conjunction or in opposition, the 
tides are larger, and are called spring tides, 
which occur a little after new and full 
moon, not exactly at the happening of 
these events, because time is required for 
the communication of motion. When the 
moon is in quadratures the effects of the sun 
and moon are opposed ; and there are small, 
or neap tides. When the sun and moon, 
or both, are nearest to the earth, the tides 
produced by them are highest: hence the 
tides are greatest after the autumnal, and 
before the vernal equinox. The effects of 
the planets in causing tides are inapprecia¬ 
ble. There must evidently be tides in the 
atmosphere; though, as we are immersed 
in that fluid, they are ordinarily impercepti¬ 
ble to us. The extreme practical importance 
of a correct knowledge of the tides, on 
60 











tierce] rijc gctcuttffc anti 751 j i 

roasts and in harbours, has in many places 
led to the prosecution of some sort of regu¬ 
lar observations, to determine what is called 
the establishment of particular ports : that 
is, the interval of time after the new and 
full moon has passed the meridian, at 
which it is high water in them ; from this 
the time of high water on other days is 
known bv the age of the moon. 

TIERCE (tiers: Fr.), in Heraldry, an 
epithet for the field when it is divided into 

fhTPP noyfq 

TIERS ETAT (the third estate: Fr.). 
This term was universally applied in France 
to the mass of the people under the old 
regime. Before the cities rose to wealth 
and influence, the nobility and clergy pos¬ 
sessed the property of almost the_ whole 
country, and the people were subject to 
the most degrading humiliations. But, as 
trade and commerce began to render men 
independent, and they were able to shake 
off their feudal bonds, the tiers €iat gradu¬ 
ally rose into importance; and at length 
the third estate, during the revQlution, 
may be said to have become the nation 
itself. 

TI'GER, the Tigris regalis of naturalists, 
a powerful beast of the feline family inha¬ 
biting the East Indies, and some other 
parts of Asia; but, wherever it is known, its 
strength and sanguinary disposition are 
such as to excite the terror of the inhabi¬ 
tants. It comes into the midst of villages 
in the night time, for the purpose of carry¬ 
ing off cattle, and it has often been known 
to single out for prey some human victim. 
No animal, except the elephant, is capable 
of resisting it. The Bengal tiger has an 
average length of eight feet, and is between 
three and four feet high. It is of a yellow¬ 
ish brown colour, with transverse black 
stripes; and the tail has alternate black 
and yellow rings. 

TIL'LER, a lever or piece of wood fas¬ 
tened in the head of the rudder, by which 
it is moved. In small ships and boats it is 

called the helm. - Tiller-rope, the rope 

which forms a communication between the 
fore end of the tiller and the wheel. 

TIM'BEll, a name for all kinds of wood 
to be used in Building, Carpentry, Joinery, 
Turnery, &c. We also apply the word to 
standing trees which are suitable for these 
purposes. Timber is preserved from that 
particular kind of decay called dry rot by 
saturating it with solutions of various me¬ 
tallic salts, such as copperas (sulphate of 
iron), corrosive sublimate (bichloride of 
mercury), chloride of zinc, and sulphate of 
copper. Creosote has also been employed 

for the same purpose.-In ships, a timber 

is a rib piece of wood, branching outward 
from the keel in a curving direction. 

TIM'BREL Itimbrt, : Fr.; from tympa¬ 
num, a drum : Lat.), an ancient musical 
instrument; a kind of tabor or tambourine, 
frequently mentioned in Scripture. 

TIME, a portion of duration, whether 
past, present, or future ; marked by certain 
periods or measures, chiefly by the motion 

and revolution of the sun.- Absolute time 

Is that which is considered in itself, with¬ 
out reference to the portion of duration 

to which it belongs.- Relative time is that 

which is considered with reference to the 
termini of some specific interval of dura- j 

tion.- Apparent time is that deduced 

from observations of the sun : that which 

is shown by a good sun-dial.- Mean time 

is that shown by a well-regulated watch : 
it is not the same as that shown by a sun- > 
dial, because the apparent motion of the 1 

sun in the heavens is not uniform.- Side- j 

real time is that portion of a sidereal day 1 
which has elapsed since the transit of the : 
first point of Aries. It represents, at any j 
moment, the right ascension of whatever 

heavenly body is then on the meridian.-i 

Astronomical time of the day is reckoned ! 
from the mean noon of that day, and is 
reckoned on to twenty-four hours in mean 

time.- Civil time is mean time, applied to 

the purposes of civil life. The civil day 
commences at the midnight preceding the 
noon of the day, and it is divided into two 
parts of twelve hours each ; the first twelve 
hours being A. M. or ante meridian (before 
noon); the second twelve hours being p. M. 

or post meridian (after noon).- Time, in 

music, the measure of sounds, with refer¬ 
ence to their continuance or duration. 
Thus, in common time, the bar is equal in, 
length to a semibreve, or a minim, accord¬ 
ing to the character used to indicate the 
time; in triple time, it is that part of a 
semibreve expressed by the fraction placed 
at the beginning of the staff—thus f means 
three-fourths of a semibreve, or three crot¬ 
chets; Y, twelve eighths of a semibreve, or 
twelve quavers, &c. The time is also affec¬ 
ted by certain technical terms employed ; 
such as allegro, presto, &c 

TIMOC'RACY (Urns, an assessment; 
leratos, power: Gr.), that form of govern¬ 
ment whose laws require a certain property, 
or position in society, to enable a citizen to 
be capable of the highest offices. 

TIN, a metal of a silver-white colour, 
very ductile and malleable. Its spec. grav. 
is 7 - 29. It gives out, while bending, a 
crackling noise ; is fusible at about 4 - 42°, a 
heat much less than that of ignition; is 
soluble in muriatic acid, and is rapidly con¬ 
verted, by dilute nitric acid, into a white 
oxide. Tin has been known from the ear¬ 
liest ages. It was much employed by the 1 
Egyptians in the arts, and by the Greeks as 
an alloy with other metals. Pliny speaks 
of it under the name of white lead, as a 
metal well known in the arts, and even ap¬ 
plied in the fabrication of many ornaments 
of luxury. He ascribes to the Gauls the 
invention of the art of tinning, or covering i 
other metals with a thin coat of tin. The 
Phoenicians procured it from Spain and 
from Britain, with which places they car¬ 
ried on a very lucrative commerce. Ac¬ 
cording to Aristotle, the tin mines of Corn¬ 
wall were known and worked in his time; 
and they still continue the most produc¬ 
tive of any in Europe. Diodorus Siculus, 
who wrote 40 years before Christ, describes 
the method of working these mines; and 
says that their produce was conveyed to 
Gaul, and thence to different parts of Italy. 
Tin which is very pure, but-not so easily 
manufactured as the Cornish, is also ob- 



































755 Httcrarg 

tained in great quantities in South America. 
The first process to which tin ore is sub¬ 
jected is grinding ; 'it is then washed, to 
remove the impurities. The specific gra¬ 
vity is so high that it is easy to wash away 
the earths, and even some of the foreign 
metallic ores with which it is often min¬ 
gled. The next process is roasting the ore in 
a reverberatory furnace along with anthra¬ 
cite, which removes the oxygen and foreign 
matters. It afterwards repeatedly undergoes 
the effects of fusion, and being at length 
purified from the admixture of all foreign 
substances, it is cast into blocks, weighing 
each about 300 lbs. There are only two 
ores of tin— the peroxide, which is tin-stone 
or capiterite, and tin pyrites, which is sul- 
phuretof tin or stannine; the former, only, 
is sufficiently abundant for metallurgic 
purposes. Tin unites easily with various 
metals ; combined with copper in different 
proportions, it forms bronze, bell metal, and 
other useful alloys. Lead and tin may be 
combined in any proportion by fusion ; the 
resulting alloy is harder,and possesses much 
more tenacity than tin; and these qualities 
are at a maximum when it is composed of 
three parts of tin and one of lead. Alloyed 
with small proportions of antimony, cop¬ 
per, and bismuth, tin is formed into various 
■wares resembling silver, under the names 
of block-tin, Britannia metal, &c. Tin is 
much used in t he state of very thin leaves; 
it is then called tin-foil. This is made from 
the finest tin, first cast into an ingot, then 
laminated to a certain extent, and after¬ 
wards beat out with a hammer. Tin is used 
for tinning copper, iron, &c. It adheres 
strongly to the surface of iron : thin sheets 
of which coated with it constitute tin¬ 
plate, or white iron, of which so many arti¬ 
cles in domestic use are made. The iron is 
coated with tin in order to prevent its rust¬ 
ing. Tin-foil coated with mercury, forms 
the reflecting surface of looking-glasses. A 
compound of tin and gold, the purple of 
Cassius, gives fine shades of purple to 
stain glass and artificial gems. Oxide of tin 
is an ingredient in the white and yellow 
glazes of pottery, and, fused with the 
materials of flint, forms enamel. Nitrate of 
tin is the basis of the scarlet employed in 
dying wool, and many bright colours used 
by the calico-printer and cotton-dyer. In 
1858, the mines of Cornwall produced 10,618 
tons of ore; from which 6,920 tons of tin 
were obtained. Of this, the exports, wrought 
and unwrought, were of the value of 
1,660,5561. In the same year, 628 tons of 
tin-ore were imported, and 59,115 tons of tin. 

TIN'CAL, an impure biborate of soda 
(borax) imported from Thibet, Persia, and 
China. Borax is prepared from it. 

TINC'TURE (tinetura; from tinge, I 
moisten: Lat,'), in Medicine, a spirituous 
solution of such vegetable and animal sub¬ 
stances as are soluble in rectified or proof 
spirit. The virtues of many vegetables are 
extracted almost equally by water and rec¬ 
tified spirit; but, in their aqueous and 
spirituous tinctures, there is this difference 
—that the active parts in the former are 
blended with a large proportion of innate 
gummy matter, on which their solubility in 


. [tithes 


this menstruum in a great measure de¬ 
pends ; while, in the latter, they are almost 
free from gum. Tinctures, in Heraldry, re¬ 
fer to the colours of the shield, and are of 
three kinds : metals, colours, and furs. The 
metals are or (gold), argent (silver); the 
colours, gules (red), azure (blue), sable i 
(black), vert (green), purpure (purple), san¬ 
guine or murrey (dark blood red), and 
tenny (orange); the chief furs are ermine 
and vair. They are thus expressed in en- j 
gravings: or by small points; argent by a 
plain surface; gules by vertical lines; , 
azure by horizontal lines ; sable by vertical 
and horizontal lines crossing one another; 
vert by diagonal lines from right to left; 
purpure by diagonal lines from left to right; 
tenny by vertical lines crossed by diagonal 
lines from right to left; and sanguine by 
diagonal lines crossing one another. 

TIRAILLEURS (marksmen : Fr .), in the 
Military art, a name given to a species of 
infantry seldom intended to fight in close 
order, but generally dispersed, two and two, 
always supporting each other, and usually 
skirmishing in front of the line. They must 
be particularly expert in their movements : 
so as to collect quickly into masses at the 
sound of the bugle; to disperse again with 
equal expedition; and to act constantly with 
the whole army. They were introduced by 
the French during the wars of their revolu¬ 
tion. 

TIS'RI, the first month of the Hebrew 
civil year, and the seventh of the ecclesi¬ 
astical; answering to a part of our Sep¬ 
tember and a part of October. 

TIS'SUE, cloth interwoven with gold or 
silver, or with figured colours.-In Ana¬ 

tomy, the parts of which organized bodies 
are composed. These parts are made up of 
cells of different shapes and texture, dif¬ 
ferently put together. There are, for ex¬ 
ample, the osseous tissue, the muscular 
tissue, the nervous tissue, &c. 

TITAN'IUM, in Mineralogy, a metal of 
an orange red colour, first found in Corn¬ 
wall. It occurs in different states of oxida¬ 
tion. The minute copper-coloured crystals . 
sometimes found in the slag of the iron¬ 
smelting furnaces are pure titanium. It is 
very infusible; will scratch glass, but not 
crystal; it resists the action of air and . 
acids; but is oxidized by nitre, at a red 
heat. Its spec. grav. is 5‘8. It has been 
found in Italy and New Zealand along with 
iron sand, which lia3 been ejected from 
volcanoes. 

TITHES ( teotha , tenth : Sax.), in Ecclesi¬ 
astical law, the tenth part of the increase 
annually arising from the profits of land 
and stock, allotted to the clergy for their 
support. The custom of paying tithes, 
or of offering a tenth, has not only been 
practised under the Jewish law, and by 
Christians, but we also find something like 
it among the heathens. The Babylonians 
and Egyptians gave their kings a tenth of 
their revenues. The Romans offered a 
tenth of all they took from their enemies 
to the gods ; and the Gauls, in like manner, 
gave a tenth to their god Mars. Tithes are 
personal, predial, or mixed; personal, when 
accruing from labour, art, cr trade; predial. 
























^ctenttft'c antf 


766 


tithing] 

when arising from the earth, as hay, wood, 
and fruit; and mixed, when accruing from 

beasts,which are fed off the land.-Tithes, 

also, are either great or small. The great, or 
parsonage tithes, belong to the rector ; the 
small, or vicarage tithes, to the vicar. The 
great tithes often belong to a lay impro¬ 
priator or to a college. By a recent enact¬ 
ment, the tithes have been changed into 
a rent-charge, which is never personal, but 
apportioned among the lands of the parish, 
to be paid by their occupiers; and recover¬ 
able by holding the lands until they are 
paid. This is not fixed, being for each year 
the price of a certain quantity of corn, at 
the average of the seven years immediately 
preceding. 

TITHING, a community of ten men, 
into which all England was divided in the 
time of the Saxons. [See Tything.] 

TOAD (tathe: Sax.), the name of tailless 
Batrachian reptiles belonging to the family 
Bufonidce. The common toad of Britain, 
Bufo vulgaris, was formerly supposed to be 
venomous, but now considered harmless. 
It has a thick squat body covered with 
warts or tubercles, and a fetid milky 
juice exudes from a protuberance, stud¬ 
ded with pores, behind each eye. Toads 
are capable of living a long time with¬ 
out food, and have been known to re¬ 
main (if the repeated instances which have 
been given are to be relied on) whole years 
in walls, hollow trees, In the earth, or even 
when artificially enclosed with plaster. Dr. 
Buckland, however, states, in reference to 
a number of experiments which he made 
on the Adtality of toads enclosed in W'ood 
and stone: * It seems that toads cannot live 
a year excluded totally from atmospheric 
air, and that they cannot survive two years 
entirely excluded from food ; and there is a 
want of sufficiently minute and accurate 
observation in those so frequently recorded 
cases, where toads are said to be found 
alive within blocks of stone and wood, in 
cavities that had no communication what¬ 
ever with the external air.’ 

TOAD'-STONE, in Mineralogy, a dark 
brown basaltic amygdaloid, composed of 
basalt and green earth, and containing ob¬ 
long cavities in which is calcareous spar. 

TOAD'STOOL, the popular name of va¬ 
rious inedible funguses which resemble 
mushrooms in shape. 

TOBAC'CO, the Nicotiana tabacum of 
botanists, nat. order Solanacece, a herba¬ 
ceous plant which flourishes in America 
and all temperate climates, and is remark¬ 
able for its acrid and narcotic properties. 
Its name is probably derived from Tobaco, 
in the province of Yucatan, where it was 
first found by the Spaniards. It is much 
used for smoking; and, when pulverized and 
otherwise prepared, as snuff. When first 
used it sometimes occasions vomiting; but 
the practice of using it in any form soon 
conquers distate, and forms a relish for it 
that is strong and almost invincible. It is 
believed to have been introduced into 
England by Sir Francis Drake and Sir 
Walter Raleigh, and we may well be sur¬ 
prised that the discovery in America of a 
nauseous and poisonous weed of an acrid 


taste and disagreeable odour, in short, 
whose only properties are deleterious, 
should have had so great an influence on 
the social condition of all nations, that it 
should have become an article of most ex¬ 
tensive commerce, and that its culture 
should have spread more rapidly than that 
of the most useful plants. The recent 
leaves have very little smell or taste; but, 
■when dried, their odour is strong, narcotic, 
and somewhat fetid ; their taste, bitter and 
extremely acrid. When distilled, they yield 
the essential oil on which their virtue de¬ 
pends, and which is said to be a virulent 
poison. Tobacco is extensively cultivated 
in France and other European countries, in 
the Levant and India; but the tobacco of 
Cuba and the United States is considered 
the best. Tobacco was first brought to 
France in 1560 by Nicot, from whose name 
has been formed the botanical name of the 
genus; and, in 1586, Sir Francis 'Drake in¬ 
troduced the plant to the English. In 
1850 the quantity of tobacco imported into 
Great Britain and retained for home con¬ 
sumption amounted to nearly 34,800,000 lbs. 

TODDY, the juice obtained by wounding 
the flower spathes, or trunks, of the cocoa- 
nut palm and other palms. When fermented 
it becomes arrack. 

TO'GA ( Lat .; from tego, I cover), in An¬ 
tiquity, a robe without sleeves, worn over 
the tunica in time of peace. It was like a 
large cloak, and was the distinguishing 
badge of a Roman citizen. The variety in 
the colour, the fineness of the wool, and 
the ornaments attached to it, indicated the 
rank of the wearer. Its colour was ordi¬ 
narily that of the wool undyed, but it was 
of a purer white when worn by candidates; 
but, in time of mourning, it was made of 
wool naturally black. An embroidered toga, 
called togapicta, was worn by generals when 
they triumphed. The chief dignitaries of 
the state wore a purple band affixed to its 
edge; it was then called a toga prcetexta. 
The dress of matrons was the stola, the 
toga being worn only by women of bad 
character. Under the emperors the toga 
went out of fashion. 

TOISE, a long measure in France, con 
taining six French feet; equivalent to 
P94904 metres, or 6 - 3945925 English feet. 

TOKAY', a kind of wine produced at 
Tokay in Hungary, made of white grapes. 
It is distinguished by its aromatic taste; 
is not considered good till it is three 
years old, and it continues to improve as 
long as it is kept. It is the only wine 
which is drunk by preference in the turbid 
state. 

TOKEN, a small coin, in copper, brass, or 
lead, formerly issued by corporations, guild 
companies, and tradesmen for local circu¬ 
lation before the State undertook to pro¬ 
vide a coinage of copper. ‘Tokens were 
issued, says Mr. W. Boyne, ‘to such an 
extent that it is presumed 20,000 varieties 
were coined in England, Wales, and Ire¬ 
land. It was not until 1672 that farthings, 
struck at the Mint, of similar size to those 
of the present day, were ready for circula 
tion, when tokens were suppressed by a 
stringent order of the king.’ 










757 


Ctc^urj). [tornado 


TOLERATION <toleratio, an enduring: 
Lett.), in a general sense, the allowance of 
that which is not wholly approved; hut 
more especially, the allowance of religious 
opinions and modes of worship in a state, 
when contrary to or different from those 
of the established church or belief. The 
first Toleration act in England was passed 
in 1689 ; the Roman Catholic Emancipation 
act, in 1829, and some subsequent acts have 
placed dissenters on an equality with mem¬ 
bers of the established church, except as 
regards a few of the highest offices; even 
Jews are not now precluded from an en¬ 
joyment of civil rights, on account of their 
religion. 

TOLL (folio, I take: Lat.), the name gene¬ 
rally given to the duties imposed on tra¬ 
vellers and goods passing along roads, 
bridges, &c. It is sometimes taken by a 
person for every beast driven across his 

ground, being then called toll-traverse. - 

Toll, the payment made to the corporation 
of a town, or the lord or owner of a market 
or fair, on the sale of certain commodities. 

TOMATO, or LOVE APPLE, the fruit of 
several species of Lycopersicum, nat. order 
Solanacece. They are natives of South 
America, but are now cultivated in many 
other places on account of the fruit, which 
is employed as an ingredient in sauces. 

TOM'BAC, a species of brass, with excess 
of zinc; if arsenic is added, it forms white 
tombac. 

TOMEN'TOUS (tomentum, a stuffing for 
cushions: Lat.), in Botany, downy; or 
covered with hairs so close as scarcely to 
be discernible. 

TONE ( tonos , a note, or tone: Gr.), the 
degree of elevation of any sound: its acute¬ 
ness or gravity.- Musical Tones differ 

from those of common speech chiefly by 
being more prolonged, so as to give the ear 
a more decided perception of their height, 
formation, and relation to each other. There 
are two kinds of tones, major and minor. 
The tone major is in the ratio of 8 to 9, 
which results from the difference between 
the fourth and fifth. The tone minor is 
as 9 to 10, resulting from the difference be¬ 
tween the minor third and the fourth.- 

Tone, in Medicine, that state of organiza¬ 
tion in a body, in which the animal func¬ 
tions are healthy and performed with due 
vigour. Tone in its primary signification 
is tension, and tension is the primary indi¬ 
cation of strength. Hence its application 
to the natural healthy state of the animal 
organs. 

TONGUE (tuny: Sax.), in Anatomy, a soft, 
fleshy viscus, very movable in every direc¬ 
tion, situated in the cavity of the mouth, 
and constituting the organ of taste. It 
is also an instrument of deglutition, and is 
a very important aid to pronunciation. 

TON'IC (tonos, a tone : Gr.), in Music, the 
principal noteof the key; upon it all regular 
melodies depend ; and with it all of them 
terminate, as far as the chief melody is 
concerned, the inner parts of the harmony 
concluding on the third or mediant, and 
the fifth or dominant. The name is applied 
also to the octaves above and below the 
Jteymote. 


TON'IOS, medicines that increase the 
tone of the muscular fibre, and give vigour 
and action to the system. Preparations of 
iron and quinino are amongst the best 
known tonics. 

TON'NAGE, the number of tons which a 
vessel may safely carry. Formerly the 
tonnage for the payment of dues was cal¬ 
culated on principles which gave an advan¬ 
tage to vessels badly proportioned, that is, 
having anexcessof breadth. But at present 
it is calculated on more scientific prin¬ 
ciples. 

TON'QUIN or TONKA BEAN, the seed of j 
alarge leguminous tree, the Dipterix odorata j 
of botanists, growing in the forests of 
Brazil. The legume is single-seeded, and 
can only be obtained when it has fallen to 
the ground. The seed is used for scenting 
snuff. 

TON'SILS ( tonsillce: Lat.), in Anatomy, 
two remarkable glands, one on each side of 
the mouth, near the uvula; and in popular 
language called almonds of the ears. Their 
use is to secrete a mucous humour for , 
lubricating the passages; and they have 
several excretory ducts opening into the 
mouth. 

TONTINE, a sort of increasing life an¬ 
nuity ; or a loan given by a number of per¬ 
sons with the benefit of survivorship. Thus 
an annuity is shared among a number, on 
the principle that the share of each, at his 
death, is enjoyed by the survivors, until at 
last the whole goes to the last survivor, or 
to the last two or three, according to the 
terms on which the money is advanced. 
The name is derived from its inventor 
Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. 

TOOTH'ING, in Architecture, bricks left 
alternately projecting, at the end of a wall; 
that they may be bonded into the continua¬ 
tion, when it is carried up. 

TO'PAZ ( topazion: Gr.), a gem or precious 
stone, very generally of a fine yellow or 
gold colour. It sometimes occurs in masses, 
but more usually crystallized in rectangular 
octahedrons. The oriental topaz is most 
esteemed; its colour borders on the orange. 
The occidental, or that found in Peru, is of 
a softer substance, but its colour is nearly 
the same. The Brazilian topaz becomes 
rose red, but the Saxon loses its colour, by 
heat. This gem consists of silica, alumina, 
and fluoric acid. 

TOPE, an Indian word for Buddhist 
structures, in the shape of pillars, towers, 
or tumuli, erected as memorials of victory 
or miracles, or as receptacles for relics. 
The word is also applied by travellers in 
India to groves of trees, which often afford 
shady halting-places. 

TO'PHUS (Lat.), in Mineralogy, a genus 
of calcareous earths, which are porous and 
without lustre, and consist principally of 
carbonate of lime. Its origin is due to pre¬ 
cipitation from water. 

TOPOG'RAPHY ( topographia, from topos, 
a place; .and graplio, I write: Gr.), the ac¬ 
curate description of some particular place 
or tract of land. Topography goes into 
minute details which geography does not 
enter upon. 

TORNA'DO (Span.trom tor no, I turn; Lat.), 













Ef)C Jbcunttftc rmtt 


758 


torpedo] 


a violent gust of wind, or a tempest, dis¬ 
tinguished by a whirling motion. Torna¬ 
does areusuallyaccompanied with thunder, 
lightning, and torrents of rain; hut they 
are of short duration. 

TORPE'DO (Eat., literally numbness), the 
name given to certain fishes possessing 
electrical powers allied to the rays. They are 
also called cramp fishes, and electric rays, 
and are distinguished by the short and some¬ 
what fleshy tail, and the nearly circular disc 
formed by the body. The electrical appa¬ 
ratus, which has rendered the torpedo so 
celebrated, consists of small membranous 
tubes, disposed like honey-comb; and di¬ 
vided, by horizontal partitions, into small 
cells, which are filled with mucous matters. 
By exercising this power, the torpedo is 
enabled to procure its prey, and to protect 
itself against enemies. Whatever animal 
attempts to lay hold of it receives a sudden 
paralysing shock; and small fishes, it is 
said, are completely stunned on approach¬ 
ing it. One species has been taken on the 
British coast, but it is very rare. 

TORIIE E ACTION ( torrefacio , I make dry 
by heat: Lat), iu Metallurgy, the operation 
of roasting ores.-In Pharmacy, the dry¬ 

ing or roasting of drugs on a metallic 
plate, till they are reduced to the state de¬ 
sired. 

TORRICEL'LIAN VACUUM, in Physics, 
the vacuum produced by inverting a tube 
of sufficient length, hermetically sealed at 
one end, and filled with mercury, or any 
other fluid, in a vessel containing the same 
fluid ; and allowing the fluid in the tube to 
descend, until its weight is counterbalanced 
by that of the atmosphere. The apparatus 
will constitute the essential portion of a 
barometer, and was invented by Torricelli. 
[See Barometer.] 

TOR'RID ZONE, ( torridus, parched: Lat.), 
in Geography, that region of the earth in¬ 
cluded between the tropics, where the sun 
is vertical at some period of the year, and 
where the heat is always great. It is 47°, 
or 705 geographical miles iu width, and is 
intersected by the equator. 

TOR'SION BAL'ANCE (torsi, a twisting: 
Lat.), an instrument intended for measur¬ 
ing the intensities of electric or magnetic 
forces, by establishing an equilibrium be¬ 
tween them and the force of torsion. [See 
Electrometer, Torsion.] The force of 
torsion is inversely proportional to the 
length of the wire used, and inversely to 
the fourth power of its diameter. Brass 
wire is better than iron; but spun glass is 
better than either. 

TOR'SO ( Ital .), the trunk of a statue, mu¬ 
tilated of head and limbs. 

TOR'TOISE, the name given to those 
shielded reptiles which live on land or in 
fresh-water; those which live in the sea 
being called Turtles [which see]. The 
most remarkable features of the tortoises 
is that their ribs and breast-bone are formed 
into a bony box with openings in front and 
behind. Through the front opening the 
head and fore legs protrude, and through 
the posterior opening the hind legs and 
tail. ' This box is composed of plates which 
ary in shape in the different species. Their 


jaws are destitute of teeth aud are more 
like the bill of a bird than the mouth of a 
quadruped. They are possessed of lungs 
and are oviparous. The land-tortoises feed 
on vegetables; one species, the Cistuclo 
europcea, is a native of the South of Europe, 
and lives to a great age. 

TOB/TORE ( tortura: Lat.), the infliction 
of pain on an accused person, for the pur¬ 
pose of extorting a confession of guilt, or 
the revelation of accomplices. The Greeks 
and Romans practised it with regard to 
slaves; and not unfroquently whole families 
of these unfortunate people were subjected 
to it, when an atrocious crime, such as the 
murder of their master, was committed. It 
has been used in various countries of 
modem Europe, and even in England. [See 
Question.] 

TO'RUS (Lat.), in Architecture, a round 
moulding in the bases of columns, resem¬ 
bling the astragal in form, but larger. 

TO'RY, in British history, the name given 
to a political party opposed to the Whigs, 
and considered as adhering to the ancient 
constitution of England. The word Tory is 
Irish, and was formerly applied to a class of 
depredators in that country; but the dis¬ 
tinctions of Tory and Whig (as political 
partisans) were not known before the year 
1678, in the reign of Charles II., when those 
who believed that the Roman Catholics 
conspired against the king and state, as 
deposed by Titus Oates, were called Whigs, 
and those who disbelieved it, Tories. Of 
late years the term Conservatives has been 
adopted by the Tories, as tending to convey 
the best explanation of their principles. 

TOUCAN', the name given to scansorial 
birds of the genus liliamphastos, inhabiting 
tropical America. They are remarkablo 
for having large cellular beaks, aud long, 
feather-like tongues. They derive their 
name from their cry, which resembles the 
word Tucano. 

TOUCH (toucher, to touch: Fr .; frpm 
tango: Lat.), one of the five senses, the 
organs of which are the nervous papillte of 
the skin. The term touch is most correctly 
applied to the sensibility which is diffused 
over the surface of the body. Touch exists 
with the most exquisite degree of sensi¬ 
bility at the extremities of the fingers and 
in the lips. 

TOUCH'-NEEDLE, small bars of gold, 
silver, and copper combined together in all 
the different proportions aud degrees of 
mixture. These are used by assayers and 
refiners, in the trial called the touch, to dis¬ 
cover the purity of any piece of gold or sil¬ 
ver by comparing the mark it leaves on the 
touchstone with those of the bars. 

TOUlt'MALINE, the Lynczirium of the 
ancients. It is a more perfect form of 
schorl. The transparent coloured kinds 
are sometimes cut into ringstones, and 
some of them are used in experiments on 
the polarization of light. Tourmaline con¬ 
sists of silica, alumina, and soda, with a 
little oxide of manganese andiron. 

TOUR'NAMENTS, martial sports, where 
knights displayed their gallantry and ad¬ 
roitness? by encountering each other on 
horseback ; the weapons being lances with 






























7<i9 


Htteravj) Crcasuvi?. 


blunt heads of iron, or the lance and sword 
used in war—these latter being termed 
arms d Voutrance. ‘ Impartial taste,’ says 
Gibbon, ‘ must prefer a Gothic tournament 
to the Olympic games of classic antiquity. 
Instead of the naked spectacles, which cor¬ 
rupted the manners of the Greeks, the pom¬ 
pous decoration of the lists was crowned 
with the presence of chaste and high-born 
beauty, from whose hands the conqueror 
received the prize of his dexterity and 
courage.’—One solitary attempt to imitate 
the jousts and tournaments of former days 
in this country was made in recent times 
at the expense of tlio late Earl of Eglin- 
toun; but its success was not such as to 
encourage a repetition of it. Tourna¬ 
ments are still exhibited at the court of 
Wurtemburg. 

TOUR'NIQUET (Fr.), a surgical instru¬ 
ment for stopping the flow of blood after an 
amputation. It is a kind of bandage, strait¬ 
ened or relaxed with a screw. 

TOW'ER (for; Sax. ; from turris : Lat.), 
in Architecture, a building raised to a con¬ 
siderable elevation, and consisting of 
several stories. Towers are either round 
or square, and they are flat on the top, by 
which they are distinguished from spires or 
steeples. Before the invention of guns, 
places were not only fortified with towers, 
but attacked with movable towers mounted 
on wheels, which raised the besiegers to a 

level with the walls.- Tower of London. 

Tliis ancient ediflce stands on the north 
bank of the Thames, at the eastern extre¬ 
mity of the city. The oldest part, the cen¬ 
tral White tower or Keep, was built by 
William I. about 1070. The space enclosed 
by the walls measures twelve acres fivo 
roods, and the circumference on the out¬ 
side of the ditch is 3156 feet. On the south 
side of the Tower was an arch called the 
traitor's gate, through which state prisoners 
were formerly brought from the river. 
.Near the site of the traitor’s gate is the 
bloody tower in which it is supposed the 
princes, Edward V. and his brother, were 
smothered by order of Richard III. In 
the south-east enclosure were the royal 
apartments: for the Tower was a royal 
palace for nearly 500 years. James I. was 
the last sovereign who resided here. The 
regalia are kept at the tower, and are 
shown, with the other curiosities of the 
place, to the public. 

TOW'ERS, ROUND, remarkable struc¬ 
tures in Ireland of great antiquity and of 
unknown origin, varying from SO to 120 
feet in height. They are cylinders on the 
frusta of cones, having a door eight or ten 
feet from the ground ; and, at the top, 
narrow openings turned towards the car¬ 
dinal points. There are sixty-two of them 
in Ireland, and two in Scotland. They have 
generally been considered as, in some way, 
connected with an ancient religion; and 
there have been a number of hypotheses 
regarding their object. 

TOXIGOL'OGY(toxi/rojr, poison; and logos, 
a discourse: Gr.), that branch of science 
which is concerned witli poisons; their 
nature, effects, and antidotes. [See Poi¬ 
sons.] 


[trade 


TRA'GHEA (Lat. ; from tracheia: Gr.), in 
Anatomy, the windpipe, a cartilaginous and 
membranous canal, through which the air 
passes into the lungs. The operation of 
making an opening into the windpipe is 
hence called tracheotomy. The words laryn - 
gotomy and bronchotomy are also used to 
express the same thing. 

TRA'CHEOCELE ( trachia , the windpipe; 
and Icile, a tumour: Gr.), in Medicine, an 
enlargement of the thyroid gland; bron- 
chocele. 

TRA'CHYTE ( trachus , rough: Gh\), a spe¬ 
cies of ancient lava, often porphyritic,and, 
when it contains hornblende and augite, 
passing into those varieties of traps which 
are termed Basalt, Greenstone, Dolerite, &c. 
Trachyte is usually of a light grey colour. 

TRAC'TION (tracio,l drag about: Lat.), 
the act of drawing, or state of being drawn. 
This word has latterly come much into use, 
in its primary sense, in reference to the 

draught on railways, canals, &c.- Angle 

op Traction, that which the direction of 
the power makes with a given plane. 

TRAC'TION EN'GINES,locomotive steam 
engines, constructed for the purpose of 
drawing loads upon common roads. The 
leading principle of traction engines is the 
provision of a large surface for the tractive 
| power to act upon, so as to prevent the 
wheels sinking into the ground. Various 
plans have been adopted. In one the wheels 
are simply made with broad tyres. In 
another the engine lays down and then 
takes up pieces of wood or shoes, upon 
which the wheels run. In a third, a series 
of rails hinged together and carried by a 
separate pair of wheels are employed. The 
driving wheels of the engine are so ar¬ 
ranged that they run upon the rails laid 
down for them by the carrier wheels. 

TRADE, the business of buying and sell¬ 
ing, comprehending every species of ex¬ 
change or dealing. It is, however, chiefly 
used to denote the barter or purchase and 
sale of goods, wares, and merchandise, 
either by wholesale or retail. Foreign trade 
consists in the exportation and importa¬ 
tion of goods, or the exchange of the com¬ 
modities of the different countries. Inland 
or home trade is the exchange or buying 
and selling of goods within a country. The 
word trade has also a more limited signi¬ 
fication, designating the business which a 
person has learned, and which he either 
carries on or is employed in; as, the trade 
of a carpenter, a smith, &c. The liberal 
arts, learned professions, and agriculture, 
are not included. 

TRADE MARK, the peculiar figure or 
design with which a manufacturer stamps 
or labels his goods in order that they may 
be recognised in the market. By the Mer¬ 
chandise Marks’ Act, which passed the 
Legislature in 1862, the forging or counter¬ 
feiting any trade mark and other dealings 
with trade marks, with intent to defraud, 
are made misdemeanours, and are punish¬ 
able by imprisonment or line, and all articles 
to which a forged trade mark is attached 
are forfeited to the crown. Colourable 
alterations and imitations of a trade mark 
are treated as forgeries, and penalties are 


















TRADE-WINDS] €3)0 HlltT 


760 


imposed on persons who sell or expose for 
sale any article with a forged trade mark, 
which he shall know to he forged, or with 
a trade mark wrongfully applied, with a 
knowledge of the misapplication; also on 
persons who mark, with intent to defraud, 
upon any article any false description re¬ 
specting the number, quantity, measure, 
or weight of such article, or of the place 
or country in which such article shall he 
made, or falsely indicating any article to 
he the subject of an existing patent. 

TRADE-WINDS, easterly winds which 
constantly prevail, with slight variations, in 
certain regions within the tropics. The 
trade-winds, in the Atlantic apd Pacific 
oceans, extend to about 28° of latitude each 
side of the equator; so that a ship, after 
passing 30°, may every day expect to meet 
them. But, on first entering them, they 
will he found to blow from the east, or 
even a little southerly; and, as the vessel 
advances, to draw round gradually to north¬ 
east. In the East Indies the trade-winds 
are periodical, and are called monsoons. 
The trade-winds are caused chiefly by the 
comparatively high temperature of the tor¬ 
rid zone, and the rotation of the earth from 
west to east. The heated air ascends, and 
is replaced by air from the neighbourhood 
of the poles. This would have a direction 
from north to south, or vice versa, accord¬ 
ing to the pole, whence it comes; but, as 
the velocity of rotation of the airs near 
the poles is less than that at the equator, 
the air from the poles, when approaching 
the equator, is left behind, during the 
earth’s rotation; it has, therefore, two mo¬ 
tions, one from the poles to the equator, 
the other in opposition to the earth’s motion, 
or from east to west; and, therefore, in 
accordance with the laws of motion, its 
direction is compounded of both ; that is, 
its direction is towards the north-west or 
south-west; and the resulting winds are 
north-easterly or south-easterly. The same 
causes modify the tidal current. [See 
Tides] 

TRADI'TION (traditio; from trado, I 
transmit: Lat.), that which is handed 
down from age to age by oral communica¬ 
tion ; or, the delivery of opinions, doc¬ 
trines, practices, rites, and customs from 
father to son, or from ancestors to posterity. 
There is nothing which requires greater 
caution than the credence we give to tradi¬ 
tionary information. Every person, every 
country, every age, involuntarily gives a 
colouring to facts ; to say nothing of inten¬ 
tional misstatements. How many pure in¬ 
ventions creep into notice, and soon become 
widely repeated and believed, either be¬ 
cause they suit the purposes of a party, or 
because they are presented with an air of 
credibility! It therefore becomes all per¬ 
sons, but more especially the historiau, to 
examine as far as he is able into the origin 
of every statement, and the character and 
situation of those on whose authority it 
rests. ‘Historical evidence, like judicial 
evidence, says Sir G. C. Lewis, ‘ is founded 
on the, testimony of credible witnesses. 
Unless these witnesses had personal and 
immediate perception of the facts which 


they report, unless they saw and heard 
what they undertake to relate as having 
happened, their evidence is not entitled to 
credit. As all original witnesses must be 
contemporary with the events which they 
attest, it is a necessary condition for the 
credibility of a witness that he be a corn- 
temporary ; though a contemporary is not 
necessarily a credible witness. Unless there¬ 
fore an historical account can be traced, 
by probable proof, to the testimony of con¬ 
temporaries, the first condition of histori¬ 
cal credibility fails.’ If what is called his¬ 
tory be examined with reference to these 
views, how much is there in the early ac¬ 
counts of every nation which must be 
rejected without hesitation. If the state¬ 
ments are tainted with suspicion from their 
inherent improbability ; if the accounts are 
numerous and discrepant, no one having a 
stronger claim on our attention than any 
other; if there is an entire absence of con¬ 
temporary witnesses, documents or in¬ 
scriptions, it must be evident that we are 
compelled to withhold our belief from much 

that passes under the name of history.- 

In matters of religion the Jews pay great 
regard to tradition; so also do the Homan 
Catholics—the latter understanding by the 
term, sacred truths, supposed to have been 
orally .communicated by Christ and the 
apostles, which, by the assistance of the 
Holy Ghost, were preserved in the church 
from one generation of bishops to another. 

A reverence for tradition is therefore 
taught in all Roman Catholic catechisms ; 
and it is the foundation on which they be¬ 
lieve in their rites and the characteristic 
parts of their religious worship: consider¬ 
ing it of equal authority with the Scrip¬ 
tures themselves. 

TRAG'ACANTH ( tragos , a he goat; and 
akantha, a thorn: Gr. — goat's thorn), a gum 
which exudes from some spiny species of 
Astragalus, nat. ord. Leguminosce, which 
grow wild in warm climates. Tragacanth j 
is brought chiefly from Turkey, in small 
contorted pieces resembling worms; and 
that which is white, clear, smooth, and 
vermicular is the best. 

TRA'GEDY (tragodia; from tragos, a 
goat; and ode, a song: Gr.), a drama repre¬ 
senting some grand and serious action, and 
generally terminating in some fatal event. 
The name is supposed to have originated in 
the custom of leading about a goat, in pro¬ 
cession, at the festival of Bacchus; in 
whose honour these choral odes, which 
formed the groundwork of Attic tragedy, 
were sung, or from a goat being the prize. 

TRAGI-COM'EDY, a dramatic piece par¬ 
taking of the nature both of tragedy and 
comedy. 

TRAJEC'TORY ( trajicio, I throw down: 
Lat.), the curve described by a body in 
space. The orbits of the planets would be 
elliptical but for the disturbing forces 
which they exert on each other: and the 
path of a projectile would be a parabola, but 
for the resistance of the air. 

TRAMON'TANE (transmontanus: Lat.), 
lying beyond, or on the farther side of the 
mountains; applied, particularly by thu 
Italians, to such as live north of the Alps, 
































f6l ‘ Jlttcrairy (Erca^mji. [transmutation 


TRANCE (transe: Fr.), a state in -which 
the voluntary functions of the body are sus¬ 
pended ; and the mind is possessed by 
visions. 

TRANSAL'PINE ( transalpinus , beyond 
the Alps : Lat.), lying to the north or west 
of the Alps : as, Transalpine Gaul: opposed 
to Cisalpine, as understood by the Romans. 

TRANSCENDENTAL ( transcendo , I 
climb over: Lat.), in Philosophy, according 
to the definition of Kant, ‘ that knowledge 
which occupies itself not so much with 
objects as with the way of knowing those 
objects:’ or, ‘the philosophy of the pure, 
merely speculative reason, from which the 

practical is separated.’- Transcendental, 

in Algebra, a quantity which cannot be 
represented by an algebraic equation, hav¬ 
ing a finite number of terms, with determi¬ 
nate indices. Thus: a* x* log. x, &c. - 

A transcendental equation is one containing 
such expressions: and a transcendental 
curve, one defined by such an equation. 

TRAN'SCRIPT ( transcriptus , transferred 
in writing: Lat.), a copy of any original 
writing ; particularly that of an act or in¬ 
strument inserted in the body of another. 

TRAN'SEPT ( trans, across; and septuus, 
an inclosure: Lat.), in Architecture, that 
aisle of ancient churches, which extends 
across the nave and main aisles. 

TRANS'FER ( transfero, I carry over: 
Lat.), in Commerce, an act by which a per¬ 
son surrenders his right, interest, or pro¬ 
perty in anything to another. 

TRANSFU'SION ( transfusio , a pouring 
from one vessel to another: Lat.), in Medi¬ 
cine, the act or operation of transferring 
the blood of one animal into the vascular 
system of another, by means of a tube. It 
was at one period supposed, that in cases 
of great loss of blood from haemorrhage, 
and in certain cases of disease, that the 
blood belonging to the human body might, 
with great benefit, be replaced by that of 
other animals. At first, the trials made 
appeared to be successful; but afterwards 
they were attended with bad, and in some 
instances fatal, results. 

TRANSIT (transitus, a passage: Lat.), in 
Astronomy, the culminations or passage of 
a heavenly body across the meridian of a 
place. The determination of the exact 
time at which this happens is of the great¬ 
est importance: as, by means of it, the 
differences of right ascensions, and there¬ 
fore the relative situations of the fixed 
stars, &c., are ascertained. It is observed, 
by means of the transit instrument [which 
see]. Also, the passage of the inferior 
planets. Mercury and Venus, apross the 
sun’s disc. When a smaller body passes 
behind a larger, it is said to suffer an occul : 
tation. 

TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. An instru¬ 
ment intended for the observation of tran¬ 
sits. It consists of a telescope firmly at¬ 
tached to a horizontal axis, the ends of 
which are directed to the east and west 
points of the horizon. A system of three, 
five, and sometimes seven vertical and 
equidistant wires of extreme minuteness, 
are placed in the focus of the eye piece; 
Rpd the middle one is an exact representa¬ 


tion of that part of the meridian to which 
the telescope is pointed. When, therefore, 
a star passes the middle wire, it is in the 
act of culminating; and the instant this 
occurs, it is noted on a clock, or chrono¬ 
meter. The time at which stars should 
pass any meridian, whose longitude is 
known, may be ascertained from the nauti¬ 
cal almanack; which gives the time of their 
passing the meridian of Greenwich, and 
thus the clock error, in any observatory, 
may be determined and corrected. Finding, 
by the transit instrument, the exact inter¬ 
val of sidereal time between the transits of 
the different stars, we determine their 
right ascensions ; but to ascertain the place 
of any star, we require to know also its 
polar distance, which is found by the mural 
circle [which see]. A transit instrument 
and mural circle are, therefore, indispen¬ 
sable to every observatory. 

TRANSITION ( transitio, a passing over: 
Lat.), in Rhetoric, is of two kinds. The 
first is when a speech is introduced ab¬ 
ruptly ; as when Milton gives an account 
of our first ancestors’ evening devotions 

Both turn’d, and under open sky adored 

The God that made both air, sky, earth 
and heaven.— 

-Thou alsomadest the night, 

Maker omnipotent, and Thou the day. 

The second is when a writer suddenly leaves 
his subject, and passes to another, which is 
different at first view, but which serves to 
illustrate what he says.—In Music, a 
change of key from major to minor, or the 
contrary. 

TRANSITION ROCKS (same deriv.), in 
Geology, a term formerly applied to the 
older secondary series, from a supposition 
that they were formed when the world was 
passing from an uninhabitable to a habit¬ 
able state. 

TRANS'ITIVE ( transitivus, passing over: 
Lat.), in Grammar, an epithet for a verb 
expressing an action which passes from 
the agent to an object; from the subject 
which does something, to the object on 
which it is done. 

TRANSLU'CENT Itranslucens, shining 
through : Lat.), in Mineralogy, an epithet 
by which is designated the power of trans¬ 
mitting rays of light; but not so as to 
render objects distinctly visible. 

TRANSMIGRATION ( transmigrate, lite¬ 
rally, a removing from one country to 
another, Lat.), the Pythagorean doctrine of 
the passing of a soul from one body into 
another. A belief in this, under various 
modifications, has existed in different ages 
of the world, and among various nations. 
In the Indian doctrine of metempsychosis, 
those who spend religious lives do not 
pass through different stages of existence, 
but proceed at once to reunion with the 
Supreme Being. 

TRANSMUTATION ( transmutatio: Lat.), 
the change of one substance into another 
of a different nature. The transmutation 
of base metals into gold was one of the 

dreams of Alchemy.-In Chemistry, the 

transmutation of a substance into one of a 
different form is both easy and common, as 
of a gas or liquid into a solid.-In Geo- 








transom] 


762 


El )t ^ricuttfu antf 


metry, the change or reduction of one 
figure or body into another of the same 
area or solidity, but of a different form; as 
of a triangle into a square. 

TRAN'SOM.in Architecture, a lintel over 
a door; or the piece that is framed across a 

double-light window.-In a Ship, the 

beam or timber extended across the stern- 
post, to strengthen the aft part, and give 
I it due form. 

TRANSPORTATION ( transportatio , a con- 
! veying from one place to another : Lat.), in 
Law, a banishment inflicted for crime. 
Various localities have, at different times, 
j been selected for this purpose; and return¬ 
ing before the sentence expired was for¬ 
merly punished with death; but latterly 
those who did so, and such as assisted them 
j in doing it, were transported for life. 
Criminals are now punished by condemna¬ 
tion to the penitentiary, transportation 
having been superseded by penal servitude. 
No male criminals have been sent to New 
South Wales or Van Diemen’s Land for some 
time; and females have not been trans¬ 
ported at all for many years. From what¬ 
ever cause, the number of persons con¬ 
demned to this kind of punishment has 
diminished. In the years 1850, 1851, and 
1852, the number of convicts sentenced to 
transportation for seven years and upwards 
was 4,962; while, in the years 1858, 1859, 
and 1860, the number of sentences to penal 
servitude was only 2,723, of which but 515 
were for periods exceeding six years. The 
number of prisoners in penal establish¬ 
ments, including Bermuda and Gibraltar, 
at the date of the last returns, was 8,869. 
i The number of male prisoners received 
| into the penal establishments of the United 
i Kingdom, during the years 1858, 1859, and 
; I860 was 7,255, and during these years 2,131 
were sent from Great Britain to Western 
Australia, Bermuda, and Gibraltar; but 
none were sent beyond the seas from 
Ireland in the same period. The Austra¬ 
lian Colonies, generally, are unwilling to 
receive convicts; those sent to Bermuda 
and Gibraltar are employed on public works. 
The cost of sending criminals to Australia 
was found to be about 80,0001. per annum ; 
to Bermuda, 65,0001.; and to Gibraltar, 
35,0001.; in all 180,0001. It would most pro- 
j bably be more advantageous to the country, 
' and even to the criminal himself, that he 
should be sent to a distant region. Re¬ 
formations in the penitentiary are too 
i often simulated for the purpose of obtain¬ 
ing a remission of punishment; and the 
; ticket-of-leave system lets loose on society 
many persons of the very worst character. 
The criminal does not dread the peniten¬ 
tiary nearly so much as transportation ; he 
is not sent to a remote and savage wilder¬ 
ness ; he may sooner or later obtain an 
abbreviation of his punishment—and, in 
point of fact, if not through his own fault, 
he does obtain it long before the nominal 
term of his confinement expires. When a 
convict returns from transportation, he 
l comes back being often a new man, may 
begin life again, and gradually may attain 
a respectable position—which indeed was 
open to him in the land of his exile. But 


the character of one who leaves a jail is 
ruined irretrievably; he may die of want, 5 
and he is nearly certain to join again his 
evil companions. Hence the commission 
of so many crimes by those who have been 
just liberated from confinement. The con¬ 
vict but too often quits the penitentiary 
more corrupt than he entered it, and far ll 
more hardened; for no system, however 
stringent, has yet succeeded in preventing 
communications between the prisoners. 

TRANSPOSI'TION ( transpono , I transfer: 
Lat.), in Algebra, the bringing any term of 

an equation over to the other side.-In 

Grammar, a change of the natural order of 

words in a sentence.-In Music, a change j 

in the composition, either in the transcript j 
or the performance, by which the whole is 
removed into another key. 

TRANSUBSTANTIA'TION ( transubstan - 
tier, to change from one substance into 
another: Fr.), in Theology, the supposed 
conversion or change of the substance of 
the bread and wine, in the eucharist, into 
the body and blood of Jesus Christ. This is 
a main point in the Roman Catholic reli¬ 
gion, and is rejected by the Protestants, 
the former maintaining the transubstantia 
tion to be real, the latter only figurative. 

The reformed churches interpret the text 
hoc est corpus meum, ‘ this signifies my 
body ; ’ but the Council of Trent strenuous¬ 
ly contended for the literal sense of the ' 
verb est, and says expressly, that by tran- 
substantiation the body and blood of Christ 
are truly, really, and substantially present, 
under the species of bread and wine. 

TRANSUMP'TION ( transumptio, the as¬ 
suming one thing for another : Lat.), in the 
Schools, a syllogism by concession or agree- i 

ment; used where a question proposed is 
transferred to another, with this condition, 
that the proof of the latter should be ad¬ 
mitted for a proof of the former. 

TRAPE'ZIAN (from next), in Crystallo¬ 
graphy, having the lateral planes composed 
of trapeziums situated in two ranges, be¬ 
tween two bases. 

TRAPE'ZIUM ( trapezion, literally, a 
small table: Gr.), in Anatomy, a bone of 

the carpus.-In Geometry, a plane figure 

contained under four unequal right lines, 
no two of them parallel. 

TRAPEZOID' (trapezion, a trapezium : 
and eiclos, form: Gr.), in Geometry, a plane 
four-sided figure, having two of the opposite 
sides parallel to each other. Its area is 
equal to half the sum of the two parallel 
sides, multiplied by the perpendicular dis¬ 
tance between them. 

TRAP-ROCKS ( trappa, a flight of steps : 
Swed.), in Geology, rocks which frequently 
occur in large tabular masses, rising like 
steps, one above another. They are of 
volcanic origin, and arc composed of 
felspar, augite, and hornblende; the dif¬ 
ferent proportions of these constituents 
giving rise to many varieties. The whole 
family of trap-rocks have, on the one hand, 
a close alliance with volcanic rocks, and, 
on the other, with porphyry and granite. 
Where basalt is in contact with gneiss, it 
becomes nearly, compact, and approaches to 
the character of hornstone p and where 








































7 as 


iUterari) Cmsttrin 


[trellis 


greenstone rests on sandstone or clay, 

| these rocks have a red and burnt appear- 
j ance, and a hardness superior to what they 
possess in other places. The trappean 
rocks, when free from vesicular cavities, 
are valuable for architecture, especially the 
greenstone trap, which is quarried with lit- 
, tie expense. 

TRAUMA'TIG (traumatikos: Gr.), belong¬ 
ing to wounds.- Traumatic balsams and 

certain balsams, &e., used in old pharmacy. 

TRAVEL'LER, in Nautical affairs, a ring 
or hoop which slides along a space. 

TRAV'ERSE (traverser, to cross : Fr.), in 
Fortification, a trench with a little parapet 
for protecting men on the flank; also, a 

wall raised across a work.-In Law, a 

denial of what the opposite party has ad¬ 
vanced in any stage of the pleadings.-In 

Navigation, traverse-sailing is the mode of 
computing the place of a ship by reducing 
several short courses made by sudden shifts 
or turns, to one longer course.—— Traverse- 
board, a small board to be hung up in the 
steerage of a ship, and bored full of holes 
upon lines, showing the points of compass. 
By moving a peg on this, the steersman 
keeps an account of the number of glasses 

a ship is steered on any part.- Traverse- 

table, a table used for finding the difference 
of latitude and departure. 

TRAV'ERTIN (Hal.), a calcareous stone 
deposited by springs of waiter holding lime 
in solution by an excess of carbonic acid or 
by heat. It is found in many parts of Italy, 
where the compacter forms of it are used 
as building stone. [See Tufa.] 

TRAVES'TY, or TRAVES'TIE (travestir, 
to disguise: Fr.), the burlesque imitation 
of an author’s style and composition. Most 
travesties purposely degrade the subject 
treated; though they may be intended 
either to ridicule absurdity or to convert a 
grave performance into a humorous one. 

TREAD'MILL, a mill which has been in¬ 
troduced into prisons, as an instrument of 
punishment. It has a large wheel, with 
steps on its external surface, upon which 
the criminals are placed. Their weight sets 
the wheel in motion, and they maintain 
themselves in an upright posture, by means 
of a horizontal bar fixed above them, which 
they hold. The exercise is very fatiguing, 
and the prisoners have a short respite after 
being on the wheel for about ten minutes. 

TRE'ASON ( traliison: Fr.), in Law, is 
divided into high treason and petty treason. 
High treason is the greatest crime of a civil 
nature of which a man can be guilty. In 
general, it is the offence of attempting to 
subvert the government of the state to 
1 which the offender owes allegiance ; or of 
1 attempting, imagining, or compassing the 
! life of the sovereign, the queen consort, of 
the heir-apparent of the crown, and certain 
other serious crimes of a like nature. Trea¬ 
son, must be prosecuted within three years 
from its commission. Information for open 
and advised speaking must be given within 
six days. In England, those convicted of 
treason arc usually hanged and afterwards 
beheaded, the more barbarous and revolt¬ 
ing part of the sentence, namely, embowel- 
ling and quartering, being dispensed with. 


But a conviction of treason is visited by 
forfeiture of lands and goods to the crown, 
and attainder of blood. This, however, may 
afterwards be reversed. In treason, all are 

principals.- Petty Treason is the crime of 

a wife killing her husband, or a servant his 
master, crimes which are now treated as 
murder. 

TREAS'URER ( tresor , treasure: Fr. ; 
from thesauros: Gr.), in Law, an officer to 
whose care the treasure of the state or of 
any company is limited.—The Lord High 
'Treasurer of England was formerly the 
third great officer of the crown, but the ap¬ 
pointment is now filled by live persons, 
styled ‘ the Lords Commissioners of the 
Treasury one of whom is the Chancellor 
of theExchequer. The first Lord is usually 
Prime Minister. 

TREAS'URE-TROVE (trouver, to find : 
Fr.), in Law, money or any other treasure 
found secreted under the earth. It belongs 
to the sovereign or some other who 
claims by the royal grant, or by prescrip¬ 
tion. When the owner is unknown coins 
or other articles found on the surface of 
the ground, or such things if originally lost 
by the owner, do not come within the deno¬ 
mination or law of treasure-trove. 

TREB'LE, the highest or most acute of 
the parts in music, and adapted to the 
voice of females or boys. It is divided into 
the first or highest treble, and the second 
or low treble. Half treble, or mezzo soprano, 
is a high counter-tenor. 

TREE, a name given to those plants 
which have permanent woody stems, and 
rise to the height of 20 feet at least. Some 
trees live to a great age ; some British yews 
are thought to be from 1200 to 3200 years 
old. But some specimens of the Baobab, an 
African tree, are supposed to be 5000 years 
old.—Groves and woods, in the first ages, 
were resorted to as temples; and particu¬ 
lar trees were supposed to be the residence 
of certain divinities; thus the Dryads and 
Hamadryads were believed to be enshrined 
in oaks. The gods are also said to have 
taken particular species of trees under 
their protection. Jupiter, we are told, 
chose the oak, Venus the myrtle, Apollo the 
laurel, Cybele the pine tree, Hercules the 
poplar, Minerva the olive, and Bacchus the 
ivy and the vine. 

TREE-NAIL, a long wooden pin, used in 
fastening the planks of a ship to the timbers. 

TREE-FROG, a small species of frog in 
North America, which is found on trees, 
and croaks chiefly in the evening. It differs 
from the common frog in having the ex¬ 
tremity of each toe widened and rounded 
in a viscous palette which enables them to 
adhere to the surfaces of bodies. 

TRE'FOIL (trifolium: Lat.), in Botany, the 
common name of many plants with ternate 
leaves : thus the Trifolium repens, or white 
trefoil; Trifolium minus, or yellow trefoil; 
Medicago lupulina, or black trefoil; Lotus 
comiculatus, or bird's foot trefoil, &c. They 
are all used as food for cattle. 

TREL'LIS (treillage: Fr.), in Gardening, 
a frame of cross-barred work, or lattice¬ 
work, used for supporting plants. It differs 
from treillcwe, which consists of light posts 































tremolite] 


and rails for supporting espaliers, and some¬ 
times for wall trees. 

TREM'OLITE, a mineral of a fibrous tex¬ 
ture originally found in the valley of Tre- 
mola, on St. Gothard. It consists generally 
of silica, magnesia, and carbonate of lime. 

TRENCHES, or lines of approach, in For¬ 
tification, ditches cut in oblique zigzag di¬ 
rections, to enable besiegers to approach a 
fortified place without being exposed to the 
fire of its cannon. Hence the terms to 
open the trenches, or to break ground for the 
purpose of carrying on approaches to a be¬ 
sieged place; mount the trenches, or to 
mount guard in the trenches, &c. 

TREPANG', an eastern word imported 
into commerce, signifying a worm-like echi- 
noderm distantly related to the star¬ 
fishes and sea hedgehogs. Several species 
of Eolothuria are collected in the Indian 
archipelago, where there are extensive 
fisheries of the animal, and after being 
dried are sent to China, where they are em¬ 
ployed for culinary purposes, forming one 
of the dainties of a Chinese table along with 
birds’ nests and sharks’fins. Animals of the 
same nature are found round our own 
coasts. 

TREPAN'NING (trepaner, to trepan: 
Fr.), in Surgery, the operation of perfora¬ 
ting the skull and taking out a piece, for 
relieving the brain from pressure, &c. The 
instrument used is called a trepan. [See 
Trephine.] 

TREPH'INE, in Surgery, a more modern 
instrument than the trepan for performing 
the operation of trepanning. It is a circu¬ 
lar or cylindrical saw, with a handle like 
that of a gimlet, and a little sharp perfora¬ 
tor, called the centre-pin. 

TRES'PASS ( trespasser, to transgress: 
Fr.), in Law, any violation of another’s 
rights ; as, the unlawfully entering on his 
premises ; but'when violence accompanies 
the act, it is called a trespass vi et armis. 

TRI'AD ( trias, the number three : Gr.), in 
Music, the common chord, consisting of the 
third, fifth, and eighth. 

TRI'AL, in Law, the examination of 
causes before a proper judge, which, as re¬ 
gards matters of fact, are to be tried by a 
jury; as regard matters of law, by the 
judge : and as regards records, by the re¬ 
cord itself. [See Law, Jury, &c.] - New 

trials, in civil cases, are granted when the 
court of which the record is, sees reason to 
be dissatisfied with the verdict: cither be¬ 
cause evidence was improperly received or 
rejected, or the judge misdirected the 
jury as to the law which applied to the 
facts; or a party was unfairly surprised; or 
fresh evidence has been discovered. 

TRIAN'DRIA (iris, three times; and 
aner, a male : Gr.), one of the Linmean class¬ 
es, comprehending plants the flowers of 
which have three stamens, as the crocus, 
gladiolus, valerian, &c. 

TRI'ANGLE ( triahgulum: from tres, 
three; and angulus, an angle: Lat.), in 
Geometry, a figure of three sides and 
three angles. Triangles are either plane 
or spherical. A plane triangle is contain¬ 
ed under three right lines, and a spheri¬ 
cal under three arcs belopging to great 


764 


circles of the sphere. Triangles are deno¬ 
minated from their angles. A right-angled, 
triangle is that which has one right angle; 
an obtuse-angled triangle is such as has one 
obtuse angle ; and an acute-angled triangle 
is that which has all its triangles acute. 
And from their sides, an equilateral triangle 
has three equal sides; an isosceles triangle 
has two equal sides; and a scalene triangle 
has all its sides unequal. Similar triangles 
are those whose angles are equal, and cor¬ 
responding sides proportional.- Triangle, 

in Music, a small triangular steel instru¬ 
ment, open at one of its angles; and played 
by striking it with a short bar of the same 
metal. 

TRI'AS, or UPPER NEW RED SAND¬ 
STONE, in Geology, a series of strata form¬ 
ing the oldest division of the secondary 
period, and intervening, therefore, between 
the Permian and the Liassic groups. It 
has been divided into the Upper Trias, to 
which the saliferous and gypseous sand¬ 
stones and slates of Cheshire belong ; the 
Middle Trias, or Muschelhalk, which has 
no representative in Britain ; and the Lower 
Trias, which includes the red and white 
sandstones of Lancashire and Cheshire, and 
the Bunter-Sandstein of Germany. This 
threefold division suggested the name of 
the group ( tria, three : Lat). All the strata 
appear to be marine. The salt mines of 
Cheshire are in the upper triassic beds. 

TllIB'UNE ( tribunus, from tribus, liters 
ally, the chief officer of a tribe: Led.), in 
Roman Antiquity, the title of various offi¬ 
cers. A Tribune of the people was chosen 
out of the plebeians to protect them against 
the encroachments and oppression of the 
patricians, and the attempts of the senate 
and consuls to lessen or destroy their 
liberty. Tribunes were first elected after 
the succession to the Mons Sacer, A.tr.c. 2G0. 
They were not, strictly speaking, magis¬ 
trates, or invested with magisterial powers, 
but they exercised a great influence upon 
public affairs. They had the right to put 
a negative on the decrees of the senate, 
and arrest the proceedings of magistrates 
by the veto; and in process of time their 
influence was increased to such a degree 
that they endangered the safety of the 

state.- Military tribunes, officers elected 

in place of the consuls; in consequence of 
the demand made by the common people to. 
be admitted to a share in supreme power. 
They were not, however, invested with the 
full power and honours of the consulate; 
and besides, were generally selected from 
the patricians. There were sometimes six, 
and sometimes three. They were first 
chosen A.u.c. 310, and continued to be 
elected, instead of consuls, at intervals for 
seventy years; after which time there 
were only consuls, but plebeians were ad¬ 
missible to the office.- Legionary Tri¬ 

bunes, or tribunes of the soldiers, were the 
chief officers of a legion. There were six; 
arid each in turn commanded under the 
consul; in battle, each led a cohort, or 
about 1000 men.- Tribuni Ararii, tri¬ 
bunes of the treasury.- Tribuni Fabrica- 

rum, those who had the direction of the 
making of arms.- Tribuni Voluptatuv}, 


jS'Cumttltc anti 









765 fLtterarj) Crra^ttry. [trinity house 


intendants of the public shows, and other 
diversions.- Tribune, in ancient Archi¬ 

tecture, the pulpit or elevated place whence 
speeches and addresses were delivered. In 
the French legislative houses the speakers 
address the assembly from a tribune. 

TRICAP'SULAR {tres, three; and capsula, 
a small chest: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet 
for such plants as have three capsules to 
each flower. 

TRICLIN'IUM {Lat.; from triklinion: 
tries, three; and Mine, a couch: Gr.), a 
name given by the Greeks to the room 
where they supped, because three couches 
were placed about the table. This name 
was adopted by the Romans as synonymous 
with Ccenaculum. Triclinium is sometimes 
used for the couch, on which the guests 
reclined. 

TRI'COLOR {tres, three; and color, a 
colour: Lat.), the national French banner 
of three colours (blue, white, and red), 
selected as the emblem of the first revolu¬ 
tion. The Tricolor has been adopted by 
Belgium, and is often used as emblematical 
of liberty. 

TRICUS'PIDATE {tricuspis, having three 
points : Lat.), in Natural History, an epithet 
for anything ending in three points. 

TRI'DENT {tridens, literally having three 
teeth: Lat.), an attribute of Neptune; be¬ 
ing a kind of three-pronged sceptre which 
the fable of antiquity put into the hands 
of that deity.- Trident, among Mathema¬ 

ticians, a kind of parabola, by which Pes 
Cartes constructed equations of six dimen¬ 
sions. 

TRIDODECAHE'DRAL (treis, throe ; do- 
deka, twelve ; and hedera, a base : Gr.), in 
Crystallography, presenting three ranges 
of faces, one above another, each contain¬ 
ing twelve. 

TRI'FID ( trifidus, three cleft: Lat.), in 
Botany, divided into three parts by sinuses 
with straight margins. 

TRIFO'LIATE {tres, three; and folium, a 
leaf: Lat.), in Botany, having three leaves. 

TRIFO'LIUM (same derivj, in Botany, a 
genus of leguminous plants, including the 
clovers and some of the trefoils. 

TRI'GAMOUS {treis, three; and gamos, 
marriage: Gr.), a name given by some 
Botanists to plants containing three kinds 
of flowers in the same flower-head: males, 
females, and hermaphrodites. 

TRIG'LYPH ( trigluphos: from treis, 
three; and gluplie, a carving: Gr.), in 
Architecture, a member of the Doric frieze, 
repeated at equal intervals. It consists of 
two whole, and two half channels, separated 
by flat spaces, termed femora. 

TRIGONOM'ETRY (trigonon, a triangle; 
and metreo, I measure: Gr.), the art of 
measuring the sides and angles of triangles. 
A triangle contains three sides, and three 
angles; when we know any three of these 
including, in plane trigonometry, at least 
one side, the others can be found. Angles 
are given, if their sines, &c., are given. 
When this science is applied to the solution 
of plane triangles, it is called plane trigo¬ 
nometry ; when to spherical triangles, 
spherical trigonometry. Trigonometry is a 
most important branch of knowledge. 


Plane trigonometry enables us to measure, 
with great ease, inaccessible heights and 
distances, &c. Spherical trigonometry is 
indispensable to the astronomers. The 
Greek astronomers of Alexandria were the 
inventors of trigonometry. 

TRIJU'GOUS {tres, three; and jugum, a 
pair: Lat.), in Botany, having three pairs. 
A trijugous leaf is a pinnate leaf with three 
pair of leaflets. 

TRIL'LION, in Arithmetic, a thousand 
times a thousand millions ; that is unity in 
the lowest place of the fifth period to the 
left of the decimal point. It is very often, 
though erroneously, considered as a million 
times a million of millions. 

TRIL'OBITES {treis, three; and lobos, a 
lobe : Gr.), an order of Crustaceans only 
found in the fossil state, in palasozoic strata; 
having a body composed of a series of rings 
and longitudinally divided by two furrows 
into three lobes. They had a head, a 
thorax, and an abdomen more or less 
distinct, and they had a pair of large com¬ 
pound eyes. They were nearly allied to 
some of the existing Phyllopoda. Their 
food was the smaller aquatic animals, and 
they lived in vast numbers in the vicinity 
of coasts in shallow water. 

TRIL'OGY {treis, three; logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), a set of three dramas relating 
to the same series of events. The three 
parts of Shakespeare’s Henry VI. form a 
trilogy. The Orestes, Iphigenia in Tauris, 
and Andromache of Euripides, afford an¬ 
other example. 

TRIM'MER, in Architecture, a piece of 
timber framed at right angles to the joists 
which are opposite to chimneys, to the 
well holes of stairs, &c. It receives the 
ends of the joists, intercepted by the open¬ 
ing.- Trimming joist, a joist into which a 

trimmer is framed. 

TRIM'YARIES {treis, three; and muon, 
a muscle: Gr.), those bivalves which pre¬ 
sent three muscular impressions on each 
valve. 

TRINE {trini, a set of three: Lat.), in 
Astrology, the aspect of planets placed in 
three angles of a triangle ; in which posi¬ 
tion they were supposed to be eminently 
benign. 

TRIN'GA, in Ornithology, a genus of 
grallatorial birds. They have a hind toe; 
though it is too short to reach the ground ; 
and, in this, are unlike the plovers, in 
which the hind toe is generally wanting. 
There are several British species, including 
the knot, dunlin, stints, and sandpipers. 

TRIN'GLE {Fr.), in Architecture, an or¬ 
nament, fixed exactly over every triglyph, 
under the platband of the architrave. The 
guttse or pendant drops hang down from it. 
-Also, other small square members. 

TRTN'ITY HOUSE, a society incorpo¬ 
rated by Henry VIII. in 1515, for the pro¬ 
motion of commerce and navigation, by 
licensing and regulating pilots, ordering 
and erecting beacons, light-houses, &c. 
This corporation is governed by a master, 
four wardens, eight assistants, and thirty- 
one elder brothers; besides numerous in¬ 
ferior members of the fraternity, named 
younger brethren. Many valuable privi- 














trinomial] Ci)c Jretcnttftc nnTf 766 

leges are attached to it, and its revenue 
amounts to about 140,0001. per annum. The 
hall of the Trinity House is an elegant 
building, not far from the Tower of London. 

TRINO'MIAL ( tres, three ; and nomen, a 
name: Lai), in Mathematics, an epithet 
for any quantity or root consisting of three 
terms, united by the sign of addition or 
subtraction: thus a + be — d, 

TRIO (Ital.), in Music, a composition con¬ 
sisting of three parts: one of which must 
make a third with the base, and the other a 
fifth or octave. 

TRIOCTAHE'DRAL ( treis , three; okto, 
eight; and hedra, a base : Gr.), in Crystallo¬ 
graphy, presenting three ranges of faces, 
one above another, each range containing 
eight faces. 

TRKE'CIA (treis, three; and oikia, a 
family: Gr.), in Botany, the name of the 
third order in Li imams’s class Polygamia: 
comprehending such plants as have herma¬ 
phrodite (male and female) flowers of the 
same species, in three distinct individuals. 

TRIOLET, a stanza of eight lines, in 
which, after the third, the first line, and 
after the sixth, the first two lines, are re¬ 
peated; so that the first line is heard three 
times. 

TRIO'NES ( Lat ., literally, the ploughing 
oxen), in Astronomy, a name for the cluster 
of seven stars in Ursa Minor, called also 

TRIPARTITE (tripartitus: Lat.), in Bo¬ 
tany, an epithet for a leaf which is divided 
into three parts down to the base, but not 
wholly separate. 

TRIPE DE ROCHE (Fr.), species of lichen 
belonging to the genus Gyrophora, found in 
arctic regions, upon which famished voya¬ 
gers are sometimes compelled to feed, and 
they are frequently the food of Canadian 
hunters. 

TRIPET'ALOUS (treis, three; and peta- 
lon, a leaf: Gr.), in Botany, having three 
petals or flower leaves. 

TRIPHTHONG (treis, three; and phth- 
ovgos, a sound : Gr.) in Grammar, a coalition 
of three vowels in one compound sound, or 
in one syllable ; as in adieu, beau. 

TRIPIN'NATE, in Botany, an epithet for 
a species of compound leaf; when a petiole 
has bipiunate leaves ranged on each side 
of it. 

TRIP'LET, in Foetry, three verses rhym¬ 
ing together.-In Music, notes grouped 

by threes: when the figure 3 is placed 
over them they are to be played in the time 
of two. 

TRIP'LE TIME, in Music, a time in 
which each bar can be divided into three 
parts. [See Time.I 

TRIPLICATE RATIO (triplieo, Imultiply 
by three: Lat.), in Arithmetic, &c., the 
ratio of the cubes, of the terms of a simple 
ratio ; thus, « 3 : & 3 is the triplicate ratio 
of a : b. 

TRIP'OD (treis, three ; and pous, a foot: 
Or.), in general, anything having three 

feet.'-In Grecian Antiquity, the sacred 

seat, supported by three feet, on which the 
rriestesses among the ancients used to de- 
iver the oracles. 

TRIP'OLI, in Mineralogy, a silicious mi- 

neral, originally brought from Tripoli; used 
in polishing stones and metals. It has a 
dull argillaceous appearance, but is not 
compact. It has a fine hard grain, but 
does not soften by water, or mix with it. 
The various kinds of Tripoli have been 
found to consist of the silicious coats of 
minute organisms, chiefly vegetable. 

TRIP'TOTE (triptotos: Gr.), in Grammar, 1 
having three cases only. 

TRIPYR'AMID, in Mineralogy, a genus 
of spars, the body of which is composed of 
single pyramids, each having three sides, 
and affixed by their base to some solid body. 

TRIQUET'ROUS ( triquetrus, having 
three corners: ImD, in Botany, an epi¬ 
thet for a fruit or leaf that has three plane 
sides or fjiccs. 

" TRIRE'MIS, or TRI'REME (tremis: Lat.), 
in Greek and Roman Antiquity, a galley 
with three tiers or banks of oars. The 
rowers are supposed to have been placed 
on seats one over another, the two lower 
being separated by a deck. 

TRI'SECTION OF AN ANGLE, in Geo¬ 
metry, a problem of great celebrity among 
ancient mathematicians. An acute or 
obtuse angle cannot be trisected by 
plane geometry ; but it may be done by 
means of the conic sections, and some other 
curves. 

TRISMUS (trizo, I grind the teeth: Gr.), 
in Medicine, the lock-jaw. One species is 
caused by wounds, or exposure to cold; 
the other attacks infants during the first 
two weeks after birth. 

TRITER'NATE (tres, three; and ierni, 
three each : Lat.i, in Botany, having three 
biternate leaves ; or the divisions of a triple 
petiole, subdivided into threes. 

TRITH'EIST (treis, three; and Theos, a 
God: Gr.), in Theology, one who believes 
that there are three distinct Gods in the 
Godhead ; that is, three distinct substances 
and essences. 

TRIT'ICUM (Lat.; from tritus, ground, 
on account of the mode of preparing it for 
food), a genus of plants, nat. ord. Grami- 
nacea;, to which wheat belongs. 

TPM'TON, in the Greek Mythology, a 
kind of demi-god, half man and half fish. 
- Triton, in Malacology, a genus of ma¬ 
rine molluscs inhabiting univalve shells. 

TRI'TONE (tritonos, consisting of three 
tones: Gh\), in Music, an interval now usu¬ 
ally called a sharp fourth ; it consists of four 
degrees, and contains three tones between 
the extremes. It is divisible also into six 
semitones: three of them being diatonic, 
and three chromatic. 

TRITOX'IDE, in Chemistry, an oxide 
containing one atom of base and three of 
oxygen. 

TRITURATION (trituratio: Lat), in 
Pharmacy, the act of reducing a solid body 
into a fine powder; called also levigation 
and pulverization. 

TRI'UMPH (triumphns: Lat.; from thri- 
amhos, originally a hymn to Bacchus : Gr.), 
in Roman Antiquity, a public and solemn 
honour conferred by the Romans on a vic¬ 
torious general; by allowing him a magni¬ 
ficent procession through the city. The 
triumph was of two kinds, the greater and 




























767 


the less ; the latter of which was called an 
ovation. This splendid spectacle was ar¬ 
ranged as follows: the whole senate went 
out to meet the victor, who, being seated 
in a gilded chariot, sometimes drawn by 
white horses, and clad in his gold embroi¬ 
dered triumphal robes, was preceded by 
the kings, princes, and generals whom he 
had vanquished, loaded with chains, as well 
as by singers and musicians; and was fol¬ 
lowed by carefully selected victims, and by 
the spoils and emblems of the conquered 
cities and provinces. Lastly came the vic- 
: torious army, horse and foot, crowned with 
laurel, and adorned with the marks of dis- 
\ tinction they had received, shouting Io 
1 triumphe , and singing songs of victory, or 
of sportive raillery. Upon the capitol, the 
general rendered public thanks to the gods 
for the victory; caused the victims to be 
slaughtered;and dedicated thocrown which 
he wore, and apart of the spoils, to Jupiter. 
All the temples were open, and all the 
altars loaded with offerings and incense; 
games and combats were celebrated in the 
public places; the general gave a costly 
feast, and the shouts of the multitude rent 
the air with their rejoicings. 

TRIUM'PHAL ARCH, a grand gate, or 
archway, erected at the entrance of a town, 
or in some other public situation, in com¬ 
memoration of some important event, or 
in honour of some victorious general. It 
sometimes consisted of one, at others of 
two or three, openings; the last kind being 
the most beautiful. Among the remains of 
antiquity, Italy can boast of the relics of 
several triumphal arches; and many beauti¬ 
ful structures of the kind have been erected 
in modern times. 

TRIUMPHALIS CORONA. [See CROWN.] 

TRIUM'VIRATE, an absolute govern¬ 
ment administered by three persons, named 
Triumvirs (triumviri , three men: Lat.), with 
equal authority; as that of Augustus, Marc 
Antony, and Lepidus; which gave the last 
blow to the Roman republic. For Augustus 
having vanquished Lepidus and Antony, 
the triumvirate -was soon converted into a 
monarchy. 

TRITIUM (a place where three roads 
meet: Lat.), a name given in the middle 
ages to the three liberal arts, grammar, 
rhetoric, and logic, which were studied to¬ 
gether. The other four, arithmetic, music, 
geometry, and astronomy, being called 
quadrivium. 

TROCAR' (Fr.), in Surgery, an instru¬ 
ment for making incisions; particularly in 
the operation of tapping for the dropsy. 

TROCHAN'TER ( trOchazo, I gallop : Gr.), 
in Anatomy, a name given to two apophyses, 
situated in the upper part of the thigh-bone; 
they receive the tendons of most of the 
muscles of the thigh. The major process is 
on the outside, and the minor on the inside 
of the thigh. They receive their namefrom 
being chiefly concerned in the act of run- 

ni TRO'CHE ( trochos, anything round : Gr.), 
a small lozenge or cake, generally consisting 
of sugar and mucilage, with small quantities 
of more active substances, and intended to 
be gradually dissolved in the mouth. 


[tropics ! 


TRO'CHEE (trochaios; from trochos, a 
running : Gr.), in Greek and Latin poetry, a I 
foot consisting of two syllables, the first 1 
long, and the second short. 

TRO'CHILUS ( trochilos: Gr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a name used by the ancients for a 
hollow ring round a column, which the 
moderns call scotia. - TrocMlus, in Ornith¬ 

ology, a genus of Humming birds, which see. 

TRO'CHITE ( trochos, anythyig round : 
Gr.), in Natural History, a kind of figured 
fossil stone resembling parts of plants, 
called St. Cuthbert’s beads. Trochites are 
usually of a brownish colour, and break like 
spar. 

TROCH'LEA (a pulley block: Lat.), in 
Anatomy, a cartilage through which the I 

tendon of the troclileary muscle passes.- 

The troclileary muscle is the superior oblique 
muscle of the eye; the troclileary nerve, the 
nerve which goes to that muscle. 

TROGLOD'YTES (trdglodutes; from trbgle, 
a hole; and duo, I go into: Gr.), certain 
tribes in Ethiopia who are represented by 
ancient writers as living in subterranean 
caverns; and respecting whom we have 
many fabulous storips. 

TROM'BONE ( Ital.), a musical instru¬ 
ment, of which there are three kinds : the 
bass, the tenor, and the alto. It is ex¬ 
tremely powerful; and therefore best suited 
to grand choruses and other full compo¬ 
sitions. 

TROOP ( troupe: Fr.), in Cavalry, a certain 
number of soldiers mounted, who form a 
component part of a squadron. It is the 
same, with respect to formation, as company 

in the infantry.-The word troops (in the 

plural) signifies soldiers .in general, whether 
more or less numerous, including infantry, 
cavalry, and artillery. 

TROPE (tropos; from trepo, I alter: Gr.), 
in Rhetoric, an expression used in a dif¬ 
ferent sense from that which it properly 
signifies. It is intended to present an idea 
in a lively and forcible manner. 

TRO'PHY ( tropaion: Gr.), anything taken 
and preserved as a memorial of victory; as 
arms, standards, &c., taken from an enemy. 

It was customary with the ancients to erect 
their trophies on a spot whore they had 
gained a victory. At first they consisted 
of the arms they had taken; but afterwards 
trophies were formed of bronze, marble, 
or even gold.-In Architecture, an orna¬ 

ment representing the stem of a tree, 
charged or encompassed with military 
weapons. 

TRO'PICS ( tropilcos, belonging to a turn¬ 
ing round : Gr .—the line at which the sun 
turns back), in Geography, a zone of the 
earth, 23£ degrees, or about 1G00 miles on 
each side of the equator, over some .part of 
which the sun passes directly vertical two 
days in the year. It is the hottest, wettest, 
and most fertile part of the earth; but is 
less favourable to human life than the tem¬ 
perate zones. Its heats are, however, tem¬ 
pered by winds which constantly follow the 
sun from east to west, and which, from 
their convenience to ships, are called Trade 
Winds. In the plains the heat varies from 
120 to 80 degrees, and is seldom below 65 
-In Astronomy, parallels of declination 


SLteaixi Creditvm 
























troubadours] 


STTjc <S>ctnittTu antf 


768 


drawn through the solstitial points. There 
are two tropics; the tropic of Cancer, on 
the north of the equator, and the tropic of 
Capricorn on the south; each is 23i° from 
the equator. 

TKOU’BADOURS, poets who flourished 
in Provence, from the 11th to the latter 
end of the 13th century. They wrote poems 
on love and gallantry; on the illustrious 
characters and remarkable events of the 
times, &c., which they set to music and 
sung : they were accordingly general fa¬ 
vourites in different courts, diffused a 
taste for their language and poetry over 
Europe, and essentially contributed towards 
the restoration of letters, and a love for 
the arts. Each baron, a sovereign in his 
own territory, invited the neighbouring 
knights to his castle to take parts in toui - - 
narnents and to contend in song: at a time 
when the knights of Germany and Northern 
France were challenging each other to 
deadly combat. Thus the verse of the 
Provencals was lyrical in the highest de- 
gree; but it was necessarily superficial, and 
would lose its chief value if unaccompanied 
by music. In the 11th and 12th centuries 
ithad attained its highest celebrity; it had 
spread into Spain and Lombardy; and even 
German emperors (Frederic Barbarossa), 
and English kings (Richard Coeur de Lion), 
composed songs in the Provencal dialect. 
But the poetry of the Troubadours, as in 
the course of time it became more common, 
became degraded to mere ballad-singing; 
and the few specimens of it that have been 
preserved, consist of short war-songs and 
lyrics of pastoral life and love. [See Pito- 
YEKXJAL.] 

TROUT, the salmo fario of ichthyologists, 
in the family Salmonidce, a delicate fish, 
abounding in many of the rivers of England. 
It frequents the clearest streams, and has 
always been the favourite sport of the 
angler. Trout are prettily coloured, the 
back being mottled, and the sides dark 
brown, with yellow spots, which have a 
scarlet dot in the centre. They seldom 
exceed four pounds in weight; and are 
generally between one and two pounds. 

TRO'YER ( trouver , to find : Fr.), in Law, 
a special action upon the case, which may 
be maintained by any person who has 
either an absolute or special property iu 
goods, for recovering the value of such 
goods, against another who, having, or 
being supposed to haite obtained possession 
of them by lawful means, has converted 
them to his own use. 

TROY'-WEIGHT, the weight by which 
gold and silver, jewels, &c., are weighed. It 
is also used in weighing medicines, in ex¬ 
periments in natural philosophy, and in 
comparing different weights with each 
other. The pound contains 12 ounces, or 
5,760 grains. 

TRUCE OF GOD, a suspension of hostili¬ 
ties, often proclaimed during the middle 
ages, on the authority of the church. It 
afforded an interval of peace amid those 
private hostilities, in which every petty 
baron believed it his right to engage. 

TRUCK, the small wooden cap, at the 
extremity of a flagstaff, or masthead. 


TRUCK SYSTEM ( troc , to give in ex¬ 
change : A. Sax.), a name given to a mode, 
at one time very prevalent in manufactur¬ 
ing districts, of the employer paying his 
workmen in provisions, clothes, and other 
goods, instead of money. In favour of this 
practice it was argued, that the manufac¬ 
turer, having the command of capital, was 
enabled to establish shops, or general de- 
pdts, from which the working man could 
supply his family with necessaries at the 
cheapest rate. But the'meclianic had often 
to pay exorbitant prices for the articles he 
was compelled to purchase, and was subject 
to every species of unfair dealing and ty¬ 
ranny by such a system ; and, after much 
discussion, an act was passed for its sup¬ 
pression. 

TRUFFLES (truffe: Fr.), fungi growing 
underground, and much prized as condi¬ 
ments in cookery. They are difficult to 
find; but as the commoner species, belong¬ 
ing to the genus Tuber, have a peculiar 
smell, dogs are trained to discover them. 
They are usually found in calcareous soil, 
and are more abundant in France than 
in England, and still more plentiful in 
Italy. 

TRUM'PET, the loudest of all portable 
wind instruments, consisting of a tube, 

generally of brass.- Hearing trumpet, or 

ear trumpet, an instrument, which is used 
to enable deaf persons to hear sounds, that 
would otherwise be inaudible to them; it 
collects and conveys to their ears waves of 
sound, which would pass off in other direc¬ 
tions. It is.constructed on the same prin¬ 
ciple as the speaking trumpet; and, indeed, 
is that trumpet reversed; though, for con¬ 
venience, it is often made curved or spiral. 

- Speaking trumpet, a tube, from six to 

fifteen feet in length, made of tin, perfectly 
straight, and having a very large aperture; 
the mouth-piece being wide enough to ad¬ 
mit both lips. By means of this instrument 
the voice is carried, with distinctness, to 
the distance of a mile or more. It is used 
chiefly at sea. The aerial undulations, 
which would disperse themselves in all 
directions, are confined by the sides of the 
instrument; and reflected in a direction 

parallel to its axis.- The feast of trumpets, 

a festival among the Jews, observed on the 
first day of the seventh month of the sacred 
year, which was the first of the civil year, 
and answered to our September. The be¬ 
ginning of the year was proclaimed by 
sound of trumpet. 

TRUM'PETER, or Agami, the Psopliia 
crepitans of ornithologists, a bird of the 
heron family, which inhabits tropical South 
America. Its name is derived from its cry. 
It is easily tamed, and becomes as attached 
to its owner as a dog. 

TRUN'CATE ( tnmcaius , mutilated : Lat.), 
in Botany, appearing as if cut off at the tip: 
as, a truncate leaf. 

TRUN'NIONS, two knobs, which project 
from the opposite sides of a piece of ord¬ 
nance, whether gun, mortar, or howitzer; 
and serve to support it on the cheeks of 

the carriage.-The trunnion-ring, is that 

ring on a cannon which is next in front 
of the trunnions. 











~ 69 Ettfrarg Crealury* [tufo 


TRUSS ( trousse , a bundle : Fr.), in Archi¬ 
tecture, a framed collection of pieces of 

timber. [See Roof.] -In Navigation, a 

machine to pull a lower yard close to its 
mast, and retain it firmly in that position. 
-In Carpentry and Engineering, a trian¬ 
gular frame used as a support.or a polygonal 
frame made rigid at the joints and employed 

for the same purpose.-A bundle of hay 

or straw, equal to 56 lbs.; six trusses make a 

load. -In Surgery, a bandage or apparatus 

used in cases of rupture, to keep up the 
reduced parts, and hinder further protru¬ 
sion ; and for other purposes. 

TRUSTEE', in Law, one to whom is con¬ 
fided the care of an estate, money, or busi¬ 
ness, for the benefit of another. 

TRYSOLYMPON'ICA (Gr.\ from treis, 
three ; Olimpia, the Olympic games ; and 
nike, a victory), in Antiquity, one among 
the Greeks who returned three times victo¬ 
rious from the Olympic games ; and on 
whom special honours were conferred by 
the state. 

TU'BA (Lat.), a wind instrument, used 
by the ancient Romans, resembling our 
trumpet; though of a somewhat different 
form. 

TUBE (tubas: Lat.), a hollow cylinder, 
either of wood or metal, used for the con¬ 
veyance of fluids, &c. Also, a vessel of 
animal bodies or plants, which conveys a 

fluid or other substance.-In Botany, the 

narrow hollow part of a monopetalous 
corolla, by which it is fixed to the recep¬ 
tacle. 

TU'BERCLES ( tuberculum, a small swell¬ 
ing : Lat.),in Medicine, little tumours which 

suppurate and discharge pus.-In Natural 

History, little knobs or rough points. 
Hence the epithet tuberculate. 

TU'BEROSE, the Polyanthes tuberosa of 
botanists, a liliaceous plant with white 
strongly scented flowers, well known in our 
greenhouses. It is a native of the East 
indies, and yields a scent to the perfumer. 

TU'BEROUS, in Botany, consisting of 
roundish fleshy bodies, or tubers ; as the 
roots of artichokes and potatoes. 

TU'BULAR BRIDGE, a bridge formed 
of a great tube or hollow beam, through 
the centre of which a roadway or railway 
passes. The first iron bridge of this kind 
was that designed by Stephenson, for carry¬ 
ing the Chester and Holyhead railway over 
the Menai Straits. It consists of two rec¬ 
tangular tubes of wrought iron plates, 
riveted together; one tube being for the 
accommodation of the up line of rails, and 
the other for that of the down line. A 
pier erected upon a rock in the middle of 
the Straits divides each tube into two spans 
of 462 feet each, and there is also at each 
end a smaller tube of 230 feet span to serve 
as approaches to the bridge. These several 
tubes are joined together, so as to form 
one tube for each line of rails, 1524 feet 
long : and 100 feet above high water. The 
thickness of the central pier is 45 feet, that 
of each side pier 32 feet; the tube projects 
17 feet 6 inches over the masonry at each 
end, and rests on rollers, to permit motion, 
when the tube expands or contracts from 
change of temperature. This bridge con¬ 


tains 9480 ton3 of wrought iron, 1988 tons 
of cast iron, and 1,500,000 cubic feet of 
masonry. The total expense of its con¬ 
struction was 601,8601. It was commenced 
Aug. 10, 1847, was finished March 5, 1850, 
and was opened for traffic March 18, 1850. 
A similar bridge, containing one length of 
tube, and of a somewhat smaller span, had 
been previously erected, under Stephen¬ 
son’s direction, over the river Conway, on 
the same line of railway, and was opened 
for traffic in 1848. These bridges have, 
however, been far surpassed by the Victoria 
tubular bridge over the river St. Laurence, 
in Eastern Canada. It consists of one tube 
6592 feet, or nearly two miles in length : 
the whole bridge being 9145 feet long. It 
is 60 feet over the water; has 24 openings, 
of which the centre one is 332 feet wide, 
and each of the others 242. The tube is 19 
feet high at the centre, 16 feet wide : and 
contains 9044 tons of wrought iron ; with 
1,540,000 rivets. Its surface for painting 
is equal to 32 acres. It is supported on 24 
piers; the two central ones being 18 feet 
wide; and the remaining 22, 15 feet, and 
altogether with the.abutments, containing 
2,713,095 cubic feet of masonry. Their 
strength was required to be enormous; 
since the ice accumulated during a Cana¬ 
dian winter, on 2000 miles in length, of 
lakes and mighty rivers, must pass through 
them, and a large portion of it dash against 
them. This ice exerts an almost incalcm 
lable pressure; and is often piled up to the 
height of 40 or 50 feet where there is no 
obstruction—one vast mass sliding up on 
another. Wooden tubular bridges have 
long been in use. One was built at Wet- 
tingen in 1778, which may be considered as 
a hollow timber beam: its span was 390 
feet. After whole armies, with the artil¬ 
lery, &c., had passed over it in safety, a3 
also a constant traffic for more than 20 
years, it, as well as a similar bridge at 
Schaffhausen, was burned by the French 
in 1799. 

TU'BULOUS, or TU'BULATED (tuba, a 
trumpet: Lat.), in Botany, having a bell- 
sliaped border ; with five reflex segments, 
rising from a tube: as, a tubulous floret. 

TU'ESDAY, the third day of the week; 
answering to the dies Martis of the Ro¬ 
mans ; but dedicated by the Saxons to 
Tidsco. 

TU'FA, or TUFF, in Geology, a rock com¬ 
posed of small particles of stone, which 
issued in the shape of dust from a volcano; 
or as mud, that is, dust mingled with steam. 
In volcanic countries there are strata of 
tuffs, some of which had been originally 
thrown into the sea, and contain marine 
organic remains; others have been pene¬ 
trated by water, holding calcareous matter 
in solution, by which the tufaceous parti¬ 
cles have been bound together into a hard 
mass susceptible of a good polish. Tuffs 
frequently alternate with beds of basalt and 
trachyte. 

TUFO, in Architecture, a porous, light, 
calcareous stone, used in the construction 
of vaults. The ‘ travertin' employed in 
building St. Peter’s, at Rome, is of this na¬ 
ture. [See Travertin.] 

•4 D 












TUILERIES] 


Cnije &ctenttfu anti 


770 


TUILERIES ( tuillerie, a place where tiles 
are made : Fr.), the residence of the French 
monarchs, on the right bank of the Seine, 
in Paris. It was begun by Catherine de 
Medici, wife of Henry II., in 1564, and 
finished by Henry IV.; but the latest addi¬ 
tions were made to it by Napoleon, in 1808. 
It has been connected by Napoleon III. 
with the Louvre, forming a splendid pile of 
buildings. The exterior of the Tuileries is 
deficient in harmony, having been built at 
different times, and on very different plans; 
but the interior is magnificent. It derives 
its name from having been erected on a 
place where tiles were anciently manufac¬ 
tured. 

TU'LIP ( tulipe: Fr.), the name of lilia¬ 
ceous plants belonging to the genus Tulipa 
of botanists. They are much cultivated for 
the regular form and gay colours of their 
flowers. The tulip has always been a fa¬ 
vourite flower with the Belgians and Dutch ; 
aiid, about a century after its introduction, 
the mania prevailed to such an extent in 
those countries, that more than two thou¬ 
sand dollars were often given for a single 
root. 

TU'LIP-TREE, a North American tree 
belonging to the Magnolia order. It is the 
Liriodendron tulipi/erum of botanists. The 
deciduous leaves have a singular shape. 
The flowers are large and showy, are varie¬ 
gated with .different colours, among which 
yellow predominates; and sometimes re¬ 
semble those of the tulip. In parts of the 
United States it constitutes alone very 
considerable tracts of the forest, and has 
been found 140 feet high, with a stem 20 
feet in circumference. The heart of the 
wood is of a light yellow colour, and the 
sap white; the grain is line and compact; 
it is easily wrought, polishes well, and is 
sufficiently strong for purposes requiring 
great solidity. The tree succeeds very well 
in England. 

I TU'MOUR (tumor, a swelling: Lat.), in 
Medicine, the morbid enlargement of a par- 

! ticular part; without being caused by in¬ 
flammation. 

TU'MULUS (Lat.), a barroiv or mound of 
earth in ancient times raised to the memory 
of the dead. [See Barrow.] 

TUN (tunne: Sax.), a measure of capacity 
for liquids. The English tun contains two 
pipes, or four hogsheads, or 252 gallons. 

TUNG'STEN (tang sten, heavy stone: 
Siced.), sometimes called Wolframium, a 
white, hard, and brittle metal, very diffi¬ 
cult of fusion; heated to redness, in the 
open air it burns into the peroxide or 
tungstic acid. Its spec. grav. is 17-4. It is 
obtained chiefly from wolfram, or tungstate 
of iron and manganese. Steel is supposed 
to be greatly improved by the addition of 
from two to five per cent, of tungsten. 
Tungstate of soda is employed to render 
articles of dress uninflammable. 

TU'NIO (tunica: Lat.), a garment worn 
within doors by the Romans of both sexes, 
under the toga; the slaves and common 
people only appearing in it abroad, in which 
case it was gilded with a belt. The sena¬ 
tors wore a tunic with a broad stripe (clavus) 
ot purple : the knights had narrow stripes 


on theirs : and hence the terms Laticlavii 
and Angusticlavii applied to persons of these 
orders. The Latus clavus extended from 
the neck perpendicularly down the centre 
of the tunic, and, being ivoven in the cloth, 
it is not represented on statues. The clavus 
augustus consisted of two narrow stripes, 
also in front of the tunic, and reaching 
from each shoulder to the bottom; the 
right of wearing it was permitted also to the 

children of knights.- Tunic, in Anatomy, 

a coat of membrane. 

TU'NICATED (tunicatus: Lat.). In Zo¬ 
ology, the term is applied to an order of 
molluscs, amongst which are the sea- 
squirts, in consequence of their being pro¬ 
tected by an elastic tunic in place of a shell. 

These are the ascidians of zoologists.-In 

Botany, an epithet for a bulb composed of 
numerous concentric coats ; as an onion. 

TUN'NEL, a subterraneous passage. 
Some tunnels are cut through hills, to 
continue the lines of canals, from half a 
mile to two or three miles long; others are 
formed on the lines of railroad, where steep 

hills render them necessary.-The tunnel 

under the Thames, below London Bridge, 
was commenced in 1820; and finished lor 
passengers in 1843. It consists of two dou¬ 
ble archways, each 1300 feet in length; 
and communicating by openings, cut in the 
massive centre wall. It cost about 12001. 
per yard. There have been some enofmous 
tunnels constructed for canal and railway 
purposes. That on the Thames and Med 
way Canal, finished in 1800 and now used 
for the North Kent railway, is 3160 yards in 
length ; and the Box tunnel, on the Great 
Western Railway, finished in 1838, 3123 
yards. But the most enormous undertak¬ 
ing of the kind is that now forming 
through Mont Cenis, intended to connect 
France and Italy. It will be 7 ~ miles long, 
with a width at the base of the arch of 25] 
feet, and a height varying from 24] to 25] 
feet. The tunnel has been commenced at 
each end, and several years must elapse 
before it is finished, the whole having to 
be carried through hard rock. Tunnels 
have been made in very ancient times. The 
Grotto of Pausilippo, through which the 
road passes from Bairn to Naples, is of con¬ 
siderable length, and is probably artificial. 
Scmiramis is said to have made a tunnel 
under the Euphrates at Babylon more than 
3000 years ago. 

TUR'BAN (turband: Pers.), a head-dress 
worn by most Oriental nations. It is of very | 
various forms, but generally consists of a ' 
piece of fine cloth or linen wound round a i 
cap,which is red or green, roundish on the 
top, and quilted with cotton. The Turkish 
sultan wears a turban having three heron’s 
feathers, with many diamonds and other 
precious stones. The turban of the grand 
vizier has two heron’s feathers; that of 
other officers, but one. 

TUR'BARY, in Law, the right of digging 
turf on another man’s land. Common of 
turbary, is the liberty which a tenant enjoys 
of digging turf on the lord’s waste. 

TUR'BINATED tturbinatus, conical : 
Lat.), in Botany, shaped like an inverted 
cone; narrow at the base, and broad at the 




































771 


Ettcrarg Crea4ur|)» 


[turpentine 


apex.- Id Conchology, wreathed conically 

from a broad base to a narrow or pointed 
apex. The top shells afford examples of 
this form. 

TURBINE (turbo, a top: Lai.— because 
the machine turns round on a vertical axis 
something like a top), an hydraulic ma¬ 
chine, in which the water, having a con¬ 
siderable pressure due to the height of its 
fall, is allowed to issue through small 
orifices with a high velocity. The simplest, 
and probably the oldest form, is what is 
usually termed Barker's mill; it may be 
described as a vertical tube, having two 
horizontal tubular arms at its lower ex¬ 
tremity ; being in the form of an inverted 
T, and capable of revolving on its vertical 
axis. There is an aperture near its outer 
extremity, of each horizontal arm, at oppo¬ 
site sides ; or the arms are bent round, so 
that apertures in the extremities are 
turned in opposite directions. Another 
form of turbine has the water flowing 
from the circumference towards the cen¬ 
tre, not as in the preceding form, from 
the centre to the circumference. When 
the water flows through the apertures, 
the parts of the interior immediately oppo¬ 
site to them are acted upon by an uncoun¬ 
teracted pressure; which causes a rapid 
motion in a direction opposite to that to¬ 
wards which tire water flows. This rotatory 
motion of the apparatus is communicated to 
mill stones, &c. Improved modifications of 
the turbine, in the shape of horizontal wa¬ 
ter-wheels, are now used. In these, the water 
is made to traverse curved passages, and 
by its pressure,while passing through them, 
it moves the wheel round. They assume a 
great variety of forms ; but will be' easily 
understood, if the principles just alluded to 
are borne in mind. Turbines are applicable, 
when the fall of water is too high, and too 
inconsiderable, for ordinary vertical water¬ 
wheels. 

TUR'BITH, or TUR'BETH (turpethus: 
Mod. Lat.), a substance used in the materia 
inecfica as a cathartic. It is brought from 
the East Indies, and is the cortical part of 

the root of a species of convolvulus.- 

Turbith mineral, the yellow precipitate 
subsulphate of mercury, called Queen's 
yellow. 

TUR'BO (Lat.), a genus of gasteropodous 
molluscs, having a regular turbinated shell, 
with an iridescent interior. The top shells 
of collectors belong to this genus. They 
are natives of tropical seas. 

TUR'BOT, a large flat fish, the Rhombus 
maximus of ichthyologists, in the family 
Pleuronectidce. Being a favourite fish for 
the table, large quantities of turbot are 
sold in the London market. It grows to 
the weight of twenty or thirty pounds. 

TUR'DUS (a thrush : Lat.), in Ornithology, 
a genus of birds, comprehending the dif¬ 
ferent species of thrush. 

TUR'KEY, a name given to gallinaceous 
birds of the genus Melcagris. Our domes¬ 
ticated bird (M. gallopavo) is derived from 
Mexico; but the name Turkey is supposed 
to have been given to it in the belief that 
the bird was a native of the country so 
called. The Honduras turkoy (M. ocellata) 


is a much handsomer bird, but is little 
known in this country. 

TUlt'MERIC, or INDIAN SAFFRON, 
the root of the Curcuma longa, a plant allied 
to the Gingers. Externally it is greyish, 
but internally of a deep bright yellow or 
saffron colour. Paper stained by it is used 
as a test in the laboratory ; being changed 
from yellow to brown, by free alkalies, and 
then carbonates. Turmeric has a slight 
aromatic smell, and a bitterish taste: It is 
used fpr dyeing, and, in some caseg, as a 
medicine; but it is chiefly employed as a 
seasoning for ragouts and other dishes; 
and it constitutes a principle ingredient in 
curry powder. There were 2541 tons of 
turmeric imported in 1858. ,<• 

TUR'NERITE, a rare mineral Occurring 
in small crystals of a yellowish brown 
colour, externally brilliant and translucent. 
It contains alumina, lime, magnesia, with a 
small portion of iron and silica. 

TUllN'ING, in Mechanics, a very inge¬ 
nious and useful art; in which a great va¬ 
riety of articles are manufactured, by cut¬ 
ting or fashioning them while they revolve 
upon an axis or line, that generally remains 
immovable. Every solid substance in na¬ 
ture may be submitted to this process, and 
accordingly we have articles turned in .the 
metals, in wood, in pottery, in stone, in 
ivory, &c. The simplest process of turning 
is that of the potter; who, in the first stage 
of forming his ware, sticks a piece of soft 
clay upon a wheel, or flat table, while it re¬ 
volves horizontally; and in this state of ro¬ 
tation, he fashions it with the greatest 
facility into vessels of every description. 
But in most operations of the art the re¬ 
volving body is cut or shaved by applying 
a chisel, or other suitable tool, to its sur¬ 
face, while in motion ; which requires firm¬ 
ness in the action, or axis of rotation, and 
also that the tool itself should be steadily 
supported. The instrument, or apparatus 
for these purposes, is called a lathe. The 
art of turning is most extensively applica¬ 
ble in all the mechanic arts; for the hardest 
metals, and the most ponderous articles, as 
well as the softest wood and the most deli¬ 
cate pivots in a watch, can be fashioned by 
the turning-lathe. 

TUR'NIP, the common name of a cruci¬ 
ferous plant, the Brossicaropa of botanists, 
extensively cultivated for its esculent 
root. Turnips are a wholesome article of 
food, much in use. The large rooted va¬ 
rieties have been employed for fodder, 
during the winter season, from time imme¬ 
morial. The Swedish turnip has a large 
root, of a yellowish hue, and is employed 
for feeding cattle. The plant is the Bras- 
sica campcstris, variety ruta-baga. 

TURN'PIKES, the name given to the 
toll gates on the public roads, the ancient 
gate being a mere pole or pike. The turn¬ 
pike roads are formed under acts of parlia¬ 
ment ; and managed by commissioners, 
trustees, and surveyors. [See Roads.] 

TURN'SOLE, in Botany, a plant of the 
genus Eeliotropium ; so named because its 
flower is supposed to turn towards the 
sun. 

TURTENTINE (turpentina: Ital.; from 





























.. 1 

turpentine tree] Cfjc ^Ctcnttfic ailiJ 772 

terebinthos : Gr.), a transparent resinous 
substance, procured from different species 
of the pine and fir. The best sort comes 
from North America. The method of ob¬ 
taining it is by making a series of incisions 
in the bark of the tree, from which the tur¬ 
pentine exudes, and falls down into recep¬ 
tacles prepared to receive it. English tur¬ 
pentine is from the Scotch fir ; Venice tur¬ 
pentine, which is more thin and aromatic, 
is derived from the pinus larix; and the 
common American turpentine comes from 
the pinus palustris. To obtain the oil of 
turpentine, the juice is distilled with water 
in an apparatus like a common still. 

TUR'PENTINE TREE, the Pistacia len- 
tiscus. Mastich is obtained from its trunk, 
by making incisions in it, in the month of 
August. 

TUR'QUOISE, a mineral of a beautiful 
sky-blue colour; occurring in thin layers, 
or in rounded masses. It is destitute of 
lustre, but susceptible of a high polish, 
and is much used in jewellery; and con¬ 
trasts well with diamonds and pearls set in 
gold. It consists chiefly of hydrated alu¬ 
mina ; and its colour is probably due to 
oxides of copper and iron. 

TURTLE, the name given to some marine 
shielded reptiles closely allied to the tortoise 
[which see]. One species, the hawk’s bill 
turtle XCaretta imbricata ), which lives in the 
Atlantic and Indian oceans, yields the tor¬ 
toise shell of commerce. The green turtle 
(Cheloniaviridis) found in the tropical parts 
of the Atlantic, is the animal so much 
prized by epicures. The head and limbs are 
but slightly retractile, and the toes are en¬ 
tirely united and enveloped in the common 
integuments, forming a sort of paddle. 
Turtles feed on sea-weed at the bottom, but, 
at a certain season, visit the shore, for the 
purpose of depositing their eggs in the 
sand. The instinct which leads the female 
turtle to the beach to lay her eggs, renders 
them a prey to man. The fishers wait for 
them at the beginning of the night, espe¬ 
cially when it is moonlight; and, either as 
they come from the sea, or as they return 
after laying their eggs, dispatch them by 
hard blows from a club, or turn them 
quickly over on their backs, not giving 
them time either to defend themselves, or 
to blind their assailants by throwing up 
the sand with their fins. When very large, 
it requires the efforts of several men to 
turn them over, and they must often em¬ 
ploy the assistance of handspikes or levers 
for that purpose. The buckler of this 
species is so flat, as to render it impossible 
for the animal to recover the recumbent 
posture when it is once turned on its back. 

TURTLE-DOVE, the Columba Tartar of 
ornithologists, a summer visitor to our 
islands, where they breed, the parent birds 
sitting by turns on the eggs. The plaintive 
coo of this bird in the woods is always wel¬ 
come to the ear. 

TUS'OAN ORDER, one of the orders of 
Architecture; the most ancient, the most 
massive, and most simple of those invented 
by the Romans. 

TUSSILA'GO ( tussis, a cough ; and ago, I 
act upon : Lat.— from its being considered 

a cure for a cough), in Botany, a genus of 
composite plants, including the common 

coltsfoot. 

TUS'SIS (.Lat), in Medicine, a cough, nat. 

ord. Composite. 

TU'TENAG, or Packfong, a metallic com¬ 
pound brought from China, called also 
Chinese copper, or white copper. 1 1 consists 
of copper, zinc, and nickel. Zinc is some¬ 
times called by this name in India. 

TUT'TO, or TUT'TI (Ital.), in Music, a 
direction for all to play in full concert. 

TUT'TV, the impure oxide of zinc, col¬ 
lected from the chimneys of smelting 
furnaces. 

TWELFHI'NDI, among the Anglo- 
Saxons, men of the highest rank, who were 
assessed at 1200 shillings ; and, if any injury 
were done to such persons, satisfaction was 
to be made according to their worth. 

TWELVE TABLES, LAWS OF THE, 
celebrated laws, framed at Rome by the 
Decemvirs A.tr.o. 303. They were originally 
ten, but two more were soon added. 

TWI'LIGHT, the faint light diffused 
through the lower portion of the atmo¬ 
sphere by the reflection of the sun’s rays 
from the higher portion of the atmosphere, 
after that body has set below, or before it 
has risen above the horizon. The morning 
twilight begins, and the evening twilight 1 
ends, when the sun is about eighteen de¬ 
grees below the horizon. At the poles, 
where there are six months day and six 
months night, the twilight continues about 
two months ; so that a great part of the half 
year’s night is illuminated. 

TYM'PAN (tumpanon, a drum : Gr.), a 
part of a printing-press, consisting of a 
frame covered with parchment ; on which : 
the blank sheets are put in order to be laid 
on the form to be impressed. 

TYM'PANITIS, or TYM'PANY (same : 
deriv.), a disease called also Drum belly ; i 
and consisting in an elastic distension of 
the abdomen, arising from a morbid collec- 1 
tion of gas in the intestines. When caused 
by air secreted in the abdominal cavity it is 
generally fatal. 

TYM'PANUM (same deriv.), in Anatomy, 
the drum of the ear; the membranous par¬ 
tition which separates the auditory passage 
from the tympanic cavity. This cavity 
contains the four auditory bones, and it 
communicates with the open air by means 
of a narrow canal, called the Eustachian 

tribe.-In Architecture, the triangular 

space in a pediment enclosed by the cornice 
of its inclined sides, and theliorizontal fillet 
of the corona; it is often decorated with 

sculpture.-In Botany, a membrane which 

sometimes stretches across the mouth of 
the theca of a moss. It is often styled an 
epiphragm.-Among the Greeks and Ro¬ 

mans, a tympanum was a musical instru¬ 
ment, not unlike the tambourine, beaten 
with the hand. 

TYPE (tupos: Gr.), in Theology, a sign or 
symbol ; a figure of something to come ; as, 
the paschal lamb was a type of Christ. To 
the word in this sense is opposed antitype, 

Christ, therefore, is the antitype. -In 

Natural History, Type is applied to that 
variety in a species, or species in a genus. 





















773 




or genus in a family, -which presents an as¬ 
semblage of points most characteristic of 
the species, genus, or family respectively. 

TYPE-FOUNDING, the art of manufac¬ 
turing the metal letters used by printers. 
The type, or pattern of the letter, is first 
cut on a steel punch, and then sunk in a 
matrix of brass or copper, about an inch 
and a half long, and thick in proportion to 
the size of the letter it is to contain. The 
fused type-metal is then poured into the 
mould, and afterwards loosened from the 
matrix merely by removing the pressure 
from the spring. A type-foundry is pro¬ 
vided with several furnaces, each sur¬ 
mounted with an iron pot containing the 
type-metal; which usually consists of three 
partg of lead and one of antimony. The 
dexterity of the founder is truly surpris¬ 
ing ; for every movement is executed with 
such astonishing rapidity and precision, 
that a skilful workman will cast 500 letters 
in an hour. The types are then taken by a 
boy, whose business it is to break off the 
superfluous metal; and this he does so ra¬ 
pidly as to clear three or four thousand per 
hour. From his hands the types go to the 
rubber, who sits with a grit-stone slab on a 
table before him, and having on the fore 
and middle finger of his right hand a piece 
of tarred leather, passes each broad side of 
the type smartly over the stone, so dex¬ 
terously as to be able to rub 2000 types in 
an hour. The types are now conveyed to a 
boy, who sets them up in lines in a long 
shallow frame, with their faces uppermost. 
This frame, containing a full line, is put 
into the dresser’s hands, who polishes them 
on each side, cuts a groove or channel in 
the bottom of each, and renders them per¬ 
fectly symmetrical. Each letter is finally 
tied up in lines, and a proportionate num¬ 
ber of each sort being put together, a 
fount of type is ready for the printing-office. 

TY'PHUS ( tuphos, stupor arising from 
fever: Gr.), in Medicine, a speciea of con¬ 
tinued fever characterized by great debility, 
a tendency in the fluids to putrefaction, and 
the ordinary symptoms of fever. It chiefly 
attacks those who have been weakened by 
any previous debilitating cause, or who are 
confined in unwholesome and damp situa¬ 
tions. It assumes various forms, as low 
fever, putrid fever, nervous fever, jail 
fever, &c. When nausea and bilious vomit¬ 
ing prevail it constitutes what is termed 


[UBIQUITARIANS 


bilious fever. Typhus commences with ex¬ 
traordinary muscular and nervous debility, 
great depression of spirits, flying pains, 
sighing, a frequent, small, hard, and flutter¬ 
ing pulse, a foul and brown tongue, impair¬ 
ed taste. As the disease progresses, the 
debility is increased; the mouth becomes 
very foul and the breath fetid ; the evacua¬ 
tions are extremely offensive and rapidly 
putrify. The speech then becomes inarti¬ 
culate muttering, and delirious; there is a 
tendency to bleeding from the nose, mouth, 
and bowels; livid spots appear on the sur¬ 
face, hiccup comes on, the hands and feet 
become cold, and death supervenes. In this 
climate it may last three weeks or a month: 
in hot countries eight or ten days. If it does 
not terminate fatally, the symptoms begin 
to be favourable about the twelfth or four¬ 
teenth day. It is contagious, or infectious, 
and often epidemic. 

TYPHOON, the name given to a hurri¬ 
cane, or tornado in the Chinese seas. 

TYPOG'RAPHY ( tupos , a type ; and gra- 
pho, I write : Gr.). [See Printing.] 

TYP'OLITE {tupos, an outline; and lithos, 
a stone : Gr.), in Natural History, a stone 
or fossil which has on it impressions or 
figures of plants and animals. 

TY'RANT ( turannos, literally, a master: 
Gr.), one who exercises arbitrary or exces¬ 
sive power. A monarch or other ruler who 
by injustice or cruel punishment, or the 
demand of unreasonable services, imposes 
burdens and hardships on those under his 
control, which law docs not authorize, and 
which are repugnant to the dictates of hu¬ 
manity.-The word tyrant, in its original 

signification, merely meant an absolute 
ruler; but the frequent abuse of the office 
led to a different application of the word. 

TYRO'SIS (turos, cheese: Gr.) in Medi¬ 
cine, a disorder in the stomach occasioned 
by milk coagulating in it. 

TYTH'ING {testha, the tenth: Sax.), in 
Saxon Law, the subdivision of a Hundred. 
It was obliged to produce offenders, or re¬ 
pair the mischief done by them. All free 
persons above the age of twelve years were 
bound to belong to some tytliing. The 
limits of a tything generally corresponded 
with those of a parish. It was originally 
supposed to be a district containing ten 
freeborn men, of whom each was pledged 
for the other. 


U 


U the twenty-first letter, and the fifth 
vowel of the alphabet, is generally pro¬ 
nounced nearly like eu shortened or blend¬ 
ed ; as in annuity, enumerate, mute, infuse. 
In some words, as in bull, pull, full, the 
sound of u is that of the Italian u, the 
French on, but shortened. Its other sound 
is heard in tun, run, rub, &c. Sometimes it 
Is pronounced like a double o, as in mile, 


true. It is not often used as an abbrevia¬ 
tion, but is put for urbis, and thus a.tt.o., 
anno urbis conditm(in the year from the 
building of Rome). 

UBIQUITA'RIANS (ubique, everywhere: 
Lat.), in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of 
Lutherans who sprung up in Germany about 
the year 1590; and maintained that the body 
of Jesus Christ is ( ubique ) omnipresent, or 
















€Ij c Jrctcuttftc Klltr 774 


ukase] 


In every place at the same time, and con¬ 
sequently in the Eucharist. 

| U'KASE, in Russia, a proclamation, or 
imperial order published. 

UL'CER ( ulcus :Lat.), in Medicine, a puru- 
I lent solution of continuity, in any of the 
soft parts of the body, attended with a 
I secretion of pus, or some kind of discharge. 
Ulcers arise from a variety of causes, and 
are variously denominated; as fistulous, gan¬ 
grenous, cancerous, scrofulous, carious, &c. 

ULE'MA, or OI7LEMA (Turk.), a body of 
learned men, are the administrators of the 
various powers centred in the person of 
: the Sultan of Turkey, and presided over by 
the Grand Mufti. It consists of three de¬ 
scriptions of persons; the Imams who are 
I ministers of religion ; the Muftis, who are 
expounders of the law; and the Cadis, who 
I are ministers of justice. 

ULMA'CEiE, in Botany, a nat. order of 
exogenous trees and shrubs, including, 
amongst other genera, Ulmus (Elm-trees) 
i and Geltis (the Nettle trees). The latter 
I bear an edible drupe,sometimes called sugar 
berry. The flowers of the ulmacece have no 
| petals, and appear in loose clusters, 
i UL'MIN (ulmus, an elm-tree : Lat.), a dark 
I brown substance, which exudes from the 
j bark of the elm, and other trees. It is con- 
) sidered by some as identical with the brown 
matter of vegetable mould and turf: a sub¬ 
stance which greatly contributes to the 
nutriment of growing plants, 
i UL'NA (the elbow: Lat.), in Anatomy, 
the larger bone of the fore-arm, reaching 
i from the elbow to the wrist; it is large at 
, its upper extremity, and grows gradually 
| smaller towards the wrist. Its chief use 
seems to be to support and regulate the 
i motions of the radius. 

| ULTIMA'TUM (ultimus, the last: Lat.), 
in modern diplomacy, the Anal conditions 
i offered for the settlement of a dispute; or 
the basis of a treaty between two govern¬ 
ments. The word is also used for any final 
proposition or condition. 

UL'TRA (beyond: Lat.), a prefix to cer¬ 
tain words in modern politics, to denote 
those members of a party who carry their 
notions to excess. In 1793, those persons 
in Prance were called ultra-revolutionists, 
j who demanded much more than the con¬ 
stitution they adopted allowed. When the 
Bourbons returned to Prance, in 1815, the 
words ultra-royalists and ultra-liberals 
were much used, and have become common 

j wherever political parties exist.- Ultra 

I vires (Lat.), a Law phrase applied when a 
trustee has done something which he was 
not authorized to do. 

ULTRAMARINE (ultra, beyond; and 
mare, the sea: Lat.), in Painting, a valuable 
pigment affording a beautiful sky-blue co¬ 
lour.-Its name ultramarine is derived 

from being brought from beyond sea, that 
is to say, from Hindostan and Persia; and it 
was originally obtained only from the rare 
mineral lapis lazuli. But excellent ultra- 
marine can now be prepared artificially, 
with silicate of alumina, silicate of soda, and 
sulphuret of sodium; its colour being due 
to the last reacting on the second. Ultra- 
marine was formerly five guineas an ounce ; 


a very good article can now be had whole¬ 
sale for little more than one shilling a 
pound. In 1858, 14,562 cwt. of ultramarine, 
value 77,2681. were imported ; most probably 

the greater part of this was artificial.- 

Ultramarine ashes, a pigment which is the 
residuum of lapis lazuli after the ultra- 
marine has been extracted. 

ULTRAMONTANE (ultra, beyond; and 
mons, a mountain : Lat.), an epithet applied 
to countries which lie beyond the moun¬ 
tains: thus France, with regard to Italy, is 
an ultramontane country.-In Ecclesias¬ 

tical matters the term is used by writers 
on this side of the Alps to express doc¬ 
trines extravagantly favourable to the 
power and supremacy of the popes, and 
therefore in accordance with Roman or 
rather Papal ideas. 

UL'VA (Lat), in Botany, the Green Laver, 
a plant belonging to thfe llgce. Three of 
its species grow in the sea, one in fresh 
water, and three in damp places on land. 
The Ulva thermalis grows in hot springs 
at a temperature of 117° Fahr. 

UM'BEL (umbella, an umbrella : Lat.), In 
Botany, a sort of inflorescence, which con¬ 
sists of a number of flowerstalks or rays 
spreading from a common centre. It is 
simple or compound; in the latter, each 
peduncle bears another series of spreading 
flowerstalks. Hence umbellate, and umbel¬ 
liferous, bearing umbels. 

UMBELLIF'ER/E, in Botany, a large nat. 
ord. of herbaceous plants (the Apiacece of 
some botanists), comprising those which 
have their flowers in Umbels. They grow 
chiefly in the northern parts of the northern 
hemisphere. The carrot, celery, parsley, 
parsnip, fennel, coriander, and caraway, 
belong to this order, which also contains 
many poisonous plants, such as common 
hemlock and water hemlock. Others yield 
matters which are employed in medicine, 
such as Assafcetida, Galbanum, and 
Opoponax. 

UM'BER, in Painting,a pigment affording 
a fine dark-brown colour. There are two 
substances used under this name; one, a 
preparation of the lignite or brown coal, 
found near Cologne; the other, called 
Turkish umber, an ochraceous iron ore, 
containing peroxide of irou, peroxide of 
manganese, silica, alumina, and water. The 
name is believed to be derived from Um¬ 
bria, or Spoleto, in Italy, whence it was 
first brought. It is used in two states; the 
first, its natural one, with the simple pre¬ 
caution of levigation, or washing; the 
second, that in which it is found after 
being burnt. The hues of burnt and un¬ 
burnt umber greatly differ from each other. 

-In Ornithology, the Scopus Umbretta, 

a bird belonging to the Ardeidce. It is 
distinguished from the storks by its com¬ 
pressed bill, whose trenchant column is ex¬ 
panded towards the base; the nostrils are 
prolonged into a furrow'. It inhabits Africa. 

TJMBILI'CAL (umbilicus, the navel: Lat.)’, 
in Anatomy, an epithet for whatever per¬ 
tains to the navel; as umbilical vessels, 
umbilical region.-In Botany, the umbili¬ 

cal cord, or funiculus, is the thread which 
connects the ovule 'with the placenta. It 


















775 Sitmirg 


varies in length in different plants, and is 
sometimes absent. 

UMBIL'ICATE (same deriv.), in Concho- 
logy, an epithet applied to an univalve 
shell in which the axis of the column is 
hollow; such a shell is also styled perfora¬ 
ted.-In Botany, an epithet applied to a 

leaf or other part of a plant which is round, 
with a depression at the middle. 

UM'BO (Hat.), the boss or protuberant 
part of a shield. 

UMBO'LDILITE, a Vesuvian mineral, 
whose primitive form is a right rectangular 
prism, with a square base. It is of a green¬ 
ish yellow colour, inclining to brown. 

UMB'RIAN, an ancient Italian language 
spoken to the north of Rome, of which a 
few fragments of a priestly literature, the 
tables of Iguvio, have been preserved. 

BN, in Philology, a particle giving to 
words to which it is prefixed a negative 
signification. Un and in were formerly 
used indifferently for this purpose; but 
the tendency of modern usage is to prefer 
the use of in in some words, where un was 
before used. It is prefixed generally to 
adjectives and participles, but sometimes 
also to verbs, as in unbend, unbind, &c. 

B'NAVO'CE {Lai.), with one voice; un¬ 
animously. 

UN'CIAL (undo, the twelfth of a foot: 
Lat.), pertaining to letters of a large size, 
used in ancient manuscripts. 

UN'CIFORM (uncus, a hook; and forma, 
a form: Lot.), in Anatomy, an epithet for 
the last bone of the second row of the 
carpus or wrist; so named from its liook- 
like process, which projects from the palm 
of Wie hand. 

UN'CINATE (uncinatus, furnished with 
hooks: Lat), in Botany, hooked at the end. 

UNCTION (unctio: Lat), the anointing 
with consecrated oil* a practice among the 
Jews in consecrating kings and priests; 
also still in use at coronations. One of the 
seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic 
church. It is performed in cases of mortal 
disease, and is called extreme unction. 

UNDERWRITER, one who undersigns 
a policy of insurance on a ship or its cargo, 
at a certain rate per cent. 

UNDULATION ( undulatus, marked with 
waves: Lat), a waving motion or vibra¬ 
tion ; as, the undulations of water or air. 
The undulations of a fluid arc propagated in 
coucentrio circles.-In Surgery, undula¬ 

tion denotes a certain motion of the matter 
! of an abscess when pressed, which indicates 
its maturity or fitness for opening. 

| UNDU'LATORY THEORY (same deriv.), 
in Optics, the theory according to which 
i light is transmitted by the undulations of 
! an elastic medium, supposed to pervade the 
universe. [See Light.] 

UN'GUENT (unguens, anointing: Lat), in 
Medicine, a soft composition used as a 
topical remedy for sores. 

UNGUIC'ULATES (i unguis, a claw: Lat), 
a primary division of the mammalia, in¬ 
cluding those which have the digits armed 
with claws, but free for the exercise of 

touch on their under surface.-In Botany, 

an epithet applied to petals which have a 
broad limb attached by a narrow portion. 


Cnrasury, [UNION 


UN'GULA (a hoof: Lat), in Geometry, 
the section of a cylinder, cone, or other 
solid formed by revolution, cut off by a 
plane passing obliquely through the base. 

UN'GULATES (same deriv.), an order cf 
the class mammalia, including those which 
have the digits inclosed in hoofs, the under 
surface not being left free for the exercise 
of touch, such as the ox, the horse, and the 
elephant. 

UNICAP'SULAR (unus, one; and capsula, 
a chest: Lat ), in Botany, having one cap¬ 
sule to each flower. 

U'NICOllN (unicornus; from unus, one ; 
and cornu , a horn: Lat'), an animal with 
one horn. According to an examination of 
the accounts given of theunicorn in ancient 
and modern times, the opinion of its fabu¬ 
lous character, which has prevailed since 
the time of Buffon, does not seem to rest 
on a foundation absolutely certain. Lu- 
dovicus Romanics, the traveller, declares 
that he saw two unicorns alive in the tem¬ 
ple of Mecca ; some assert that the animal 
is yet to be found in Thibet, and it is stated 
by Yon Zach that a beast of this descrip¬ 
tion, the male of-which has a long and 
straight horn on the forehead, is found in 
the district of the ancient Meroe. The 
animal termed a unicorn, in our version 
of the Bible, is considered to be the rhin¬ 
oceros. 

UNIFLO'ROUS (unus, one; and flos, a 
flower: Lat.), in Botany, bearing one flower 
only. 

UNIFORM'ITY, ACT OF (uniformiias; 
from unus, one; and forma, a form : Lat.), 
the act of parliament by which the form of 
public prayers, administration of sacra¬ 
ments and other rites, is prescribed to be 
observed in all the churches. (1 Eliz., and 
13 and 14 Car. II.) 

UNILA'BIATE (unus, one; and labium, a 
lip : Lat), in Botany, having one lip only; 
as a unilabiate corolla. 

UNILAT'ERAL (unus, one; and latus, a 
side: Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for flowers 
growing only on one side of the common 
peduncle ; as a unilateral raceme. 

UNILIT'ERAL (unus, one ; and literum, a 
letter : Lat.), consisting only of one letter. 

UNILO'CULAR (unus, one; and loculus, 
a compartment: Lat.), in Botany, seed ves¬ 
sels not separated into cells.-In Concho- 

logy, shells not divided into chambers. 

U'NION, or ACT OF UNION (unio, unity : 
Lat.), in Politics, the act by which Scot land 
was united to England ; or by which the 
two kingdoms were incorporated into one, 
in 1706. Also, the legislative union of Great 
Britain and Ireland, in 1800. The United 
States of America are also sometimes called 
the Union. -In Architecture, harmony be¬ 

tween the colours in the materials of a 

building.-In Ecclesiastical affairs, the 

combining or consolidating of two or more 

churches into one.-Among Painters, a 

symmetry and agreement between the seve¬ 
ral parts of a painting.-In Surgery, union 

by the first intention signifies the process 
by which the opposite surfaces of recent 
wounds grow together, and unite without 
suppuration, when they are kept In contact 
with each other. 





























unisexual] 


©f )t J^ctenttftc antt 


77G 


UNI'SEXUAL (unus, one; and sexus, sex: 
Lett.), a term applied by botanists to those 
flowers which have the stamens in one and 
the pistil in another, instead of having 
both in the same flower. 

U'NISON (unus, one; and sonus, a sound: 
Lat.), in Music, a coincidence or agreement 
of sounds; proceeding from an equality in 
the number of vibrations made in a given 
time by a sonorous body. Unison consists 
in sameness of degree, or similarity in re¬ 
spect to gravity or acuteness ; and is appli¬ 
cable to any sound, whether of instruments 
or of the human organs, &c. 

U'NIT (unitas, oneness : Lat.), in Mathe¬ 
matics, any known determinate quantity, 
by the constant repetition of which, any 
other quantity of the same kind is mea¬ 
sured. 

UNITA'RIANS (same deriv.), in Eccle¬ 
siastical History, a sect who deny the doc¬ 
trine of the Trinity, and ascribe divinity to 
God the Father only. Unitarianism in Eng¬ 
land dates almost as far back as the Refor¬ 
mation ; and under the names of Arianism 
and Socinianism, its followers have at 
times endured much persecution. Unita¬ 
rians profess to derive their views from 
Scripture, and to make it the ultimate ar¬ 
biter in all religious questions; and they 
assert that, interpreted according to the 
settled laws of language, the uniform testi¬ 
mony of the sacred writings is, that the 
Holy Spirit has no personal existence dis¬ 
tinct from the Father, and that the Son is 
also a derived and dependent being. 

UNITED BRETHREN. [See MORA¬ 
VIANS.] 

U'NITY (unitas: Lat.), in Theology, is 
of two kinds, unity of faith and unity of 
spirit. Unity of faith is an equal belief of 
the same truths of God, and possession of 
the grace of faith in like form and degree. 
Unity of spirit is the oneness which sub¬ 
sists between Christ and his saints; by 
which the same spirit dwells in both; 
and both have the same disposition and 
aims. 

U'NIVALVE SHELLS (unus, one; and 
valva, the leaf of a door : Lat.), in Concho- 
logy, those of a single piece. 

UNIVER'SAL (universalis, belonging to 
the whole: Lat.), in Logic, a proposition 
which has the subject distributed, so that 
the predicate is declared concerning every 
thing comprehended in it. It may be either 
affirmative or negative. Thus, ‘ all men are 
mortal,’ or, ‘no men are immortal.’ 

UNIYER'SALISTS (same deriv.), a name 
sometimes given to the Armenians, as 
holding that grace is given to all men, 
without reserve ; and that its operation is 
universal. On account of holding an oppo¬ 
site opinion, Calvinists are denominated 
ticulurist^ 

U'NIVERSE (same deriv.), the totality of 
space, and all its-material contents and 
phenomena. Some philosophers suppose 
it to be filled with an ethereal fluid, in 
which masses of matter are equally dis¬ 
posed, which masses, like our sun, act as 
centres of motion, excite luminosity, and 
transfer motion and momenta to subordi¬ 
nate spheres, like our earth, each centre 


being millions of millions of miles distant 
from the others. [See Astronomy, Pla¬ 
nets, &c..] 

UNIVER'SITY (universitas: Lat.), a name 
applied to a national establishment for a 
liberal education, where professors in the 
several branches of science and polite lite¬ 
rature arc maintained, and whero degrees 
or honours attached to the attainments of 
scholars are conferred. Such an estab¬ 
lishment is called a university, as intended 
to embrace the whole compass of study. 
The universities of Great Britain are seated 
at London, Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, 
St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edin¬ 
burgh. The University of London is of 
recent foundation, and is composed of Uni¬ 
versity College and King’s College. There 
are two universities in Ireland—that of 
Dublin or Trinity College, founded byQueen 
Elizabeth, and the Queen’s University, re¬ 
cently established. In their present form, 
and with their present privileges, they are 
institutions comparatively modern. They 
sprang from the convents of regular clergy, 
or from the chapters of cathedrals in the 
church of Rome, where young men were 
educated for holy orders in that dark pe¬ 
riod when the clei'gypossessed all the little 
erudition which was left in Europe. They 
have long been considered as intended for 
general purposes; but, as a proof that they 
had this kind of ecclesiastical origin, it will 
be sufficient to observe that the pope arro¬ 
gated to himself the right of vesting them 
with all their privileges, and that, prior to 
the Reformation, every university in Eu¬ 
rope conferred its degrees in all the facul¬ 
ties by authority derived from a papal bull. 
The most ancient universities in Europe 
are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, 
Salamanca, and Bologna; and in the two 
English universities the first-founded col¬ 
leges are those of University, Baliol, and 
Merton in the former, and St. Peter’s in 
the latter. Oxford and Cambridge, how¬ 
ever, were universities, in the original 
sense of the word, at a very early period, 
since the former flourished as a seminary 
of learning in the reign of Alfred the Great, 
and the latter, if we may credit its histo¬ 
rians, at a period still earlier. A university 
was at first intended merely to supply in 
struction and confer degrees; the students 
resided, at their own expense, in halls, &c. 
Subsequently, colleges were founded by 
charitable or munificent persons for the 
entire or partial support of those who were 
unable to maintain themselves [see Col¬ 
lege]; and finally, when the colleges be¬ 
came the residence also of independent 
students, the halls were for the most part 
abandoned. The general arrangements of 
a British university may be pretty well 
understood from those of Cambridge. In 
this university every college is in itself a 
corporate body, and governed by its own 
statutes, which must, however, concur with 
the general laws of the university. Each 
of the colleges sends deputies both for the 
executive and legislative branches of the 
government, and the place of their meet¬ 
ing is termed the senate-house. All the 
officers of the university, forming the exo- 














777 


3Ltterary Crcatfurn. 


cutive part of it, are chosen by the senate, 
the principal of whom is the chancellor. 
He is expected to protect and preserve all 
the rights and privileges of the institution, 
and to see that strict and impartial justice 
is administered in every case to the mem¬ 
bers. The office is entrusted to noblemen 
of the highest rank. The Vice-chancellor’s 
office is explained by his title; he acts as a 
magistrate for the university and county, 
and must be the head of some college. 
The regents elect two proctors, who are 
officers of the peace, and superintend the 
behaviour and discipline of all the pupils. 
Although there are some particular parts 
of the duties of these officers which may be 
considered very unpleasant, yet they must 
be masters of arts, and are regents by virtue 
of their office. There are two courts of law 
in the university of Cambridge, viz. the 
consistory court of the chancellor, and the 
consistory court of the commissary. The 
university sends two members to the im¬ 
perial parliament of the United Kingdom, 
who are chosen by the collective body of 
the senate. A Council, termed the uni¬ 
versity council, appointed for various pur¬ 
poses, is composed by a Grace of the senate, 
and a solicitor is nominated by the vice- 
chancellor. The Syndics, chosen from the 
members of the senate, conduct all special 
affairs, such as framing laws, regulating 
fees, and inspecting the library, the print¬ 
ing, buildings, &c. &c. A Degree cannot be 
conferred without passing a Grace for the 
purpose. All the professors of the sciences 
are allowed stipends, which are derived 
from various sources, composed of the 
university chest, sums from government, 
or from estates appropriated for that pur¬ 
pose. At the first institution of the uni¬ 
versity, professorships, or readerships in 
the different arts and sciences, were estab¬ 
lished ; but these university officers are no 
longer the main sources of instruction. 
The several colleges and halls which com¬ 
pose the academical body, have each its 
own private regulations for the education 
of its members, but all contribute to the 
| university education. The degrees in Ox¬ 
ford and Cambridge are differently named, 
or arrived at, in different succession in the 
different faculties; but degrees in Theology 
and Medicine can be obtained only after 
the acquisition of certain degrees in Arts. 

UPAS TltBE, the Antiaris toxicaria of 
botanists, nat. order Artocarpacece, a tree 
rendered famous for its poisonous qualities, 
j which, however, have been very much ex¬ 
aggerated. It was long believed in Europe 
j that there was but a single tree, which was 
| situated in a valley in Java. Its pestilential 
qualities were said to be so destructive, 
that neither herb nor animal could live 
within many miles of its circle, and that 
none but criminals, few of whom ever lived 
to return, were sent to gather poison from 
it. Hut it is now known to be merely a 
tree with secretions which contain strych¬ 
nine, but do not affect the atmosphere 
around. It is nearly allied to the Bread 
Fruit Tree and the Cow Tree. The upas 
tree has a stem which is cylindrical, per¬ 
pendicular, and rises completely naked to 


[urea 


the height of sixty or seventy, or even 
eighty feet; near the surface of the ground 
it spreads obliquely, like many of our forest 
trees. The bark is whitish, slightly burst¬ 
ing into longitudinal furrows. Near the 
ground this bark is, in old trees, more than 
half an inch thick, and, when wounded, 
yields copiously the milky juice from which 
the poison is prepared. 

UP'LAND, a term for land elevated above 
the meadows and plains which lie on the 
banks of rivers, near the sea, or between 
hills. It is opposed to Meadow, Marsh, 
Swamp, &c.; and, like Downs, or a gentle 
hilly country,uplands are particularly valu¬ 
able as affording pasture for sheep. 

U'RANITE, in Mineralogy, a phosphate 
of copper and uranium. It is of a pale gold 
colour, or yellowish brown; sometimes of 
an apple-green or emerald hue ; and occurs 
crystallized in rectangular prisms, or in 
imperfect octahedrons. 

URA'NIUM (ouranos, the heavens : Gr.), 
a metal discovered in the minerals called 
pechblende and uranite. It is either a black 
coherent powder or a white malleable metal, 
according to the state of aggregation. It 
is very combustible’when exposed to heat, 
and unites very violently with chlorine and 
with sulphur. 

URANOL'OGY ( ouranos , the heavens; 
and logos, a discourse: Gr.), a discourse or 
treatise on the heavens; or, in other words, 
the science of Astronomy. 

URA'NUS ( ouranos, heaven: Gr.), the 
Georgium Sidus, or Herschel, a planet be¬ 
longing to our system. Its distance from 
the sun is 1,800 millions of miles. Its 
sidereal revolution is performed in about 
eighty-four Julian years. Its orbit is in¬ 
clined to the Ecliptic at an angle of only 
46' 28'4. Its diameter is 35,300 miles; its 
bulk eighty times that of the earth; its 
density only one-flfth that of our globe. 
A motion of revolution round its axis has 
not been made out, but doubtless it exists. 
Only four satellites have been seen, but 
possibly there are more. These satellites 
present the remarkable peculiarities that 
the planes of their orbits are nearly perpen¬ 
dicular to the ecliptic, and that their orbital 
motions are retrograde, that is, they move 
round their primary from east to west. 

URARI'.Ourari, Curari, or Wooraly, 
the Indian names of a virulent poison pre¬ 
pared by the Indians of South America 
from the wood of the Strychnos toxifera ; a 
tree growing in the interior of tropical 
America. A dart tipped with the poison 
and blown through a tube of wood, can be 
made, by the unerring aim of the red man, 
to take fatal effect on birds and small 
animals at a distance of fifty or sixty yards. 
The tree belongs to the same genus as that 
yielding nuxvomica, from which strychnine 
is prepared. 

URCE'OLATE ( zirceolise, a little pitcher : 
Lat.), in Botany, an epithet for a corolla 
which is expanded at the middle, but con¬ 
tracted above and below, whilst the limb is 
small. 

UREA {ouron, urine: Gr.), a crystallizable 
substance, held in solution in the urine. 
It consists of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen* 













©Tje ^ctnitttfc anSf 


773 


ureter] 


URETER ( oureter: Gr.), in Anatomy, 
the membranous canal which conveys the 
urine from each kidney to the urinary 
bladder. 

URETHRA, in Anatomy, a membranous 
canal or tube which serves as a passage for 
the discharge of the urine. 

U'RIC ACID, in Chemistry, an acid which 
Is always present in human urine and in 
the excrement of serpents. It constitutes 
one of the most common forms of urinary 
calculi, and of the red gravel or sand 
voided in certain morbid conditions of 
the urine. Uric acid consists of carbon, 
oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Urate 
of soda is the chief constituent of chalk 
stones, gouty concretions in the joints, 
and, when obtained pure, is a snow-white 
powder. 

URIM, a Hebrew word signifying a lumi¬ 
nary, and hence fire. It is connected in its 
signification with the word thummim; both 
together signify light and perfection. They 
were precious stones in the high priest’s 
vestments. [See Thummim.] 

URN ( urna: Lat.), in Antiquity, a kind 
of vase of a roundish form, but largest in 
the middle, destined to receive the ashes 
of the dead. The substances employed in 
the construction of these vessels are nu¬ 
merous. Amongst them are gold, bronze, 
glass, terra cotta, marble, and porphyry. 
Many urns have been discovered bearing 
inscriptions; others with the name only of 
the person whose remains they contained. 
The Romans derived the form of their urn 
from the Greeks, who did not, however, use 
urns as receptacles of the ashes of the dead. 
It was also customary with the Romans to 
put the names of those who were to engage 
at the public games into urns, taking them 
in the Order in which they were drawn out. 
Into such a vessel also they threw the 
tickets containing their votes at elections. 

-The urna was also a Roman measure 

for liquids, containing about three gallons 
and a half, wine measure. It was half the 
: amphora. 

I UR'SA (ursuSi the bear: Lat.), in Astro- 
j nomy, the name of two northern constella¬ 
tions ; namely, Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, 
j tlie Great and Little Bear. 

| UR'S HUE, a family of feres, comprising 

the bears, racoon, coatimondi, &c. 

UR'SULINES, or Nuns of St. Ursula, 

| a sisterhood founded by Angela of Brescia, 

I in 1537. At first they were not bound to 
I the rules of the monastic life, but devoted 
I themselves merely to the education of chil- 
! dren. They were formed into an order by 
Gregory XIII. in 1577. 

URTI'CA MARI'NA (Sea nettle: Lat.), an 
old name for the species of Medusa, or 
jelly-fish. 

U'SANCE (Fr.), in Commerce, the time 
fixed for the payment of bills of exchange, 
reckoned either from the day on which the 
bill is accepted, or from that of its date, 
varying in different countries, and thus 
called because wholly dependent on usage. 
The usance between London and Paris is 
one calendar month; hence a bill drawn 
there on the 2nd of July at one usance Is, 
on account of the tlu - ee days’ grace, payable 


in Paris on the 5th of August. A bill is 
often drawn for a period of two or more 

usances. 

USE, in Law, originally meant an equi¬ 
table right to take the rents and profit of 
land, the ownership of which was vested, 
through confidence, in another. The system 
of uses w T as introduced into this country 
from the civil law, about the time of Ed¬ 
ward III., by the ecclesiastics, who, to avoid 
the statute of mortmain, caused convey¬ 
ances to be made, not directly to them¬ 
selves, but to lay persons as trustees for 
them. This custom of conveying to trustees 
soon became very general. It was, how¬ 
ever, at once put an end to as far as it 
regarded religious houses, but has been 
since regulated, for other purposes, by ! 
statute 

USH'ER (huissier, a door keeper: Fr.), j 
one who has charge of a door.-The Gen¬ 

tleman Usher of the Black Bod is an officer 
of the order of the Garter, who is also an 
officer of the House of Lords, where lie is 
constantly in attendance. He is chief of 
the gentlemen ushers who wait in the sove¬ 
reign’s presence chamber. Usher also sig¬ 
nifies an assistant to aschoolmaster; where 
it seems to refer to his office of introducing 
the scholars to learning. 

USTULA'TION (ustulo, I scorch : Lat.), 
in Metallurgy, the operation of expelling 

one substance from another by heat.-In 

Old Pharmacy, the roasting or torrefying of 
moist substances over a gentle fire, so as to 
prepare them for pulverisation. 

USUOAP'TION ( usus, a making use of ; 
and captio, a taking : Lat.), in the Civil Law, j 
the acquisition of the title or right to pro¬ 
perty by the undisputed possession and en¬ 
joyment of it for a certain time prescribed 
by law. 

U'SUFRUCT (usus, a using; and fructus, 
proceeds : Lat.), in the Civil Law, the tem¬ 
porary use or enjoyment of lands or tene¬ 
ments ; or the right of receiving the fruits 
and profits of an inheritance, without di- ! 
minisliing its substance. It is alienable, 
and therefore differs from xise, which can 
be enjoyed only personally. 

U'SURY (usura: Lat), a compensation or 
reward for money lent. In this sense it is 
merely equivalent to interest. In the com¬ 
mon business of life, however, it rarely has i 
this signification, but is chiefly used in an 
odious sense, to express an exorbitant rate 
of interest. The Jews were not allowed 
to take interest from one another. The 
Romans allowed l per cent, per month, 1 
and punished excessive usury. The amount 
of legal interest in England was fixed by 
various statutes, and all contracts made 
for the payment of a higher interest were 
absolutely void. But the usury laws have 
recently been repealed, and now the rate of 
interest is a free matter of negotiation, 
except in the case of pawnbrokers. Where 
interest becomes payable, and no rate has 
been agreed on, 5 per cent, is the rate al¬ 
lowed by law. 

UTILITARIANISM (utilitas, usefulness: 
Lat.), is the creed which considers utility, 
or the greatest happiness principle, to be 
the foundation of morals. ‘It holds,’ says 





























?79 


ilttcrnri) Cmgttrjn 


[VALR 


Mr. J. 8. Mill, who has recently written a 
little book on the subject, ‘thatactions are 
right in proportion as they tend to promote 
happiness, wrong as they tend to produce 
the reverse of happiness.’ 

TTTO'PIA, the name of an imaginary 
island described in the celebrated work of 
Sir Thomas More (composed in Latin, and 
published at Louvain, in 1516),' in which 
was found the utmost perfection in laws, 
politics, and social arrangements. The 
word is now used to signify a state of ideal 
perfection. 

UTRICULA'RIA ( ntriculus , a dim. of liter, 
a bladder: Lat— from the little bladders 
which often accompany the leaves.and serve 
to float the plant), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Lentibulariacece. They have 


been called in English bladderwort, having 
small tuberous roots like the potato. 

U'YULA (a dim. of uva: Lat.), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a soft, round, spongy body suspended 
from the palate, hear the foramina of the 
nostrils, over the glottis. Its principal use 
is to break the force of the cold air, and 
prevent its entering too precipitately into 
the lungs. When enlarged or relaxed by 
disease, it is sometimes necessary to am¬ 
putate a part of it, on account of the 
obstacle it presents to deglutition, and 
the tickling cough and retching which it 
causes. 

U'YULA-SPOON, in Surgery, an instru¬ 
ment to be held just under the uvula for 
the purpose of conveying any substance 
into the cavity behind. 


Y 


V, the twenty-second letter of the alpha¬ 
bet, is a labial articulation, nearly allied to 
/, being formed by the same organs; but v 
is vocal and/is aspirate, and this consti¬ 
tutes the principal difference between 
them. Vlias one sound only, as in vain, 
very, vote, vanity. Though v and u have as 
distinct uses as any two letters in the al¬ 
phabet, they were formerly considered as 
one letter; it was only in the beginning of 
the sixteenth century that the peculiarity 
came to be marked. U has since been 
used as a vowel, and V as a consonant; but 
in some encyclopedias and dictionaries the 
absurd practice of arranging together the 
words which begin with these letters is 
still continued. As a numeral, V stands 
for 5 ; and with a dash over it, for 5000. 

VAOA'TION ( vacatio, a being free from 
duty: Lat.), in Law, the period between 
the end of one term and the beginning of 
another: and the same in the universities. 
It also denotes the time when a see or 
other spiritual dignity is vacant. During 
the vacation of a bishopric the dean 
and chapter are guardians of the spiritu¬ 
alities. 

VACCTNA'TION ( vaccinus, belonging to 
cows : Lat.), in Medicine, inoculation with 
the cow-pox, intended as a preservative 
against infection from the small-pox. [See 
Cow-Pox.] 

VACCIN'IUM (La,t), in Botany, a genus 
of plants, nat. ord. Vaccinacece. The species 
are shrubs or trees, as the bilberry, cran¬ 
berry, &c. 

VAC'UUM Lot.), in Physics, a space de¬ 
void of all matter; and generally conceived 
by the ancients to exist. The question 
whether there is such a thing as an abso¬ 
lute vacuum in nature or not, has given 
rise to disputes among philosophers in all 
ages. The Torricellian vacuum is produced 
by filling a tube, hermetically sealed at one 
end, with mercury, inverting it into a cup 
of the same fluid, and allowing it to descend 
till it is counterbalanced by the pressure 
of the atmosphere, as in the barometer in¬ 


vented by Torricelli. It Is the most pe>‘- 
feet vacuum with which we are acquainted. 
Until recently, modern philosophers be¬ 
lieved that the planets moved in an abso¬ 
lute vacuum, but recent observations lead 
them to doubt that this is the case; for, after 
the most careful allowance has been made 
for the attractions of the planets, and the 
effect of all other known causes of disturb¬ 
ance on Encke’s comet, the successive re¬ 
turn of that body to its perihelion are 
accomplished In periods that are constantly 
diminishing, which is just wliat would 
occur if it moved in a medium that offered 
a small resistance to its motion. It is, 
however, difficult to reconcile the existence 
of such a medium with the fact that, during 
the last 2000 years of observation, no ap¬ 
preciable effect has been produced on the 
motions of the larger planets. This, how¬ 
ever, proves that the resistance, if any, 
must be feeble,rather than that it does not 
exist. If there is, in reality, such a 
medium, a time must inevitably come when 
all the planets, satellites, and comets will 
be precipitated into the sun. 

VA'DE IN PACE (go in peace : Lat.), the 
words in which sentence of starvation to 
death, for certain offences, was pronounced 
in monasteries. The bones of persons who 
seem to have perished inthi3 way are occa¬ 
sionally found among the ruins of conven¬ 
tual buildings; but Fleury, in his ‘Eccle¬ 
siastical History,’ describes the vadeinpace 
as perpetual solitary imprisonment. 

VA'DE-MECUM (go with me: Lat.), a 
book or other article which a person con¬ 
stantly carries about with him. 

VA'GINATED ( vagina, a sheath : Lat.), in 
Botany, sheathed ; as a stem is sometimes 
invested by a leaf-stalk. 

VAGI'NOPEN'NOUS ( vagina, a sheath ; 
and penna, a wing : Lat.), having the wings 
covered with a hard case or sheath ; as va- 
ginopennous insects. 

VAIR ( varius , spotted: Lat.), in He¬ 
raldry, one of the furs employed in blazon¬ 
ing; supposed to represent the skin of a 





























CTjc $cfentfttc aitXf 


780 


valentine’s day] 


email squirrel.- Vairy is tlie pattern of 

vair, with more than two colours.-When 

the bases of figures having this fur in 
two colours are so ranged as to meet each 
other, it is called countervair. 

VALENTINE’S DAY, the 14th of Febru¬ 
ary, a festival in the calendar in honour of 
St. Valentine, who, according to the legend, 
suffered martyrdom in the reign of the 
emperor Claudius. There are no circum¬ 
stances in the life of the saint which seem 
likely to have given origin to the custom 
of choosing valentines, or writing to them, 
as is done about the time of his festival; 
and it is believed that the practice is one 
of olden date, substituted for a pagan ob¬ 
servance, by which boys and girls drew 
each other’s names on the 15th of February, 
a day sacred to Juno Februata. The refor¬ 
mers attacked the custom, and St. Francis 
de Sales introduced the drawing of lots for 
patron saints instead of it. 

VALE'RIAN, a plant of the genus Valeri¬ 
ana, of which there are many species. The 
root of the Valeriana officinalis has an acrid 
and somewhat bitter taste, and a strong dis¬ 
agreeable odour. It lias been long extolled 
as an efficacious remedy in epilepsy ; and is 
found serviceable in a variety of nervous 
complaints, but more especially in epilep¬ 
tic and hysterical affections. Cats are ex¬ 
ceedingly fond of the smell of its root, so 
that it is difficult to preserveit in a garden; 
they seem to be intoxicated by it; and rat¬ 
catchers employ its roots to draw the rats 
together, as they do oil of anise. 

VALHAL'LA, or WALHAL'LA (the hall 
of those who died by violence: Scand.), the 
palace of immortality in the Scandinavian 
mythology, inhabited by the souls of 
heroes slain in battle. The name is also 
given to an edifice in the Grecian style, 
erected by Ludwig I. of Bavaria, near Ra- 
tisbon on the Danube, for the purpose of 
assembling within its walls the busts and 
statues of all the great men that Germany 
has produced. 

VALO'REM, or AD VALOREM {Lot.), 
according to the value; as, an ad valorem 
duty. 

VAL'UE (Fr.; from valeo, I am worth: 
| Lat.), in Commerce, the price or worth of 
j any purchasable commodity. The intrinsic 
' value denotes the real and effective worth of 
a thing, and is used chiefly with regard to 
| | money, the nominal value of which may be 
raised or lowered at the pleasure of the 
sovereign ; but its real or intrinsic value, 

| depending wholly on its weight and purity, 

| is not at all affected. The value of commo- 
j dities is regulated principally by the com- 
i parative facility of their production, and 
j partly on the relation of the supply and de- 
J mand. But many other causes operate to 
j raise or depreciate the value of an article ; 

! as monopolies, fashion, new inventions, 
the opening of new markets, or the stop¬ 
page of commercial intercourse through 
war, &c. And, in fact, in all countries 
where merchants are possessed of large 
capitals, and where they are left to be 
guided in the use of them by their own dis¬ 
cretion and foresight, the prices of commo¬ 
dities will frequently be very much influ¬ 


enced, not merely by the actual occurrence 
of changes in the accustomed relation of 
the supply and demand, but by the mere 

anticipation of them.'- Value, in another 

sense, denotes those properties in a thing 
which render it useful or estimable, thus, 
for instance, the real value of iron is far 
greater than that of gold. 

VALVE ( yalva , the leaf of a door : Lat.), 
in Anatomy, a membranous partition with¬ 
in the cavity of certain vessels of the body, 
to afford a passage to fluids in one direc¬ 
tion, and prevent their reflux towards the 
place from whence they came.-In Bo¬ 

tany, a capsule or a calyx is said to be val¬ 
vular when the pieces composing it touch at 

their edges.-In Hydraulics, rneumatics, 

&c., is a kind of lid or cover of a tube or 
vessel so contrived as to open one way, 
but which, the more forcibly it is pressed 
the other way, shuts the closer on the aper¬ 
ture; so that it admits the entrance of a 
fluid into the tube or vessel, but prevents 
its return; or admits its escape, but pre¬ 
vents its re-entrance.- Safety-valve is a 

valve in a boiler that opens to allow the 
escape of steam at a pressure below the 
strength of the boiler, by which the boiler 
is prevented from bursting. It is loaded 
with a weight proportional to the area of its 
opening, and dependent on the highest pres¬ 
sure which is to be allowed in the boiler. 
It is sometimes made of a metal, which, if 
the valve by any accident adheres to its 
seat [see Steam-Engine], melts and allows 
the steam to escape, when the pressure, and 
therefore the temperature, rise beyond a 

certain point.- Valves, in Conchology, the 

principal pieces of which a sholl is com¬ 
posed. They give rise to the distinction 
into univalves, or such as have only one 
piece; bivalves, such as have two pieces; 
and multivalves, such as have three or more 
pieces. [See Conchology.] 

VAM'PIRE, a blood sucking spectre. A 
belief in the existence of such beings 
existed very commonly, in times of super¬ 
stition, among various nations of Europe. 
About a century ago, an epidemic dread of 
Vampires prevailed in Hungary to such an 
extent as to afford one of the most extra¬ 
ordinary examples of-credulity and syste¬ 
matic self-delusion on record.-In Zoo¬ 

logy, a species of large bat, the Vampyrus 
Spectrum, a native of South America. It 
has been asserted that it sucks the blood of 
animals so as to cause their death ; but the 
truth, says Cuvier, appears to be, that it in¬ 
flicts only small wounds, which may proba¬ 
bly become inflammatory and gangrenous 
from the influence of the climate. Another 
South American blood-sucking bat, a spe¬ 
cies of Fesmodus, is much dreaded by 
horses. 

VAM'PLET, in Archaeology, a piece of 
steel, formed like a funnel, which was 
placed on tilting spears just before the hand 
to secure it, and might be taken off at plea¬ 
sure. 

VANA'DIUM, a metal found in the iron 
ore of Taberg in Sweden, and in lead ore 
from Wanlockhead in Scotland. It is white, 
with a metallic lustre, brittle, and diflicult 
to be reduced; is not oxidized by air or 






















781 


Etterarg Cvca^urg. 


water ; is not attacked by sulphuric, hydro¬ 
chloric or hydrofluoric acid ; but dissolves 
in nitric, and nitro-hydrochloricacid, yield¬ 
ing with them solutions of a dark blue 
colour. Its equivalent is 68’6. The tritoxide 
of vanadium possesses acid properties and 
is known as vanadic acid. 

VAN'DALS, a ferocious race, who are be¬ 
lieved to have come originally from Scan¬ 
dinavia. They seem to have differed only 
in name from the Goths, whose language 
they spoke. They settled in the north of 
Germany, between the Elbe and the Vistula. 
During the 4th and 5th centuries they be¬ 
came very powerful; and, under Genseric, 
their king, overran Spain, Gaul, and Italy. 
They subsequently established themselves 
in Africa; but were eventually subdued by 
Belisarius, the celebrated Roman general 
in the reign of Justinian, w r ho took their 
king Gelimer, prisoner, and carried him to 
Constantinople in triumph. 

VANE ( vaene: Belg.), or WEATH'ER- 
COCK a light body, generally in the form 
of a thin plate, which is placed on a spindle 
at the top of a building, and by turning 
with the wind, points to the part from 
which it blows.-In ships, apiece of bunt¬ 

ing used for the same purpose. 

VANIL'LA. This delightful aromatic, so 
much employed to flavour chocolate and 
confectionary, is the dried fruit of orchi¬ 
daceous plants (Vanilla plant folia , and other 
species of the genus), growing in the West 
Indies, and thence introduced into Java 
and other hot countries. The fruit is from 
six to ten inches long, and from a quarter 
to half an inch broad. It is of a dark brown 
colour. After being carefully dried (by 
which operation it is reduced to about one 
hundredth part of its original weight) it is 
packed in air-tight metal cases for exporta¬ 
tion. In the West Indies the flower is fer¬ 
tilized by means of insects, but elsewhere 
artificial fertilization must be resorted to. 

VA'POUR (vapor: Lat.). When liquids 
and some solids are heated, they are chang¬ 
ed into elastic fluids, called vapours. Va¬ 
pours differ from gases or permanently 
elastic fluids, in not retaining their aeriform 
state at the temperature of the atmosphere. 
A liquid iu the state of vapour is invisi¬ 
ble. When cooled, it assumes the liquid 
state, as mist or fog, and becomes visible. 
Different substances are changed into va¬ 
pours,withvery different degrees of facility. 
Fluids are generally more volatile than 
solids, but there are exceptions; camphor 
and some other solids evaporate at com¬ 
mon temperatures; the fixed oils, sulphuric 
acid, &c., require a high temperature for 
evaporation ; arsenic and sal ammoniac eva¬ 
porate without previously assuming the li¬ 
quid form. Vapours always occupy a greater 
space than the substances whence they are 
produced ; a cubic inch of water evaporated 
at an atmospheric pressure of thirty inches 
of mercury, produces nearly 1700 cubic 
inches of vapour. Vapours derived from 
different substances vary in density. Con¬ 
sidering the density of atmospheric air as 
1000, that of aqueous vapour at the level of 
the sea, under the ordinary pressure of the 
atmosphere, will be represented by 625; 


[varicella 


that of alcohol vapour by 1613; and that 
of ether by 2586. Hence a vapour such as 
ether, boiling at a lower temperature than 
water, would not be an economical substi¬ 
tute for water in the boiler of a steam 
engine; since a larger quantity must be 
evaporated to All the same space of cylin¬ 
der, and therefore to produce the same 
amount of motion;—a cubic inch of ether 
produces only 443 cubic inches of vapour, 
while a cubic inch of water produces 1696. 
All pure vapours, for every increase of 
temperature equal to one degree Fahr. in¬ 
crease by the ^i^th of bulk tliey 0CCU P>’» 

at 32° Fahr. The greater the pressure under 
which vapour is produced, the higher the 
temperature required to produce it; and 
this pressure may be derived, as in the 
steam boiler, from the pressure of the va¬ 
pour itself, or the surface of the fluid from 
which it has risen. At a pressure of only 
0'068 inches of mercury, water evaporates 
at a temperature of 2° ; at a pressure of 
0'2 inches, it evaporates at a temperature 
of 32°; at a pressure of P98 inches, it eva¬ 
porates at a temperature of 102°; at a pres¬ 
sure of 30 inches, it evaporates at a tem¬ 
perature of 212°, &c. Equal weights of a j 
given vapour at any temperature con¬ 
tain equal quantities of heat, and are ca¬ 
pable of producing the same mechanical 
effect. 

VA'POUR BATH, a contrivance for pro¬ 
ducing a profuse perspiration by exposing j 
the body to the steam of hot water; the ef¬ 
fect being usually increased by friction. ] 
The general result of this process is to relax 
the body, remove obstructions of the skiu, 
alleviate pain and spasmodic contractions, i 
and promote sleep. In the vapour bath, the j 
stimulant power of heat is modified and 
tempered by the moisture diffused through j 
the air. 

VA'RIABLE QUANTITIES ( variabilis, 
changeable : Lat), in Geometry and Analy¬ 
tics, such as are continually either increas¬ 
ing or diminishing, according to a certain 
law; in opposition to those which are con¬ 
stant and unchangeable. 

VARIATION (variatio: Lat.), in Geo¬ 
graphy aud Navigation, a deviation of the 
inagnetical needle from the true north 
point; called also declination , which are de¬ 
pendent on the earth’s motion, and a sub¬ 
ordinate electrical action.-In Grammar, 

change in the termination of nouns and ad¬ 
jectives, constituting what is called case, 

number, and gender.- Variation, in Music, 

the different manner of playing or singing 
the same air or tune, by subdividing the 
notes into several others of less value, or 
by adding grace, &c.; yet so that the air 
Itself may be discovered through all its em¬ 
bellishments.- Variation of the moon, in 

Astronomy, an inequality in the moon’s 
motion, depending on her angular distance 
from the sun. It is due to that part of the 
sun’s disturbing force which is at right an¬ 
gles to the radius vectors, and which acce¬ 
lerates the moon, from quadratures to 
syzygies; but retards it from syzygies to 
quadratives. It was not observed by the 
ancient astronomers. 

VARIOEL'LA ( varicula, the dim. of variXt 














varicose] 


&1)£ Jrctntttftc anti 


782 


a dilated vein: Lat.), in Medicine, tlie Chick¬ 
en-pox. 

VA'RICOSE ( varicosus: Lat.), in Medicine, 
an epithet applied to veins of the body that 
are permanently distended. 

VA'RICUS (Lat.), in Conchology, ridges 
on the outside of a shell which indicate the 
different stages of growth. 

VAR'IET Y (varietas: Lat.), in Natural His¬ 
tory, a technical term applied to a race of 
I animals and plants that differ from the type 
! by constant characters. Intermediate links 
| connect the aberrant forms with the normal 
ones, otherwise the race would take rank as 
a distinct species. 

VAR I'OL A ( vario , I variegate: Lat.). 
[See Ssiali.-pox,] 

VARI'OLITE (vario, I variegate : Lat .; 
and lithos, a stone: Gr.), in Mineralogy, a 
kind of porphyritic rock, in which the im¬ 
bedded substances are imperfectly crystal¬ 
lized, or are rounded, giving the stone a 
spotted appearance. It is an aggregate of 
felspar and quartz. 

VARIO'RUM EDITIONS (variorum, of 
different persons : Lat.), in Literature, edi¬ 
tions of the Greek and Roman classics, in 
which the notes of different commentators 
are inserted. 

VA'RIX (Lat.), in Medicine, an uneven 
swelling or dilatation of a vein. 

VAR'NISR (vernis: Fr.), a fluid which, 
when spread thinly over a solid surface, 
forms a coating impervious to air and 
moisture ; and generally gives it a smooth 
and polished appearance. Varnishes are 
formed by dissolving substances, which are 
almost always resinous, in rectified alcohol, 
or in fixed or volatile oils ; thus producing 
spirit varnishes, or oil varnishes. The re¬ 
sins most generally used are Turpentine, 
Copal, Lac, Mastic, Elemi, Sandarach, Am¬ 
ber, Benzoin, Anime, Gamboge, Dragon’s 
blood, Caoutchouc, and Asphaltum. 

VARRO'NIAN SATIRE, a species of sa¬ 
tire so called from the learned Varro, who 
first composed it. The style was free and 
unconflned, containing both prose and 
verse, intermixed according to the fancy 
of the writer. 

VAS'OUEvAR (vasculum, a small vessel: 
Lat.), pertaining to the vessels of animal 

or vegetable bodies.- Vascular System, in 

Botany, that portion of the tissue of plants 
which forms canals serving for the convey¬ 
ance of fluid and air. 

VASE (vasum: Lat.), in Architecture, an 
ornament placed on cornices, socles, or 
pediments, representing such vessels as 
the ancients used in sacrifices, &c. The 
Grecian artists gave to every vase the shape 
best adapted to its use, and most agreeable 
to the eye. A great number of these vessels 
have been preserved to the present day, 
and offer to artists models of the most 
beautiful forms. In Etruria and other parts 
of Italy there have been exhumed many 
vases which had been in household use. 
These were distinguished according to 
their employments by Greek names ; thus, 
vases for holding wine or oil were called 
Amphora, Felice, and Stamnos; those for 
water with three handles, Hydria and Calpis; 
those used for mixing wine at a banquet. 


Crater, Celehe, and Oxybaphon ; those for 
pouring, Oenochoe, Olpe, Lecyihus, Proclius ; 
those for drinking, Cantharus, Cyathus, 
Cylix, Phiala, Scyphos, Uolkion, Ceras, and 
Bliyton; those for unguents, Alabastra. 
Many of these vases are figured in Dennis’s 

Etruria.-Among florists, the calyx of a 

plant, as the tulip, is called a vase. 

VA'STUS (large : Lat.), in Anatomy, the 
name of two muscles ; namely, the vastus 
externus and internus, situated on the outer 
and inner side of the thigh. 

VAT'ICAN, a magnificent palace of mo¬ 
dern Rome, built upon the Vatican hill, 
from which it derives its name. A building 
on this site was inhabited by Charlemagne 
in 800. The present pile has been irregu¬ 
larly enlarged, by a long series of popes. 
It adjoins the church of St. Peter, and is of 
vast extent, the number of rooms being at 
least 4,422. It contains a magnificent col¬ 
lection of antiquities, paintings, frescoes, 
&c., with a noble library, exceedingly rich 
in manuscripts. The museum of statuary 
alone is about a mile in length. 

VAU'DOIS (Waldenses: Mod. Lat.), the in¬ 
habitants of certain valleys on the south 
side of the Alps, from which they derive 
th elr name, and who are to be distinguished 
from those Waldenses who were the fol¬ 
lowers of Peter Waldo. The Vaudois main¬ 
tained the purity of their doctrines many 
ages before the Reformation; and, on ac¬ 
count of it, suffered various persecutions ; 
being at one time expelled from their pos¬ 
sessions, which, however, they afterwards 
recovered by force. Their number is, at 
present, about 30,000. 

VAULT (volta: Ital.), in Architecture, 
an arched roof, of which the materials 
support and sustain each other ; it may be 
circular, elliptical, &c. When its section 
rises higher than a semicircle, a vault is 
surmounted; when not so high it is sur- 
based. 

VAV'ASOR, an ancient title of nobility 
in England ; said by Camden to be next be¬ 
low a baron. It was used in France to 
signify those who hold immediately under 
the higher nobility. In the Frenfli ro¬ 
mances it meant a poor gentleman. 

VECTOR (a carrier: Lat.), or radius 
vector, in Astronomy, a straight line which 
is supposed to be drawn from the centre of 

a planet to the centre of the sun.-In 

Geometry, a straight line drawn from the 
focus of a conic section to any point of the 
curve. 

VE'DAS, the sacred writings of the Hin¬ 
doos, of great antiquity but uncertain date, 
believed by the Brahmins to have been 
revealed by Brahma. They are in Sanscrit, 
and, though forming one work, they are 
divided into four parts, viz. Rig Veda, 
Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atliarvana 
Veda. They are regarded as containing 
the true knowledge of God, of his religion, 
and his worship. ‘ Each Veda consists of 
two parts —the Mantras, consisting of 
prayers, hymns, and invocations; and the 
Bralnnanas, comprising precepts which in¬ 
culcate religious duties, maxims explaining 
these precepts, and theological arguments. 
They are undoubtedly the most ancient 

























783 


Ettcrari) Cr?a£tirg. 


[•VELLUM 


compositions In the whole range of Sanscrit 
literature. Their obscurity, and the obso¬ 
lete dialect in which they are written, are 
such as to render the reading of them diffi- 
cult even to a Brahmin. The word Vedanta 
signiiles view or object of tlieVedas. Under 
this name there is an ancient work in Sans¬ 
crit, said to have been composed 2,000 years 
. ago, and to contain an abstract or quintes¬ 
sence of all the Vedas. The great authority 
for its doctrine is the collection of sutras or 
aphorisms.’ (Adelung.) 

VEDET'TE (Fr.), in Military Affairs, a 
sentinel on horseback, detached from the 
main body of the army to discover and give 
i notice of the enemy’s movements. 

I VE'GA, a star of the first magnitude in the 
| constellation of the Lyre, the a Lyra, of 
astronomers. 

VEG'ETABLE ( vegeto , I invigorate : Lat.') 
[See Botany]. It has been a question much 
discussed among philosophers in what way 
plants were originally diffused over the 
surface of the earth, and three different 
hypotheses have been invented. Linnasus 
supposed a single primitive centre of vege¬ 
tation, whence all species of plants have 
been gradually dispersed over the globe by 
winds, rivers, currents, animals, &c. A 
second hypothesis is, that each species of 
plants originated in a primitive centre, of 
which there were several in different pacts 
of the globe, each being the seat of a par¬ 
ticular number of species. The third hypo¬ 
thesis is, that, wherever a suitable climate 
existed, there the vegetable tribes sprang 
up, and that plants of the same species 
were, from the first, spread over different 
regions.——The vegetable acids are those 
acids which are derived from vegetable 
matters. They are decomposed by a red 
heat, and nearly all by concentrated hot 
nitric acid, by which they are converted 
into carbonic acid and water; but they are 
less liable to spontaneous decomposition 
than other substances obtained from plants. 
The most important are the acetic acid, or 
vinegar, the oxalic, tartaric, citric, malic, 

benzoic, and gallic.- Vegetable alkalies 

comprehend those proximate principles of 
vegetables, which are possessed of alkaline 
properties. [See Alkaloids.]— —Vegetable 
1 oils are divided into fixed and volatile oils, 
the former of which impart a permanent 
stain to paper; while the latter, owing to 
their volatility, produce a stain which dis¬ 
appears by gentle heat. Olive oil and oil 
of mint are examples of the two. 

VE'GETABLE MAR'BOW, the fruit of a 
plant of the gourd kind, the Oucurbita ovi- 
fera of botanists, originally growing in 
Persia, and now cultivated in this and 
other northern countries. Its flesh is very 
tender, soft, and of a buttery quality. 

VE'HMIC COURTS (fehm: Ger.), Crimi¬ 
nal Courts established in Germany during 
the middle ages, called also free courts ; and 
seemingly derived from those ancient tri¬ 
bunals of the German tribes which were 
! held in the open air. In the 13th century, 
they became formidable, from being then 
! modelled on a system of secret organiza¬ 
tion ; it is said that 100,000 persons were at 
one time affiliated to the society. They | 


were bound to attend the secret meetings 
of the courts when summoned; and to exe¬ 
cute their decrees, if necessary, by taking 
the life of persons condemned. Sometimes 
these courts had the effect of repressing 
the lawless violence of the nobility, but 
they were also liable to be perverted to the 
gratification of private malice. Various I 
leagues were entered into in the 15th cen¬ 
tury to put them down, and this was ulti¬ 
mately effected by the introduction of a 
better system of judicature and police in the 
various states. 

VEIN (vena: Lat.), in Anatomy, a vessel 
which receives the blood brought by the 
arteries, and carries it back to the heart. 
Veins are continuations of the extreme 
capillary parts of the arteries, reflected 
back toward the heart. Uniting their chan- J 
nels, as they approach the heart, all the 
veins ultimately form three trunks: the j 
vena cava descendens, which brings the : 
blood from all the parts above the heart; 
the vena cava ascendens, which brings the 
blood from all the parts below the heart; | 
and the venaporta, or great trunk, which is j 
formed by a union of the veins belonging to ; 
the abdominal organs and the organs of di¬ 
gestion, and which, ramifying like an artery 
in the substance of the liver, transmits its 
blood by capillaries to the hepatic veins. 

-In Botany, the veins of plants are an 

assemblage of tubes, through which the 
sap is transmitted along the leaves formed 
of vascular tissue. The term is more pro¬ 
perly applied to the finer and more complex 
ramifications, which interbranch with each [ 
other like net work; the larger and more 
direct assemblages of vessels being called 

ribs and nerves. - Vein, among miners, a 

space containing ores, spar, clay, &c.; when 
it bears ore, it is called a quick vein, when I 
no ore, a dead vein. Metalliferous veins j 
have been traced in the earth for miles; j 
and many species of stones are also often 
found in veins. 

VEI/ITES (Lat.), in Antiquity, light j 
armed infantry in the Roman legion, called j 
also Procubitores, because employed on out- j 
post duty when the army was before an 
enemy. They seem not to have been divided 
into distinct bodies or companies, but to 
have hovered loosely in front of the army. 
They were sometimes disposed before the [ 
front of the hastati; were sometimes dis¬ 
persed up and down among the void spaces, 
and sometimes were placed in two bodies 
in the wings. The Vetites generally began 
the combat, skirmishing in flying parties 
with the first troops of the enemy, and, | 
when repulsed, fell back by tho flanks of 
the army, or rallied again in the rear. 
Their arms were bows, slings, javelins, a 
light wooden buckler covered with leather, 
and a head-piece. 

VEL'LUM ( velin: Fr.), a fine kind of 
parchment made of calves’ skin, rendered 
particularly clear and white. Vellum was 
used for xvriting in the time of Euinenes, 
king of Pergamus. He was anxious to col¬ 
lect a library which should recall that of 
Alexandria; but, being prevented by the 
jealousy of the Ptolemies from obtaining a 
sufficient quantity of papyrus, had recourso 
































velocipede] K\)t Scientific antr 784 


to parchment as a substitute. [See PARCH¬ 
MENT.] 

VELO'CIPEDE ( velox, swift; and pcs, a 
foot: Lat.), a vehicle consisting of a piece 
of wood about five feet long, and half a 
foot wide, resting on two wheels, one be¬ 
hind the other. On this the rider sits, as 
on horseback, so that his feet touch the 
ground; while he propels the machine by 
pressing his feet slightly against the latter, 
and keeps his balance in the same way. 
In front of the saddle is a rest for the arms ; 
and the fore wheel may be turned at plea¬ 
sure, so as to enable the rider to the ma¬ 
chine to give any direction he pleases. 

YELO'CITY ( velocitas: Lat.), the rapidity 
with which a body moves, measured by the 
space traversed in a given time. Velocity 
is uniform when it passes through equal 
spaces in equal times; otherwise it is accele¬ 
rated or retarded. It is uniformly accelerated 
or retarded, when the increments or decre¬ 
ments of motion are equal in equal times. 
Velocity is absolute or relative; absolute 
when a body moves over a certain space in 
a certain time ; relative when it has refer¬ 
ence to that of another moving body. 

VE'NA CA'YA (the hollow vein: Lat.). 
[See Vein.] 

VE'NA POR'TA, or VE'NA PORTA'RUM 
(the vein of the passages : Lat.), produced 
by the union of the veins of the stomach, 
intestines, spleen, and pancreas, and rami¬ 
fied in the liver. [See Vein.] 

VENEER'ING, the art of placing a thin 
piece of a more valuable wood on another 
which is less expensive in the construction 
of articles of furniture. Thus mahogany 
on oak, or deal, or Spanish mahogany on an 
inferior kind. 

VE'NIAL SIN( venialis , pardonable: Lat.), 
in Roman Catholic theology, a sin which 
weakens sanctifying grace, but does not 
take it away ; and which is not necessarily 
to be mentioned in confession. The re¬ 
formed churches altogether reject the dis¬ 
tinction between mortal and venial sins. 

VEN'TIDUCT ( ventus, the wind; and duc¬ 
tus, a conducting: IM.), in Building a 
passage for wind or air; a subterraneous 
passage or spiracle for ventilating apart¬ 
ments. 

VENTILA'TION ( vcntilatio: Lat.), the 
act of expelling impure air, and of dissipat¬ 
ing noxious vapours. Eew persons are 
aware how very necessary a thorough venti¬ 
lation is to the preservation of health. We 
can live without food for a considerable 
time; but keep us without air for a very few 
minutes, and we cease to exist. 11 is not, how¬ 
ever, enough that we have air; we must have 
fresh air; for the principal by which life is 
supported is taken from the air during the 
act of breathing. One-fifth only of the 
atmosphereis capable of supporting life. By 
the care we take to shut out the external air 
from our houses, we prevent the escape of 
the deteriorated air, and condemn ourselves 
to breathe, again and again, the same con¬ 
taminated, unrefreshing atmosphere. Who, 
that has ever felt the invigorating effects of 
the morning air, can wonder at the lassi¬ 
tude and disease that follow the continued 
breathing of the pestiferous atmosphere of 


crowded or ill-ventilated apartments I It 
is only necessary to observe the counte¬ 
nances of those who inhabit close rooms 
and houses, the squalid hue of their skins, 
their sunken eyes, and their languid move¬ 
ments, to be sensible of the bad effects of 
shutting out the external air. It is found 
that an adult spoils four cubic feet of at¬ 
mospheric air per minute, by respiration ^ 
and about three and a half cubic feet, by 
exhalations from the surface of the body. 
Hence the air of a close apartment must 
very soon be seriously vitiated by a number 
of human beings; particularly if there are 
also artificial lights, which, by combustion, 
aid in the mischievous effect produced on 
the atmosphere. Chemistry has furnished 
the means of purifying the air of chambers 
in which persons have been confined with 
contagious diseases; or in which bad air is 
generated in other ways, so as to destroy 
the noxious or offensive power of the ef¬ 
fluvia generated in such situations; and 
thus of preventing its injurious influence. 
But no fumigation will be of any avail 
in purifying stagnant air, or air that has 
been breathed till it has been deprived 
of its oxygen ; such air must be driven 
out, when its place should be immediately 
supplied with fresh pure atmosphere. The 
readiest means of changing the air of an 
apartment is by lighting a fire in it, and 
then throwing open the doors and windows; 
this will set the air in motion, by establish¬ 
ing a current up the chimney. 

VEN'TRICLES ( ventriculus, the dim. of 
venter, the belly: Lat.), in Anatomy, a word 
applied to certain small cavities in the 
body; as, the two cavities of the heart 
which propel the blood into the arteries to 
the cavities in different parts of the brain, 
&c. 

VENTRIL'OQUISM (.venter, the belly; 
and loquor, I speak: Lat.), the art of 
speaking in such a way, that the voice ap¬ 
pears to proceed from different places, 
though the utterer does not change his 
position, and in many instances does not 
appear to speak. It has been supposed that 
sounds were produced by the ventriloquist 
independently of the labial and lingual 
organs; but it is certain that practice only 
is necessary to carry this act of illusion to 
a high degree of perfection, and that the 
sound is produced as usual, but with a less 
opened mouth. The art of the ventriloquist 
consists merely in this: after drawing a 
long breath, he breathes it out slowly and 
gradually, dexterously dividing the air, and 
diminishing the sound of the voice by the 
muscles of the larynx and the palate, mov¬ 
ing the lips as little as possible ; moreover 
he studies carefully, and thoroughly under¬ 
stands the modifications produced on sound 
by difference of distance, of position, and 
other circumstances. 

VEN'UE ( vicinia, neighbourhood : Lat — 
the place whence the jury are to be taken), 
in Law, the place where an action is laid, 
that is, the county in which the cause will 
be tried. In certain cases the court has 
power to change the venue. 

VENUS (Lat.), in Astronomy, a planet of 
great splendour, known likewise by the 









<S5 


mterarj) 


names of the morning and evening star. She 
is a constant attendant on the sun; and is 
i never seen in the eastern quarter of the 
heavens when that luminary is in the 
i western quarter. Venus is sixty-eight 
millions of miles distant from the sun ; her 
I sidereal revolution is performed in a little 
! more than 2247 mean solar days. At the 
beginning of this century the inclination 
| of her orbit to the ecliptic was 3°, 23' 28'6", 

| but it is subject to a slight annual decrease. 

| Her diameter is 7,700 English miles; her 
volume therefore is 0-927 of that of the 
earth. Her density is rather more than 
four-fifths that of the earth. She is sup¬ 
posed to revolve on her axis in about 23h. 
21' 7'2". Venus has been sometimes ob 
served moving across the sun’s disc in the 
form of a black spot; this is called the 
transit of Venus.' This happened but twice 
during the last century, viz. in 1761 and 
1769, and no other will occur till the year 
1874. From the transit of Venus in 1761 
was deduced the sun’s parallax ; and of 
course his distance from the earth was as¬ 
certained with very great accuracy. This 
being obtained, the distances of the other 
planets were easily found by observation 

and calculation.- Venijs, in Malacology, 

a genus of conchiferous mollusca, of which 
there are nearly 200 living species. The 
l wampum of the North American Indians 
consisted of broken shells of Venus mer- 
cenaria strung on strips of leather, and then 
used as money. 

VENUS DE MED'ICI, a celebrated an¬ 
cient statue preserved at Florence. 

VERAN'DAH, a term of eastern origin 
applied to alight gallery external to ahouse, 
supported on pillars, and often inclosed in 
front with lattice work. In England veran¬ 
dahs are frequently met in villas and cot¬ 
tage residences, attached to sitting-rooms 
on the ground-floor, where they afford a 
good substitute for a colonnade. 

VERB ( verbum , literally, a word: Lat.), 
in Grammar, a part of speech, consisting of 
an attribute affirmed. Verbs are divided 
into transitive, intransitive, and passive. A 
verb substantive expresses mere affirma¬ 
tion, without reference to any property, or 
attribute. 

VER'BAL ( verbalis, pertaining to verbs : 
Lat.), in Grammar, a word derived from a 
verb. In English, averbal is known by the 
termination ion, ive; derivedfrom the Latin. 

VERBA'TIM ET LITERATIM [Lat.), 
word for wmrd, letter for letter. 

VERBE'NA, in Botany, a genus of plants, 
nat. ord. verbenacece. Their English name 
is Vervain. 

VERDE ANTIQUE ( vert antique, antique 
green : Fr.), in Mineralogy, a mottled ag¬ 
gregate of marble and serpentine. It takes 
a fine polish, and is used for various orna¬ 
mental purposes. 

VER'DICT (veredictwn, truly said : Lat.), 
in Law, the answer of a jury given to the 
court concerning any matter of fact in any 
case, civil or criminal, committed to their 
trial and examination. A special verdict i9 
one not delivered generally in favour of 
either plaintiff or defendant, but stating 
the facts; and referring the law arising from 


[vermillion 


them to the-judgment of the court, which, 
in criminal cases, will say whether or not 
there is a crime in law. 

VER'DIGRIS ( vert-de-gris, the hoary 
green: Fr.), a green pigment, formerly 
prepared in the south of France by cover¬ 
ing copper plates with the refuse of the 
grapes from which wine had been made. 
It is manufactured in this country on a 
large scale by alternating copper plates 
and woollen cloths previously soaked in 
pyroligneous acid. It is a mixture of sub¬ 
acetates of copper. 

VER'DITER (verd de terre, earth green: 
Fr.), a blue pigment, obtained by adding 
chalk or whiting to a solution of copper in 
nitric acid. It is a hydrated percarbonate 
of copper. 

VERGET'TE (a small rod : Fr.), in Heral¬ 
dry, a pallet or small pale; hence, a shield 
divided by such pallets is termed vergette. 

VER'JUICE (verg us: Fr.; from verisjns, 
the juice of.the productions of spring: 
Lat.), a kind of harsh vinegar made of the 
expressed juice of the wild apple or crab, j 
which has undergone the vinous fermenta¬ 
tion. The French give this name to the 
sour liquor obtained'from unripe grapes. 

VER'MES (Lat.), in Natural History, the j 
last and lowest class in the Linnman sys- } 
tern. Linnteus comprehends in this class ! 
all those living beings which he could not 
include among the vertebrata or the in- 
secta. The term was limited by Cuvier to 
what are now known as annelides and ento- 
zoa, and is at present obsolete. 

VERMICEL'LI ( Ital.; from vermiculus, 
a little worm : Lat.) A paste made of 
wheat-flour in the shape of worm-like cy¬ 
linders of various diameters, the smallest 
of threadlike being termed Vermicelli, and 
the larger Macaroni. It is manufactured by 
forcing the paste through small apertures in 
an iron plate, by means of a powerful screw 
press. It is also cut into ribands and 
other forms, and is then called Italian paste. 

VERMIC'ULAR ( vermiculus, a little 
worm : Lat.), resembling the tortuous mo¬ 
tion of a worm ; as the vermicular motion 
of the intestines, called also peristaltic .—— 
In Sculpture, vermicular or vermiculated 
work ; a sort of ornament in Mosaic pave¬ 
ments, winding and representing the 
tracks of worms. 

VER'MIFORM ( vermis, a worm; and 
forma, a form: Lat.), in Anatomy, a term 
applied to various parts in the human body, 
bearing some resemblance to worms; as, 
the vermiform process of the cerebellum. 

VER'MIFUGE ( vermis, a worm ; and fugo, 

I put to flight: Lat.), an anthelmintic medi¬ 
cine ; or a substance that destroys or expels 
worms from animal bodies. 

VERMIL'LION ( vermilion: Fr.), a red 
pigment, of a hue between scarlet and 
crimson. There are two kinds of vermillion; 
the one natural or native, and the other 
common or factitious. Native vermillion is 
found in several quicksilver mines, in the 
form of a ruddy sand, which only requires 
to be purified. Common vermillion is made 
of the red sulphuret of mercury; or, as it 
was formerly called, factitious cinnabar, 
reduced to a fine powder, 

3 B 






















Efie <g>rtfnttffc atrtf 


7SC 



VER'NATION ( verno , I bloom : Lat.), the 
mode in which the nascent leaves are ar¬ 
ranged in a leaf bud. 

VER'NIER, an ingenious contrivance, 
invented by Peter Vernier, for measur¬ 
ing intervals between the divisions of 
graduated scales, and described by him in 
1631. It consists of a small movobie scale, 
sliding along a graduated scale or arc; and 
having in a given space a number of divi¬ 
sions greater or less by unity than thenum- 
ber on the same space of the scale or arc. 
If an inch of the scale or graduated arc is 
divided into tenths, and ten divisions of 
the vernier are made equal to an inch and a 
tenth, each division of the vernier will be 
equal to one-tenth and one-hundredth of an 
inch ; and any number of divisions of the 
vernier, equal to a given space to be mea¬ 
sured, will be just so many tenths and so 
many hundredths of an inch; and thus 
hundredths can be measured by means of a 
scale divided only into tenths. Itwould be 
equally easy to measure thousandths, &c. 

A r ER01S'ICA, in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. Scrophidanaceee, contain¬ 
ing the speedwell and other wild British 
plants, as well as some showy garden 
flowers. 

VER'SATILE (versatilis; from verso, I 
turn often : Lot.), an epithet for that qua¬ 
lity which enables persons to turn readily 

from one thing to another.-In Botany, a 

versatile anther, is one Used by the middle 
on the point of the filament, and so poised 
as to be easily moved. 

VERSE ( versus: Lat.), in Poetry, aline, 
or a part of the composition which con¬ 
tains all the cadences, &c., found in it. The 
harmony of every verse is complete in it¬ 
self. Verses are made up of feet, the num¬ 
ber and species of which constitute the 
character of the verse, as hexameter, penta¬ 
meter, &c. In the Greek and Roman versi¬ 
fication, a foot w r as determined by its quan¬ 
tity; in the English, quantity is supplied 
by accent .—Blank-verse, poetry in which 

the lines do not end in rhymes.- Ileroic- 

verse that appropriated to epic or heroic 
poetry ; in Greek and Latin, the hexameter; 
in English, &c., the iambic of ten syllables, 
either with or without the additional short 
syllable; in French, the iambic of twelve 
syllables.- Versification is the art of ad¬ 

justing the syllables, and forming them 
into harmonious measure. [See Poetry.] 

VERST, a Russian measure of length, 
containing 3,500 feet; about three quarters 
of an English mile. 

VERT(green: Fr.), in Heraldry, the colour 
of green on coats of arms, represented in 
engravings by lines drawn from the dexter 
chief to the sinister base. 

VER'TEBILE {Lat.; from verto, I turn 
around: Lat.), in Anatomy, the column of 
bones in the middle line of the bodies of 
the higher animals, through which the 
spinal cord passes, and on which the seve¬ 
ral motions of the trunk are effected. These 
bones differ considerably in number in the 
different animals, but in man this column 
consists of 33 bones.of which 7 called cervical 
are in the neck, 12 called dorsal in the back, 
and 6 called lumbar at tho loins. Of the 


remainder 5 are called sacral and the low¬ 
est 4 coccygeal. The cervical vertebra are 
smaller than those in tho dorsal and lum¬ 
bar regions; the first one, or that which 
supports the skull, is called the atlas, and 
the next one is called the axis. The dorsal 
vertebrae decrease in size from the first 
to the fourth or fifth, and then gradually 
increase up to the twelfth, which is the 
largest. To these vertebra are attached the 
ribs, which form a bony cage protecting 
the heart and the great trunks of the vascu¬ 
lar system. The lumbar vertebra are larger 
than the dorsal. The sacral vertebra are 
only separate in the young subject; in tho 
adult they are soldered together, and form 
but one bone; and the four bones of tho 
coccyx are also soldered together, and con¬ 
stitute the rudiment of a tail, which in 
many mammalia is largely developed and 
consists of numerous vertebra. The ver- 1 
tebra lock into each other by processes of 
bone, and between every two there is inter- 
posedan elastic cushion of cartilage, which 
facilitates the motion of the whole. The 
vertebra undergo several modifications 
according to the position; but the elements 
of a typical vertebra consist of a bony 
I centrum, around which are disposed four 
, channels formed by apophyses, or processes 
which have received distinctive names; 

! thus those that arise from the posterior 
part and enclose the spinal cord are called 
neurapophyses. These arch over and ter¬ 
minate in the neural spine. From each side 
| of the centrum project two transverse pro¬ 
cesses or parapophyses, to which are some¬ 
times attached ribs or pleurapopliyses ; 
and at the distal extremities of the ribs are 
I the hcemapophyses, which are connected 
with the sternum or breastbone. 

VERTEBRA'TA, a subkingdom of ani¬ 
mals so named from the possession of a 
j backbone. It is divided into five classes. 1. 
Mammalia, or quadrupeds, of which the- 
females have mamma: or teats for suckling 
their young. 2. Aves, or birds [see Orni- 
thology]. 3. Reptilia, or reptiles. 4. 
Amphibia. 5. Pisces, or fishes. 

VERTEX (Lat,.), in Geometry, the top of 
any line or figure, as the vertex of a trian¬ 
gle.-In Anatomy, the crown of the head. 

— In Astronomy, the zenith, or point of 
the heavens immediately over the head. 

VERTICAL (from last), pertaining to the 
vertex or zenith. The sun is vertical to the 
inhabitants within the tropics at certain i 
times every year. A star is said to be ver¬ 
tical when it is in the zenith.- Vertical an- 

ihers, such as terminate the filaments, and ! 
being inserted by their base, stand no less i 
upright than the filaments themselves. 
Vertical circle, in Astronomy, a great circle 
of the sphere passing through “the zenith 
and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right 

angles.- Vertical dial, a sun-dial drawn on 

the plane of a vertical circle, or perpendi¬ 
cular to the horizon.- Vertical leaves . in 

Botany, such as stand so erect, that neither 
of the surfaces can be called the upper or 

under.- Vertical line, in Conics, a right 

line drawn on the vertical plane, and pass¬ 
ing through the vertex of the cone.-. 

Vertical plane, in Conics, a plane passing 































787 


Httcrorj) CrcatfurtK 


[viator 


through the vertex of the cone, and parallel 

to any conic section.- Vertical plane, in 

perspective, a plane perpendicular to the 
geometrical plane, passing through the eye, 
and cutting the perspective plane at right 

angles.- Vertical point, that point in the 

heavens which is over our heads, otherwise 
called the zenith. 

VERTICIL'LATE ( verticillus, something 
that turns round: Lat.), in Botany, an 
epithet applied to parts of plants (leaves, 
flowers, &c.) that are set in whorls, that is 
circularly round a stem. 

VERTI'GO {Lat.; from verto, I turn 
around), giddiness. It is a common symp¬ 
tom of the fulness of the vessels of the 
head ; and of nervous and general debility. 
Sometimes it arises from the stomach being 
overloaded; at others from its being 
empty. It is a symptom also of various 

disorders.-In Zoology, a genus of marsh 

or land snails. 

{ VES'PA (Lat.). [See Wasp.] 

VES'PERS {vesper, the evening: Lat.), 
the evening songs or prayers in the Roman 

| Catholic Church.- Sicilian Vespers, in 

French History, a massacre of all the 
i French in Sicily, in the year 1282. It is so 
! called, because the ringing of the bell for 
j vespers was the signal. 

VES'TA, in Astronomy, one of the re¬ 
cently discovered ultrazodiacal planets. Its 
mean distance from the sun is about 224 
millions of miles ; its sidereal revolution is 
performed in 13257147 mean solar days ; Us 
orbit is inclined to the ecliptic at an angle 
of 7° 8'29’'; its volume being only about 
the fifteenth thousandth part of that of the 
earth, and its surface not larger than the 
kingdom of Spain. It is the brightest of 
the smaller planets. [See Asteroids.] 
VES'TALS {vestales: Lat.), in Antiquity, 
certain virgins consecrated at Rome to the 
service of the goddess Vesta ; and to whom 
was committed the care of the vestal fire, 
which was to be kept perpetually burning 
upon her altar. Their dress was a white 
vest, with a purple border; a white linen 
| surplice, called suffl,bulum linteum; and 
over this a large purple mantle, with a long 
train. On their heads they wore the infula, 
and from the infula hung ribbons. Their 
period of service was thirty years; during 
the first ten they were engaged in learning 
their mysterious duties, during [the next 
ten in performing them, and during the 
last in teaching them to others. After this 
was expired they might return to the 
world, and even enter the marriage state ; 
but few availed themselves of this privi¬ 
lege. They had several privileges; but, 
when a vestal was convicted of unchastity, 
she was led to the Campus Sceleratus, and 
I stripped of her habit solemnly by the pon¬ 
tiff. She was then put alive into a pit, with 
a lighted candle, a little water and milk; 
and, thus covered up, was left to die. 

VES'TIBULE ( vestibulum: Lat.), in Ar¬ 
chitecture, a porch or entrance into a build¬ 
ing,- in Fortification, that space or 

covered ground which is in front of a 
guard-house. 

VESTIB'ULUM (same cleriv.), in Anatomy, 
a round cavity of the internal ear, the open¬ 


ing of which into the cavity of the tym¬ 
panum is called the Stapes ; it is connected 
also with the cochlea and semicircular 
canals. 

VES'TRV {vestiaire: Fr.; from vestia- 
rium, a wardrobe: Lat.), a place adjoining 
the church where the vestments of the 
minister are kept; also where the parish¬ 
ioners formerly assembled for the discharge 
of parochial business ; whence such a meet¬ 
ing is called a vestry.- Vestry-clerk, an offi¬ 

cer appointed to attend all vestries, and 
take account of their proceedings, &c. 

VESU'VIAN, in Mineralogy, Idocrase, a 
subspecies of pyramidical garnet, a mineral 
found in the vicinity of Vesuvius and 
other places. It is generally crystallized in 
four-sided prisms, the edges of which are 
truncated, forming prisms of eight, four¬ 
teen, or sixteen sides. It is composed of 
silica, alumina, lime, oxide of iron, and a 
little oxide of manganese. 

VETCH ( vicia: Lat.), leguminous plants, 
belonging to the genus vicia, and exten¬ 
sively cultivated in England under the 
name of tares. 

VET'ERINARY ART, or SCIENCE {vete- 
rinarius, a cattle doctor; from vetennus, a 
beast of burden : Lat.), a modern term for 
what was formerly called farriery. It com¬ 
prehends a knowledge of the external form 
as well as the internal structure and eco¬ 
nomy of the horse; and embraces whatever 
relates to the diseases to which the horse 
is liable; with an accurate knowledge of 
the principles and practice of shoeing, of 
feeding, exercising, &c. that noble and 
highly useful animal. 

VE'TO (I forbid : Lat.), a pi'oliibition, or 
the right of forbidding, applied to the right 
of a king or other magistrate or officer to 
withhold his assent to the enactment of a 

law, or the passing of a decree.- Veto was 

the important and solemn word which the 
tribunes or the Roman people made use 
of when they inhibited any decree of the 
senate, or law proposed to the people, or any 
act of other magistrates. The bare pro¬ 
nouncing of the word veto was sufficient to 
suspend the business, without any reasons 
assigned for their dissent. 

VEXIL'LUM {Lat.), a flag or standard. 
-In Botany, the upper petal of a papi¬ 
lionaceous flower. 

VI'ADUCT {via, a way; ductus, a con¬ 
ducting : Lat), any structure, either solid 
or on arches for the conveyance of a road, 
and especially of a railway, across a marsh, 
Veil Icy j 

VI'A LACTE'A {Lat.), in Astronomy, 
the Galaxy, or Milky way. [See Galaxy.] 

VIAT'ICUM (Lat. ; from via, a journey), 
among the Romans, an allowance or pro¬ 
vision made by the republic for such of its 
officers or magistrates as travelled upon 
the business of the state into any of the 
provinces. The term viaticum implies not 
only money for defraying the expenses of 
travelling, but their clothes, ornaments, 

baggage, &c.- Viaticum, in the church of 

Rome, an appellation given to the eucha- 
rist, when administered to persons at the 
point of death. 

VIA'TOR {Lat.), in Roman Antiquity, an 





























vibration] ‘5?cunttfic PCUtt 788 

appellation given in common to all officers 
of any of the magistrates ; as lictors, ac- 
censi, scribes, criers, &e. 

VIBRA'TION ( vibratio, from vibro, I set 
in tremulous motion : Lat.), the regular 
back and forward motion of a body, such as 
a pendulum ; which being freely suspended 
swings or vibrates from side to side. The 
vibrations of the same pendulum are all 
made in equal times, at least in the same 
latitude. The word oscillation is now gene¬ 
rally applied to the slow alternate motion 
of a pendulous body: the term vibration 
being reserved to express quicker motions, 
such as those of a sonorous body.- Vibra¬ 

tion, in Music, the motion of a chord, or the 
undulation of any body, by which sound is 
produced. The acuteness and gravity of 
sound depend on the tension, length, 
thickness, and density; the number of vi¬ 
brations in a given time, being directly as 
the square root of the tension of the cord ; 
inversely, as its length, thickness, or dia¬ 
meter ; and inversely as the square root of 
its density. In rods of the same material 
the number of vibrations in a given time 
varies directly as the thickness,and inverse¬ 
ly as the square of the length of the vibrat¬ 
ing part. If thin elastic plates are set in vi¬ 
bration ; for example, by drawing the bow 
of a violin across their edges, after a small 
! quantity of very'fine sand has been strewed 
over them, the sand will form various 
figures, and will indicate certain lines of 
repose, at which there is no motion what¬ 
ever; rods and strings also break them¬ 
selves up into distinct vibrating portions 
separated by points of rest, which may be 
found experimentally by placing small 
pieces of paper across the rod or string. 

VIC'AR (vicarius, a substitute; Lat.), the 
priest of a parish in which the predial or 
greater tithes are impropriated or appro¬ 
priated, that is, belong to a chapter or re¬ 
ligious house, or to a layman, who receives 
them.- Vicar-general, the bishop’s assist¬ 

ant in the general government of his 
diocese. This title was given by Henry'VIII. 
to the earl of Essex, with power to oversee 
all the clergy, and regulate all ecclesiasti¬ 
cal affairs. In the Church of England, it 
is the title of an office, which, as well as 
that of official principal, is united in the 
chancellor of the diocese. The business of 
the vicar-general is to exercise jurisdiction 

over matters purely spiritual.- Vicars 

apostolical, in the Roman Catholic church, 
those who perform the functions of the 
pope in churches or provinces committed 
to their direction, and the functions of 
bishops in countries where there are not 
regular dioceses ; they are usually of the 
episcopal order. 

VICE (in place of : Lat.), a word used in 
composition, to denote one qui vicem gerit, 
who acts in the place of another, or is 
second in authority. Thus we say, the vice- 
ehamberlain, vice-chancellor, vice-president, 
vice-gerent, viceroy, &c.- Vice, in the con¬ 

structive arts, an instrument used for 
holding fast any piece of iron, &c., upon 

which the artificer is working.-Among 

glaziers, a machine for drawing lead into 
flat rods for case windows. 

VI ET AR'MIS (by force, and arms : 
Lat.), in Law, words made use of in indict¬ 
ments and actions of trespass, to show 
the violent commission of any trespass or 
crime. 

VIG'IL, in Church affairs, the evening 
before any feast. The word is derived from 
the vigilice, which denoted the night 
watches among the Roman soldiers; and 
it was adopted by the first Christians who 
spent a part of the night preceding the 
solemn festivals in prayer, to prepare them¬ 
selves for the coming celebration. 

VIL'LEIN [vilain : Fr.), a name given, in 
ancient times, to persons not proprietors 
of land ; many of whom were attached to 
the soil, and bound to serve the lord of tlio 
manor. [See Feudal System], 

VIL'LOSE ( villosus, hairy : Lat.), in Na¬ 
tural History, a term applied to anything 
covered with soft, flexible hairs thickly 
set. 

VIL'LOUS (same deriv.), in Anatomy, a 
term applied to surfaces, such as those of 
the small intestines 'which are covered 
with villi, minute folds of the mucous 
membrane. When injected, villi form in¬ 
teresting microscopic objects, as a net¬ 
work of capillaries are seen. 

VINE ( vimea, a vineyard : Lat.), the name 
of plants belonging to the genus Vitis. 
They are cultivated in most warm and tem¬ 
perate countries ; and of which there arc 
an immense number of varieties. In wine 
countries the vineyards cover large tracts, 
and the manufacture of wine is an impor¬ 
tant branch of industry.-In Italy and 

other southern regions the vines hang from 
trees, &c. in rich and beautiful festoons. 

In places more to the north,they are trained 
to the form of gooseberry bushes. The 
vine was formerly grown in England, for 
the manufacture of wine, without any pro¬ 
tection, particularly in the more southern 
counties, having been introduced by the 
Romans ; and we find from the Domesday 
Book, that abbeys and convents had their 
vineyards. The inmates of these institu¬ 
tions were many of them foreigners, and 
they contributed to render the cultivation 
of the vine tolerably successful. The names 
of several places in Kent are supposed to 
be derived from their having been the site 
of vineyards. In the reign of Henry II., 
the cultivation of the vine in England 
began to be neglected. Our intimate con¬ 
nection with France—our actual posses¬ 
sion, indeed, of a portion of the wine¬ 
growing districts of that country—contri¬ 
buted to produce this circumstance. But 
though the making of wine was no longer 
carried on in so extensive a manner, yet 
there is sufficient testimony that during 
the 16tli and 17th centuries a considerable 
quantity of wine was made in England from 
the produce of the grape. [See Grape.] 
That wine has most flavour in which both 
the skins and stones are bruised and fer¬ 
mented. As a general rule, the varieties of 
the vine most esteemed for the production 
of wine have small berries and bunches, 
with an austere taste. In certain localities, 
the vine lives only twenty or thirty year* ; 
but under favourable circumstances it may 

























7so ittterary Crcatfury. [vis 

last a hundred.-The word vine also de¬ 

notes the long slender stem of any plant 
that trails on the ground, or climbs and 
supports itself by winding round a fixed 
object, or by seizing it with its tendrils or 
claspers. 

VIN'EGAR ( vinaigre, literally, sourwine 
Fr.), an impure form of acetic acid obtained 
from wine, cider, beer, or other liquors, by 
the acetous fermentation ; also from wood, 
by destructive distillation. The varieties 
of acetic acids known in commerce are five : 
1. wine vinegar; 2. malt vinegar; 3. cider 
vinegar; 4. sugar vinegar; 5. wood vine¬ 
gar. In Great Britain vinegar is usually 
manufactured from malt; though a very 
considerable quantity, made for family use, 
is made from cider and British wines. [See 
Fermentation.] 

VI'NERY, in Gardening, an erection for 
! supporting vines and exposing them to ar¬ 
tificial heat. 

V IN IF A CTE UII ( Fr .; from vin, wine; fac- 
teur, a factor), an apparatus made use of in 
France and Spain to improve the spirituous 
fermentation of wine. During the fermen¬ 
tation, a portion of the etherial parts of the 
wine escapes from the open vats ; and the 
vinifacteur is intended to collect these, and 
to convey them back to the must. 

VENOUS FERMENTATION. [See Fer¬ 
mentation.] 

VI'OL ( violle: Fr.), a stringed musical 
instrument, of the same form as the violin, 
but larger. Viols are of different kinds; 
the largest is called the bass viol, whose 
tones are deep, soft, and agreeable. 

! VIO'LA ( Lat.), VIOLET, a genus of poly- 
petalous exogens containing numerous 
species, including those well-known plants, 
the sweet violet, the dog violet, and the 
tricolor violet. All the varieties of pansy 
or heartsease have been produced by culti¬ 
vation from some of the wild species. The 
corolla is composed of five unequal petals, 
of which the inferior is the largest, and is 
more or less prolonged into a spur at the 
base. The roots are generally perennial, 
and, in some species, possess an emetic 
property, which renders them a useful sub¬ 
stitute for ipecacuanha. 

1 VIOLI'NO (Ital.; the violin), the most 
perfect of all stringed musical instruments 
played with the bow. It consists of three 
chief parts—the neck, the table, and the 
sound-board. The violin has four catgut 
strings of different sizes, of which the 
largest is wound round with wire. The 
bridge bears them up from the belly, and 
they reach from one extremity called the 
tail piece, to the other near the hand, where 
! they are tightened by turning pins. The 
! excellence of the instrument consists in its 
purity and distinctness, strength, and ful¬ 
ness of tone,! 

VIOLONCEL'LO (Ital.), a musical instru¬ 
ment which conies between the viola di 
braccio (or arm viol) and the double bass, 
both as to size and tone. It is constructed 
entirely on the same plan with the violin ; 
but the player holds it between his knees. 
It generally accompanies the double bass. 

VIOLO'NE (Ital.), the‘English tfotible 
l)(iss a deep-toned musical instrument, the 

largest of the kind played with a bow, and 
principally used to sustain the harmony. 
Its strings, which are seldom more than 
three in number, are an octave below the 
violoncello. 

VI'PER (vipera; contracted from vivi- 
pera, bringing forth alive : Lat.), an animal 
of the snake tribe, the bite of which is more 
or less venomous in all countries; but in 
tropical regions it is almost instantly fatal. 
Under this name are included those serpents 
which have a broader head than neck, and 
no pits behind the nostrils. Like many 
other poisonous groups of serpents, the vi¬ 
pers are ovo-viviparous. The true vipers 
have the head covered with scales, like 
those on the back, and very large nostrils. 
The black and common adders, which be¬ 
long to this family, are the only indigenous 
venomous reptiles of Gx - eat Britain. 

VIR'GINAL, a stringed and keyed instru¬ 
ment resembling the spinnet. It is now 
quite obsolete, though formerly in great 
repute. 

VIR'GO (the virgin : Lat.), in Astronomy, 
the sixth sign of the zodiac. Beingusually 
represented as a figure with an ear of corn 
in her hands, it is also called signum cereris 
(the sign of Ceres). The constellation Virgo 
contains a star of the first magnitude called 
spica virginis. 

VIR'TU (Ital.), a taste for curiosities con¬ 
nected with the fine arts. 

VIRTUAL FOCUS ( virtus, efficacy : Lat.), 
the point from which rays, after having 
been rendered divergent by reflection or 
refraction, seem to issue. 

VIRTUAL VELOCITY (same derive, In 
Mechanics, the velocity which any particle 
of a body in equilibrium would actually ac¬ 
quire during the first instant of its motion, 
if the equilibrium were from any cause 
disturbed. Particles which are at different 
distances from the centre round which a 
body would revolve, have different virtual 
velocities proportional to the distance of 
such particles from that centre. 

VIRTUO'SO (Ital.), one skilled in antique 
or natural curiosities; a lover of the liberal 
arts. The word is now seldom employed. 

VI'RUS (Lat.), in Medicine, a watery 
fetid matter which issues from wounds, 
and is endued with corrosive and malignant 
qualities. 

VIS (Lat.), a word used by the olden 
writers on physics, to express force. Thus 
vis acceleratrix, accelerating force; vis 
inertice, the resistance which a body offers 
to a change from either motion or rest—so 
that, when in motion, it will not stop of 
itself; nor, when at rest, move of itself. 
Bodies on the surface of the earth seem to 
stop of themselves; but their motion is gra¬ 
dually destroyed by friction, and the resist¬ 
ance of the air.- Yisinsita, that power by 

which a muscle, when wounded, touched, 
or irritated, contracts, independently of 

the will.- Vis medicatrix natures, a term 

employed by physicians to express that 
healing power in an animated body, by 
which, when diseased, the body is enabled 

to regain its healthy actions.- Vismortua, 

that property by which a muscle, after the 
death of the animal, or a muscle, immedi- 



















Scientific antf 


790 


i VISCERA] 


ately after having been cut from a living 

body, contracts.- Vis nervosa, a power of 

the muscles by which they act when ex¬ 
cited by the nerves.- Vis plastica, that 

facility of formation which spontaneously 

operates in animals.- Vis vital, the natural 

power of the animal machine in preserving 
life. The term Vis has been often erro¬ 
neously given to vital operations the result 
of organization. 

VIS'CERA ( Lat.), the plural of viscus, 
which see. 

VI'SCOUNT {vice comes, the deputy of a 
count: Lat.), a nobleman next in degree to 
an earl. The first viscount was created by 

Henry VI. in 1440.-A viscount’s coronet 

has neither leaves nor points raised above 
the circle, like those of superior degree, 
but only pearls placed on the circle itself, 
j It is like that of a baron; but has sixteen 
pearls in place of six. 

VIS'CUS {Lat.), in medical science, an in¬ 
ternal part which has an appropriate use; 
as the viscera of the abdomen, &c. 

VISH'NU, one of the three chief divini¬ 
ties of the Hindoo mythology. He is usu¬ 
ally placed second, and his chief attribute 
is that of preservation. The sects into 
which his worshippers are divided are very 
numerous. It is believed that he has ap¬ 
peared on earth nine times, his incarnations 
being called avatars. The tenth has yet to 
come. His names are innumerable, one of 
the best known is Krishna, by which he 
was styled in one of his descents to the 
earth. Vishnu and Siva arc each thought 
by many of their worshippers to be supe¬ 
rior to every other deity, even Brahma. 
A worshipper of Krishna has put into his 
mouth the following words—‘I am the 
father of this world : I bear in my hand 
immortality and death : I am what is and 
! is not: I am the beginning, the middle, and 
the end of all things : I am Vishnu among 
the gods, the sun among the stars : I am 
the essence of all things, and nothing 
animate or inanimate can exist without 
me.’ 

VIS'ION (visio; Lat.), in Physiology, the 
act of perceiving objects by means of the 
organ of sight. Modern philosophers agree 
in supposing vision to be produced by rays 
of light, reflected from the several points 
of objects, received in at the pupil, refracted 
and collected in their passage through the 
coats and humours to the retina, and form¬ 
ing there a picture, like that in the camera 
obscura— which very much resembles the 
eye in principle. The impression thus 
made is transmitted to the optic nerve, 
and thence to the brain. [See Eye, Optics, 
&c.] 

VISITATION ( visitatio: Lat.), in Eccle¬ 
siastical Law, the inspections by a bishop 
of the different parishes in his diocese, or 
by an archbishop of the dioceses in his pro¬ 
vince. Visitations were formerly required 
to be annual; at present it is the custom at 
j Easter and Michaelmas to summon the 
clergy to some convenient place. Those 
! for the purpose of confirmation, must bo 
held at least once in three years. Arch¬ 
deacons have now the care of the parochial 
institutions, and the duty of examining 


into whatever relates to churches, parson¬ 
ages, and parochial visitation by the at eli- 
dcacons is annual. 

VIS'UAL {visas, a seeing : Lat.), belong¬ 
ing to sight.- Visual angle, in optics, that 

angle under which an object i3 seen: or 
that formed at the eye, by rays of light 
coming from the extremities of the object, 
and interesting each other, at the centre of 
the crystalline lens.- Visual point, in Per¬ 

spective, a point in the horizontal line, 
where it is intersected by the vertical line. 

[See Perspective], - Visual rays, lines of 

light supposed to come from the object to 
Dig eye. 

VITAL FUNCTIONS ( vitalis , pertaining 
to life : Lat.), those functions or faculties 
of the body on which life immediately de¬ 
pends ; as the circulation of the blood, res¬ 
piration, &c. 

YI'TIS {Lat.), in Botany, a genus of 
plants, nat. ord. vitacecc. The principal 
species are the Vitis vinifera, the common 
vine, and the Vitis Indica, the Indian vine 
[See Vine]. 

VITT1EO-ELECTBIC {vitreus, pertaining 
to glass : Lat.), in a state of positive electri¬ 
city, such as is exhibited by rubbing glass. 

VIT'ltEOUS HU'MOUR (same dcriv.), 
the pellucid substance which fills the whole 
bulb of the eye behind the crystalline lens. 

VITRIFAO'TION {vitrum, glass; and 
facio, I make: Lat.), the act, process, or 
operation of converting into glass by heat; 
as, the v'-itrifaction of sand, flint, and peb¬ 
bles, with alkaline salts. 

VIT'RIOL ( vitrum, glass: Lat), from the 
appearance of its crystals, a term applied 
by the older chemists to crystallized sul¬ 
phate of iron or green vitriol. Sulphate of 
copper or blue vitriol, and sulphate of zinc 
or white vitriol, obtained these names after¬ 
wards. Oil of Vitriol is the vulgar name of 
Sulphuric Acid. 

VITRIOLTC ACID. [See SULPHURIC 
Acid.] 

VIVA'CE, in Music, an Italian word sig¬ 
nifying lively ; and vivacissimo, very lively. 

VP VARY {vivarium; from vivas, alive : 
Lat.), a place for keeping living animals, as 
a park, a warren, a pond, &c. 

VI'VA VO'CE {Lat.), by word of mouth : 
as, to vote, or to communicate with another 
person, vivA voce. 

V1VES, in the Veterinary art, a disease of 
horses and some other animals, seated in 
the glands, under the ears, where a tumour 
is formed, which sometimes ends in suppu¬ 
ration. 

VIYIP'AROUS {vivus, alive; and pario, 
I bring forth : Lat.), in Natural History, 
producing young in a living state; as dis¬ 
tinguished from oviparous, producing eggs. 
In its restricted sense, viviparous is applied 
to that mode of generation, in which the 
chorion or external tunic of the ovum ac¬ 
quires a vascular adhesion with the uterus: 
hen ce only the placental mammalia arc really 
viviparous, the rest being ovo-viviparous. 
—-In Botany, a viviparous plant is one in 
which either the seeds germinate on the 
Plant, instead of falling, as they usually do, 
or which produces its living offspring on 
the leaves or branches. 




































791 




VIZ'IER, or Grand Vizier (a porter: 
Arab, applied by a singular metaphor to a 
high ollicer of state), the title of the chief 
minister of the Turkish empire. ITe is the 
representative of the sultan, conducts the 
deliberations of the divan, and decides 
alone; for by a seal which lie receives at 
the time of his appointment, he is author¬ 
ized to rule with absolute power, in the 
name of the sultan. The title of vizier is 
aiso given to all the pachas of three tails, 
or pachas of the highest rank. ■ 

VO'CAL MU'SIO ( vocalis , pertaining to 
the voice: LaO, music produced by the 
voice, either unaccompanied or accom¬ 
panied by instruments. Vocal music lias 
many advantages over instrumental, in its 
endless variety of intonation and expres¬ 
sion, and in the support which it derives 
from its connection with words. [See 
Music. 

VOICE ( voix: Fr.; from vox: Lot .), the 
sounds produced by the air emitted from 
the organs of respiration, especially the 
larynx. The Jungs, the wind-pipe, &c., the 
finely-arched roof of the mouth, and the 
pliability of the lips, are each of the greatest 
importance in producing the different into¬ 
nations which render the human voice so 
agreeable and harmonious. A good musi¬ 
cal voice depends chiefly upon the sound¬ 
ness and power of the organs of utterance 
and of hearing; and is much promoted by 
the practice of singing and gymnastic exer¬ 
cises that expand the chest. 

VO'LANT (Fr.), in Heraldry, an epithet 
for flying or having the wings spread. 

VOL'ATILE ( volatilis , flying : Lat.), in 
Chemistry, an epithet for substances which 
evaporate, or gradually pass off, of them¬ 
selves in the aeriform state: as musk, am¬ 
monia, and the various essential oils. Alco¬ 
hol and ether are called volatile liquids for 
a similar reason, and because they easily 
pass into the state of vapour on the appli¬ 
cation of heat. 

VOLCA'NO (Ital.; from vulcan, the God 
of fire), in Geology, a burning mountain, 
from which issues from time to time 
melted matter at a high temperature, ashes, 
smoke, sulphurous exhalations, &c. When 
the volcano has long ceased to act, it is 
said to be extinct. Beneath the outer crust 
of the earth inflammable materials appear 
to exist, which access of water excites into 
combustion. It may not unreasonably be 
supposed that there are within the earth 
vast masses of potassium, sodium, &c., 
which on contact with that fluid immedi¬ 
ately become converted into matter in a 
state of intense ignition. There are even 
chemical substances known, which bymere 
contact with each other produce the same 
effect. No doubt hydrogen, which should 
be evolved in these circumstances, is not a 
usual accompaniment of volcanic actions; 
and it is hard also, to conceive that under 
the influence of such causes, volcanos 
could continue in activity for the long 
periods during which some are known to 
produce these effects. But these difficulties 
arise, perhaps only from our limited know¬ 
ledge. Volcano 3 break forth under the 
tea, as well as the dry land, and throw up 


[volcano 


mountains which rise above the level of 
the water, causing tremblings of the coasts. 
Their action often extends through five or 
six hundred miles; and they frequently 
produce effects which are most frightful 
and destructive. The subterranean thunder 
heard at great distances under Vesuvius, 
prior to an irruption, indicates that thcro 
are mighty caverns beneath the earth; and 
the existence of a subterranean communi¬ 
cation between the Solfatara and Vesuvius, 
is established by the fact that whenever the 
latter is in an active state, the former is 
comparatively tranquil. It affords some 
ground for the conjecture that water is, in 
some way, an agent in causing volcanic 
action, that almost all volcanoes of con- i 
siderable magnitude in the old world are 
in the vicinity of the sea; and in those ! 
where the sea is more distant, as in the 
volcanoes of South America, the water may 
be supplied from great subterranean lakes; 
for Humboldt states that some of them 
.throw up quantities of fish. But the hypo¬ 
thesis of the nucleus of the globe being 
composed of matter liquified by heat, offers 
a still more simple and general solution of 
the phenomena of volcanic fires. Observa¬ 
tions made in all countries, in mines and 
caves, prove that, even at a small depth, 
the earth’s heat is much superior to the 
temperature of the surrounding atmo¬ 
sphere. A fact so remarkable, and elicited 
from observations made in almost every 
part of the globe, connects itself with what J 
we learn of the phenomena of volcanoes. ] 
The sinking of mines, Artesian wells, &c., 
has even furnished us with data, by which 
we may calculate the rate at which the ! 
temperature increases as we descend into j 
the earth. It has been supposed that a 
crust of only about 200 miles in thickness I 
covers a globular mass of matter, which is j 
in a state of intense ignition, sufficient to I 
fuse with ease the most refractory sub- j 
stances with which we are acquainted. If 
such be the case.it is easy to conceive that J 
the elastic vapours, which are generated, j 
force to the surface from below the melted 
matter, and cause it to issue from openings 
already in existence, or from new ones—if 
the others are not sufficiently large or near. 
There are certain regions to which volcanic 
eruptions, and the movements of great 
earthquakes, are almost confined ; over the 
whole of vast tracts active volcanic vents 
are distributed at intervals, and are most 
commonly arranged in a liniar direction. 
Throughout the intermediate spaces there is 
abundant evidence that the subterranean 
Are is continually at wmrk ; for the ground 
is convulsed, from time to time, by earth¬ 
quakes ; gaseous vapours, especially car¬ 
bonic acid gas, are disengaged plentifully 
from the soil; springs often issue at a very 
high temperature, and their waters are very 
commonly impregnated with the samo 
mineral matters, which are discharged by 
volcanoes during eruptions. Of these great 
regions, that of the Andes is one of the best 
defined. Commencing southward, at least 
at Chili, at the forty-sixth degree of south 
latitude, it proceeds northward, to the 
twenty-seventh degree, forming an uuia- 

























Volta] EfjC ^CtcnttftC ailtf 792 


terrupted line of volcanoes. The Chilian vol¬ 
canoes uprise through granitic mountains. 
Villarica, one of the principal, continues 
burning without intermission, and is so 
high that it may be distinguished at the 
distance of 150 miles. A year never passes 
in this province without some slight shock ; 
and about once in a century, or of tener, tre¬ 
mendous earthquakes occur, by which the 
land has been shaken from one extremity 
to the other, and continuous tracts, toge¬ 
ther with the bed of the Pacific, have been 
raised permanently from one to twenty feet 
above their former level. Hot springs are 
numerous in this district, and mineral 
waters of various kinds. Pursuing our 
course northward, we find in Peru only one 
active volcano as yet known ; but the pro¬ 
vince is so subject to earthquakes, that 
scarcely a week passes without a shock; 
and many of these have been so violent as 
to create great changes in the surface. Far¬ 
ther north, we find, in the middle of Quito, 
where the Andes attain their greatest ele¬ 
vation, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana, 
and Pichincha, the three former of which 
not uufrequently emit flames. From the 
first of these, a deluge of mud descended in 
1797, and filled valleys, 1000 feet wide, to 
the depth of 100 feet, forming barriers, 
by which rivers were dammed up, and lakes 
produced. In the year 1812, violent earth¬ 
quakes convulsed the valley of the Missis¬ 
sippi at New Madrid, for a space of three 
hundred miles in length. As this happened 
exactly at the same time as the great earth¬ 
quake of Caraccas, it is probable that these 
two points are parts of one continuous vol¬ 
canic region : for the whole circumference 
of the intervening Caribbean sea must be 
considered as a theatre of earthquakes and 
volcanoes. On the north lies the island of 
Jamaica, which, with a tract of the con¬ 
tiguous sea, has often experienced tre¬ 
mendous shocks, and these frequently 
extend from Jamaica to St. Domingo and 
Porto Rico. On the south of the same basin, 
the shores and mountains of Columbia 
are perpetually convulsed. On the west 
is the volcanic chain of Guatimala and 
Mexico, and on the east, the West Indian 
isles, where in St. Vincent’s and Guada- 
loupe, are active vents. Thus it will be 
seen that volcanoes and earthquakes occur, 
uninterruptedly, from Chili to the north of 
Mexico; and it seems probable, that they 
will hereafter be found to extend, at least, 
from Cape Horn to California. In another 
direction, the volcanic range is prolonged 
through Borneo, Celebes, Banda, New 
Guinea, and various part3 of the Polynesian 
archipelago. The Pacific ocean, indeed, 
seems, in equatorial latitudes, to be one 
vast theatre of igneous action, and its in¬ 
numerable archipelagoes, such as the New 
Hebrides, Friendly islands, and Georgian 
islands, are all composed either of coralline 
limestones or volcanic rocks, with active 
veins here and there interspersed. In the 
old world, the volcanic region extends from 
east to west for the distance of about 1000 
miles, from the Caspian sea to the Azores, 
including within its limits the greater part 
of the Mediterranean and its most prorni* 

nent peninsulas. From south to north, it 
reaches from about the thirty-fifth to the 
forty-fifth degree of latitude. Its northern 
boundaries are Caucasus, the Black sea, 
the mountains of Thrace, Transylvania, and 
Hungary,—the Austrian, Tyrolean, and 
Swiss Alps,—the Cevennes and Pyrenees, 
and the mountains which branch off from 
the Pyrenees westward, to the north side 
of the Tagus. Respecting the volcanic sys¬ 
tem of Southern Europe, it may be ob¬ 
served, that there is a central half, where 
the greatest earthquakes prevail, in which 
rocks are shattered and cities laid in ruins. 

On each side of this line of greatest com¬ 
motion, there are parallel lands of country 
where the shocks are less violent. At a still 
greater distance, as in Northern Italy, there 
are spaces where the shocks are much rarer 
and more feeble. Beyond these limits, again, 
all countries are liable to slight tremors at 
distant intervals of time, when some great 
crisis of subterranean movement agitates 
an adjoining volcanic region ; but these 
may be considered as mere vibrations, pro¬ 
pagated mechanically through the exter¬ 
nal crust of the globe, as sounds travel al¬ 
most to indefinite distances through the air. 
During the last century, about fifty erup¬ 
tions are recorded of the five European vol- 
canoes, Vesuvius, iEtna, Volcano, Santorin, 
and Iceland ; but many beneath the sea, in 
the Grecian archipelago, and near Iceland, 
may have passed unnoticed. If some of 
them produced no lava, others poured out 
torrents of melted matter for months to¬ 
gether; so that, however inconsiderable 
may be the superficial rocks, which the 
operations of fire produce on the surface, 
when it is computed that on- the whole 
globe 2000 volcanic eruptions occur in the 
course of a century, we must suppose the 
subterranean changes now constantly in 
progress to be on the grandest scale. [See 
Earthquake.] 

VOL'TA, in Music, an Italian word, sig¬ 
nifying that the part is to be repeated, one, 
two, or more times. Thus Si replica una 
volta, means that the piece is to be per¬ 
formed over again. 

VOLTA'IC ENGRA'VING. [See ELEC¬ 
TROTYPE, and Engraving.] 

VOL'TAISM, or VOLTAIC ELECTRI¬ 
CITY (from Volta, who made some of the 
earliest discoveries regarding it), the phe¬ 
nomena arising from the development of 
electricity, by means of chemical action 
and the use of the voltaic battery. [See 
Galvanism.] 

VOLTAM'ETER, an instrument for mea¬ 
suring the intensity, &c., of an electric 
current. 

VOL'UME ( volumen , from volvo, I roll: 
Lat.), a roll or book ; so called because the 
ancient books were rolls of bark or parch¬ 
ment. This manner of arranging books j 
lasted till Cicero’s time. The several sheets 
or pieces were glued or pasted end to end, 
and written only on one side. At the bot¬ 
tom a stick was fastened, called umbilicus, 
round which it was rolled; and at the other 
end was a piece of parchment, on which 
the title of the book was written, often in 
letters of gold, 

— — -—- u ' ■*' ' ■ —"■— L —■»»-> 































793 


ilttcrarj) Crearfurg. 


VOL'DNTARY ( voluntarius, of one’s own 
free will: Lat.), in Music, a piece played 
by a musician extemporarily, according to 
his fancy, 

VOL'UNTEER (yolontaire; from same), a 
person who enters into military or other 
service of his own accord. 

VOLU'TA (voluto, I twist: Lat.), in Natu¬ 
ral History, a genus of testaceous gastero- 
podous molluscs, chiefly found in the tropi¬ 
cal seas. Their shells are often of great 
beauty, and sometimes of great size. To 
this genus belong the admiral shells, tiger 
shells, &c. 

VOLTJ'TE ( volutus: Lat.), in Architec¬ 
ture, a kind of spiral scroll, formed at each 
side of an Ionic capital. It is used also in 
Corinthian and composite orders, but is 
then of a smaller size, and placed diagonally. 
In the Corinthian the volutes are more nu¬ 
merous, but smaller than in the composite. 

VOMITO'RIA (Lat; from vomo, I pour 
forth), the openings or gates in ancient 
theatres and amphitheatres, by which the 
spectators entered and left. 

VOR'TEX (Lat.; from verto, I turn 
around), a whirlpool, formed by the water 
running rapidly round ; there is a cavity in 
the middle, into which floating bodies are 
drawn. The word is also applied to a whirl¬ 
wind. In the philosophy of Des Cartes, a 
| vortex means a collection of material par- 
1 tides, forming a fluid or ether, and having 
| a rapid rotatory motion round an axis. He 
[ endeavoured, by means of this.hypothesis, 
to explain the motions of the heavenly bo¬ 
dies ; but it is inapplicable to those which, 
like the comets, traverse the heavens in all 
directions. His object was to show that 
the universe might assume, and preserve 
its present form, on mechanical principles. 

VOTE (votum, a wish : Lat,), the suffrage 
or resolve of each of the members of an as- 
! sembly, where any affair is to be carried by 
a majority; but more particularly the re- 
j solves of any members of either house of 
| parliament. 

VOUSSOIRS (Fr.), the stones which im- 
1 mediate! v form the arch of a bridge; their 
joints should be perpendicular to the curve 
of the intrados. 

VOW (vceu: Fr. ; from votum : Lat.), a 
solemn and religious promise, or oath. [See 
| Oath.] The use of vows is found in most 
religions. They make up a considerable 
part of the pagan worship, being made 
either in consequence of some deliverance, 
under some pressing necessity, or for the 
success of some enterprise. Among the 
Jews, all vows were to be voluntary, and | 


[vulture 


made by persons wholly in their own power; 
and if such person made a vow in anything 
lawful and possible, he was obliged to fulfil 
it. Among the Roman Catholics, a person 
is constituted a religious by taking three 
vows, that of poverty, chastity, and obe¬ 
dience.-Votes, among the Romans, sig¬ 

nified sacrifices, offerings, presents, and 
prayers made for the Caesars and emperors ; 
particularly for their prosperity, and the 
continuance of their empire. 

VOWEL (voyelle: Fr.), a letter which does 
not require the aid of another, for its pro- j 
nunciation. 

VULCAN'IC THEORY (vulcamus, fire : ! 
Lat.), a system which ascribes the changes 
on the earth’s surface to fire; while an¬ 
other, called the Neptunian, ascribes the 
whole to water. 

VUL'GATE (vulgatus, commonly known : 
Lat.), a very ancient Latin translation of 
the Bible, which was made from the Greek 
of the Septuagint. It is the only one ac¬ 
knowledged by Roman Catholics to be au¬ 
thentic. 

VULTINITE, in'Mineralogy, an anhy¬ 
drous sulphate of lime, containing a little 
silica. It isfound at Vulpino in Italy, and 
is used by Italian artists for small statues, j 
and other ornamental work, under the name 
of marono bardiglio. 

VUL'TURE (vultur: Lat.), the name of 
some diurnal accipitrine birds, having an j 
elongated beak, curved only at the ex¬ 
tremity, with more or less of the head, 
and sometimes of the neck, denuded of | 
feathers. The wings being very long are, ! 
in walking, curved in a half distended 
state. The birds are rapacious to an ex- 
treme degree, and sometimes feed in the 
midst of cities unterrilied. In India, they 
arc of so much service in chasing away the 
carcases of animals, that they are unmo 
lested. They prefer food that is tainted to 
that which is fresh ; they are found most 
numerous in warm climates, and must be 
regarded as a race of creatures eminently 
useful in clearing the surface of the globe 
from putrid remains, which would other¬ 
wise infect the air, and produce pestilence. 
The Egyptian vulture has been sometimes 
seen in England. Another species, the 
Vulturfulvus or Griffon Vulture, is an in¬ 
habitant of Continental Europe as well as 
the Lammergeyer, V. cinereus. Some tropi¬ 
cal species are known to seize tortoises, 
carry them into the air, and then let them 
drop to the earth, repeating this process 
until they are killed. The condor of*South 
America is closely allied to the vultures. 






















wackeJ CIjc nntf 794 

w 


W, the twenty-third letter of the English 
ftlphahet, takes its written form from the 
union of two V’s, and its name of double u, 
j from the Roman capital V representing 
that which we call U. In English it is always 
followed either hy a vowel, or by li, as in 
when ; or by r, as in lorong. The w, being 
! a strong breathing, is nearly related to all 
aspirated sounds, and through them again 
to the gutturals, so that we find w and g 
often interchanged in different languages, 

| as in the words William, Guillaume, &c. In 
I German, to is pronounced like an English v, 
v having the sound of an /. When iv com¬ 
mences a syllable it is a consonant; in other 
| cases it is a vowel. 

WACK'E (Germ.), in Geology, an earthy 
I variety of trap with an argillaceous appear- 
! nnce, and resembling hardened clay. Its 
1 colours are greenish-grey, brown, and 
bl<ick 

WAD, or WAD'DING, a stopple of paper, 
tow, old rope-yarn, &c. forced into a gun 
to keep in the powder and shot. 

WADD, in Mineralogy, plumbago or 
black lead. Black wadd is an ore of man¬ 
ganese found in Derbyshire, and of four 
kinds: the fibrous,ochrey,pulverulent,and 
dendritic. 

AVAD'SETT, an ancient tenure or lease of 
land in the Highlands of Scotland. It is a 
mortgage ; and when the mortgagor pays 
the public burdens, is a wadset improper: 
but when the wadsettco pays them, is a 
xoadset proper. 

WA'GER (gages: Fr.), anything pledged 
on chance. Wagers are valid in law unless 
rendered expressly void by statute or such 
as have an immoral tendency. A wager on 
horse racing was invalid if for more than 
101 .; but it is now recoverable. Wagers 
on merely speculative subjects, arising 
out of circumstances in which the parties 
have no interest, cannot be recovered ; 
when a wager is illegal, the parties may re¬ 
cover their deposits from the stakeholder. 

I WA'GER OF BATTLE, or BATTEL, an 
ancient mode of trial by simple combat, 
where, in military, civil, or criminal cases, 

I the defendant might fightwith the plaintiff 
to prove the justice of his cause. This relic 
I of barbarism and injustice has been only 
j recently abolished. It was also used in 
affairs of chivalry and honour. 

WA'GER OF LAW, a proceeding in 
which the defendant in an action of debt 
by simple contract, took an oath in court 
j in the presence of eleven compurgators, 
who swore they believed him, that he owed 
the plaintiff nothing, on which the law al¬ 
lowed him his discharge. This mode of 
proceeding has been abolished. 

WA'GES, the compensation paid to those 
! employed to perform any kind of labour or 
service; t.lie term is, however, usually con¬ 
fined to the sums paid to artisans, labourers, 
and servants. Wages are modified by the 
agreeablencss or disagreeableness of the 


employment; the case and cheapness, or 
difficulty and expense, of learning it; its 
constancy or inconstancy; the great or 
little trust it supposes; the probability or 
improbability of success in adopting it. 1 
The rate of wages is necessarily liable to 
great variation; it will naturally increase 
if the capital to be expended on manufac¬ 
tures, &c., increase to a greater extent 
than the population; and it will diminish 
in opposite circumstances ; but it never can 
remain long below what will be sufficient 
for the sustenance of the labourers, &c., 
and their families ; the rate at which they 
can support themselves having, in all 
cases, a serious effect on that of the wages 
they receive. [See Labour], 

WAGTAIL, the name of some small 
birds belonging to the genus Motacilla of 
ornithologists. They have long tails, to 
which they give a graceful fanning motion. 
There are five species in this country. 

WAIIA'BEES, a fanatical Mohammedan 
sect which appeared in Arabia at the begin¬ 
ning of the last century under the leader¬ 
ship of Abdul Walial. They accepted the 
Koran, but rejected the marginal annota¬ 
tions and the traditionary law. Mahomet 
was regarded as a mortal man honoured by 
a divine mission, but they held that to wor¬ 
ship at his tomb savoured of idolatry, and 
they thought it would be right to destroy 
the sepulchres of saints throughout Arabia 
and Persia. In many other respects they 
disagreed with the popular creed, and they 
attempted to carry out their own views by 
force. They took possession of Mecca and 
Medina. Mohammed Ali, the Pasha of 
Egypt, sent troops against them, but it was 
only after several bloody contests that they 
were got under. Some remains of the sect, 
however, still exist. 

WAIFS (icofian, to abandon: Sax.), in 
Law, goods found, of which the owner is not 
known, and which are claimed by the crown 
or lord of the manor. These were origi¬ 
nally such goods as a thief, when pursued, 
threw away to prevent his being appre¬ 
hended; but the owner, on complying with 
certain conditions within a year and a day, 
was entitled to restitution. 

WAIST (wast: lielg.), in a ship, that part 
which is between the quarter-deck and fore¬ 
castle ; but in ships where there is no quar¬ 
ter-deck, the waist is the middle part of 
the sffip.- The small part of the body be¬ 

tween the breast and hips. 

WA'ISTCLOTHS, coverings of canvas or 
tarpaulings for the hammocks, stowed on 
the gangways, between the quarter-deck 
and forecastle. 

WAITS, itinerant musicians who played 
in the streets on the nights of Christmas 

holidays. 

WA'IVER, in Law, the passing by, or do- ■ 
dining to accept a thing ; applied either to 
an estate, to a plea, &o. In some cases, 
where an action of tort and an action jf 


































795 iUta-avj) 


contract both lie, the aggrieved party de¬ 
clines the former, and pursues tho latter 
remedy ; this is waiver of tort. 

WA'IWODE, in the Turkish empire, the 
governor of a small province or town. 

WAKE ( wacian, to watch : Sax.), a vigil: 
the feast of tho dedication of the church, 
formerly kept by watching all night. At 
present fast days are usually called wakes by 
the English peasantry. The wake was for¬ 
merly held on the Sunday after the day of 
the dedication, or more usually on the fes¬ 
tival of the saint to which tho church was 
dedicated. In Ireland, this is called the 
•patron day, and by the word wake is under¬ 
stood there the observances used by the 
lower orders in watching a dead body dur¬ 
ing one or two nights before interment; 
candles being lighted around it, and the 
watchers being supplied with tobacco, 
whiskey, &c.; such wakes were formerly at 
least but too often scenes of disorder and 

excess.-The wake of a ship is the track 

it leaves in the water. By her wake the 
! sailors are enabled to judge what way the 
! ship makes. If the wake be right astern, 
they conclude she makes her way forwards ; 
but if it be to leeward a point or two, then 
they conclude she falls to the leeward of 
; her course. When one ship, giving chase 
to another, is got as far into the wind, and 
sails directly after her, they say, she has 
got into into her wake. 

WAL'DENSES, in Ecclesiastical History, 
; a sect which derived its name from Peter 
I Waldo, a merchant of Lyons, who preached 
J his peculiar doctrine about the year 1180. 
j They have been confounded with the Vau- 
dois, who existed before them; and with 
the Albigcnses to whom Manichiean tenets 
have been, though without sufficient au¬ 
thority, imputed. They arc believed to 
J have rejected an established succession in 
the priesthood and the Roman Catholic 
doctrine of the sacraments; also to have 
protested against the ecclesiastical abuses 
| of the time, as well as against oaths, law¬ 
suits, warfare, and the accumulation of 
I wealth. 

WALES OF A SHIP, an assemblage of 
strong planks, extending along a ship’s 
’ sides, throughout the whole length, at dif- 
i ferent heights; and serving to strengthen 
the decks and form the curves. They are 
distinguished into the main wale and the 
channel wale. 

WALI/-CRESS, the common name of 
plants belonging to the genus Arabis, nat. 
ord. Cruciferce. 

WALL'-EYE, the Glaucoma, a disease in 

the crystalline humour of the eye.-In 

horses, an eye in which the iris is of a very 
i light gray colour. 

WALL'-FLOWER, a hardy evergreen 
! plant of the genus Cheiranthus, which, in 
I the wild state, grows in the clefts of rocks 
I and old walls; producing a fine golden- 
I yellow flower, strongly and agreeably 
scented. When cultivated, it is a beautiful 
i and favourite ornamental plant, the flowers 
' being of various shades, large, and bril¬ 
liant. There are many species. 

WALL '-KNOT, in the Marine, a particu¬ 
lar sort of large knot raised upon the end 


Cmtiurg. [war 

of a rope by untwisting the strands and in 
ter weaving them against each other. 

WALL PLATE, in Architecture, a piece 
of timber placed on a wall for girders, joists, 
and other timbers to rest upon. 

WAL'NUT, the fruit of a well-known 
deciduous tree, the Jtiglans regia, of which 
the native country is Persia. Previously 
to the very general introduction of mahog¬ 
any, the wood of the walnut-tree was ex¬ 
tensively used by cabinet-makers and 
turners; and it is considered superior to 
every other sort of wood for the mounting 
of guns. In N. America there are several 
other species of Juglans, of which the 
Black Walnut (J. nigra) and the Butter nut 
(J. cinerea) are the most useful. 

WAL'ltUS, in Zoology, the Morse or sea¬ 
horse. [See Morse.] 

WALTZ ( walzen: Germ.), a national 
German dance, but now common in Eng¬ 
land, and other European countries. It is 
said to have originated in Bohemia. 

WAM'PUM, sea-worn fragments of the 
Venus mercenaria ,or bivalve shell, used by , 
the American Indians as money or a me¬ 
dium of commerce. These shells are run 
on a string, and form a broad belt, whieli 
is worn as an ornament or girdle. 

WANDEROO', in Zoology, a monkey of 
Ceylon and Malabar. The other monkeys 
are said to pay it a profound respect; and 
its appearance is certainly grave and vener¬ 
able ; but it docs not seem endowed in any 
special way. 

WAN'LASS, or driving the wav lass, an old 
Law term for driving deer to a stand, that 
the lord may have a shoot; an ancient cus¬ 
tomary tenure of lands. 

WAP'EJS'TAKE (weapon take), in Law, a 
division or district, peculiar to some of the 
northern counties of England; and an¬ 
swering to the hundred, or cantrcd, in other 
counties. Yorkshire is subdivided into 
wapentakes. This name had its origin in 
a custom of touching lances or spears, when 
the chief or leading man of the hundred 
entered on his office. 

WAPITI DEER, tho Red Deer of the 
Canadians, the Cervus Canadensis of 
zoologists. It is a large but stupid animal, 
and its flesh is of inferior quality. The 
male carries five antlers, which are shed 
annually. 

WAR (tear: Sax.), a contest between 
nations or states, carried on by force; either 
for defence, for redressing wrongs, for the 
extension of commerce or acquisition of 
territory, or for obtaining and establishing 
the superiority and dominion of one over 
the other. When war is commenced by at¬ 
tacking a nation in peace, it is called an 
offensive war, and such attack is aggressive. 
When war is undertaken to repel invasion 
or the attacks of an enemy, it is called de- < 
fensive; and such a war is not only justifi¬ 
able, but laudable .—Civil War, a state of 
internal hostility, in which opposite parties I 
of the same nation contend for the mastery j 

by force of arms.- Holy' 1 Var, a term I 

given to a crusade undertaken for the pur¬ 
pose of delivering tho Holy Land, or Juuaa, 
from infidels. These holy wars were carried 
on by most v.nholy means.- Declaration of j 






















STfjc Jjcteuttfic antt 


796 


ward] 


War. Formal declarations of war, by 
Heralds, are now out of use; there is at 
present merely a Manifesto [which see]; 
and the permission of reprisals is usually 
the step which precedes actual hostilities. 
By the law of nations, enemies who have 
not been taken in arms, or who have sub¬ 
mitted, are not to be put to death; neither 
are prisoners, except in very extreme cases. 
Acts of hostility are lawful only when com¬ 
mitted by the express or implied command 
of the state; hence bands of marauders 
may be treated as banditti, and private 
citizens taking up arms are liable to be 
considered as such. The property belong¬ 
ing to the government of a vanquished 
nation belongs to the victors ; but not that 
of private individuals, unless found at sea. 
It has been the custom of Great Britain to 
seize and condemn as droits of Admiralty 
the property of an enemy found in our 
ports at the commencement of hostilities. 

WARD ( wecerdian , to guard: Sax.), in 
Law, the heir of the king’s tenant in capite, 
during his nonage; whence the term has 
since been applied to all infants under the 
power of guardians; or such as are under 
the control and protection of the lord 
chancellor, who are called wards in chan¬ 
cery. -A certain district, division, or 

quarter of a town or city, committed to an 
alderman. There are twenty-six ivards in 
London. 

WAR'DEN (same deriv.), a keeper; as, 

the warden of a prison, &c.- Warden of a 

college, the head or president.- Lord War¬ 

den of the Cinque Ports. The constable of 
Dover Castle was appointed to this office, 
and was made guardianof the adjacentcoast 
by William the Conqueror. The lord warden 
has the authority of admiral in the Cinque 
Ports, and their dependencies. He formerly 
had power to-hold a court of admiralty, 
and courts of law and equity. He was the 
returning officer of all the ports, and his 
salary was 3000?. per annum. [See Cinque 

Ports.] - There is also a Lord Warden of 

the Stannaries. [See Stannaries.] 

WARD'MOTE, a court kept in every ward 
in London, usually called the wardmote 
court. It has power every year to inquire 
into all detlciencies with regard to the 
officers of the ward, to prevent disorders, 
gaming, &c. 

WARD'-ROOM, a room in a ship of the 
line, appropriated to the principal officers; 
in frigates it is called the gun-room. 

WARP (wearp: Sax.), in Weaving, the 
thi'eads which are extended lengthwise in 
the loom, and crossed by the woof. — In 
Nautical affairs, a rope or towing line, em¬ 
ployed in drawing, towing, or removing a 

boat or Vessel.-In Agriculture, a slimy 

substance deposited on land by rivers liable 
to overflow; the mud they contain is de¬ 
posited sometimes to the depth of one or 
two inches, and contributes greatly to the 
fertility of the soil; warping has been 
practised on the banks of the Po, and 
other rivers in the north of Italy, from the 
earliest times. 

WAR'RANT (i guarantir, to warrant: Fr.), 
in Law, a precept, under band and seal, au¬ 
thorizing an officer to seize an offender, 


and bring him to justice.- Warrant of 

attorney, an authority given by a person to 
an attorney to appearand plead for him; 
or in a more general sense, that by which a 
man appoints another to act in liis name, 

and warrants his transaction.- Search 

warrant, a precept authorizing a person to 
enter houses, &c., to search for stolen or 
contraband goods, or to discover whether a 

criminal be there concealed.- Warrant 

officer an officer holding a warrant from the 
navy board; the gunner, boatswain, and 
carpenter are warrant officers.- Press war¬ 

rant, in the navy, a warrant issued by the j 
admiralty, authorizing an officer to impress 
seamen. 

WAR'RANTY (same deriv.), in Law, a 
promise or covenant, by which a purchaser 
may have satisfaction from a seller, if he 
sells what is not his own, or that for which 
he has not a sufficient title. Warranty of 
real property is obsolete; and, with re¬ 
gard to things personal, no express war¬ 
ranty is now required that the buyer may 
have satisfaction if the title of the seller 
was deficient. The seller is not obliged to 
answer for the goodness of an article, un¬ 
less at the time of sale he lias warranted it 
to be good ; or unless he has in any way 
misrepresented it. Every affirmation made 
by the vendor, at the time of sale in rela¬ 
tion to the goods, amounts to a warranty. | 

WAR'REN ( garenne: Fr.; from wahren, 
to protect: Teuton.), a franchise or privileg¬ 
ed place for keeping beasts and fowls of the 
warren; hares, partridges, pheasants, and 
rabbits, to which some had quails, wood¬ 
cocks, waterfowl, &c. In common lan¬ 
guage, a warren is a surface of poor sandy 
soil, on which rabbits are kept. 

WASH, the fermented liquor, from which 
spirit is distilled. 

WASP (wcesp: Sax.; from vespa: Lat.), 
a genus of hymenopterous insects, the fe¬ 
male and neuter of which have powerful 
and venomous stings. The nests of wasps 
are highly curious structures, divided into 
cells, with walls made of vegetable sub¬ 
stances, and as they do not lay up honey 
like bees, they die, or are torpid in the win¬ 
ter. The hornet is larger than the common 
wasp, and forms its nest in holes or roots 
of trees, but both are equally voracious. 

WAS'SAIL-BOWL, a large drinking 
vessel, in which the Saxons, at their public ; 
entertainments, drank health to each other, 
saying, ‘ Wees hsel! ‘ Health be to you!’ 

or ‘ Your health 1 ’ It was also a Saxon cus¬ 
tom, to go about with such a bowl, at the 1 
time of the Epiphany, singing a festival 
song, drinking the health of the inhabit- : 
ants, and, of course, collecting money to 
replenish the bowl. This custom, from 
which christmas-boxes, christmas-ale, bell¬ 
men’s verses, and carols, are all, probably, 
more or less derived, was called wassailing; 
and those who practised it icassailers. In 
some parts of the kingdom, the primitive 
custom, and its name, are still retained. 

WASTE ( Teut .), in Law, the destruction, 
or removal of, or injury to something, 
forming an essential part of an inheritance: 
as houses, timber, &e. Neglect of repairs 
is permissive or omissive waste ; actual in 
























797 


llttcrarj) Croufttrg* 


[water 


jury is voluntary or commissive waste. 
Equitable waste, comprehends acts not 
deemed waste at Common Law. The 
j remedy for waste is hy action of trespass 
! on the case, by the person in reversion or 
; remainder; this action may be maintained 
by one having any immediate interest in 
expectancy; it may be had not only against 
the tenant, but against any stranger who 
has committed an act of waste; and will 
! also lie at the suit of one joint tenant 
or tenants in common against another. An 
J analogous action, called an action for dila¬ 
pidations, may be maintained by a rector 
I or vicar against his predecessor or the exe¬ 
cutors of his predecessor: and this for per- 

i missive, as well as voluntary w r aste.- 

i ll’nsfe land, a tract not in cultivation, and 
] producing little or no useful herbage or 
I wood. About the end of the last century 
! there were six millions of acres of such 
land in Great Britain; of which four mil¬ 
lions might be brought under the plough ; 
and most of the remainder might be used 
for growing wood, but much of this has 
since been enclosed. 

WATCH {wcece: Sax.), in the Marine, de¬ 
notes the space of time during which one 
I division of the ship’s crew remains upon 
deck to keep watch, the crew being gene¬ 
rally divided into two, or in large ships, 

| into three parts, for this purpose. The 
| watches are termed starboard and larboard 
watches. The period of time called awatch, 
is four hours, the reckoning beginning at 
] noon or midnight. There are also what are 
j called dog-watches, which last only two 
| hours, and are formed by the division 
: of the watch between four and eight, p.m., 
into two parts, to break the constant recur¬ 
rence of three watches at the same hours. 

-To set the watch, is to appoint that divir 

sion of the crew which is to enter on the 

watch.-To relieve the watch, is to relieve 

those on duty, by changing the watch.- 

Watch-bill, a list of the officers and crew 
who are appointed to the watch ; together 
with the several stations to which each man 

belongs.- Watch, a pocket instrument for 

measuring time, in which the machinery is 
moved by a steel spring, coiled up, and act¬ 
ing by various ingenious contrivances. The 
spring is in a brass box called the barrel; 
and is combined with a tapering fusee, on 
which a connecting chain is wound by the 
key. The spring being fastened at one end 
to the barrel, and at the other end to an 
arbor or axle, unwinds off the fusee, turn¬ 
ing it, and keeping the watch going; while 
the action of the fusee accommodates it¬ 
self, by its varying size, to the varied energy 
of the spring. [See Fusee.] The force 
being thus produced, other wheels are put 
in motion ; and time is exactly measured by 
the hands on the dial. The watch manufac¬ 
ture consists of almost innumerable depart¬ 
ments. When executed in a more perfect 
manner, for the purposes of navigation, 
watch is termed a chronometer [which see]. 
Watches are said to have been first made 
at Nuremberg, as early as 1477; they were 
originally of various shapes, and must 
have been very imperfect until the inven¬ 
tion of the spiral spring as a regulator to the 


balance, which took place about the year 
1658. The Swiss trade in watches is very 
considerable ; the works are manufactured 
by the female peasants in the mountainous 
districts, and are put together in the 
towns. 

WATCH AND WARD {wcecce, to watch ; 
and wece.rdian, to guard: Sax.), the custom 
anciently observed of watching by night, 
and warding or keeping the peace by day 
in towns and cities, which was first ap¬ 
pointed by Henry III. The word watch, 
properly applied to the night; ward, to the 
day. 

WATER {wceter: A.-Sax.), a transparent 
and colourless compound fluid, destitute 
of smell, nearly without taste, and almost 
incompressible—a pressure equal to 2000 
atmospheres occasioning a diminution of 
only one-ninth of its bulk. It is composed 
of two substances, neither of which can bo 
exhibited separately, except in the gaseous 
form ; and when aeriform, they are known, 
the one as hydrogen gas, or inflammable 
air; the other as oxygen gas, or vital air. 
These gases, in the proportion of about two 
measures of hydrogen to one of oxygen, 
when united chemically, and reduced from 
the form of air to that of a liquid, consti¬ 
tute the fluid we call water. It passes to 
the solid state at 32° Fahr. When it shoots 
into ice, it forms in the first place a prism, 
not very regular in shape, but very long ; 
and undergoes an enlargement in volume. 
In the act of freezing, too, the greater part 
of the air, which the water holds loosely 
dissolved, is expelled. At 212°, under a 
medium atmospheric pressure, water boils, 
but returns unaltered to its liquid state on 
resuming any temperature below thispoint. 
j All water which has been exposed to the 
atmosphere (as spring and river water) con¬ 
tains a portion of air, from which it derives 
a sparkling quality and agreeable taste. It 
is thus also fitted for supporting the re¬ 
spiration of fishes. A strong attraction is 
exerted between water and the fixed alka¬ 
lies, so also between it and the alkaline 
earths. From the extensive solvent power 
of water, it is scarcely ever met with pure 
in nature; every kind being impregnated 
either with saline, earthy, or mineral sub¬ 
stances. The simple waters are the follow¬ 
ing:—1. Distilled water. Tliisis the lightest 
of all others, containing neither solid nor 
gaseous substances in solution, is perfectly 
void of taste and smell, colourless and 
transparent, has a soft feel, and wets the 
fingers more readily than the other. As it 
freezes exactly at 32° of Fahrenheit, and 
boils at 212° under the atmospherical pres¬ 
sure of 29'8 inches; these are made use of 
as the standard points for thermometrical 
division ; and Its weight being always the 
same under the mean pressure and temper¬ 
ature, it is employed for the comparative 
standard of specific gravity. 2. Rainwater, 
the next in purity to distilled water, tethat 
which has undergone a natural distillation 
from the earth, and is condensed in the 
form of rain. It so nearly approaches ab¬ 
solute purity, when unmixed with the sul¬ 
phate of lime and calcareous matter which 
it imbibes when it falls in towns, from the 

















WATER BAILIFF] 


mortar and plaster of the houses, as pro- 
| bably to be equal to distilled water for 
every purpose except in the nicer chemical 
j experiments. 3. Icc and snow-water. This 
| equals rain-water in purity, and when fresh 
melted, contains no air, which is expelled 
during congelation. 4. Spring-water. Under 
this comprehensive class are included all 
waters that rise from some depth beneath 
the soil, and are used at the fountain head, 
or at least before they have run any con¬ 
siderable distance, exposed to the air. When 
the ingredients are not such as to give any 
peculiar medicinal or sensible properties, it 
is distinguished as a hard or a soft spring, 
sweet or brackish, clear or turbid, or the 
like. By far the greater number of springs 
are cold ; but as they take their origin at 
some depth from the surface; and below 
the influence of the external atmosphere, 

! their temperature is, in general, pretty uni- 
I form during every vicissitude of season, 
j and always several degrees higher than the 
freezing point. The water of deep wells is 
much harder than that of springs which 
overflow their channel; for much agitation 
and exposure to air produce a gradual 
deposition of the calcareous earth ; and 
hence spring water often encrusts to a 
considerable thickness the inside of any 
| kind of tube through which it flows, as it 
arises from the earth. The specific gravity 
of these waters is also, in general, greater 
than that of any other kind of water, ex¬ 
cept that of the ocean. Springs that over¬ 
flow their channel, and form to themselves 
a limited bed, pass insensibly into the state 
of river water, and thus become altered 
! in some of their chemical properties. 5. 
River water. This is in general much softer 
and more free from earthy salts than the 
last, but contains less air of any kind ; for, 
by the agitation of a long current, and in 
most cases a great increase of temperature, 

1 it loses common air and carbonic acid, and 
1 much of the lime which it held in solution. 

! Its specific gravity, in this way, becomes 
[ less, its taste is not so harsh, but less fresh 
and agreeable, and out of a hard spring is 
often made a stream of sufficient purity for 
most of the purposes where soft water is 
required. Some of the mountain lakes and 
rivulets, however, which take their rise 
' from a silicious rock, and flow in a sandy 
or stony bed, are from the outset remark¬ 
ably pure. 0. Stagnant ivatcrs. These gene¬ 
rally abound with the remains of animal 
| and vegetable matter undergoing decom- 
| position ; and as they are usually shallow, 

| they receive the full influence of the sun, 
' which further promotes all the changes 
that are going on within them. The de¬ 
cidedly noxious effects produced by the 
air of marshes and stagnant pools have 
often been supposed to extend to the in¬ 
ternal use of these waters. It ought, how¬ 
ever, to be observed that they are generally 
soft, and many of the impurities are only 
suspended, and therefore separable by fil¬ 
tration. 7. Mineral ivaters, are unfit for 
common purposes ; and derive their pecu¬ 
liar properties from the substances which 
they hold in solution. But there are some, 
such as Malvern water, remarkable only for 


798 


extreme purity. Mineral waters are of 1 
various kinds. [See Mineral Waters.] 
Some are effervescent or sparkling, from 
containing carbonic acid. Chalybeate 
springs are more or less tonic and astrin¬ 
gent. Saline springs aperient and altera¬ 
tive. Mineral waters contain their active 
ingredients in very minute quantities. 
Much of tlie advantage to be derived from 
a course of mineral waters is, undoubtedly, 
due to the strict attention paid to diet, to 
bodily exercise, mental relaxations, and 
regular hours ; and, in some cases, to the 
diluent effects of pure water—which ex¬ 
plains the advantage of that of Malvern, in 
calculous complaints, &c. The great reser¬ 
voirs of water on the globe are the ocean, 
seas, and lakes, which cover more than 
two-thirds of its surface ; from these, it is 
raised by evaporation: and uniting with 
the air in thestate of vapour, is wafted over 
the earth, ready to be precipitated in the 
form of rain, snow, or hail. Sea water is 
remarkably constant in the nature and re¬ 
lative quantities of its ingredients. Its l 
spec. grav. is very considerable, siuce it 
contains more than three per cent, of solid 
matter; which consists chiefly of common 
salt, chloride of magnesia and lime, toge¬ 
ther with traces of chloride of potassium, 
chloride of ammonium (sal ammonia) car- | 
bonate of lime, bromide, and often iodide j 
of magnesium. [See Atmosphere, Hydro¬ 
gen, Oxygen, Gas, Bain, Bivers, &c.] 

-In Manufactures, a certain appearance, j 

imitating water: produced on silks, mo- ; 
hairs, &c. Watering causes the exhibition i 
of a variety of undulated reflections, and 1 
plays of light.- Water, in Marine phra¬ 

seology, denotes the state of the water at 
sea: as high-water, low-water, foul-water, 

dead-water, &c.- Water, in Mineralogy, 

a term used by lapidaries for the lustre of 

precious stones.- Water of separation, a 

name given by refiners to aqua fortis.be- 
cause it separates gold from silver. 

WA'TER BAILIFF, in Law, an officer in 
seaport towns who searches ships. 

WATER-BET'ON Y.tlie Scrophularia aqua- 
tica of botanists, a perennial. 

WA'TER-COLOUR PAINTING, that in 
which the colour is levigated with water 
and gum. It has been latterly carried to 
great perfection, and nearly rivals oil-paint¬ 
ing in everything but durability. 

WA'TEB-COUBSE, any natural or artifi¬ 
cial stream of water; as a river, a canal, and 
the like. 

WA'TEB-CRESS, the Nasturtium offi¬ 
cinale of botanists, nat. ord. crucifercc, a i 
perennial plant that grows on the margin 
of clear streams, or even partly immersed 
in the water. Great quantities are con¬ 
sumed as salad; and of late years it has 
been cultivated to a considerable extent. 
The plant is also employed in medicine as an 
antiscorbutic. 

WATER-DEVIL, a name given by some 
to the Larva of a British beetle, a species 

of Hydrophilus. 

WATER-GAVEL, in old writers, a rent 
paid for fishing, or any other benefit re¬ 
ceived from some river. 

WATER-GLASS, a solution of silicatcd 


CDTjc Jsctcnttfic aittf 


























7 09 _ Etterarj) 

soda, which is sometimes obtained by dis¬ 
solving broken flints in a solution of caustic 
soda at a temperature of 300° F., assisted by 
pressure. Another mode of producing 
soluble glass is to melt together, in a re¬ 
verberating furnace, white sand and dry 
carbonate of soda. After six hours of 
strong firing, the melted charge runs out 
as perfect glass, from which bottles, &c„ 
may be blown and moulded. Boiling wa¬ 
ter, however, dissolves this glass. Some of 
the uses of water-glass are mentioned un¬ 
der Stereochrome and Stone, Artifi¬ 
cial. It is also employed in the manu¬ 
facture of soap to the saving of oil and 
tallow. 

WA'TEIt-LEVEL, a contrivance for find¬ 
ing the level of roads or grounds, by means 
of a surface of water or other fluid, founded 
on the principle that water always finds its 
own level. It consists of a long wooden 
trough, which, being filled with water, 
shows the line of level. 

WATER-LILY, the name of some aquatic 
plants belonging to the genus Nymphcea, 
the flowers of which are large, and contain 
j numerous petals, so as to appear double. 

In the morning, they raise themselves 
I out of the water to expand, and close 
again, reposing upon the surface, in the af¬ 
ternoon. 

WA"TER-LINE, a horizontal line sup¬ 
posed to be drawn about a ship’s bottom, 
at the surface of the water. When the cargo 
is on board, it is called the load water line; 
otherwise, the light ivater line. 

WATER-LOGGED, a term applied to a 
ship w r hen, by leaking, and receiving a great 
; quantity of water into her hold, she has bc- 
| come so heavy as to be totally unmanage¬ 
able. Having lost her buoyancy, she yields 
to the effect of every wave passing over her 
deck. 

WATER-MARK, the utmost limit of the 
rise of the flood.-The mark visible in pa¬ 

per, and which is made in the manufactu¬ 
ring. [See Paper.] 

WATER-MELON, the cucumis cilrullus 
of botanists, a plant-belonging to the nat. 
ord. cucurbitacecB. To bring it to perfection, 
this plant requires a warm climate, and a 
dry, sandy, warm soil. The fruit is remark¬ 
ably rich, and it abounds with a sweetish 
liquor. 

WATER-MILL, a mill whose machinery 
is moved by water : and thus distinguished 
from a wind-mill, steam-mill, &c. Water¬ 
mills for grinding corn were invented by 
Belisarius, while besieged in Rome by the 
Goths, 555. 

WA'TER-ORDE'AL. [See Ordeal.] 

WATER-ORME, in the Marine, an epi¬ 
thet for the state of a ship which has barely 
a sufllcient depth of water to float her off 
the ground. 

WA'TER-rOISE, in Mechanics, an in¬ 
strument formerly used for trying the 
strength of liquors; the hydrometer, &c., 
are now employed for the purpose. 

WA'TER-SHED, the line of, or the ridge 
line of a district, is that line from which 
the ground slopes downwards on each 
! side. Rain falling on this line will run in 
opposite directions. Such a line divides 


Cuea^ttvy. [wattle 


one river-basin from another, and one 
valley from another. It3 course is usu¬ 
ally very irregular both in altitude and 
azimuth. 

WATER-SHOOT, in Botany, a sprig 
which springs out of the root or stock of a 
tree. 

WATERSPOUT, an aqueous meteor, 
most frequently observed at sea ; rising at 
first in the form of a small cloud, which 
afterwards enlarges, and, assuming the 
shape of a cone, with its apex downwards, 
is driven furiously by the wind, and is often 
accompanied with thunder and lightning; 
causing destruction, when it bursts, to 
whatever happens to be within the sphere 
of its action. When it appears at Eea, 
there are generally two cones, one pro¬ 
jecting from the cloud, the other from the 
water below it; and they sometimes unite, 
their union having been observed to be 
accompanied with a flash of lightning ; but 
more usually disperse while separate. It is 
probably caused by a whirlwind of extreme 
intensity. 

WATER-TABLE,, in Architecture, a 
projection or horizontal set-off, in a wall, j 
intended to throw off the water from the 
building. 

WATER-WAY, in a ship’s deck, a piece 
of timber, forming a channel for conducting 
water to the scuppers. 

WATER-WHEEL, in Hydraulics, an 
engine for raising water: [See Persian 
Wheel]. Also awheel turned by the force 
of water, and used for giving motion to 
machinery. The water-wheel is of two 
kinds; the vertical and the horizontal, or 
turbine [which see]. Vertical water-wheels 
are either over shot, under shot, or breast 
wheels. The overshot wheel is moved almost 
entirely by the weight of the water, which 
it receives and retains for some time in its 
buckets. The undershot wheel is moved 
almost entirely by the momenture of the 
water, which strikes against its float- 
boards. The breast wheel is moved both 
by the weight and momenture of the 
water, which it receives at about half its 
height, and which is retained by its float- 
boards and the curved masonry behind 
them, until it passes out, under the wheel 
below. 

WATER-WORKS, in general, denote 
every description of machinery employed in 
raising or sustaining water; in which sense, 
water-mills of all kinds, sluices, aqueducts, 
&c., may be so 'called. The term water¬ 
works, however, is more particularly used 
for such machines as are employed only in 
raising water. 

WATER OP CRYSTALLIZATION, that 
definite quantity of water which enters 
into the composition of most crystallized 
salts, and without which they cannot retain 
their crystalline form. It is not necessary 
to crystallization in all cases : thus crystals 
of nitre and sulphate of potash contain no 
water; on the other hand, some crystallized 
salts contain so much, that, when heated, 
they melt in it, forming in reality hot 
salinated solutions. 

WATTLE, the fleshy excrescence that 
grows under the throat of a cock oi turkey; 


























Efjc Actenttfic auli 


800 


| wave] 

or a like substance on a fish. Also, a twig [ 
or flexible rod. Also, a name given to cer¬ 
tain species of Acacia in Australia. 

WAVE (wccge: A.-Sax.), the alternate ele¬ 
vation and depression of the surface of a 
fluid. When this surface is pressed down 
at any part, the adjoining parts rise, but 
sink again by the action of gravity; and, 
acquiring a velocity due to their height, 
descend below the original level, communi¬ 
cating in their turn a pressure to others 
near them, which rise and sink in a similar 
| way; and thus a reciprocating motion is 
prodneed. When the depth is sufficient to 
; allowthe oscillations to proceed unimpeded, 

' no progressive motion of the fluid takes 
place; but, when free oscillation is pre¬ 
vented by a shelving shore, the interposi¬ 
tion of a rock and the columns in deep 
water are not balanced by those in shal¬ 
lower, and therefore acquire a progressive 
motion towards the latter,forming breakers. 
When caused by the agitation of a small 
portion of the fluid, by,for example, a stone 
thrown into it, the waves appear to advance 
in concentric circles, their height diminish¬ 
ing as they proceed; but there is no pro¬ 
gressive motion of the fluid itself, as will 
be shown by any light body floating on its 
surface. The whole seems to roll onward, 
but in reality each particle of water only 
oscillates with a vertical ascent and de¬ 
scent. Two sets of waves will cross each 
| other without any mutual interruption, 
j Waves meeting with an obstacle, such as a 
wall, &c., will be reflected backwards, ac- 
I cording to the laws to which light and 
sound are subjected; if there be a small 
aperture in the obstacle, the waves will be 
| propagated beyond it, and diverge as from 
| acentre. Waves atsea, caused by the wind, 
j have a progressive as well as an oscillatory 
j motion ; except increased by the wind sud¬ 
denly veering about, they do not exceed 
about six feet in height; and the effect of 
| the wind never reaches to a greater depth 
than about 30 or 40 feet. The progressive 
wave sent forward by a floating body, or 
generated in any other way, differs entirely 
in its character and phenomena from the 
oscillatory waves of the sea. Its velocity ! 
varies as the square root of the depth of j 
the water; and hence a wave of high water 
of a spring tide travels faster than a wave 
of high water of a neap tide; and any 
change in the depth of rivers produces a 
corresponding change in the interval be¬ 
tween the moon’s transit and the hour of 
high water. 

WAVED, or WAVY (same derh O, in He¬ 
raldry, indented. 

WA'VELLITE.in Mineralogy, a hydrated 
phosphate of alumina, called also Jlydrar- 
gillite. It is usually found in crystals, that 
adhere and radiate; forming hemispherical 
or globular concretions ; from a very small 
size to an inch in diameter. 

WAX (weexe: Sax.), in Natural History, 
the substance with which bees build their 
cells. They carry the farina or 'pollen 
on their hinder legs; but, according to 
Reaumur, this dust does not contain any 
real wax; nor is this latter substance pro¬ 
duced by the mixture of the farina with a 


glutinous liquor, by trituration, or by any 
other mechanical process. In reality, it 
constitutes the food of the Larvae. After 
long and attentive observation, this natu- I i 
ralist found, that when bees eat the pollen, [ 
it is converted, by an animal process, into 
wax : bees fed entirely on sugars will still 
produce wax. There is a wax that forms 
the varnish, with which the leaves of se¬ 
veral trees are coated,and isfound on some i 
berries, as those of the Myrica Ccrifera, ! 
forms the green fecula of many plants, ! 
particularly of the cabbage, and may be ex- j 
traded from the pollen of most flowers; j | 
but it slightly differs from bees’wax. The | 
latter is the secretion of a certain organ, 
situated on the sides of the median line of 
the abdomen of the bee: each individual 
has eight wax sacs or pouches. Wax from 
the comb has the smell of honey, and is of a 
yellow colour. It is purified and bleached, 
by melting it with hot water or steam, 
and then exposing it in thin ribbons to the 
action of air, light, and moisture. When 
purified, wax is white ; and, if in thin seg¬ 
ments, translucent; it has neither taste 
nor smell; its specific gravity is about 
0 - 963. It liquefies at 154-5° Fahr.; but it 
becomes rlastic at 86°; at 32° it is hard and 
brittle. It consists of two substances, 
which are separated by boiling alcohol; 
one of them, myricin, being left behind. 
The alcoholic solution deposits cerin on 
cooling. Both these proximate principles 
are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. Wax is often adulterated with 
starch; this may be detected by oil of 
turpentine, which dissolves the wax, and 
leaves the starch. It is still more fre¬ 
quently adulterated with mutton suet ; 
this is detected by dry distillation ; when, 
if tallow is present, sebacic acid will be 
formed, and will cause a precipitate on 
acetate of lead. It is also adulterated with 
stearine or stearic acid; this may be de¬ 
tected by the odour of tallow, caused by 
heating it highly; also by its crumbly 
texture. Lastly, it is adulterated with 
spermaceti, which takes away its peculiar 
pearly lustre, and renders it more soft and 
fusible. [See Bee.] 

WAX-FOSSIL, or Ozokerite, a brownish 
mineral, found in Moldavia, having several 
of the characters of bees’ wax. 

WAX-MYRTLE, in Botany, the Myrica 
ccrifera, or Bay-berry, a Nortli American 
shrub, the berries of which arc covered 
with a greenish wax, called myrtle-wax, or 
bay-berry tallow; it i3 slightly different 
from bees’ wax. [See Wax.] 

WAX-PALM, in Botany, the Ceroxylon 
andicola, a species of palm growing on the 
Andes, the stem of which is covered with 
a secretion, consisting of two-tliirds resin 
and one-third wax. 

WAX'-WORK, figures formed of wax, in 
imitation of real persons. Wax is used 
with great success in representing anato- 
mical details. 

WAY, the Nautical term for progress; 
when a ship is advancing, she is said to 
have way upon her: when stationary, to 
have no way. 

WAYS AND MEANS, the financial re- 























801 Ettcvacj) 


sources to meet the public expenditure; or 
supplies voted by parliament. 

WEALD-CLAY (weald, a wood or grove: 
A.-Sax.), in Geology, a tenacious blue clay, 
which forms the sub-soil of the wealds of 
Kent and Sussex. In it are contained sub¬ 
ordinate beds of sandstone and shelly lime¬ 
stone, with layers of septaria of argilla¬ 
ceous iron-stone. The Wealden strata in¬ 
clude the Weald-clay (freshwater) and the 
Hastings sand group (marine). They form 
the inferior division of the lower Creta¬ 
ceous or Neocomian series. 

WEATHER (« tether: Sax.), the state of 
the air or atmosphere with respect to heat 
or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, 
&c. [See Air, Atmosphere, Cloud, Rain, 
Storms, &c.] Mankind, in all ages, have 
supposed that the weather is influenced in 
some way by the moon. This belief, how- 
! ever, has no foundation; for she cannot 
i act on the earth by reflecting the solar rays, 
since her light is only the 100,000th part of 
| that of the sun ; and the heat she causes is 
utterly inappreciable; nor by her attraction, 
since the effect of this on the air, which 
i has so little density, must be extremely 
feeble ; nor, lastly, by some obscure emana¬ 
tion, since the most careful meteorological 
| observations have never detected any such 
thing. The registers kept at the various 
observatories show that the moon’s phases 
are not connected in any way with the 
weather. 

WEATH'ER-CLOTHES, in a ship, long 
pieces of canvas or tarpauling used to pre¬ 
serve the hammocks from injury by the 
weather when stowed ; or to defend persons 
from the wind and spray. 

WEATH'EIt-GAUGE, or WEATH'ER- 
; GAGE, a naval term ; a ship is said to have 
the weather-gauge of another when she is 
at the windward of her. 

WEATH'ER-HELM. A ship is said to 
carry a weather-helm when she is inclined 
to come too near the wind. 

WEATH'ERING, a geological term, sig¬ 
nifying the action of meteoric influences 
(rain, frost, the oxygen of the atmosphere, 
&c.) upon the crust of the globe. This 
action is always one of degradation. 

WEATH'ER-TIDE, the tide which sets 
against the lee-side of a ship, impelling her 
to windward. 

WEAV'ER BIRDS, the popular name 
given to a tribe of birds belonging to the 
j finch family, on account of the skill they 
| display in forming their nests. They are 
natives of hot climates in the old world. 
The common weaver bird ( Ploceus Baya) 
lives in India, and constructs a pendent 
nest shaped like a retort, specimens of 
which are often seen in museums. It usu- 
! ally hangs from the leaf of a tall palm tree. 
The grasses or leaf strips of which it is 
com posed are very artistically plaited to¬ 
gether, and so substantial as to defy the 
heaviest rains of the monsoons. The Why- 
dah (or 'Widow) birds, of the western coast 
of Africa, belong to this tribe. 

WE'AYING ( wevan, to weave: Sax.), in 
Manufactures, the act or art of forming 
cloth in a loom, by the union or intertex¬ 
ture of threads; which is done by crossing 


Cl‘Ca£Ul'Ih [WEDNESDAY 


the threads by means of a shuttle. The 
threads first laid in length are called the 
warp ; those which cross them in the direc¬ 
tion of their breadth are called the weft or 
woof. Weaving is an art of great antiquity, 
aud gives employment in all nations to a 
large portion of the population. In Eng¬ 
land, Leeds is the centre of woollen cloth 
weaving; Manchester of cotton weaving; 
Macclesfield of silk weaving; Nottingham 
of stocking weaving: and Kidderminster 
of carpet weaving. The machinery used 
for weaving in the earliest times, though 
perhaps rude in its construction, was, in 
principle, similar to that still in use ; and 
the process of fulling and preparing the 
cloth seems to have resembled the modern 
practice in every particular, except that of 
shearing the nap, with which the ancients 
do not appear to have been acquainted. 
Muslins are to this day manufactured by 
the primitive loom in India, probably with¬ 
out alteration of the form in use during 
the earliest ages of its invention. In ancient 
times, it is probable that only enough cloth 
to form a single dress was woven at once; 
since ancient records do not speak of its 
being sold by measure. The manufacture | 
of flexible stuffs by means of machinery, i 
operating on a large scale, is an invention 
of the last century; it has given birth to 
some of the most elaborate combinations of 
mechanism, and constitutes an important 
source of our national wealth. Thejaquard 
loom, a most admirable contrivance for 
saving time and simplifying the process of 
weaving silks, &c., in complicated patterns, 
is likely to be superseded by a more simple 
machine, in which electro-magnetism is 
most ingeniously applied to the production 
of complicated movements. 

WEB'-FOOTED, in Natural History, pal¬ 
miped, or having feet like a goose or 
duck. 

WEDGE ( wegge: Belg.), in Geometry, a 
prism with triangular bases.-In Me¬ 

chanics, one of the six mechanical powers, 
reducible to the inclined plane, and go¬ 
verned by the same laws. It is used some¬ 
times for raising bodies, but more usually 
for dividing or splitting them; in the 
former case, the wedge is pushed under the 
body to be raised, but the effect is still 
that of an inclined plane, for the result is 
the same, and is estimated in the same 
way, whether the wedge is pushed under 
the load or the load is pushed over the 
wedge. When a wedge is driven forward 
by percussion, the power which acts upon 
it cannot be estimated with accuracy, or. 
account of the friction, which is very con¬ 
siderable. This, however, is greatly dimi¬ 
nished, for an instant, by the tremour 
caused by the blow; cutting and piercing 
tools are generally constituted on the prin¬ 
ciple of the wedge. 

WED'NESDAY (wodensday: Sax.), the 
fourth day of the week; consecrated by 
the Scandinavians to Woden, a deity that 
corresponded with Mercury of the Greeks 

and Romans.- Ash Wednesday, the first 

day of Lent. Some think the day to have 
received this name from the custom in 
the early ages of the church, of penitents 




















weed] 


(H)£ &acnttfic antf 


802 


appearing in sackcloth and with ashes on 
their heads. 

j WEED (weed, tares: Sax.), the general 
; name of any plant that is noxious or useless. 

! The ivord therefore has no definite applica¬ 
tion to any particular plant or species of 
; plants; but whatever kinds spring up in 
, fields or gardens that are injurious to crops 
I come under the appellation of iveeds. 

WEEK ( iveoc: Sax.), a cycle of seven 
days; the first day, Sunday, being the 
Christian festival to celebrate the Resur- 
■ rection ; and the seventh, Saturday, being 
the sabbath of the Jews. [Sec Saturday 
. and Sunday.] The Creeks did not divide 
! the year into weeks, nor the Romans, until 
after the reign of Theodosius. Some believe 
this division to have been suggested by the 
phases of the moon ; but others, with 
greater probability, by the seven planets 
known in ancient times, the days of the 
week being universally called after them. 
The Latin names of the days are still re¬ 
tained in legislative and judicial acts in 
this country. 

WEE'VIL ( wefel, a grub: Sax.), in En¬ 
tomology, a small coleopterous insect of 
the curculionidce. The corn-weevil (cal- 
andragranaria ) does great damage to wheat 
or other corn, by eating into the grain and 
devouring the farinaceous parts. 

WEIGHT ( wcegan, to weigh : Sax.), in 
Experimental Philosophy and Commerce, 
the measure of the force by which any 
given portion of matter gravitates to the 
earth. The determination of weight, like 
that of extension, consists in compari¬ 
son with some known standard. Two 
kinds of weight are used in England, the 
avoirdupois weight, in which the pound 
consists of 16 ounces, each ounce con¬ 
taining 437i grs., in all 7,000 grs.; and 
the troy weight, in which the pound is di¬ 
vided into i2 ounces, each ounce contain¬ 
ing 480 grs., in all 5,760 grs. Apothecaries 
weight is troy weight differently divided. 
The unit of French weight is a gramme, 
equal to 15 - 434 grs.- Weight, in Me¬ 

chanics, the resistance to be overcome by 
a machine. 

WEIR (wer: A.-Sax.), an embankment or 
dam of stone or timber placed across the 
channel of a stream for various purposes, 
such as the supplying a mill with water at 
a dry season, or the production of a reach 
of deep water for vessels where the river is 
shallow. 

WELD, the Beseda lutea of botanists, a 
wild British plant, the stalk and root of 
which are used in dyeing bright yellow and 

lemon colours.-1 Veld (mid, fire : Sax.), in 

ironworks, to unite or hammer into firm 
union two pieces of metal softened by 
heat. 

! WELL (welle: Sax.), a cylindrical excava¬ 
tion sunk perpendicularly into the earth to 
such a depth as to reach a supply of water, 
and walled with stone or brick to support 

the earth. [See Artesian Wells.]- 

Well, in the Military art, a shaft which the 
miner sinks under ground, with branches 
or galleries running out from it, either to 
prepare a mine, or to discover and counter-. 
j act the enemy’s mine.-In Ship-building, v 


a small enclosed place, near the mainmast; 
extending from the bottom of the ship to 
the principal gun deck, and containing the 
pumps. 

WELLINGTO'NIA, is the botanical natuo 
of a lofty coniferous tree, an inhabitant 
of California. A specimen was found of 
the enormous height of nearly 400 feet, 
and the age of it was estimated at 4,000 
years. 

WER'EGILD (Sax.), in Anglo-Saxon Law, 
the were, or compensation paid by a delin¬ 
quent to the party wronged, or his rela¬ 
tions, for injuries committed against the 
person. The ccerls, or nobility, were to bo 
paid six times as much as the cecerls, or 
commonalty. Weregild was usual among 
all the Teutonic and many of the Celtic J 
tribes, and is mentioned by Tacitus in his 
account of the ancient Germans. 

WER'NERITE, a mineral, consisting of \ 
silicate of alumina, lime, and oxide of iron. 

It is found massive, and crystallized in 
octahedral prisms with four-sided pyrami- 
dical terminations, disseminated in rocks 
of feldspar. It is of a grayish or olive- 
green colour, with a pearly lustre, and 
melts into a white enamel. 

WEST (Sax.), one of the cardinal points, 
being that point of the horizon where tho i 
sun sets at the equinox, or any point in a 
direct line between the spectator or other 
object, and that point of the horizon. In a 
less strict sense, it is that region of the 
hemisphere near the point where the sun 

sets when in the equator.-Formerly 

the empire of Rome was called the empire 
of the West, in opposition to the empire 
of the East, the scat of which was Con¬ 
stantinople. 

WHALE (liioale: Sax.), the name of some 
cetaceous marine mammals belonging to 
the families Balemidce and Physcteridce of 
zoologists. The latter include the Sperm 
whale family. In the former are placed 
the genera Bahenoptera (see Rorqual) 
and Balcena. The latter genus, distin¬ 
guished by the absence of a dorsal fin and by 
the smoothness|of the belly, includes tho 
Greenland or Right Whale (B. mysticetus), 
so much sought after for the oil extracted 
from its blubber, and for the material 
termed whale-bone, which forms plates in ! 
the upper jaw. This whale has been taken 
nearly 100 feet long. Animals of such enor¬ 
mous strength and magnitude, we might 
imagine, would spread terror and devasta¬ 
tion all around them, and make an indis- i 
criminate slaughter of the inferior tribes. 
No creature, however, is less voracious 
than the common whale; little animal sub¬ 
stance is ever found in its stomach; it 
feeds, as some allege, upon different in¬ 
sects that float on the surface; according 
to others, upon the medusa or sea-blubber. 
Its food, w r e are certain, must be minute, 
for the capacity of its throat does not ex¬ 
ceed four inches! a size beyond all propor- i 
tion smaller than that of other largo ; 
aquatic animals. To a slender appetite tho j 
whale adds peaceable and harmless man¬ 
ners ; it pursues no other inhabitant of tho 
waters, but leads an easy and quiet life on 
the bosom of tho waves, and is inoffensive 




























803 


Ettcranj Crentfttry. [wheel-work 


in proportion to its ability to do mischief. 
{See Fisheries.] 

WHEAT (hiccate: Sax.), a plant of the 
genus Triticum, and the seed of the plant, 
which furnishes a white flour for bread, 
and is the grain most generally used by the 
human race, except in those countries 
where rice forms the principal article 
of food. The varieties of wheat are nume¬ 
rous, though the difference between each 
kind is not very remarkable. The culture 
of wheat, from time immemorial, and in 
different soils and climates, has produced 
these varieties; the chief and most per¬ 
manent of which are the red and white 
grained, and the spring wheat, which is 
generally red. Wheat yields a greater pro¬ 
portion of flour than any other grain, and 
is also more nutritive. Gluten is so essen¬ 
tial an ingredient in bread, that fermenta¬ 
tion cannot go on without it; hence the 
inferiority of wheat in wet seasons, and 
when it is blighted or ill-ripened, this ele¬ 
ment being then deficient in quantity; and 
hence also the advantage of having a stock 
of old grain. The straw of wheat, from dry, 
chalky lands, is manufactured into hats. 
Leghorn hats are made from a bearded 
variety of wheat, not unlike rye, raised on 
poor sandy soils, on the banks of the Arno, 
between Leghorn and Florence, expressly 
for this manufacture. It does not grow 
above eighteen inches in length, is pulled 
green, and bleached, like flax, on the gra¬ 
velly bed of the river. The straws are not 
split, which renders the plait tougher and 
more durable. 

WHEAT'EAR, the English name of the 
Saxicola cenanthe of ornithologists, a small 
bird belonging to the same family as the 
redbreast and redstart; called also white-tail 
and fallow finch. It comes to our shores in 
the spring, and being an excellent article 
of food, immense numbers are annually 
taken, particularly on the South Downs of 
Sussex. 

WHEEL (hweol: Sax.), in Mechanics, a 
simple machine, consisting of a round piece 
of wood, or metal, which revolves on an 
axis. The wheel has an important place in 
most engines; it is of an assemblage of 
Wheels that most engines are composed. 
The centre of a wheel is like the fulcrum of 
a lever, and a simple action merely trans¬ 
fers the force on one side to the other side; 
but if wheels are so connected as to diminish 

velocity, then power is gained.- Wheel, 

in the military art, is the word of command, 
when a battalion or squadron is to alter its 
front either one way or the other. An 
order to wheel to the right, directs the man 
in the right angle to turn very slowly, and 
every one to wheel from the left to the 
right, regarding him as their centre; and 
viceversd, when they are to wheel to the left. 

- Wheel, in a ship, the wheel and axle, 

which move the tiller.- Water-wheel, in 

Hydraulics, one used to obtain a motive 
power from water. [See Water-Wheel.] 
wnEEL-WORK. Of all the modes of 
communicating motion, the most exten¬ 
sively useful is the employment of wheel- 
work ; which is capable of varying its di¬ 
rection and its velocity without any limit. 


When the pressure on the machinery is not 
very considerable, the wheels and axles are 
allowed to work by the friction of their sur- ; 
faces, which is increased by cutting the j 
wood so that the grains of the surfaces in ; 
contact shall run in opposite directions; 
also by gluing buffed leather upon the sur¬ 
faces of the wheels and axles. There are 
other ways of transmitting the force of 
each axle to the circumference of the suc¬ 
ceeding wheel, when the work to be done 
requires considerable force. One of these 
is, by ropes, straps, bands, or belts, which 
are placed round the circumference of the 
wheels that are to act upon each other. The 
action is in this manner transmitted by the 
tension of the band, &c., and rendered effec¬ 
tive by friction with the circumferences on 
which it is rolled. Wheels and axles con¬ 
nected in this manner are called band-ivhcels. 
When this method is used, a wheel may 
communicate amotion, which may be either 
direct or reverse, also more or less rapid, to 
another at a considerable distance; and the 
relative velocities may be alterable at plea¬ 
sure, by using two frusta of cones, the 
j narrow end of one being placed opposite to 
the wide end of the other. When any ma- 
' cliinery is to be occasionally thrown out of 
! action, the wheel or drum which drives it, 
is capable of connection with either a fast, 

| or a loose pulley ; in the former case, motion 
is communicated to the machinery ; in the 
latter, the loose pulley only is turned round 
by the prime mover, when bands would be 
liable to slip from want of sufficient fric¬ 
tion, on account of the greatness of the re¬ 
sistance; of when a very accurate motion 
is required, toothed wheels are used. [See ; 
Teeth of Wheels.] The teeth are some¬ 
times cast on the wheel, sometimes are fixed 
to it, and sometimes are cut by machinery. 
When two wheels of very unequal size act 
together, the larger is termed a wheel, and 
the smaller pinion wheels, are denominated 
spur, crown and bevel gear, according to 
, the position of their teeth. If the latter are 
perpendicular to the axis of the wheel, and 
in the direction of its radii, it is called a 
1 spur-wheel. If the teeth are parallel to the 
(axis of the wheel, and therefore perpendi¬ 
cular to its frame, it is called a crown-wheel. 
Two spur-wheels, or a spur-wheel and pi¬ 
nion which work in one another, are always i 
in the same plane, and have their axes pa¬ 
rallel ; but when a spur and crown-wheel 
are in connexion, their planes and axes are 
at right angles. When the teeth are ob¬ 
lique to the plane of the wheel, it is called 
a bevel-wheel, the use of which is to produce 
a rotatory motion round one axis, by means 
of a rotatory motion round another which 
is oblique to it; when the axes are at right 
angles, the wheels used are termed mitre 
wheels. When a varying velocity is to be 
produced by a uniform force, excentric 
square, and other shaped wheels are some¬ 
times made to act together; they remain 
connected on account of the sum of the 
radii of the parts, actually in contact, being 
always the same. An arrangementis some¬ 
times made for separating wheels which 
are intended to turn each other, and for 
reconnecting them at pleasure; the wheels 







































804 


WHEEL AND AXLe] OjC Jj'CtClUtflC HUtf 

I 


sre said to be thrown by these operations 
out of gear and into gear again. One of the 
j simplest modes of effecting this is to slide 
one of the -wheels along its axis, so that it 
| ceases to be opposite to the other. 

WHEEL AND AXLE, in Mechanics, one 
of the mechanical powers, reducible to the 
j Lever. It consists of a wheel, at the cir¬ 
cumference of which the power acts, and 
an axle, at the circumference of which the 
weight acts. Provided the power, in 
| moving, describes a circle, a wheel is not 
| required, a winch handle, &c., will answer 
j instead of it. The wheel and axle form a 
j lever with unequal arms, which never gets 
out of action : or more strictly, a series of 
| levers which have a common centre; but 
| of which only one acts at a time, that one 
whose arms are, at the moment, perpendi¬ 
cular to the direction of the power and 
weight. When there is equilibrium, the 
! power multiplied by the radius of the circle 
j which it describes, is equal to the weight 
multiplied by the radius of the axle. The 
mechanical effect of this machine may be 
increased either by increasing the radius 
j of the wheel or diminishing that of the 
I axle. 

WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE, a pun- 
| isliment formerly inflicted in France and 
other countries. It consisted in fastening 
! the criminal to a cartwheel, or a frame 
made in the form of a St. Andrew’s Cross ; 
j the executioner then broke his legs with 
| blows of an iron bar, and sometimes caused 
his immediate death with blows on the 
j chest or stomach, called coups de grace 
j (merciful blows). He was then left to ex¬ 
pire, if not already dead, with his legs 
| doubled up under him. Sometimes the 
i criminal was strangled after the first two 
) or three blows. 

WHEELS OF CARRIAGES. Wheels 
are applied to carriages for the purpose of 
| diminishing friction, and causing them to 
i pass over elevations or depressions in the 
i road more easily. The larger the wheel the 
j less the friction; also the less it sinks into 
a rut, and the more easily it is drawn over 
an obstacle, since the longer the curved 
inclined plane, along which the centre of 
! gravity, or, which is the same thing, the 
j centre of the wheel, is lifted in passing 
I over it, the radius of this curve being the 
j radius of the wheel. 

WHEE'ZING ( hivcoson, to breathe with 
{ difflculty: A.-Sax.), in the Veterinary Art, a 
I disordered respiration in horses; arising 
j from the narrowness of the bronchial pas¬ 
sages. 

WHELK, the Buccinum undatum of Con- 
| chologists, a gasteropod mollusc with a 
spiral shell, common on our coasts, and used 
extensively for human food and for bait. 

WHET'STONE ( hwettan , to whet: Sax.), 
or No vauelite (novacida, a whetstone: Lat.), 
in Mineralogy, so called from its property of 
whetting or sharpening steel. It is a talcy 
slate, containing silica; to the particles of 
which, though not perceptible, its efficacy 
is due. 

WHEY (hwceg: Sax.), the serum or watery 
part of milk, which remains after the cream 
and coagulable matter of that fluid are re¬ 


moved, either by churning, or by separat¬ 
ing it with rennet, vinegar, cream of tartar, < 
&c. 

WHIG (same deriv.), one of a political ! 
party which had its origin in England in ] 
the 17th century, in the reign of the 
Stuarts, when great contests existed re¬ 
specting the royal prerogatives. Those j 
who supported the king in his high claims {j 
were called Tories, and the advocates of 
popular rights were called Whigs. The 
name was given to the latter, on account 
of their principles being considered insipid : i 
by the Tories, who advocated absolute 
power and indefeasible hereditary rights in 
the monarch. [See Tory.] 

WHIN-DYKES, in Mineralogy, dykes, , 
banks, or natural walls of whin-stone; a \ 
species of basalt, found in various parts of 
the world, but nowhere on so grand and 
stupendous a scale as on the Scotch and j 
Irish coasts. 

WHIP-POOR-WrLL, the antrostomus vo- 
eiferus of ornithologists, one of the goat- i 
suckers, a nocturnal bird of North America, 
which derives its name from its cry. When . 
engaged in its nightly rambles, it is seen 
to fly within a few feet of the surface of 1 
the earth, in quest of moths and other 
insects. During the day these birds retire 
into the darkest woods, where they pass 
the time in silence and repose, the weak¬ 
ness of their sight compelling them to 
avoid the glare of light. 

WHIRL-POOL, a vortex where the 
water moves round in a circle. Those in 
rivers are very common, from various ac¬ 
cidents, and are usually very trivial, and of 
little consequence. In the sea they are 
more rare, but more dangerous. Tlie'most 
celebrated of these are the Euripus, near j 
the island of Eubea, in the Grecian Archi¬ 
pelago ; Chnrybdis, in the strait between 
Sicily and Italy; and the Maelstrom, off the 
coast of Norway. Their dangers seem to 
have been exaggerated. They are produced 
by the meeting of currents, which run in 
opposite directions. 

WHIRLWIND, an exceedingly rapid and 
impetuous wind that rises in a whirling di¬ 
rection, and continues in the same way for 
some time. Whirlwinds have both a pro¬ 
gressive and a circular motion ; they usu¬ 
ally rise after calms and great heats; and 
occur chiefly in the warmer latitudes. [See 
Wind, Storms, &c.] They are ascribed by 
some to electricity, but are considered by 
others as formed by the meeting of cur¬ 
rents of air which are moving in opposite 
directions in the same manner as whirl¬ 
pools are produced in water. 

WHIS'KEY, a well known spirituous 
liquor, distilled generally from barley; but 
sometimes from wheat or maize, as is the 
case in the United States. The word is a 
corruption of the first part of a Celtic 
phrase which signifies ‘ water of life.’ 

WHIST, the most perfect game at the 
card table, requiring great attention and 
silence, whence its name. It is played 
by four persons, who cut for partners; 
the two highest and the two lowest are 
together, and the partners sit opposite 
to each other; the person who cuts the 

































805 Ettcrarn 


lowest card is to deal first, giving one at a 
time to each person, till he comes to the 
last card, which is turned up for the trump, 
and remains on the table till each person 
has played a card. The person on the left- 
hand side of the dealer plays first, and 
whoever wins the trick is to play again, 
thus going on till the cards are played out. 
The ace, king, queen, and knave of trumps 
are called honours; whichever side holds 
three of these honours reckons two points 
towards the game, or for the whole of the 
honours four points, the game consisting 
usually of ten points. The honours are 
counted after the tricks; all above six 

tricks reckoning towards the game.- 

In this game, finessing means endeavour¬ 
ing to gain an advantage thus; when a 
card is led, and you have the best and 
third best of that suit, you put your third 
best card upon that lead, and run the 
risk of your left-hand adversary having the 
second best; if he has not, which is 2 to 1 
against him, you are then sure of gaining a 
trick. Forcing means obliging your part¬ 
ner or adversary to trump a suit of which 
he has none. Long trump means having 
one or more trumps in your hand, when all 
the rest are out. Loose card is a card of 
no value, and consequently the most proper 
to throw away. Points, ten of them make 
a game of long; and five, of short whist; 
those gained both by tricks and honours 
are scored, but tricks count before honours, 
when one party would win the game by 
the former, and the other by the latter. 
Tierce, or Terce, is a sequence of any three 
.cards, immediately following one another 
in the same suit. Tierce-major is a se¬ 
quence of ace, king, and queen. Quart is a 
sequence of any four cards, immediately 
following each other in the same suit. 
Quart-major is a sequence of ace, king, 
queen, and knave. Quint is a-sequence of 
any five cards immediately following one 
another in the same suit. Quint-major is a 
sequence of ace, king, queen, knave, and 
ten. Reverse means only playing the hand 
in a different manner; that is, if you are 
6trong in trumps you play one away; if 
weak in trumps you play tho reverse, viz. 
another. See-saw is when each partner 
trumps a suit, and plays those suits to one 
another, for that purpose. Score is the 
number of points set up towards the game. 
Slam is when either party wins every 
trick. Tenace is having the first and third 
best cards, and being last player, conse¬ 
quently catching the adversary when that 
suit is played; as, for instance, in case you 
have ace and queen of any suit, your ad¬ 
versary leads, you must win those two 
tricks; and so on of any other tenace of 
inferior cards. 

WHITE (hwit: Sax.), in Chromatics, a 
colour which is a combination of all the 
prismatic colours, those natural bodies only 
appearing white which reflect all the co¬ 
loured rays. 

WHITE BAIT, in Ichthyology, a small 
flsh, greatly esteemed by epicures. It is 
supposed by some ichthyologists to be a 
distinct species of the herring genus, and 
bas received from them the name of clupea 


CrcaSttry. [whitlow 


alba, but others believe that white bait is 
merely the young of the sprat and other 
allied fishes. It begins to ascend the 
Thames in the beginning of April/and con¬ 
tinues in that part of the river where the 
water is brackish until September. Its ave¬ 
rage length is from two to three inches 

WHITE-LEAD, a pigment prepared by 
exposing sheets of lead to the joint action 
of the vapour of acetic acid, atmospheric 
air, and carbonic acid; and is a compound 
of carbonate of lead and oxide of lead. The 
vapour of the acetic acid merely acts as a car¬ 
rier between the carbonic acid evolved from 
some decaying vegetable matter and the 
oxide of lead. White lead formed by preci¬ 
pitation from a solution is crystalline; and, 
therefore, not sufficiently opaque for the 
painter. White lead is often adulterated 
with sulphate of baryta, which is easily de¬ 
tected by the latter not being soluble iu j 
nitric acid. 

WHITE-PHECIP'ITATE, in Chemistry, a | 
compound of peroxide and bichloride of I 
mercury with ammonia. It is obtained by 
precipitating a solution of corrosive subli¬ 
mate with ammonia,' and is a violent 
poison. 

WHITE-PYRI'TES, in Mineralogy, an 
ore of a white colour, passing into a deep 
yellow and steel grey, occurring in octahe¬ 
dral crystals, sometimes stalac.titical and 
botryoidal. It consists of sulphur and iron, 
with small quantities of manganese and si¬ 
lica. 

WHPTESTONE, the Weiss Stein of Wer¬ 
ner, a granite, a large quantity of white 
felspar. 

WHITE-SWEL'LING, in Medicine, a 
chronic enlargement of the joints, without 
any alteration in the colour of the skin; 
sometimes hard, sometimes yielding to 
pressure, sometimes indolent, but usually 
painful; and occurring in those of scrof¬ 
ulous habits. 

WHI'TE-THORN, or HAWTHORN, the 
Cratcegus oxyacantha, nat. ord. Pomacew. 

WH'ITE-THROAT, the name of two small 
birds belonging to the Sylviad® which vi¬ 
sit this country in spring. The common 
white-throat (Sylvia cinerea ) is much more 
abundant than the lesser white-throat 
(,Sylvia curruca ). 

WHITE-VIT'RIOL, in Mineralogy, sul¬ 
phate of zinc. It is found native. 

WHI'TEWASH, a composition of lima 
and water, or of whiting, size, and water, 
used for whitening the plaster of walls and 
ceilings. 

WHI'TING ( witting: Belg.), the Oadus 
merlangus of ichthyologists; a small and de¬ 
licate fish, very abundant along the nor¬ 
thern coasts of Europe. It makes its ap¬ 
pearance in large shoals, and is taken by 

the line in great numbers.- Whiting, 

chalk carefully cleared of all strong mat¬ 
ter, ground, levigated, and made up into 
small cakes. 

WHIT'LOW, in Surgery, paronychia, a 
swelling or inflammation about the nails 
or ends of the lingers, generally terminating 
in an abscess. Whitlows differ very much 
in their degree of violence, and in their 
depth and extent; and they are much more 



















weitsuntide] 


dTIje <g>aciitt{ic antf 


805 


common in young healthy persons than in 
others. 

WHIT'SUNTIDE, the seventh Sunday or 
forty-ninth day after Easter, and properly 
called Pentecost. It is said to have received 
its popular name from the circumstance 
that, formerly,those who were baptized that 
day were dressed in white for the occasion. 

WHOOPING COUGH, CHINCOUGH, or 
Kincough, a convulsive cough, accompa¬ 
nied by a whooping inspiration, and having 
Its paroxysms generally terminated by ex¬ 
pectorations of mucus, or vomiting. It is 
infectious, usually attacks children, and 
affects the same person but once. It gene¬ 
rally begins with slight febrile symptoms, 
and a common cough, which in about a 
fortnight becomes spasmodic ; it ordina¬ 
rily lasts for some weeks. When the head 
is much affected, or it is accompanied by 
bronchitis, it is dangerous. It is common¬ 
ly followed by relics, which are best re¬ 
moved by change of air. 

WHORTLEBERRY, the fruit of a 
shrubby alpine plant, belonging to the 
genus Vaccinium, which also includes the 
cranberry, bilberry, and cowberry plants, 
nat. ord. Vacciniacece. 

WICK'LTFFITES, called also Lollards 
[which see], a religious sect which sprung 
up in England in the reign of Edward III., 
and took its name from John Wicklifte, 
doctor and professor of divinity in the 
university of Oxford ; who maintained that 
the substance of the sacramental bread 
and wine remained unaltered after conse¬ 
cration; and opposed the doctrine of pur¬ 
gatory, indulgences, auricular confession, 
the invocation of saints, and the worship of 
images. He made an English version of 
the Bible; and composed two volumes 
called Aletheia, that is Truth; from which 
John IIuss learned most of his doctrines. 
They were the precursors of the reforma¬ 
tion, which took place about two hundred 
years after. 

WIG'WAM, a name given by the English 
to the huts or cabins of the North Ameri¬ 
can Indians. 

WILL (willa: Sax.), that faculty of the 
mind by which we determine either to do 
or forbear an action. The will is directed 
or influenced by the judgment. The under¬ 
standing or reason compares different ob¬ 
jects, which operate as motives; the judg¬ 
ment determines which is preferable; and 
the will decides which to pursue. 

WILL or TESTAMENT, the disposition 
of a person’s estate, to take effect after his 
or her decease. All wills made in England 
must be in writing , and each must be 
signed at the bottom or end by the testator, 
or, if he is unable, by some person by his 
direction, and in his presence; and two or 
more attesting witnesses (who must be pre¬ 
sent at the same time), must also sign the 
will in the presence of the testator. If the 
latter wishes to acknowledge or reward the 
attesting witnesses he must do it in some 
other way than by bequeathing them any¬ 
thing; for legacies to attesting witnesses, 
l or to the wife or husband of an attesting 
witness, are void. The wills of soldiers and 
seamen, including officers, if regarding 


personal estate, need not be in writing. No 
person under twenty-one can make a valid 
will. Wills are revoked by subsequent | 
marriage, by destruction, or by the making 
of a new one ; and alterations in wills must 
be made in the same manner as a will. 
Wills are to be construed as if made imme¬ 
diately before the death of the testator, 
unless a contrary intention is expressed; 
and properties bequeathed in general terms 
include all property in the possession of the 
testator at his decease, whether acquired i 
before or after the will was made. A mar- 1 
ried woman cannot make a will except as 
regards settled estate, and under a power 
given to her by the settlement. Codicils 
are additions to a wiil, and require to be 
executed like a will. 

WIL'LOW ( welic: A.-S<nr.), the name of 
trees belonging to the genus Salix, of 
which we have several species in Britain. 
Their twigs are employed under the name 

of osiers in basket-making.-The iveepivg 

willow, Salix Babylonica, has long and 
slender branches, which droop and hang | 
downward in graceful tresses. The willow 
was, in ancient days, especially among 
herdsmen and rustics, a badge of mourning, 
as may be collected from Virgil, in his 
Eclogues, where the nymphs and herdsmen 
are frequently introduced, sitting under a 
willow mourning their loves. The same 
occurs in many Greek poets. For the an¬ 
cients frequently selected, and, as it were, 
appropriated several trees, as indexes or 
testimonials of the various passions of 
mankind. The Jews, upon their being led 
into captivity (Us. cxxxvii.), are said to hang 
their harps upon willoivs, i.e. trees appro¬ 
priated to men inatliiction and sorrow, who 
had lost their beloved Sion. 

WIL'LOW-HEltB, the common name of 
plants belonging to the genus Epilobium. 
Several species are wild in Britain, and 
others are cultivated in gardens, but none 
are of any use. 

WINCHESTER BUSHEL, the original 
English standard measure of capacity given 
by King Edgar, and kept in the town-hall of 
the ancient city of Winchester, with other 
measures both of quantity and length. 
Until the year 1826, when the imperial 
standard measure was introduced, the 
Winchester bushel was the standard for 
England. 

WIND, a motion or sensible current of 
the air. As it is a fluid, the natural state 
of air is rest, which it always endeavours 
to preserve, and if disturbed to recover. 
When, therefore, this equilibrium is des¬ 
troyed by rarefaction in particular places, 
the weightier air will rush in to restore it; 
the resulting currents being often deflected 
by mountains and crossed by other cur¬ 
rents. The different degrees of rarefac- i 
tion by day, and condensation by night, 
keep the air in a state of constant activity. 
The rare superior parts appear,however, to | 
be more.affected than the lower stratum ; 
balloons having been carried upwards of 
sixty miles an hour, at the height of two 
miles, while the moderate wind below has 
not moved more than fifteen miles. In 
different countries the direction of ti e 



































807 Eiterari? Embury. 


winds differs considerably, according to the 
situation of the places where the observa¬ 
tions have been made. In Great Britain 
the south-west is by far the most frequent 
wind. In April, May, and part of June, the 
east wind is common, especially on the east 
coast of the island. In Ireland the south¬ 
west and west are the most prevalent. On 
j the south coast of Europe the most fre¬ 
quent winds are the north, the north-east, 
and the north-west; and on the western 
coast the north-west prevails. [See Trade 
TYTnds, Atmosphere, &c.3 

WIND'AGE, the difference between the 
bore of a gun and the diameter of the ball; 
it lias been latterly much diminished, the 
result of which is that the ball will go much 
more truly, and less powder is required. It 
was formerly one-twentieth of tliediameter 
of the bore. 

WIND'BOUND, an epithet for a ship that 
cannot leave the port on account of un¬ 
favourable winds. 

WIND'LASS ( windam , to turn round: 
flax.), a common mechanical contrivance, 
by which weights are raised, water drawn 
out of a well, &c. Since the momentum is 
In proportion to velocity, and the hand at 
the winch makes a larger circle than the 
cylinder round which the rope coils, the 
power is rendered very effective by this 
machine. For, if the hand describes a circle 
of six feet, while the bucket, &c. moves 
through but one foot, the power of the 
hand, friction not being taken into ac¬ 
count, is capable of overcoming six times 
its amount at ilie bucket, &c. 

WIND'MILL, a machine erected in ele¬ 
vated positions, and provided with vanes 
or sails, which are so placed as to be turned 
! by the wind. In order that the wind may 
regulate the position of the mill, a vane is 
placed on the side which is opposite the 
sails, and toy a simple mechanism turns 
them always to the wind. When the mill 
is not too large it is either turned round 
on a vertical axis, with a lever, or the roof 
alone with the axle and wings is moved. 
In the former case it is called a German 
mill, in the latter a Dutch mill. On account 
of the inconstant nature of the wind, it is 
necessary to have some provision for accom¬ 
modating the resistance of the sails to the 
degree of violence with which the wind 
blows. This is generally done by clothing 
and unclothing them ; that is, by covering, 
with canvass or thin boards, a greater or 
smaller portion of the frame of the sails, 
according to the force of the wind at dif¬ 
ferent times. A method has been devised 
for producing the same effect, by altering 
the obliquity of the sails; and windmills 
have been so made as to regulate their own 
adjustment. A horizontal arrangement of 
the sails has been frequently tried, but 
it has never been found to answer. The 
moving force being very irregular and en¬ 
tirely interrupted in calm weather, wind 
mills are applicable only in particular 
cases; they are used in Holland very ad¬ 
vantageously for drainage. The angle 
which the sails should make with the plane 
of the arms has been the subject of much 
investigation. 


[wing 


WINE, a liquor drawn from vegetable 
bodies, and fermented; but more especi¬ 
ally, the fermented juice of the fruit of the 
vine. Wine differs essentially from spirit, 
the former being only fermented, and the 
latter also distilled. From the definition 
here given, it will be evident that ale, 
cider, and other vegetable fermented 
liquors, are properly wines; though the 
term is, by custom, confined to liquors 
drawn from the grape. Wines are divided 
into two principal classes; red and •white. 
White wines are of an amber colour, more 
or less deep ; but so called to distinguish 
them from the red wines. The generality 
of white wines are made from white grapes ; 
but some are from black ones, the skins of 
which are carefully kept from imparting 
their colour. On a chemical investigation, 
all wines consist chiefly of water and alco¬ 
hol, besides some vegetable acid, the car¬ 
bonic acid, tartar, and an astringent gum- 
resinous matter, in which the colour of the 
red wine resides, and which is expressed 
from the husks of the grape. They differ 
from each other in the proportion they 
contain of these ingredients, and particu¬ 
larly of the alcoliol;.some of the latter,called 
vinage, is added, in many districts, to render 
the wine capable of removal for exporta¬ 
tion. In a very hot country the grape 
becomes too saccharine; in one that is too 
cold it does not ripen sufficiently. The 
seeds of the grape, which contain tannin 
and extractive matter, modify the taste of 
wine ; they are added in making port wine, 
but generally are excluded from the wines 
of Bordeaux and the Rhine. The aroma of 
wine is often factitious, being produced 
by aromatic herbs, &c. When it can be re- : 
lied on, however, it is a test of excellence; 
it is distinct from, fi'avoiir. The quality of 
wine depends very much upon the circum¬ 
stances attending the process of fermen¬ 
tation. The general effects of wine are, to 
stimulate the stomach, exhilarate the 
spirits, quicken the circulation, promote 
perspiration, and, when taken in large 
quantities, to prove intoxicating, and 
powerfully sedative. Among the Greeks 
and Romans, the sweet wines were those 
most commonly in use ; and, in preparing 
their wines, the ancients often inspissated 
them until they became of the consistency 
of honey, or even thicker. They were diluted 
with water previously to being drunk ; and 
indeed, the habit of mixing wine with water 
seems to have prevailed much more in an¬ 
tiquity than in modern times. In 1865 we 
imported 2,204,580 gals, of wine, of which | 
about one-half came from Spain, one-llftli 
from Portugal, and onc-sixtli from France. j 
WING ( gchwiny : Sax.), the limb of a bird 
admirably constructed and covered with 
feathers for the purpose of aerial locomo¬ 
tion. The different bones of the wing are 
bound together, and connected with the 
bones of the body by strong ligaments; . 
and the muscles by which motion is com- j 
municated to then) are the most powerful 

with which a bird is provided.-The wiugs 

of insects are highly varied, often very 
beautiful, and so important that their diffe¬ 
rent characteristics give rise to the division 

















(£f)e &cfentt&c anU 


808 


winged] 


of insects into Ooleoptera, Hymenoptera, 
Diptera, Ncuroptera, &c. [see these terras]. 

- Wing, in Architecture, a side building, 

less than the main edifice. In Botany, 
the side petal of a papilionaceous corolla. 

■- Wings, in Fortification, the longer sides 

of horn-works, crown-works, tenailles, and 
other outworks; including the ramparts 
and parapets, with which they are bounded 
on the right and left from their gorge to 

their front.- Wings, in Military affairs, 

the two flanks or extremes of an army, 
ranged in order of battle.-In Naval con¬ 

structions, passages along the sides of 
the ship, between the fore and after 
cockpit. 

WING'ED, in Botany, a terra applied to 
such stems of plants as are furnished with 
a prolongation of the leaves in the shape of 
a wing; as in some of the thistles. Winged 
leaves are such as consist of several little 
leaves ranged in the same direction, so as 
to appear only as the same leaf. Such are 
the leaves of agrimony, acacia, ash, &c. 
Winged seeds are such as have down or 
hairs, called pappus by botanists, by means 
of which the wind carries them to a distance. 

WIN'TER ( Ang.-Sax .), one of the four 
seasons of the year ; commencing on the 
day when the sun’s distance from the zenith 
of .the place is the greatest, and ending on 
that when it is at a mean between the 
greatest and the least. The sun is nearer 
to the earth in winter than in summer; 
the coldness of winter is therefore owing 
to the shortness of the days or time during 
which the sun is above the horizon; and 
the oblique direction in which his rays fall 
upon our part of the globe at that season. 

WINTER-CHERRY, a plant of the genus 
Physalis, and its fruit,which is of the size of 
a cherry. It is sometimes called the Cape 
gooseberry. 

WI'RE-DRAWING, a very curious art, 
by which with the aid of steam, water, or 
some other power, wire is drawn through 
orifices successively smaller. Wire may thus 
be reduced from an inch to the 1000th of an 
inch in diameter, and gold has been made 
the 4000th of an inch in diameter. A single 
grain of gold admits of being drawn out 
easily into a wire 100 yards long. That 
property of metals by which they submit 
to this operation without breaking is called 
their ductility, which see. 

WI'RE-WORM, the larva of a beetle be¬ 
longing to the genus Plater, which is very 
destructive to wheat. It is computed that 
the crops on 60,000 acres are annually des¬ 
troyed by this insect in Great Britain. 

WIS'DOM OF SOLOMON, one of the 
books of the Apocrypha. It is by many 
thought to have been written after the caba¬ 
listic philosophy was introduced among 
the Jews. 

WIT (witam., to know : Sax.), in its origi¬ 
nal signification, was synonymous with 
wisdom. Thus we read of our ancient 
wittenagemot, or Saxon parliament, an as¬ 
sembly of wise men; and so late as the 
Elizabethan age, a man of great or preg¬ 
nant wit meant a man of vast judgment. 
The word wit, however, like many others, 
has in the course of time undergone va¬ 


rious mutations. According to Locke, r wit 
lies in the assemblage of ideas, and putting 
those together with quickness and variety, 
so that a congruity of associations and 
pleasant images may be present to the 
fancy; while Pope defines it to be a quick 
conception and an easy delivery. It is evi¬ 
dent that wit excites in the mind an agree¬ 
able surprise; and that this is entirely 
owing to the strange assemblage of congru¬ 
ous ideas presented to the mind. Of so much 
consequence are surprise and novelty, that 
nothing is more vapid than a joke that has 
become stale by frequent repetition. For 
the same reason a witty repartee is infi¬ 
nitely more pleasing than a witty attack ; 
and a pun or happy allusion thrown out 
extempore, in conversation, will often ap¬ 
pear excellent, though it might be deemed 
execrable in print. As a learned divine 
has well observed: ‘ Sometimes it playeth in 
words and phrases, taking advantage from 
the ambiguity of their sense, or the affinity 
of their sound ; sometimes it is wrapped in 
a dress of humorous expression; some¬ 
times it lurketh under an odd similitude ; 
sometimes it is lodged in a sly question, in 
a smart answer, in a quirkish reason, in a 
shrewd intimation, in cunniDgly diverting 
or cleverly retorting an objection ; some¬ 
times it is couched in a bold scheme of 
speech, in a tart irony, in a lusty hyperbole, 
in a startling metaphor, in a plausible re 
conciling of contradictions, or in acute 
nonsense. Often it consisteth in one knows 
not what, and springeth up one can hardly 
tell how.’ 

WITCH'CRAFT (wicce, a witch : Sax.), a 
supernatural power, which persons were , 
formerly supposed to obtain by entering j 
into compact with the evil one. It was 
believed that they gave themselves up to 
him body and soul; and he engaged that 
they should want for nothing, and should 
be able to assume whatever shape they 
pleased, to visit and torment their enemies! 

A belief in witchcraft was prevalent among 
the Greeks and Romans; but it was founded 
on incantations and magical practices. 
There is only one particular narrative of a 
witch, in the Old Testament, the evocation 
of Samuel by the witch of Endor. Witch¬ 
craft was universally believed in through- ] 
out Europe till the 16th century; and it j 
even maintained its ground with tolera- ' 
ble firmness till the 17th. Vast numbers of 
reputed witches were convicted and con¬ 
demned to be burnt. It is recorded that j 
500 witches were burnt at Geneva in three 
months, about the year 1515; that 1000 1 
were executed in one year in the diocese of j 
Como; and it has been calculated that not 
less than 100,000 victims must have suf¬ 
fered, in Germany alone, from the date of 
Innocent’s bull, in 1484, which directed the 
Inquisition to be vigilant in searching out 
and punishing witches, to the final extinc¬ 
tion of such prosecutions. The number of 
those put to death in England has been 
estimated at about 30,000. 

WITENAG'EMOTE (an assembly of wise 
men : Sax.), the great national council of 
the Anglo-Saxon kings. It consisted of 
bishops, abbots, earls, aldermen, thanes of 


































809 


ILfterarg Criotfurg. 


[woodcock; 


Danish burghs, anti, it is supposed, of all 
who possessed forty hides of land. 

WITH'ERITE, in Mineralogy, a carbo¬ 
nate of barytes. It is grey, white, or 
yellow. 

AVITNESS, in Law, one who gives evi¬ 
dence in legal investigations. In civil 
I cases, witnesses are compelled to appear by 
I subpoena [which see]; and if they neglect 
j to attend are punishable by attachment or 
action. In criminal cases, by subpoena or 
| recognizance, taken by the magistrate be- 
! fore whom the information is given. 
Persons are incompetent according to law 
to give evidence in a court of justice if 
they want reason, or do not believe in the 
existence of a God and the rewards and 
punishments of a future state. 

WOAD (wad: Sax.), a, cruciferous plant 
of the genus Isatis, from which is extracted 
a drug that imparts a blue colour, and is 
much used by dyers. It springs from seeds 
annually sown in the spring; and is grown 
in Prance and on the coasts of the Baltic. 

•-The ancient Britons are said to have 

painted their bodies with the dye procured 
from this plant. 

WODEN, an Anglo-Saxon deity supposed 
to correspond with Mercury, and erro¬ 
neously believed by some to be the same 
as Odin. He has given its name to Wed¬ 
nesday. 

WOLP (waif: Sax), the Canis lupus, a 
ferocious quadruped, in habits and physical 
development closely allied to the dog. It 
is very destructive to sheep; and, when 
pressed with hunger, will enter houses and 
even devour children. The wolf was at 
one time a native of this country, and all 
possible means were adopted to rid it of so 
rapacious a despoiler. King Edgar at¬ 
tempted to effect this, in England, by re¬ 
mitting the punishment of certain crimes 
on producing a certain number of wolves’ 
tongues; and in Wales, the tax of gold and 
silver was commuted for an annual tribute 
of their heads. They were so numerous in 
Scotland, about the middle of the 15tli cen¬ 
tury, that they completely overran the 
country, to the destruction of the flocks; 
nor were they, with every exertion of the 
natives, totally extirpated till the year 1680, 
when the last wolf is recorded to have 
fallen by the hand of the famous Sir Ewen 
Cameron. 

WOLF'-FISH, the Anarrhicas lupus of 
ichthyologists, a fierce and voracious fish of 
the northern seas ; sometimes taken on our 
coasts, and attaining to the length of six 
feet. It has a cat-like face, and its teeth 
are strong and pointed. 

WOL'FRAM, in Mineralogy, is the native 
tungstate of iron and manganese, which 
occurs in primitive formations, along with 
the ores of tin, antimony, and lead, in 
North America, Bohemia, Switzerland, 
Cornwall, &c. Tungsten, which is some¬ 
times termed wolframium, and tungstic 
acid, are obtained from it. 

WOL'VERENE. [See Glutton.] 

WOM'AN, the female of the human race, 
grown to an adult age. Among the Greeks 
and Romans, women were employed in 
spinning, tveaving, embroidery, and all 


sorts of needle-work ; their education being 
wholly confined to their domestic duties. 

‘ In every age and country (says Gibbon), 
the wiser, or at least the stronger, of the 
two sexes has usurped the powers of the 
state, and confined the other to the cares | 
and pleasures of domestic life. In lieredi- j 
tary monarchies, however, and especially 
in those of modern Europe, the gallant 
spirit of chivalry, and the law of succession, 
have accustomed us to allow a singular ex- ! 
ception; and a woman is often acknow- | 
ledged the absolute sovereign of a great 
kingdom, in which she would be deemed 
incapable of exercising the smallest em¬ 
ployment, civil or military. But as the ! 
Roman emperors were still considered as j 
the generals and magistrates of the republic, 
their wives, although distinguished by the j 
name of Augusta, were never associated to ! 
their personal honours; and a female reign | 
would have appeared an inexpiable prodigy 
in the eyes of those primitive Romans who | 
married without love, or loved without de¬ 
licacy and respect.’ In our treatment of ! 
the sex there is a just medium to be ob¬ 
served—as far removed from their humilia¬ 
tion as it is from that extravagant homage 
which stops at nothing short of their deili- I 
cation. Woman is the equal and companion j 
of man—not the plaything of his caprice, ! 
nor the slave of his passions. 

WON'DER, that emotion which is ex¬ 
cited by something presented to the senses 
which is either sudden, extraordinary, or 
not well understood. The word wonder is 
nearly allied to astonishment, though it ex- i 
presses less, and much less than amaze - i 

ment. -Among the Ancients, the seven \ 

wonders of the world were—the Egyptian | 
pyramids—the mausoleum erected by Ar- j 
temisia—the temple of Diana at Ephesus 
—the walls and hanging gardens of Baby¬ 
lon—the colossus at Rhodes—the statue of 
J upiter Olympus-and the Pharos or watch- I 
tower at Alexandria. 

WOOD (wude: Sax.), in Plants, the sup- J 
port of all the deciduous organs of aeration, j 
assimilation, and fructification; the de- i 
posit of the secretions peculiar to the in¬ 
dividual species; the reservoirs whence the 
newly formed parts derive their sustenance, 
until they can establish a communication 
with the soil. It consists of woody tissue, 
and various kinds of vessels surrounded by 
cellular matter. While young it is succu¬ 
lent and brittle, and nearly the same in all 
plants, but it becomes hard as it grows old, 
by the addition of secondary deposits 
within the woody tissue. AYliile young it 
is called sapwood or alburnum; when 
hardened and coloured, it is licartwood or 
duramen. It contains a large quantity of 
nitrogen, which causes it to be perishable, 
but which may be removed by washing; 
and its azotized matter is believed to be 
rendered insoluble by certain preservative 
agents. The concentric circles of the wood 
determine the age of the tree. 

AVOOD'COCK, the Scolopax rusticola, a 
bird allied to the snipe, much prized by 
epicures, inhabiting the northern parts of 
the European continent in summer, but 
frequenting England in winter. 















Ci)C J?ctcnttfic anti 


810 


V.'OOD-ENGRAVING] 


WOOD-ENGRAVING, or wood-cutting, 
the art of cutting figures in wood, that they 
may he printed by the same process as 
cominou letter-press. The mode of engra¬ 
ving on wood is exactly the reverse of that 
of copper-plate, the parts intended to ap¬ 
pear being raised on the surface. The 
wood which is used for the purpose of en¬ 
graving is that of the box-tree, of which a 
considerable quantity is imported from 
Turkey. The design drawn upon the wood 
J is the reverse of the object copied, so that 
when the impression is taken from the en¬ 
graving the object is correctly represented. 
[See Engraving.] 

WOOD'-GELD, in our ancient customs, 
the gathering or cutting of wood within 
the forest; or the money paid for the same 
to the foresters. Sometimes it also seems 
to signify an immunity from this payment 
by the king’s grant. 

WOOD'PECKElt, a name given to some 
scansorial birds forming the genus Picus 
of ornithologists. Four species are known 
in Britain, of which the green woodpecker, 
Picus viridis, is the commonest. They 
climb trees in search of larvm, and are able 
to ascend a trunk with facility by means of 
their strong claws, and the support derived 
from propping themselves with their tail 
feathers. 

WOOD'-PIGEON, or Ring Dove, the 
Columba palumbus of ornitnologists. [See 
j Pigeon.] 

WOODY FIBRE. [Sec Lignins.] 

WOOF, the cross threads in weaving, 
introduced by the shuttle, when part of the 
warp is raised. 

WOOL (wul: A.-Sax.), the fleecy coat of the 
sheep, which in fineness sometimes ap- 
i proaches fur. Wool, like the hair of horses, 
cattle, and most animals, completes its 
growth in a year, then falls off as hair does, 
and is succeeded by a fresh crop. It differs 
from hair, however, in the uniformity of its 
growth and the regularity of its shedding. 
Hairs are commonly of the same thickness 
iu every part; but wool constantly varies 
in thickness in different parts, being gene¬ 
rally thicker at the points than at the 
roots. While the wool yet remains in the 
state it was first shorn off the sheep’s back, 
and before being sorted into its different 
kinds, it is called a fleece. The wool of the 
same animal differs much on the various 
i parts of the body; that on the back and 
the sides being the best. The great differ¬ 
ence in the wool of different sheep de¬ 
pends, in general, upon their descent, the 
crossing of breeds, climate, food, age, and 
manner of living. Some of the most 
scientific ‘wool-growers’ maintain, that 
the degree of softness (the most valuable 
quality in wool) depends principally on the 
nature of the soil on which sheep are fed ; 
that sheep pastured on chalky districts, or 
light calcareous soil, usually produce hard 
wool; while the wool of those that are pas¬ 
tured on rich, loamy, argillaceous soils, is 
always distinguished by its superior soft¬ 
ness. Wool, either in a raw or a manufac¬ 
tured state, has always been the principal 
of the staple articles of this country. Be¬ 
fore the timcof Edward 1II. it was always ex¬ 


ported raw, the art of working it into cloth 
and dyeing being so imperfectly known 
that no persons above the degree of work¬ 
ing people would dress in cloth of English 
manufacture. The first step taken to en¬ 
courage the manufacture of woollen cloths 
was by Edward III., who procured some 
good workmen from the Netherlands, by 
means of protection and encouragement. 
The value of wool was considered so essen¬ 
tially solid, that taxes were vested in that 
commodity, reckoning by the number of 
sacks; and in proportion to the price of the 
necessaries of life, and value of silver, wool 
was at least three times dearer than it is 
now. By an act of Henry IV. c. 2, the ex¬ 
portation of sheep, lambs, or rams was for¬ 
bidden, under very heavy penalties. From 
16G0 down to 1825 the export of wool was 
strictly prohibited, but in the latter year 
the prohibition was removed. Wool in the 
state in which it is taken from the sheep 
is always mixed with much dirt and foul¬ 
ness of different kinds; and, in particular, 
is imbued with a peculiar potash soap, se¬ 
creted in large quantity by the animal. 
These impurities are got rid of by washing, 
fulling, and combing, by which the wool is 
rendered remarkably white, soft, clean,light, 
and springy under the hand. When boiled 
in water for several hours, iu a common 
vessel, wool is not iu any way altered in 
weight and texture, nor does the water ac¬ 
quire; any sensible impregnation. The fila¬ 
ments of the finer wool vary from the one- 
tliousaudth to the one-lifteen hundredth of 
an inch in thickness; each filament of wool 
consists of a series of serrated rings. [See 
Felting.] Besides the wool produced in 
this country, 20£>,394,2-l91bs. were imported 
in 1865, of which rather more than one- 
half came from Australia, and rather more 
than one-eiglith from our South African 
colonies. 

WOOL'LEN AIAN'UFACTURE. There 
are two sorts of wool which afford the basis 
of different fabrics, the lung wool, in which 
the fibres are rendered parallel by the pro¬ 
cess of combing; aud the short wool, pre¬ 
pared by carding, like cotton, which is used 
in different degrees of fineness, for broad¬ 
cloths, flannels, &c. The wool of which 
good broad-cloth is made should be not 
only shorter, but, generally speaking, finer 
and softer than the worsted wools, in order 
to fit them for the fulling process. The best 
English short native fleeces, such as the fine 
Norfolk and Southdown, are generally di¬ 
vided by the wool-sorter into several kinds: 
all varying in fineness. When the wool is 
dyed, the cloth is said to be wool dyed; but 
when the cloth itself is dyed, it is said to be 
piece dyed. In cloths made of short wool, 
the web, when taken from the loom, is 
loose and open, and requires to be submit¬ 
ted to the operation of fulling, by which 
the fibres are made to felt, and combine 
more closely. By this process the cloth is 
reduced in its dimensions, and the beauty 
and stability of the texture are greatly ini- 
proved. The nap or downy surface of 
broad-cloths is raised by a process which, 
while it improves the beauty, tends some¬ 
what to diminish the strength of the tex- 




































sii ilttmrjj Gtoatfurj;* [wourali 

ture. It is produced by carding the cloth 
: with heads of teasel ( Dipsacus fullonum), a 
plant cultivated for the purpose. This 
operation extricates a part of the iibres, and 
lays them in a parallel direction. The nap, 
composed of these fibres, is then cut off to 
an even surface, by the process of shearing. 
This is performed in various ways; but, in 
one of the most common methods, a large 
spiral blade revolves rapidly in contact with 
another blade, while the cloth is stretched 
over a bed, or support, just near enough 
for the projecting filaments to be cut off at 
a uniform length, while the main texture 
remains uninjured. Pressing finishes the 
cloth, and gives it a smooth level surface. 
The piece is folded backwards and forwards 
in yard lengths, so as to form a thick pack¬ 
age on the board of a screw or hydraulic 
press. Between every fold sheets of glazed 
paper are placed, to prevent the contiguous 
surfaces of cloth from coming into contact; 
i and with the assistance of hot iron plates, 
carefully arranged, and severe compression, 
the cloth receives a smooth and glossy ap¬ 
pearance. The value of the manufactured 
! wool, imported into this country, in I 860 , 

| amounted to 1,704,7581., but this did not 
include 4,392, OOOlbs. of woollen and worsted 
yarn. The total declared value of woollen 
and worsted manufactures exported from 
the United Kingdom in 1865 was 20,102,259L 

WOOL'SAUK, a name for the scat of the 
lord chaucellor in the House of Lords. It 
is so called, from being a large square bag 
of wool, without back or arms, covered 
! with red cloth; it was adopted as a mark 
of the importance of our woollen manufac- 
1 ture. When, in the reign of Elizabeth, an 
Act of Parliament was passed to prevent 
the exportation of wool, to keep in mind 
this source of our national wealth, wool 
Eacks were placed in the House of Lords 
for the lord chancellors, judges, and ser¬ 
geants. 

WOOTZ, steel imported from Bengal; it 
is excellent for cutting instruments,and is 
believed to contain minute portions of silica 
and alumina. 

WORDS are signs, or symbols of ideas 
and though ts, produced by sounds, and com¬ 
binations of sounds, or by letters and their 
combinations. [See Language.] 

WORM (warm: Sax.), in a popular sense, 
any small cylindrical animal, or reptile, in¬ 
cluding a great variety of different classes 

and orders.- Worm, in Laboratories and 

Distilleries, a spiral pipe almost always of 
metal, placed in a vessel of water. The 
vapour formed during the process of distil¬ 
lation, being transmitted through it, is 
cooled and condensed. As the water by 
which it is surrounded becomes hot it as¬ 
cends and flows away, its place being 
supplied by a fresh portion, which enters 

below.-In Gunnery, a screw of iron, 

which may be fixed on the end of a rammer, 
V) pull out the wad of a cannon, firelock, or 
pistol. 

WORM'ING, an operation performed on 
puppies, under an ignorant supposition 
that it prevents them going mad; but in 
reality to cure them, as it generally does, of 
the disposition to knaweverything in their 

way. It consists in the removal of a small 
worm-like ligament, situated beneath the 
tongue; and the part being afterwards sore 
for some days, the animal is thus weaned of 
his mischievous habits. 

WORM'WOOD, a small composite shrub, 
the Artemisia absinthium of botanists, for¬ 
merly used in medicine as a tonic and an¬ 
thelmintic. The seed is employed by the 
rectifiers of British spirits, and the plant is 
a good deal cultivated in certain parts of 
England for that purpose. 

WOR'STED (Worsted, a town in Norfolk, 
famous for the woollen manufacture;, a 
kind of thread or yarn spun of wool that 
has been combed, and which, in the spin¬ 
ning, is twisted harder than ordinary. II 
is chiefly used either to he knit or woven 
into stockings, caps, &c. 

WOULFE'S APPARATUS, a very useful 
apparatus for chemical purposes, consist¬ 
ing essentially of one or more bottles, each 
having two or three necks; and is used for 
impregnating water and other fluids with 
vapours and gases. Before it was known, 
the only vessels that chemists employed 
for distillations w r ere either the alembic 
with its refrigeratory, or the retort with 
its receiver. The former was devoted al¬ 
most exclusively to the distillation of those 
fluids which are readily condensed by cool¬ 
ing, and are not attended with the produc¬ 
tion of much permanently elastic vapour, 
or such as was not easily condensable: 
thus, water impregnated with the aro¬ 
matic parts of vegetables, alcohol, &c.; 
whilst the retort, with its glass receiver, 
was reserved for the distillation of the 
stronger acids, and other substances ac¬ 
companied by much uncondensahle vapour. 

In experiments of research, the old ap¬ 
paratus was peculiarly defective, as the 
gaseous products, which are often by far the 
most interesting, were entirely lost. When 
Woulfe’s apparatus is employed, a retort or 
other vessel, for heating the materials, is 
connected by means of a bent tube with 
one of Woulfe’s bottles. If more than one 
of these bottles are required they are 
ranged side by side, and are connected 
with each other by tubes, each of which 
proceeds from the tipper part of one bottle 
to the bottom of the liquid in the next, 
the ceutre neck of each bottle, if it have 
three necks, being closed either with a solid 
cork, and if necessary luted, or with a cork 
in which is inserted a safety-tube, that 
passes down through it, and dips in the 
liquid at the bottom. This tube allows the 
elastic fluid, if generated in too large 
quantity, to escape into the atmosphere; 
while, in ordinary circumstances,as it dips 
into a liquid, they are unable to pass off. 
Every part of the apparatus is air-tight, 
except the extremity farthest from the 
retort, so that every particle of vapour or 
gas has to traverse the whole series of 
vessels, aud to pass through the liquid in 
every one of the bottles, before it escapes 
into the air; and thus, if at all condensable 
by the liquid used, can hardly escape con¬ 
densation. The apparatus was not altoge¬ 
ther unknown, even before Woulfe's time 

WOU'RALl PORSON. [Sec VRAM.] 





















wrack] E])c Scientific autf 812 

WRACK, in Botany, the Fucus vesiculo- 
sus, a marine plant which is of great utility 
as a manure. It is found on rocks left dry 
at low water; the stalk runs along the 
middle of the leaf, and is terminated by 
watery bladders. It is sometimes called 
sea-oak and sea-tangle. 

WRAN'GLER, Senior, in the university 
of Cambridge, the student who passes the 
best examination (especially in mathema¬ 
tics) in the senate-house, for the first 
degree, or that of bachelor in arts; they 
who follow n«xt in the same division are 
respectively termed second, third, fourth, 
&c., wranglers. The students belonging to 
the next two classes are termed senior, 
and junior optimes, respectively; and the 
fourth or lowest class consists of the hoi 
polloi (the many). 

WRASS, or WRASSE, a name given to 
marine fishes belonging to the spiny finned 
genus Labrus. 

WRECK ( wracke: Bclg.), in Navigation, 
the destruction of a ship, by being driven 
ashore. Also, a vessel found floating at sea 
in a deserted and unmanageable condition. 
But in order to constitute a legal wreck, 
the goods must come to land. In former 
times the most inhospitable and barbarous 
conduct was exercised against all who had 
the misfortune to suffer from the perils of 
the sea; but as commerce and navigation 
were extended, the law was made to afford 
the adventurous mariner protection. In 
England, as in other countries, wrecks had 
been adjudged to the king ; but the rigour 
and injustice of this law was modified so 
early as the reign of Henry I.; when it was 
ruled, that if any person escaped alive out 
of the ship, it should be no wreck. And 
after various modifications, it was decided, 
in the reign of Henry III., that if goods 
were cast on shore, having any marks by 
which they could be identified, they were 
to revert to the owners, if claimed any time 
within a year and a day. The plundering 
of wrecks had, however, become so con¬ 
firmed by the custom of ages, that various 
subsequent penal statutes were enacted to 
repress it; even so lately as the reign of 
George II. it was found necessary to pass 
a new statute for the purpose; and by a 
statute of George IV - ., plundering wrecked 
vessels or goods stranded is felony; goods 
cast overboard and not stranded are divid¬ 
ed into jetsam, or those sunk to the bot¬ 
tom ; flotsam, or things found floating; and 
ligsam, or things sunk, but attached to a 
buoy or cork, that they may be found 
again; all these belong to the crown 
if no owner appears to claim them. Insur¬ 
ance against loss by wreck is effected with 
persons called underwriters, who chiefly 
exercise theircallingat Lloyd’s, in theRoyal 
Exchange, London. 

WREN ( lorenna: Ang.-Sax.), the name of 
small birds belonging to the genus Troglo¬ 
dytes. The common wren {T. vulgaris) is the 
chesnut coloured, with the wings varie¬ 
gated with white and grey. This is a mi¬ 
nute bird, and, except the golden-crowned 
wren, the smallest of any in Europe; the 
head is large and round, the eyes dark, and 
the beak slender and brown; the tail is 

short, and generally carried erect; the head, 
neck, and back, are of a dusky chesnut- 
brown; the breast is of a dusky white, and 
the lower part of it is variegated with ob¬ 
scure and transverse lines of black. It is 
fond of prying about crevices and holes in 
walls, and is constantly in motion, search¬ 
ing for insects, which form its principal 
food.-The golden-crowned wren is distin¬ 

guished by an orange crown ; its length is 

4} inches, and its weight under 80 grains. 

It builds its nest,which is remarkably neat, 1 
on the oak, yew, or some species of the pine. 
This is most commonly open at the top, but 
sometimes covered with a dome, and it has 
an opening on one side. It is always inge¬ 
niously suspended beneath the branch, 
like those of many tropical birds, being the 
only instance of the kind amongst those of 
Great Britain. The eggs are about ten in 
number, and are small, round, and white. 

In a still and sultry noon, when not a leaf 
is stirring, and almost every other bird has 
retired from the heat of the sun into the 
shadiest thickets, the little solitary golden- 
crowned wren is to be seen flitting noise¬ 
lessly from spray to spray, in search of its 
food, paying no attention to any one who 
happens to be watching it; and never for a 
moment remaining in a state of rest. The 
lightness and airiness of its motions, as it 
hops and flutters about upon the smallest 
twigs, are unrivalled; and in shape and 
plumage it is also superior to most of the 
feathered inhabitants of our groves and 
gardens. Its song is very soft and low—a 
mere whisper—and therefore quite in keep¬ 
ing with its tiny and delicate form. 

WREST'LING (wrocstan, to twist by vio¬ 
lence : Sax.), a kind of combat or engage¬ 
ment between two persons unarmed, body 
to body, to prove their strength and 
dexterity, and try which can throw his op¬ 
ponent on the ground. Wrestling is an 
exercise of very great antiquity and fame. 

It was in use in the heroic age; and had 
considerable rewards and honours assigned | 
to it at the Olympic games. The wrestlers i 
of Cornwall and Devon in the south-west, 
and Cumberland and Westmorland in the 
north-west, seem to have always been most 
celebrated among the English atliletse. 

WRIST ( wyrst: Sax.), in Anatomy, the 
Carpus, that joint by which the hand is j 
united to the arm. It is composed of eight 
smalt bones in two rows, the motions of 
which on the fore-arm may be described as 
those of flexion, extension, abduction, and 
circumduction.-In the manege the bri¬ 

dle wrist is that of the left-hand. A horse¬ 
man’s wrist and his elbow should be equal¬ 
ly raised ; and the wrist should be two or 
three lingers above the pommel of the 
saddle. 

WRIT, in Law, a precept in writing, 
under seal, issued by some court or magis¬ 
trate in the name of the government, and 
addressed to a sheriff, his deputy, or other 
subordinate executive officer, commanding 
him to do some particular thing. Writs 
have been much reduced in number; the 
original writ, issuing out of chancery, for 
the commencement of actions in the three 
courts of common law, is now superseded 


















813 


Hfterarg Cmlurg. 


[XANTHOGEN 


by three judicial writs, which issue in the 
name of the chief justice of tiie respective 
courts; these are the writ of summons, the 
writ of capias ad respondendum, and the 
writ of detainer. The first is ordinarily 
used; the second only when it is intended 
to arrest the defendant; and the third, 
when he is already in prison for some other 
cause. A writ, or summons, is called a sub¬ 
poena, when it requires witnesses to appear 
to give evidence of habeas corpus, when it 
is to bring up the body; of premunire, 
when it incurs forfeiture of all property ; 
and of qui tarn, when to recover a tine, of 
which the prosecutor is to have a share. 
These and others will be found in their re¬ 
spective places in this work. 

WRITER to the Signet, a numerous so¬ 
ciety of lawyers, in Scotland, equivalent to 
the class of attorneys and solicitors in Eng¬ 
land.—— Writer of the Tallies, formerly an 
officer of the English exchequer; a clerk to 
the auditor of the receipt, who wrote upon 
the tallies the whole of the tellers’ bills. 
[See Tallies.] 

WRl'TING ( icritan, to write: Sax.), the 
art and act of expressing ideas by letters 
or characters visible to the eye. Without 
its aid the experience of each generation 
would have been almost entirely lost to 
succeeding ages, and only a faint glimmer 
of truth could have been discerned through 
the mists of tradition. The most ancient 
remains of writing, which have been trans¬ 
mitted to us, are upon hard substances, 
such as stones and metals, which were 
nsed for edicts and matters of public noto¬ 
riety. Thus we read that the decalogue 


was written on two tables of stone; but 
this practice was not peculiar to the Jews, 
for it was used by most of the Eastern na¬ 
tions as well as by the Greeks and Romans. 
The laws, penal, civil, and ceremonial, 
among the Greeks were graven on tables 
of brass, called lcurbeis. The Chinese, before 
the invention of paper, wrote or engraved 
with an iron tool, orstyle, upon thin boards 
or on bamboo. Pliny says, that table-books 
of wood were in use before the time of 
Homer; afterwards these were usually 
waxed over, and written upon with a style 
the writing was then easily effaced, and by 
smoothing the wax, new matter might be 
substituted in the place of what was writ¬ 
ten before. The bark of trees was also 
used for writing by the ancients, and is 
so still in several parts of Asia. The same 
may be said of the leaves of trees. But the 
Greeks and Romans continued the use of 
waxed table-books long after the use of papy¬ 
rus, leaves, and skins became common, be¬ 
cause they were so convenient for correct¬ 
ing extemporary compositions. [See Pa¬ 
per, Papyrus, &c.] -Where writings 

have been effaced for fraudulent purposes 
with muriatic acid, sulphuret of ammonia 
and prussiate of potash will revive them. 
Very old writing may be revived in this 
way. If indigo and oxide of manganese be 
added to common ink, it will prevent its 
being effaced by muriatic acid. 

WRYNECK. [SeeYUNX.] 

WYV'ERN, in Heraldry, a kind of flying 
serpent, an imaginary animal, occasionally 
represented in coats of arms. 


X 


X, the twenty-fourth letter of the Eng 
lish alphabet, is borrowed from the Greek. 
When used at the beginning of a word, it 
has precisely the sound of z; but in the 
middle and at the end of words, its sound 
is the same as /os—as wax, luxury, taxation, 
&c. In French it is variously pronounced. 
It is not found in Italian, its place being 
supplied by ss, as in Alessandro; the Ger¬ 
mans generally substitute for it ks, gs, or 
chs, and never use it in the beginning of a 
word. It begins no word in our language 
but such as are of Greek original, and is 
found in few others besides those which 
are of Latin derivation. As a numeral, X 
stands for ten. When laid horizontally, 
thus y,, it stands for a thousand, and with 
a dash over it, ten thousand. As an abbre¬ 
viation, X stands for Christ, as in Xn, Chris¬ 
tian; Xmas, Christmas. 

XAN'THIAN MARBLES, a collection of 
sculptures in the British Museum, obtained 
chiefly from Xanthus in Lycia, Asia Minor. 
They range in date from the subjugation of 
the country by the Persians, b.o. 545, to the 
period of the Byzantine Empire. They 
*ere discovered by Sir C. Fellows, and 


brought to this country by two expeditions, 
sent out by the government in 1842-40. 

XAN'TIIIC OXIDE (xanthos, yellow: Gr.), 
in Chemistry, a very rare species of urinary 
calculus, of a reddish or yellow colour, so¬ 
luble both in acids and alkalis; and its so¬ 
lution in nitric acid, when evaporated, 
possesses a brilliant yellow tint: hence its 
name. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
nitrogen,and oxygen. 

XAN'THINE (same deriv.), the yellow 
colouring principle of madder. 

XAN'THITE (same deriv.), a mineral 
found in small grains and crystals of a 
yellow colour, near New York ; its principal 
constituents are silicate of lime and silicate 
Of alumina. 

XAN'THIUM (xanthion, from same: Gr.), 
in Botany, a genus of composite plants con¬ 
taining the Lesser Burdock, the Xanthium 
Strumariumot botanists. It was once es¬ 
teemed for cases of scrofula, but, like 
most other remedies against this disease, 
proves ineffectual, it is sometimes used 
as a yellow dye; hence its name. 

XAN'THOGEN {xanthos, yellow; and gen- 
nao, I produce : Gr.), in Chemistry, the base 



















xantiioxylumI m)C niter 814 


' of an acid, obtained in combination with 
potash by the mixture of a solution of pure 
potassa with bisulphuret of carbon. It con¬ 
tains sulphur, carbon, and hydrogen, and 
obtained its name from the yellow colour of 
its compounds. 

j XANTHOX'YLTTM ( xanthos , yellow; and 

xulon, wood : Or.— from its yellow hue), In 
Botany, a genus of trees growing in Asia 
and America, and including the Toothache- 
tree, so called from its supposed virtue in 
pains of the teeth. It belongs to the nat. 
ord. Xanthoxylacece, and is a native of 
America. 

XEBEC', a small three-masted vessel, 
used in the Mediterranean Sea, and on the 
coasts of Spain, Portugal, and Barbarv. 
Having been usually equipped as a corsair, 
the xebec is constructed with the floor, or 
part which touches the earth when it is 
aground, narrow, for the sake of speed ; and 
of a great breadth, so as to be able to carry 
a considerable/force of sail without danger 
of overturning. When close-hauled, it car¬ 
ries large lateen sails. The Algerine xe¬ 
becs were usually equipped with from 16 
to 24 guns, and from 300 to 450 men, two- 
thirds of whom were soldiers. 

XEXELA'SIA o xenos, a stranger; and 
tlausio, I drive away : Gr.), in Antiquity, a 
law among the Spartans, by which strangers 
| were excluded from their society; not out 
1 of fear lest they should imitate the Spar¬ 
tan manners, but lest the Spartans should 
be contaminated by foreign vices. It was 
a barrier set up against contagion; but 
: was not so strict as to prevent deserving 
persons, or men of talent, from being re¬ 
ceived. 

XE'NIA {Gr.; from xenos, a stranger), 
among the Greeks and Romans, presents 
made by strangers to such as had treated 
them with kindness and hospitality. Xenia 
was also a name given to the gifts and 
presents made to the governors of provinces 
by the inhabitants. 

XERA'SIA (xerasia, from xeros, dry : Or.), 
in Medicine, an excessive tenuity of the 
hairs. It is common among animals which 
are badly ted : the hairs resemble down, and 
fall off through dryness, from want of pro¬ 
per nourishment. It is a species of Alopecia, 
which see. 

XEROCOLLYR'IUM ( xerokollurion; from 
xeros, dry; and kollurion, an eye-salve: 
Gr.), in Medicine, a dry collyrium or eye- 
| salve. 

XEROPH'AGY r ( xerophagia; from xeros, 
; dry; and phagein, to eat: Gr.) , the name 
given to a sort of fast which was adopted 
in the primitive ages of Christianity, and 
which consisted entirely of dry viands. 

XEROPII'TUALMY ( xerophthalmia ; 

from xeros, dry; and ophthalmia, a dis¬ 
ease of the eyes: Gr.), in Medicine, a 
dry red soreness or itching of the eyes, 
without swelling or a discharge of hu¬ 
mours. 

XES'TES ( xesfes: Gr.), in Antiquity, an 
Athenian measure of capacity, answering 
to the Roman sextarius, and nearly to our 
pint. 

XIPH'IAS (Gr.; from xiphos, a sword), in 
Ichthyology, a genus of fishes, including 


the common swordfish, the A 'iphias gladius, 
which sometimes attains the length of 20 
feet. The bones of the upper jaw project 
into aformidable weapon, the sword, which 
is flat above and below. It is an extremely 
rapacious fish, and finds in the above in¬ 
strument a weapon of attack and destruc¬ 
tion, able to procure it the most ample 
supplies. It is found in the Mediterranean, 
chiefly about Sicily, and is used by the in¬ 
habitants of that island for food. [See 
Swordfish.] 

XI'PHOID (xiphos, a sword; and eidos, \ 
appearance: Gr.), a term given by Ana- j 
tomists to parts which have some resem¬ 
blance to an ancient sword; as the xiphoid : 
cartilage, placed at the bottom of the breast¬ 
bone. 

XYLANTHRAX (xulon, wood; and 
anthrax, a coal: Gr.), in Mineralogy, bovey- 
coal. It consists of wood penetrated with 
petroleum or bitumen, and frequently con¬ 
tains pyrites, alum, sulphuric acid, <fcc. 

XY'LO AL'OES ( xulon, wood ; and aloe, 
the aloe : Gr.), or Aloctoood, in the Materia 
Medica, the product of the Aquilaria Secun¬ 
daria, belonging to the Aquilariacecc. It is 
the true aloewood, or Calambac, termed 
Agalloclium, and must not be confounded 
with the Aloexylon Agalloclium, of the 
nat. ord. Leguminoscp, which yields a scented 
wood used by the Chinese. It grows in 
China and some of the Indian islands. The 
Calambac is the most resinous of all the j 
woods with which we are acquainted; it is 
of a light spongy texture, very porous; and 
its pores are so filled up with a soft and 
fragrant resin, that it yields to pressure 
like wax, or may be moulded by chewing in 
the mouth like mastich. I ts scent, while in 
the mass, is very fragrant; and its taste 
acrid and rather bitter, but very aromatic 
and agreeable. It was formerly much I 
esteemed in medicine, but is now little ! 
used. 

XYLOG'RAPHY (xulon, wood; and 
graplio, I draw: Gr.), Wood-engraving; the 
act or art of cutting figures in wood, in 
representation of natural objects. [See 
Exr. RAVING.] 

XY'LON (xulon, wood : Gr.), a species of 
punishment in use among the Greeks,which 
answered to our putting offenders in the 1 
pillory. It consisted in a heavy collar of 
wood, that prevented the delinquent from 
moving. 

XYLOPHYT/LA (xulon, wood ; and 
phullon, a leaf: Gr.— on account of the 
hardness and rigidity of its leaves), in 
Botany, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Euphor- 
biaccir, the species of which produce their 
flowers at the edges of the leaves. 

XYS'TARCII ( xustarches; from xustos, 
the xystus ; and archo, I govern : Gr ), an 
officer in the Grecian gymnasium, who pre¬ 
sided over the xystus, as lieutentant to the 
gymnasiarch. His business was to super¬ 
intend the athletes in their exercises in the 
two xysti. 

XYSTER ( xnstcr: Gr.), in Surgery, an 
instrument used for scraping bones. 

XYSTUS, or XYS'TOS ( xustos, from xno, 

I polish : Gr.— on account of its smooth and 
polished floor), in Ancient Architecture, 




























an open ov sometimes a covered court, of 
great length compared with its width, and 
consisting of porticoes With three sides. It 
was used for the performance of wrestling, 
running, &c., during the winter, and for 


walking in at other times. The Xystns 
made a necessary part of a gymnasium; 
and the name given to the athletes who per¬ 
formed their exercises there was Xystici, 


Y 


Y, the twenty-fifth letter of the English 
alphabet. In the beginning of a word, it is 
considered to be a consonant; in every 
other position, a vowel. In the middle and 
at the end of words, y is precisely the same 
as i ; being sounded as i long, when accent¬ 
ed, as in reply, defy ; and as i short, when 
unaccented, as in synonymous, liberty, 

ability, &c.-It was not introduced into 

the Latin alphabet till a late period; and 
Was then confined to words borrowed from 
the Greeks, in which the Greek u had been 
previously represented by the same letter 
instead of y. Asa numeral it stands for 
150 or, according to Baronins, for 159; and 
with a dash over it, for 150,000. 

YACHT, a sailing vessel, pleasure-boat, 
or small ship with one deck, sufficiently 
large for a sea voyage. In its original sig¬ 
nification, it is a vessel of state used to con¬ 
vey princes, ambassadors, and other great 
personages from one kingdom to another, 
j YAGERS (hunters : Germ.), higher ser¬ 
vants, attached to aristocratic families in 
Germany. — Also, light infantry armed 
with rilles. In Prussia, Austria, Sic. 

YAK, the Bos grunniens of naturalists, is 
an ox inhabiting the Himalayas. It has 
been domesticated, and is a very useful ani¬ 
mal to the people of that mountainous re¬ 
gion. It is employed as a beast of burden' 
its flesh is delicious, and its rich milk sup¬ 
plies them with much of their food. The 
long silky hair is spun into ropes, or woven 
into a material for tints. In appearance the 
yak resembles the bison; the usual colour is 
black, but white, red, and dun animals are 
common. They have large handsome eyes, 
spreading horns, and fine bushy tails. On 
the south side of the Himalayas the yak in 
winter feeds below 8,000feet, but in summer 
it ascends as high as 17,000 feet. It emits a 
short grunt when excited, Whence its spe¬ 
cific name. The progenitor of this animal 
is the Wild Yak of Central Asia, which is 
untameable and very fierce. 

YAM, a climbing plant belonging to the 
genus Dioscorca, cultivated in warm coun¬ 
tries on account of its large farinaceous 
tuberous roots, which there form an impor¬ 
tant article of food when roasted or boiled. 
There are several species or varieties. The 
black bryony of our hedges belongs to an 
allied germs' (Tamus), and its root also con¬ 
tains an edible fecula. The term yam is 
sometimes misapplied to plants belonging 
to the genus Caladium or Colocasia, also 
cultivated in warm countries on account of 
their edible tubers; these are the taro (or 
lalo) of the South Sea Islanders, 


YAN'REE, a popular name for a nntivo , 
of New England, but commonly applied to ! 
any inhabitant of the United States, as John j 
Bull is to an Englishman, or Mynheer to a 
Dutchman. It is said to have originated 
in a corrupt pronunciation of the word 
English by the native Indians of America, 1 
who called the early settlers from Great 
Britain Yengeese. 

YARD (yearcl: Sax.), a measure of three 
feet or thirty-six inches.—— Yards of a ship, 
those long pieces of timber which are made 
a little tapering at each end, and are fitted 
each across its proper mast, with the sails 
made fast to them, so as to be hoisted or 
lowered as occasion serves. They have j 
their names from the mast to which they j 
belong. There are several sea-terms relat- j 
ing to the management of the yards : as, I 
square the yards, that is, see that they 
hang horizontally, by the middle; top the 

yards, that is, make them stand even.-| 

Yard-arm is that half of the yard which is 
on either side of the mast when the yard j 

lies athwart the ship.- Yard-arm and 

yard-arm, a phrase applied to two ships 
when they are so near that their yard-arms 
nearly touch each other. 

YARN (yearn: Sax.), primarily woollen 
thread; but it is applied also to other 
species of thread ; thus to cotton and 
linen ; and in rope-making, to one of the 
hempen threads of which a rope is com¬ 
posed. 

YAR'ROW, a well-known plant in our 
fields, belonging to the genus Achillea (nat. 
ord. Composites), and often called milfoil, or 
‘ the plant of a thousand leaves,’ from the 
excessive division of the foliage. 

YAW, a sea-term, indicating temporary 
deviation from a direct course. 

YAWS, in Medicine, the Frambcesia 
(framboise, a raspberry: Fr.), a severe 
cutaneous disease, introduced from Africa 
to the West Indies. It is said to derive its 
name from yaw, the African word for a 
raspberry. It affects a person but once, 
and is propagated solely by the infection of 
the matter of the pustules, applied to a part 
of the body where the skin is broken. It 
is not dangerous. 

YEAR (Sax.), the period in which tho 
revolution of the earth round the sun, and 
the accompanying changes in the order of 
nature, are completed. As regulated by 
the sun, it is called solar, and as regulated 
by the moon, lunar. The solar year is tho 
interval of time in which the sun finishes 
his apparent course through the zodiac, 
and contains S65 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes 































djc Jrricnttfic airtf 


816 


yeast] 


and 497 seconds. The lunar year consisted 
of 12 lunar months. But besides the solar 
and lunar years, we may mention the civil 
year, which different nations adopted, with¬ 
out regard to astronomical accuracy, to ren¬ 
der the computation of time in the common 
affairs of life more easy. The Jewish year 
consisted of 12 months, unless it happened 
to be intercalary, when it had 13. The an¬ 
cient Hebrews used to regulate their 
months by the course of the sun, and each 
of them had 30 days ; but after their capti¬ 
vity in Egypt, they adopted the lunar 
months, containing alternately 29 and 30 
I days, in all 354 days. Tiiis was made to 
| agree witli the solar year by adding eleven 
and sometimes twelve days at the end of 
the year, or by an embolismic month. They 
had an ecclesiastical as well as a civil year. 

I The first began in the month of Nisan or 
1 Ahib, which answers to part of our March 
j and April, because about this time the Is¬ 
raelites came out of Egypt. By this they 
reckoned their feasts. The second began 
in the month Tisri, about the middle of our 
September, because they fancied the world 
l to have been created about that time. The 
ancient Roman year was lunar, and the 
first month was March ; thenfollowed April, 
May, June, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, 
October, November, December, so that the 
numeral months were named according to 
their order in the series. Much confusion 
crept into the computation of the year, 
through inattention or ignorance, till the 
time of Julius Ctesar. The year, as reform¬ 
ed by him, is a solar year, consisting of 365 
days, except every fourth year, called bis¬ 
sextile, which contains 366. The Julian 
year, therefore, is 364 days 6 hours, exceed¬ 
ing the Solar year by 11 minutes, which in 
131 years amount to a whole day. Thus 
stood the year till the reformation of the 
Calendar by Pope Gregory. The Gregorian 
year is, consequently, the Julian year cor¬ 
rected, and is the year now used in Europe. 
From the difference between this and the 
Julian year arises the distinction of Old 

and New style.-The Mahometans begin 

tlieir year when the sun enters Aries; the 
Persians in the month answering to our 
June; the Chinese and most of the Indians 
begin it with the first moon in March. At 
Rome there are two ways of computing the 
year—the one beginning at the Nativity, 

| which the notaries use ; the other in March, 
i on occasion of the incarnation,and it is from 
this the papal bulls are dated. The civil or 
legal year in England, as well as the histori¬ 
cal year, commences on the 1st of January. 
The church, as to her solemn service, be¬ 
gins the year on the first Sunday in Advent, 
which is always the nearest Sunday to St. 
Andrew’s Day, whether before or after. 
[See Calendar, Chronology, Cycle, &c..] 

- Year and day, in law, signifies a certain 

time that by law, in many cases, determines 
a right, or works prescription; as in the 
case of an estray, if the owner should not 
challenge it within that time, it becomes 
forfeited to the lord ; so of a wreck, &c. 

YEAST ( gest: Sax.), the barm or froth 
which rises during the vinous fermenta¬ 
tion of vegetable juices. It is a flocculent 


viscid matter, insoluble in water and al¬ 
cohol; from its appearance under the mi¬ 
croscope, it is now believed to consist of a 
fungoid growth. It putrifies in a warm 
atmosphere, and excites fermentation in 
saccharine and mucilaginous liquids. It is 
also used in the making of bread, its pro¬ 
perty being to raise the dough, and by that 
means render it light and more wholesome. 

YEL'LOW ( yealeice: Sax.), in Chromatics, 
one of the seven, or rather three, primary 
colours. It contains the smallest amount 
of chemical rays, and is therefore used by 
photographers, when light, destitute of 
chemical action, is required ; thus, w'lien a 
sensitive plate is to be examined. 

YEL'LOW-BIRD, in Ornithology, the 
Fringilla tristis, or American goldfinch, an 
active and gregarious bird, of a rich lemon- 
yellow colour ; the crown, wings, and tail 
black. The female and young are of a 
brown-olive colour; and in winter the 
male assumes the same sober livery. When 
caged, its song greatly resembles that of 
the canary. 

YEL'LOW-FEVER, in Medicine, a ma¬ 
lignant disease frequent in hot climates, 
which often suffuses the skin with a yellow¬ 
ish colour. It is a bilious remittent fever. 

YEL'LOW-HAMMER, or AMMER, the 
Emberiza Citrinella of ornithologists, a 
Passerine bird about 7 inches in length, I 
found generally throughout Europe. It3 
throat and the crown of the head are yellow. 
It is also called the yellow bunting. 

YEL'LOWS, a disease of horses, cattle, 
and sheep; in which the eyes are tinged 
with a yellow colour, proceeding often from [ 
obstructions in the gall-ducts. 

YEN'ITE, in Mineralogy, a ferruginous 
silicate of lime, from Elba. It occurs both 
crystallized and massive, the form of the 
crystals being that of a rhomboidal prism. 
It somewhat resembles hornblende. This 
mineral is called yenite or jenite, in com¬ 
memoration of the battle of Jena. 

YEO'MAN ( geoman: Sax.), in English 
polity, a commoner, or a plebeian of the 
first or most respectable class. The term 
is now usually applied to a man who culti¬ 
vates his own land for his support. In 
ancient times it denoted one of those who 
held folk-land ; that is, had no fief, or book- 
land, and therefore did not rank among 
the gentry. What the yeoman possessed, how¬ 
ever, he possessed independently ; he wvas, 
therefore, no man’s vassal. To understand 
the true condition of the ancient yeoman, 
it must be observed that there were some 
lands which never became subject to the 
feudal system. These were called folk- 
lands, or the lands of the people. When, 
therefore, it is said that the sovereign is 
the lord of the soil of all England, the as¬ 
sertion is not strictly true. lie is certainly 
the lord paramount of all fiefs; but he has 
no such reversionary interest in lands that 
were never held in fee. [See Feudal 
System, Gavel-kind, &c.]-The collec¬ 

tive body of yeomen or freeholders is 

termed Yeomanry. - Yeomanry of the 

Guard. [See Guard.] 

YEO'MANRY CAV'ALRY, a body of vo¬ 
lunteers composed chiefly of small land- 




















817 Ettcrarj) tEmtfurg* [zemindar 


owners and farmers, meeting once a year 
in several of the English counties for 
military exercise. They receive a grant 
from government, and are under the com¬ 
mand of the lord-lieutenant, who appoints 
the officers. 

YEW (icv: Sax.), the Taxus baccata of 
botanists, an evergreen tree allied to the 
conifers, but haviug a fleshy fruit, not a 
dry cone. It is common in England and in 
many parts of the North of Europe. The 
wood,which is peculiarly hard, smooth, and 
tough, was manufactured into bows; but 
since the introduction of firearms, the tree 
is no longer planted except for ornament. 
The wood is beautifully veined, and sus¬ 
ceptible of a very high polish. The leaves 
are extremely poisonous, and cattle are fre¬ 
quently destroyed by them. 

YT'TRIA, in Mineralogy, the oxide of 
yttrium, a very rare earth, obtained from a 
species of gadolinite, discovered at Ytterby, 
in Sweden; hence its name. It resembles 
glucina in several of its properties. It is 
smooth and insipid, is infusible alone, but 
vitrifies with borate of soda. It combines 
with the acids, and is precipitated from 
those solutions by ammonia and prussiate 
of potash. It is perfectly white ; has nei¬ 
ther taste nor smell. 


YT'TRIUM, a brittle metal of a dark-grey 
colour. 

YT'TRO-CERITE, a massive mineral, of a 
greyish or violet-blue colour. It consists 
of fluoric acid, yttria, oxide of cerium, and 
lime. 

YT'TRO-TAN'TALITE, in Mineralogy, an 
ore of tantalum, containing yttria and oxide 
of columbium. It occurs massive, has a 
metallic lustre, and is of a blackish-brown 
colour. Under the blowpipe it decrepi¬ 
tates at first, but melts, by increase of 
heat, into a greenish-yellow clay. 

YULE ( geliul: Sax.), the name anciently 
given to Christmas. The word is probably 
Celtic: wyl, or gywl, in Welsh, signifies a 
holiday; perhaps the French word noel is 
derived from the same source. 

YUNX, in Ornithology, the Wryneck, or 
Yunx torquilla, a bird which is nearly al¬ 
lied to the woodpecker. It makes no nest, 
but lays eight or ten eggs on the bare wood 
in hollow trees. In England it is a bird of 
passage, generally appearing a few days 
before the cuckoo. Its food consists of 
ants. It is never seen in flocks, and in pairs 
only during the spring and summer. Its 
name of wryneck is derived from a habit of 
twisting its neck in a singular manner. 


Z 


Z, the last letter of all modern languages, 
Is generally considered as a double conso¬ 
nant, having in some languages the sound 
of ts, or ds. It begins no word originally 
English ; and, though found in Saxon al¬ 
phabets, It is not in any word originally 
Teutonic. As a numeral, Z stands for 2,000, 
and with a dash over it, for 2,000,000. 

ZAC'CHO, in Architecture, the lowest 
part of the pedestal of a column. 

.. ZAF'FRE (zaffir: Germ.), an impure 
oxide of cobalt, employed for giving a blue 
colour to pottery-ware and porcelain. The 
blue of zaffre is the most solid and fixed of 
all the colours employed in vitrification. 
It suffers no change from the most violent 
fire. It is successfully employed to com¬ 
municate shades of blue to enamels, and to 
the crystal glasses made in imitation of 
some opaque and transparent precious 
stones; as the Lapis-lazuli, the Turquoise, 
the Sapphire, and others of this kind. The 
zaffre of commerce is never quite pure. 

ZE'BRA, the Asinus Zebra of Zoologists, 
an animal of the horse family, is beauti¬ 
fully marked with stripes ; and has a short 
mane, erect ears, and tail like an ass. It is 
a native of South Africa, about the size of 
a mule, and is wild, swift, and vicious. The 
Asinus Burchellii, another striped species, 
but more closely related to the horse than 
the last, is also a native of South Africa. 

ZECHARI'AH, one of the minor pro¬ 
phets, who lived in the reign of Darius 
Hystaspes The design of the first part of 


Zecliariab’s prophecy, like that of his con¬ 
temporary Haggai, is to encourage the Jews 
to proceed with rebuilding the Temple. 
His style, like that of Haggai, is for the 
most part prosaic, especially towards the 
beginning; the last six chapters are 
more elevated; for which reason, among 
others, these six chapters are, by many 
commentators, ascribed to the prophet 
Jeremiah. 

ZED'OARY, an aromatic stimulating 
root, employed in medicine. It is the pro¬ 
duce of some plants belonging to the genus 
Curcuma, allied to those which produce 
ginger, cardamoms, and East Indian arrow- 
root. 

ZEINE (zea, a kind of grain : Or.), a sub¬ 
stance of a yellowish colour, soft, insipid, 
and elastic, procured from the seeds of 
Indian-corn. It resembles gluten, but con¬ 
tains no nitrogen. 

ZEM'INDAR ( zemin, land: Pers.), in 
India, a feudatory or landholder who go¬ 
verns a district of country, and is receiver 
of the taxes. His jurisdiction is called a 
zemindary. It is liable to be sold by the 
government for arrears of revenue; in 
which case the leases of the ryots would be 
set aside. At present the land-tax is col¬ 
lected in India in three ways: by the Zemin¬ 
dar settlement, in which the Zemindar is 
responsible for it; by the Mouzawan or 
Village settlement, in which the collectors 
contract with the head-man of the village; 
and the Byotwari or Cultivator's settlement 




















XliND-A VESTA] 


1&l)C ^ctcuttftc autr 


81b 


in which the peasantry pay direct them¬ 
selves. 

ZEND-AVESTA (the living word: Fers .), 
the sacred books of the Parsees in India, 
and Guebers in Persia: books ascribed to 
Zoroaster, and supposed to contain his 
revelations. The language, after having 
been deciphered with difficulty, has been 
found to have a close relationship with 
l Sanscrit. 

ZEN'ITH {Arab.), in Astronomy, that 
! point in the visible celestial hemisphere 
which is vertical to the spectator, and from 
j which a direct perpendicular line passing 
i through the spectator, and extended,would 
proceed to the centre of the earth. Each 
point of the surface of the earth has there- 
, fore its corresponding zenith—The zenith 
distance of a heavenly body is the arc inter¬ 
cepted between the body and the zenith, 
being the same as the co-altitude of the 
| body. 

ZE'OLITE (zeo, I boil; and litlios, a stone: 

J Gr.). Many mineral substances have been 
i confounded under this name, particularly 
j such as, when fused under the blowpipe, 
melt with considerable ebullition. They 
generally consist of silica, alumina, lime, 
and water. 

ZEPHANI'AH, a canonical book of the 
Old Testament, containing the predictions 
of Zephaniali, the sou of Cushi, and grand¬ 
son of Gedaliah; being the ninth of the 
twelve lesser prophets. He prophesied in 
the time of king Josiah, a little after the 
captivity of the ten tribes, and before that 
of Judah, so that he was contemporary 
; with Jeremiah. 

ZEPH'YllUS, or ZEPH'YR (zephuros ; 
from zophos, darkness—which commences 
when tho sun reaches the west: Gr.), the 
west wind; a wind blowingfromthat cardi¬ 
nal point opposite to the east. The poets 
• personify it, and represent Zephyrus as a 
youth, and as the gentlest of all the deities 
of the woods. It is also called Favonius; 
though some consider Zephyrus and Favo- 
uins to be different. 

ZER'DA, in Zoology, the Megalotis or 
Fennec, a beautiful little animal closely 
allied to the dog, andfound chiefly in North 
Africa. It is of a yellowish-white colour, 

1 about ten inches in length, with a pointed 
nose, long whiskers, large black vivid eyes, 
and is remarkably fleet. 

ZE'RO (Ital.), the point of a thermometer 
from which it is graduated. The zero of 
Fahrenheit’s thermometer is fixed at the 
i point at which the mercury stands when 
immersed in a mixture of snow and com¬ 
mon salt, 32 ° below the freeziug point. In 
Wedgwood’s pyrometer, the zero corre¬ 
sponds with 1077‘5° on Fahrenheit’s scale, 
j The zero of Reaumur’s and of the Centi- 
; grade thermometers is the point at W'hicli 
water congeals. 

ZE'TA, a closet or small chamber, with 
i pipes running along the walls, to convey 
into it fresh air, or warm vapour from be¬ 
low.-Also, the Greek letter Z. 

t ZETET'IC ( zeteo, I seek: Gr.), in Mathe¬ 

matics, an epithet applied to that method 
ox investigation which proceeds by inquiry, 

I i or the solution of problems. 


ZEUG'MA {Gr. ; from zeugnumi, I join), a 
figure in Grammar, in which two subjects 
are used jointly with the same predicate ; 
Which strictly belongs to only one. 

ZIBET', in Zoology, the Viverra zibetha, a 
carnivorous mammal, striped with wavy 
black lines and having an annulated tail. 
The Viverra zibetha holds the same place on 
the Asiatic continent that the Viverra ci- 
vetta holds in Africa, and the Viverra rasse 
in Java. 

ZIBE'THUM, civet, the soft, unctuous, 
odoriferous substance, produced by the 
Viverra vivetta, and Viverra zibetha or civet- 
cat. It has a grateful smell when diluted, 
au unctuous subacrid taste, and possesses 
stimulating, nervine, and autispasmodic 
virtues. 

ZING {Germ.; from zinke, a spike—from 
the forms it often assumes after fusion), 
a metal termed in commerce spelter. Its 
ore was known long before a mode of re¬ 
ducing it was discovered. It is procured 
either from calamine, the native carbonate, 
or from blende, the native sulphuret. It is 
of a blueisli-wliite colour; its texture is 
lamellar and crystalline, and its spec. grav. 
about 7. It is tough and untractable under 
the hammer at common temperatures ; it be¬ 
comes brittle at 500°, and fuses at 770°; but 
between 220° and 320° it becomes malleablu 
and ductile, so that between these tempera¬ 
tures it may be rolled into sheets, or drawn 
into wire. The zinc thus annealed and 
wrought retains the malleability it had ac¬ 
quired. When broken by bending, its tex¬ 
ture appears as if composed of cubical 
grains. It may be granulated, like the 
malleable metals, by pouring it, when fused, 
into cold water, or if it be heated nearly to 
melting, it is then sufficiently brittle to be 
pulverized. Soon after it becomes red-hot, 
it burns with a dazzling white flame, of a 
bluish or yellowish tinge, and is oxydized 
.With such rapidity that it flies up in the 
form of a white flocculent mass, called tho 
flowers of zinc, philosophical wool, or nihil 
album (white nothing). This is generated 
so plentifully that the access of air is soon 
intercepted; and the combustion ceases, 
unless the matter be stirred, and a consi¬ 
derable heat kept up. The wdiite oxide 
of zinc is not volatile, but is driven up 
merely by the force of the combustion ; 
when it is again urged by a strong heat, it 
becomes converted into a clear yellowglass. 
If zinc be heated in close vessels, it rises 
without decomposition. The greater part 
of the zinc-works are situated in the neigh¬ 
bourhood of Birmingham and Bristol. The 
manufacture of brass, which has been long 
one of the staple articles of these towns, 
was probably the cause of the introduction 
of this branch of industry, at the period 
when brass began to be made by the direct 
union of copper with metallic zinc instead 
of calamine. Iron is often coated with zinc 
to preserve it from the action of the atmo¬ 
sphere, and is then termed ‘ galvanized.’ 

ZIN'GIBER {zingibberis: Gr.), in Botany, 
a genus of herbaceous plants containing 
the gingers. The white and black ginger 
are both the produce of the same plant, the 
difference depending on the mode of pro 

































87.9 Httcran? Crcrttfunn [zoophytes 

paring them. Ginger i3 considered as an 
aromatic, antispasmodic, and carminative ; 
it is serviceable in flatulent diseases, debi¬ 
lity, and in torpid and phlegmatic consti¬ 
tutions to excite brisker vascular action. 

ZIR'CON, a mineral originally found in 
Ceylon, in the sands of rivers, along with 
spinel, sapphire, tourmalin, and ironsand. 
Zircon, hyacinth, and zirconite are re¬ 
garded as varieties of the same species. 
They are essentially composed of the earth 
zirconia, with silica, and a minute portion 
of iron. Its common form is a rectangular 
four-sided prism. 

ZIRCO'NIA, a rare earth extracted from 
the zircon ; it is an oxide of zirconium. 
Tho salts of zirconia, unlike those of alu¬ 
mina and glucina, are precipitated by all 
the pure alkalis, and are insoluble when 
, they are added in excess. 

ZIR'CONITE, in Mineralogy, a variety of 
the zircon. 

ZIRCO'NIUM, the metallic base of zir- 
! conia ; it does not resemble a metal, being 
, like charcoal powder. Heated in the air, 
it burns with almost explosive violence, 
forming the oxide. 

ZO'DIAC ( zddialcos kuklos, the Zodiac cir¬ 
cle : from zoon, an animal; on account of 
the constellations: Gr.). The word circle 
is omitted. In Astronomy, an imaginary 
ring or broad circle, in the heavens, in 
form of a belt or girdle, within which the 
greater planets all make their revolutions. 
In the very middle of it runs the ecliptic; 
and its breadth, comprehending the devia¬ 
tion or latitudes of the earlier known 
planets, is by some authors considered to 
be 16, by some 18, and others 24 degrees, 
j The zodiac, cutting the equator obliquely, 
makes with it the same angle as the ecliptic, 
which is its middle line ; which angle, con¬ 
tinually varying, is now nearly equal to 
23° 27' 36’52". This is called the obliquity 
of the ecliptic, and constantly varies be¬ 
tween certain limits, which it can never 
exceed. The zodiac is divided into 12 equal 
parts, of 30 degrees each, called the signs 
of the zodiac, being so named from the 
constellations which anciently agreed with 
them [see Constellation]. Hut the stars 
having a motion from west to east, those 
constellations do not now correspond to 
their proper signs [see Precession of the 
Equinoxes]. And, therefore, when a star 
is said to be in such a sfgn of the zodiac, it 
is not to be understood of that constella¬ 
tion, but only of that division or 12tli part 

of it.-It is a curious fact, that the solar 

division of the Indian zodiac is the same 
in substance as that of the Greeks; and 
yet that it has not been borrowed either 
from the Greeks or the Arabians. The iden¬ 
tity or, at least, striking similarity, of the 
division has led to a supposition that the 
Brahmins received it from the Arabs. But 
it has been known among the Hindoos from 
time immemorial. The signs of the zodiac 
are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, 
Virgo, Liber, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capri- 
cornus, Aquarius, Pisces. They are counted 
from the vernal equinox, which is now in 

1 the constellation Pisces. Representations 
of the zodiac have been found in several 

ancient Egyptian temples, and have given 
rise to much discussion. 

ZODI'ACAL LIGHT {zodiakos, belonging 
to the zodiac: Gr.), in Astronomy, a ne¬ 
bulous aurora which accompanies the sun. 

It was supposed by Kepler to be the solar 
atmosphere, but it was accurately described 
by Casslmi, who gave it its present name. 

It appears immediately before sunriso in 
the months of September, October, and 
November, or after sunset in the months of 
March, April, and May. It has a conical or 
lenticular form, and is most distinct in 
tropical countries. Various hypotheses have 
been invented regarding it, that being con¬ 
sidered tho most probable which supposes 
it to bo the ether, that is believed to fill 
space, loaded with the materials of the tails 
of numerous comets. 

ZOLL'VEREIN ( Zoll, toll ; Verein, union : 
Ger.), a union of German States, headed by 
Prussia,formed for the purpose of establish¬ 
ing common regulations as to the customs 
duties. 

ZONE (son?, a belt : Gr.), in Geography, a 
circular division of the earth with reference 
to the temperature.- There are live zones: 
the torrid, extending from tropic to tropic, 
and twice the sun’s greatest declination, or 
47 J , in breadth; the two temperate zones, 
situated between the tropics and polar cir¬ 
cles, each 43’ in breadth ; and the two fri¬ 
gid zones, situated between the polar circles 
and the poles. The zones arc distinguished 
from one another by various phenomena. 

To tho inhabitants of the torrid zone the 
sun is vertical twice a year. In the middle 
of that zone the days and nights are always 
equal, each being 12 hours, and the twilight 
is short because the sun descends perpendi¬ 
cularly below the horizon. Within its 
limits there are only two seasons in tho 
year, viz., winter and summer. 

ZO'OLITE {zoon, an animal ; and lithos, a 
stone : Gr.), an animal substance purified. 

ZOOL'OGY {zoon, an animal ; logos, a dis¬ 
course : Gr.), the science which is con¬ 
cerned with the structure and classification 
of the beings constituting the Animal 
Kingdom. The chief divisions of this sub¬ 
ject are treated of in this volume under the 
heads of Vertebrata, Mammalia, Orni¬ 
thology, Amphibia, Reptiles, Ichthy¬ 
ology, Mollusca, Articulata, Ento¬ 
mology, Insects, Myriapoda, Crustace- 
ans.Cirriiipedes, Annelida, Rotatoria, 

ENTOZOA, ECHINODERMATA, ACALEPUiS, 
Zoophytes, Protozoa, Sponges. 

ZQON'OMY {zoon, an animal ; and nomos, 
a law : Gr.), the laws of animal life, or that 
science which treats of the phenomena of 
animal life, their causes, consequences, and 
relations. 

ZOO'PIIYTES {zoon, animal ; phvton, 
plant: Gr.), an extensive class of inverte¬ 
brate animals usually called Polypes, in the 
sub-kingdom Radiata. The appearance of 
these animals is very various ; some secrete 
a horny tube in which they live; others 
secrete a great number of calcareous spt- 
cula [see Alcyonium, Gcrgonia]; others 
secrete a hard stony substance known as 
Coral; others a flexible branching body 
resembling a small bush [see Antipathes]; 






























&i)c ^ctcnttfic autr Httcrnrn Crcn^ury. 820 


ZOOTOMY] 


whilst many species only secrete mucus 
["Sea-Anemone]. The simplest form of the 
animal is that of a fleshy hag with an open¬ 
ing at one end, forming the mouth, round 
which is placed a series of tentacles. The 
other end is the part by which it adheres to 
another object. The IIydha, which is com¬ 
mon in pools, where it adheres to plants, is 
of this simple structure. Most polypes are 
able to benumb other animals with which 
they may be brought into contact, and they 
have in their tissues offensive weapons pos¬ 
sessing a stinging power which they dis¬ 
charge when irritated. They are all desti¬ 
tute of special organs of sense,nor has any 
distinction of sex been discovered amongst 
them. Most,if notall, deposit ova; many 
are also propagated by division or budding 
[see Gemmation], Some species consist of 
simple individuals; others are compound 
animals, such as the Corals andGorgonias. 

ZOOT'OMY ( 2 oo?i, an animal; and temno, 
I cut up: Gr.), that branch of anatomical 
science which relates to the structure of 
the lower animals. [See Comparative 
Anatomy.] 

ZORILLA, in Zoology, a carnivorous 
quadruped closely allied to the weasels, 
having the back and sides marked with 
stripes of black and white, the last tinged 
with yellow; the tail long and bushy, partly 
white, and partly black ; the legs and belly 
black. This animal inhabits South Africa. 

ZU'MIC ACID ( zume , leaven ; from zeo, I 
bubble up: Gr.), in Chemistry, an acid 
formed in sour bread, and vegetable sub¬ 
stances which have undergone acetous 
fermentation. 

Z UMOL'OGY ( zumoo , I make to ferment; 
and logos, a discourse: Gr.), a treatise on 
the fermentation of liquors, or the doctrine 
of fermentation. 


ZUMOM'ETER, or ZUMOSIM'ETER 
0 zume, ferment, or zumdsis, fermentation; 
and metron, a measure: Gr.), an instrument 
for ascertaining the degree of fermentation 
occasioned by the mixture of different 
liquids, and the degree of heat which they 
acquire in fermentation. 

ZUR'LITE, a mineral, found in Mount 
Vesuvius, with calcareous spar. It occurs 
in rectangular prisms, or in botryoidal 
masses, of an asparagus-green, inclining to 
a grey colour. It is opaque, yields to the 
knife, and melts with borax into a black 
glass. 

ZYGODAC'TYLOUS ( zagon, a pair; and 
dalctulos, a finger: Gr.), an epithet for an 
order of birds which have the feet furnished 
with two toes before and two behind, as 
the parrot. 

ZYGO'MA (Gr.; from zugoo, I yoke to¬ 
gether—because it transmits the tendon of 
the temporal muscle, like a yoke), in Ana¬ 
tomy, a bone of the head, or rather two 
processes of bones; the one from the os 
teviporis, the other from the os male; these 
processes are hence termed the zygomatic 
processes, and the suture that joins them 
together is denominated the zygomatic i 
suture. 

ZYMO'TIO (zumotikos, causing to fer¬ 
ment : Gr.), in Medicine, diseases caused 
apparently by the reception into the system 
of a virus, or poison, which is diffused 
through the frame, and operates upon it 
like a ferment or leaven. In the Registrar- 
general’s report, the following diseases are 
grouped together as zymotic:— Smallpox, 
measles, scarlatina, hooping-cough, croup, 
thrush, diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, in¬ 
fluenza, scurvy, ague, remittent fever, 
infantine fever, erysipelas, and a few 
others. 


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